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diff --git a/old/69581-0.txt b/old/69581-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 309a061..0000000 --- a/old/69581-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15845 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Sacred and Legendary Art, Volume I (of -2), by Mrs. Jameson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Sacred and Legendary Art, Volume I (of 2) - Containing legends of the angels and archangels, the evangelists, - the Apostles, the doctors of the church, and St. Mary magdalene, - as represented in the fine arts. - -Author: Mrs. Jameson - -Release Date: December 19, 2022 [eBook #69581] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Jane Robins, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SACRED AND LEGENDARY ART, -VOLUME I (OF 2) *** - - - Transcriber’s Notes - -Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all other -spelling and punctuation remains unchanged. - -The woodcut number 48, The Symbol of St. Matthew. _Mosaic._, does -not exist. - -On page 191, in the section on St. Peter and St.Paul, ĪC̄. X̄C̄. is an -near approximation of the actual symbol. - -Italics are represented thus _italic_, bold thus =bold= and -superscripts thus y^{en}. - - - - - Sacred - - AND - - Legendary Art. - - VOL. I. - - - - - THE LATEST EDITIONS OF MRS. JAMESON’S WORKS ON SACRED AND LEGENDARY - CHRISTIAN ART. - - - The Fifth Edition, in 2 vols. square crown 8vo. with 19 Etchings on - Copper and 187 Woodcuts, price 31_s._ 6_d._ - -LEGENDS of the SAINTS and MARTYRS as represented in the Fine Arts, -forming the FIRST SERIES of ‘Sacred and Legendary Art.’ By Mrs. JAMESON. - -II. LEGENDS of the MONASTIC ORDERS. Third Edition, with 11 Etchings and -88 Woodcuts. 1 vol. 21_s._ - -III. LEGENDS of the MADONNA. Third Edition, with 27 Etchings and 165 -Woodcuts. 1 vol. 21_s._ - -IV. HISTORY of OUR LORD as exemplified in Works of Art. By Mrs. JAMESON -and Lady EASTLAKE. Second Edition, with 31 Etchings and 281 Woodcuts. 2 -vols. 42_s._ - -⁂ Of these 312 Illustrations, all prepared specially for the ‘History -of Our Lord,’ nearly one-third of the whole number have now been -engraved for the first time. - - ‘We have in these volumes, penned in a truth-seeking spirit and - illustrated with a copious generosity which at once elucidates and - adorns each section of the subject, contributions to the literature of - CHRISTIAN ART, for which every artist and every student of theology - will confess debt of private gratitude. To thoughtful inquirers, - richest mines are here opened for meditation. To minds prepared for - deeper draughts to quench the thirst for knowledge, wells are dug and - fountains are made to flow even in the desert tracks of time where - pilgrim’s foot seldom attempts to tread. We think that Lady EASTLAKE - has done special service in bringing into popular view recondite - stores which have hitherto been sealed for public use. She has, by - appeal to the early heads of Christ in the Catacombs, by reference to - Christian sarcophagi of the fourth century, to ivories as old as the - sixth century, and Greek MSS. and Byzantine miniatures of the ninth - century, enabled the art-student to tract the history of types and - antetypes, and to analyse the rudimentary germs which, from age to - age accumulating strength and growing in comeliness, at length issued - forth in perfected pictorial form. _It is to this, the infancy of art, - that at the present moment peculiar interest attaches._’ - BLACKWOOD’S MAGAZINE. - - - - -[Illustration: _The Assumption of the Magdalena_.] - - - - - Sacred - - AND - - Legendary Art. - - BY MRS. JAMESON. - - - VOLUME I. - - CONTAINING - - LEGENDS OF THE ANGELS AND ARCHANGELS, THE EVANGELISTS, - THE APOSTLES, THE DOCTORS OF THE CHURCH, - AND ST. MARY MAGDALENE, - - AS REPRESENTED IN THE FINE ARTS. - - - _SIXTH EDITION._ - - - LONDON: - LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. - 1870. - - - - - LONDON: PRINTED BY - SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE - AND PARLIAMENT STREET - - - - - PREFACE - - TO - - THE THIRD EDITION. - - -The Author ventures to hope that, on comparing this Third Edition of -‘Sacred and Legendary Art’ with the two preceding, it will be found -greatly improved, and rendered more worthy of the kind approbation and -sympathy with which it has been received. The whole has been carefully -revised; the references to the pictures and other works of Art -corrected from the latest authorities, and many new examples have been -added. All the Illustrations, which were formerly etched on copper, -have been newly etched on steel; two have been omitted, and three -others, as more interesting and appropriate, have been substituted; and -twelve new woodcuts have been introduced. In a work so multifarious in -its nature, and comprising so many hundred subjects and references, -there may remain some errors and omissions, but they have not occurred -from want of care; and I must not omit to express due thanks for the -observations and corrections which have been forwarded to me from time -to time, and which have been in this Edition carefully attended to. - - A. J. - - _January 1857._ - - - - - PREFACE - - TO - - THE FIRST EDITION. - - (1848.) - - -This book was begun six years ago, in 1842. It has since been often -laid aside, and again resumed. In this long interval, many useful and -delightful works have been written on the same subject, but still -the particular ground I had chosen remained unoccupied; and, amid -many difficulties, and the consciousness of many deficiencies, I was -encouraged to proceed, partly by the pleasure I took in a task so -congenial—partly by the conviction that such a work has long been -wanted by those who are not contented with a mere manual of reference, -or a mere catalogue of names. This book is intended not only to be -consulted, but to be read—if it be found worth reading. It has been -written for those who are, like myself, unlearned; yet less, certainly, -with the idea of instructing, than from a wish to share with others -those pleasurable associations, those ever new and ever various aspects -of character and sentiment, as exhibited in Art, which have been a -source of such vivid enjoyment to myself. - -This is the utmost limit of my ambition; and, knowing that I cannot -escape criticism, I am at least anxious that there should be no mistake -as to purpose and intention. I hope it will be clearly understood that -I have taken throughout the æsthetic and not the religious view of -those productions of Art which, in as far as they are informed with a -true and earnest feeling, and steeped in that beauty which emanates -from genius inspired by faith, may cease to be Religion, but cannot -cease to be Poetry; and as poetry only I have considered them. - -The difficulty of selection and compression has been the greatest of -all my difficulties; there is not a chapter in this book which might -not have been more easily extended to a volume than compressed into a -few pages. Every reader, however, who is interested in the subject, -may supply the omissions, follow out the suggestions, and enjoy the -pleasure of discovering new exceptions, new analogies, for himself. -With regard to the arrangement, I am afraid it will be found liable -to objections; but it is the best that, after long consideration and -many changes, I could fix upon. It is not formal, nor technical, like -that of a catalogue or a calendar, but intended to lead the fancy -naturally from subject to subject as one opened upon another, with -just sufficient order to keep the mind unperplexed and the attention -unfatigued amid a great diversity of objects, scenes, stories, and -characters. - -The authorities for the legends have been the _Legenda Aurea_ of -Voragine, in the old French and English translations; the _Flos -Sanctorum_ of Ribadeneira, in the old French translation; the _Perfetto -Legendario_, editions of Rome and Venice; the _Legende delle Sante -Vergini_, Florence and Venice; the large work of Baillet, _Les Vies -des Saints_, in thirty-two volumes, most useful for the historical -authorities; and Alban Butler’s _Lives of the Saints_. All these have -been consulted for such particulars of circumstance and character as -might illustrate the various representations, and then compressed into -a narrative as clear as I could render it. Where one authority only has -been followed, it is usually placed in the margin. - -The First Part contains the legends of the scriptural personages and -the primitive fathers. - -The Second Part contains those sainted personages who lived, or are -supposed to have lived, in the first ages of Christianity, and whose -real history, founded on fact or tradition, has been so disguised by -poetical embroidery, that they have in some sort the air of ideal -beings. As I could not undertake to go through the whole calendar, -nor yet to make my book a catalogue of pictures and statues, I have -confined myself to the saints most interesting and important, and (with -very few exceptions) to those works of Art of which I could speak from -my own knowledge. - -The legends of the monastic orders, and the history of the Franciscans -and Dominicans, considered merely in their connexion with the revival -and development of the Fine Arts in the thirteenth and fourteenth -centuries, open so wide a range of speculation,—the characteristics of -these religious enthusiasts of both sexes are so full of interest and -beauty as artistic conceptions, and as psychological and philosophical -studies so extraordinary, that I could not, in conscience, compress -them into a few pages: they form a volume complete in itself, entitled -‘Legends of the Monastic Orders.’ - -The little sketches and woodcuts are trifling as illustrations, and -can only assist the memory and the fancy of the reader but I regret -this the less, inasmuch as those who take an interest in the subject -can easily illustrate the book for themselves. To collect a portfolio -of prints, including those works of art which are cited under each -head as examples, with a selection from the hundreds of others which -are not cited, and arrange them in the same order—with reference, not -to schools, or styles, or dates, but to subject merely—would be an -amusing, and I think not a profitless, occupation. It could not be -done in the right spirit without leading the mind far beyond the mere -pleasure of comparison and criticism, to ‘thoughts more elevate and -reasonings high’ of things celestial and terrestrial, as shadowed forth -in form by the wit and the hand of man. - -[Illustration: An Angel] - - - - - CONTENTS - - OF - - THE FIRST VOLUME. - - - PAGE - PREFACE v - - INTRODUCTION: - - I. Of the Origin and general Significance of the Legends represented - in Art 1 - - II. Of the Distinction to be drawn between Devotional and Historical - Subjects 11 - - III. Of the Patron Saints of particular Countries, Cities, and - Localities 18 - - IV. Of certain Emblems and Attributes of general Application 23 - - V. Of the Significance of Colours. Conclusion 35 - - - OF ANGELS AND ARCHANGELS. - - OF ANGELS. Antiquity of the Belief in Angels. Early Notions respecting - them. How represented in the Old Testament. In the New Testament. - Angelic Hierarchies. The Nine Choirs. Seraphim, Cherubim. General - Characteristics in Painting. Infant Angels. Wings. Angels of Dante. - Angels as Messengers, Choristers, Guardians. As Ministers of Wrath. - As Agents in the Creation. Manner in which the principal Painters have - set forth the Angelic Forms and Attributes 41 - - THE ARCHANGELS. The Seven Archangels. The Four Archangels. The Three - Archangels 87 - - ST. MICHAEL 94 - - ST. GABRIEL 118 - - ST. RAPHAEL 126 - - Additional Notes on Angels 131 - - - THE FOUR EVANGELISTS. - - The earliest Types: as Four Books; as Four Rivers; as the Four - Mysterious Animals; the Human and Animal Forms combined; with Wings; - as Men 132 - - ST. MATTHEW. His Legend. His Attributes. Pictures from his Life not - common 143 - - ST. MARK. His Legend. Devotional Pictures: as Evangelist; as the - Disciple of Peter; as the Patron Saint of Venice. The Legend of the - Fisherman. The Legend of the Christian Slave. The Translation of the - Body of St. Mark 147 - - ST. LUKE. His Legend. Devotional Figures. Attributes: as Evangelist - and Painter. St. Luke painting the Virgin 154 - - ST. JOHN. His Legend. Devotional Pictures: as Evangelist; as Apostle; - as Prophet. Subjects from his Life; Legend of St. John and the Robber; - of the two Young Men; of Drusiana; of the Huntsman and the Partridge. - The Martyrdom of St. John. Legend of the Death of St. John. Legend of - Galla Placidia. Of King Edward the Confessor 157 - - The Six Writers of the Canonical Epistles, as a series 172 - - - THE TWELVE APOSTLES. - - Ancient Types: as Twelve Sheep; as Twelve Doves; as Twelve Men. How - grouped in Ecclesiastical Decoration. In the Old Mosaics; their proper - place. Examples from various Painters. Historical Subjects relating to - the Twelve Apostles: the Pentecost; the Separation of the Twelve - Apostles to preach the Gospel; the Twelve Baptisms; the Twelve - Martyrdoms 173 - - ST. PETER and ST. PAUL. The Ancient Greek Types. Examples of the early - Treatment of these two Apostles: in the old Mosaics; in early - Sculpture; in Pictures 185 - - ST. PETER. His peculiar Attributes: as Apostle and Patron Saint; as - the Head and Founder of the Roman Church; St. Peter as Pope. Subjects - from the Scriptural Life of St. Peter. Legendary Stories connected - with St. Peter. The Legend of Simon Magus; of the ‘_Domine, quo - vadis?_’ of Processus and Martinian. The Martyrdom of St. Peter. - St. Peter as Keeper of the Gates of Paradise. The Legend of St. - Petronilla. The Life of St. Peter in a Series of Subjects 193 - - ST. PAUL. Earliest Type. Attributes of St. Paul: the Sword. Subjects - from his Life. Stoning of Stephen. Conversion of St. Paul. The Vision - of St. Paul. Miracles of St. Paul. His Martyrdom. The Legend of - Plautilla. The Life of St. Paul in a Series of Subjects 212 - - ST. ANDREW. The Legend. Attributes. Historical Subjects from the Life - of St. Andrew. Flagellation. Adoration of the Cross. Martyrdom as - represented by Guido, Domenichino, and Murillo 226 - - ST. JAMES MAJOR. Story and Character as represented in Scripture. St. - James as Patron of Spain. The Legend of Santiago. The Battle of - Clavijo. The Pilgrims of Compostella. The Devotional Figures and - Attributes of St. James the Apostle. As Tutelar Saint of Spain. - Pictures from his Legend 230 - - ST. PHILIP. The Legend of the Idol and the Serpent. Devotional - Pictures and Attributes. Subjects from his Legend. Distinction between - St. Philip the Apostle and St. Philip the Deacon 241 - - ST. BARTHOLOMEW. The Legend. The Attributes. Martyrdom 244 - - ST. THOMAS. Origin of his peculiar Attribute. The Legend of King - Gondoforus. The Incredulity of St. Thomas. The Legend of the ‘_Madonna - della Cintola_.’ Martyrdom of St. Thomas 245 - - ST. JAMES MINOR. First Bishop of Jerusalem. Attributes. Resemblance to - Christ. Subjects from his Life. Martyrdom. Frescoes at Padua 250 - - ST. SIMON AND ST. JUDE. Legend and Attributes. Represented as - Children 252 - - ST. MATTHIAS. Attributes 254 - - JUDAS ISCARIOT. Scriptural Character. Legends relating to him; how - represented in various Subjects 255 - - THE LAST SUPPER. Its importance as a Sacred Subject. Devotional when - it represents the Institution of the Eucharist. Historical when it - represents the Detection of Judas. Various Examples. Giotto. Duccio of - Siena. Angelico da Fiesole. Luca Signorelli. Ghirlandajo. Albert - Dürer. Leonardo da Vinci. Raphael. Andrea del Sarto. Titian. - Poussin. 261 - - Faults and Mistakes committed by Painters in representing the Last - Supper 273 - - ST. BARNABAS. His Legend. Popular at Venice as Kinsman of St. Mark. - Represented with the Gospel of St. Matthew 278 - - - THE DOCTORS OF THE CHURCH. - - THE FOUR LATIN FATHERS. Their Particular Attributes. Their proper - place in Ecclesiastical Decoration. Subjects in which they are - introduced together 280 - - ST. JEROME. History and Character. Influence over the Roman Women. - Origin of his Attributes. Legend of the Wounded Lion. Devotional - Figures of St. Jerome: as Patron Saint; as Translator of the - Scriptures; as Penitent. Subjects from the Life of St. Jerome. The - Communion of St. Jerome 285 - - ST. AMBROSE. Story and Character of St. Ambrose. The Emperor - Theodosius. The Discovery of the Martyrs St. Protasius and St. - Gervasius. Legends relating to St. Ambrose. The Prefect Macedonius. - The Nobleman of Tuscany. Devotional Figures of St. Ambrose. His - peculiar Attributes. His Church at Milan; his Life as represented on - the Altar. Statue of St. Ambrose 300 - - ST. AUGUSTINE. Character of St. Augustine. His Shrine at Pavia, and - Bassorelievos representing his Life. Devotional Figures of St. - Augustine. Represented with his Mother, Monica. Various Subjects from - his Life. The Vision of St. Augustine 308 - - ST. GREGORY. His Story and Character. His Popularity. Legends - connected with his Life. Origin of his Attribute, the Dove. The Supper - of St. Gregory. The Mass of St. Gregory. The Miracle of the Brandeum. - St. Gregory releases the Soul of the Emperor Trajan. The Legend as - represented in Pictures. The Legend of the Monk. St. Gregory’s - Doctrine of Purgatory. How represented 315 - - THE FOUR GREEK FATHERS. How represented in the Greek Pictures, and by - the Latin Artists 324 - - ST. JOHN CHRYSOSTOM. Singular Legends with regard to him. The Penance - of St. Chrysostom. As represented in the German Prints. By Lucas - Cranach. By Beham. By Albert Dürer 325 - - ST. BASIL THE GREAT. His Character. How represented. Story of the - Emperor Valens. Legends which refer to St. Basil 335 - - ST. ATHANASIUS. How represented. Unpopular as a Subject of Art 339 - - ST. GREGORY NAZIANZEN. His History and Character. His celebrity as a - Poet. Beautiful Miniatures relative to his Life 340 - - ST. CYRIL. How represented 342 - - - ST. MARY MAGDALENE, ST. MARTHA, ST. LAZARUS, ST. MAXIMIN, - ST. MARCELLA, ST. MARY OF EGYPT, AND THE BEATIFIED - PENITENTS. - - Character of Mary Magdalene. Disputes concerning her Identity. The - Popular and Scriptural Legend. The old Provençal Legend. The - Devotional Representations: as Patron Saint; as Penitent. Sacred - Subjects in which she is introduced. Legendary Subjects. La Danse de - la Madeleine. The Assumption of the Magdalene. The Legend of the - Mother and Child. Her Life in a Series of Subjects. Legends of Mary - Magdalene and St. John the Evangelist 343 - - ST. MARTHA. Her Character. Legends of St. Martha. How represented. - Where introduced 381 - - ST. LAZARUS 383 - - ST. MARY OF EGYPT. The Legend. Distinction between St. Mary of Egypt - and Mary Magdalene. Proper Attributes of Mary of Egypt. Stories and - Pictures from her Life 385 - - MARY THE PENITENT, not to be confounded with Mary of Egypt. Her Story. - Landscapes of Philippe de Champagne 390 - - ST. THAIS. ST. PELAGIA 393 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - IN - - THE FIRST VOLUME. - - - Woodcuts. - - 1. Laus Deo. _Liberale di Verona._ - 2. Angel. _Gaudenzio Ferrari._ - 3. Angels singing ‘Gloria in Excelsis Deo.’ _Perugino._ - 4. Seraph. _Greek Emblem, 9th Century._ - 5. Cherubim. _Italian, 14th Century._ - 6. Cherubim. _Pinturicchio._ - 7. Cherubim. _Liberale di Verona._ - 8. Part of a Glory of Angels. _Ambrogio Borgognone._ - 9. Winged Genius. _Egyptian._ - 10. Winged Figure. _Nineveh Marbles._ - 11. Seraph. _Ancient Greek Mosaic._ - 12. Angels. _Orcagna._ - 13. Fiery Cherub. _Raphael._ - 14. Angel, hymning the Virgin. _Francia._ - 15. Piping Angel. _Gian Bellini._ - 16. Greek Angel bearing the Moon. - 17. Angels on Horseback. _Cathedral of Auxerre._ - 18. Angels expelling Adam and Eve. _N. Pisano._ - 19. Angels who visit Abraham. _Raphael._ - 20. Plan of the Riccardi Chapel. _Florence._ - 21. Lamenting Angel. _Campo Santo._ - 22. The Angel wrestles with Jacob. _Greek Miniature._ - 23. Greek Angel. _Miniature._ - 24. Greek Angels. _Mosaic._ - 25. Angels. _F. Granacci._ - 26. Angel in a Crucifixion. _Albert Dürer._ - 27. Angels of the 17th Century. - 28. Angel. _Poussin._ - 29. Angels rejoicing. _W. Blake._ - 30. Two Archangels. _Cimabue._ - 31. The Archangels Michael and Raphael. _Campo Santo._ - 32. Angels bearing the Instruments of the Passion. _Campo Santo._ - 33. The Three Archangels bear the Infant Christ. - 34. St. Michael as Patron Saint. _Angelico da Fiesole._ - 35. Early Symbol of St. Michael and the Dragon. _Bas-relief._ - 36. St. Michael overcomes the Demon. _Martin Schoen._ - 37. The same subject. _Raphael._ - 38. St. Michael as Patron Saint. _Mabuse._ - 39. St. Michael as Angel of Judgment and Lord of Souls. _Justus of - Ghent._ - 40. St. Michael as Lord of Souls. _Luca Signorelli._ - 41. Egyptian Symbol. - 42. St. Gabriel. _Lorenzo of Monaco._ - 43. St. Gabriel. _Wilhelm of Cologne._ - 44. Angel announcing the Death of the Virgin. _Filippo Lippi._ - 45. St. Gabriel. _Van Eyck._ - 46. St. Raphael. _Murillo._ - 47. St. Raphael. _Rembrandt._ - 48. The Symbol of St. Matthew. _Mosaic._ - 49. The Tetramorph. _Greek._ - 50. Symbol of St. Luke. _Mosaic._ - 51. Symbol of St. Luke. _Mosaic._ - 52. Symbol of St. John. _Mosaic._ - 53. Symbol of St. Mark. _Mosaic._ - 54. Symbol of St. John. _Miniature._ - 55. Symbol of St. Mark. _Sculpture._ - 56. Mystical Figures of the Four Evangelists. _Angelico da Fiesole._ - 57. Figure from Nineveh. _British Museum._ - 58. Winged St. Mark. _Hans Beham._ - 59. St. Matthew. _Raphael._ - 60. St. John. _Hans Hemling._ - 61. St. John with the Eagle. _Raphael._ - 62. St. John as Prophet. _Raphael._ - 63. St. John in the Island of Patmos. _Lucas van Leyden._ - 64. The Twelve Apostles, as Sheep. _Mosaic._ - 65. St. Philip. _Orcagna._ - 66. St. Peter and St. Paul. _Carlo Crivelli._ - 67. St. Peter. _Greek Type._ - 68. St. Peter with one Key. _Taddeo Gaddi._ - 69. St. Paul. _Greek Type._ - 70. St. Peter as Pope. _Cola dell’ Amatrice._ - 71. Repentance of Peter. _Bas-relief, 3rd Century._ - 72. Crucifixion of Peter. _Giotto._ - 73. St. Peter, as Keeper of the Gates of Paradise. _Simone Memmi._ - 74. St. Andrew. _Peter Vischer._ - 75. St. James Major. _Giovanni Santi._ - 76. Santiago slaying the Moors. _Carreño de Miranda._ - 77. St. James Major as Patron. _Andrea del Sarto._ - 78. The Miracle of the Fowls. _Lo Spagna._ - 79. St. Philip. _Albert Dürer._ - 80. St. Bartholomew. _Giotto._ - 81. St. Thomas. _Raphael._ - 82. St. James Minor. _L. van Leyden._ - 83. St. Matthias. _Raphael._ - 84. Angel swinging the Censer. _Albert Dürer._ - 85. St. Jerome doing Penance. _Titian._ - 86. St. Jerome. _Raphael._ - 87. St. Jerome healing the Lion. _Coll’ Antonio da Fiore._ - 88. Venetian St. Jerome. - 89. The Vision of St. Augustine. _Murillo._ - 90. ‘La Pénitence de St. Jean Chrysostome.’ _Albert Dürer._ - 91. St. Mary Magdalene. Statue. _Donatello._ - 92. St. Mary Magdalene. _L. van Leyden._ - 93. St. Mary Magdalene. _Timoteo della Vite._ - 94. St. Mary Magdalene. _Murillo._ - 95. St. Mary Magdalene. _Annibale Caracci._ - 96. The Assumption of the Magdalene. _Albert Dürer._ - 97. St. Mary of Egypt dying. _Pietro da Cortona._ - 98. Angel. _Raphael._ - - - - - Etchings. - - PAGE - - I. The Assumption of the Magdalene. _After Giulio Romano._ The - Original Fresco, which is in our National Gallery, was cut from the - wall of the Church of the Trinità de’ Monti, at Rome _Title_ - - II. A Venetian Votive Picture in commemoration of a Pestilence - (probably the pestilence of 1512, in which Giorgione perished). - St. Mark, enthroned as the Patron Saint of Venice, holds his Gospel; - on the right St. Sebastian and St. Roch, Protectors against the Plague; - on the left, St. Cosmo and St. Damian, Patron Saints of the Healing - Art. _Sketch after Titian._ The Original Picture, remarkable for - beauty of expression, and splendour and harmony of colour, in the - Church of S. Maria della Salute, at Venice 22 - - III. Angels of the Planets. _Raphael. From the fine set of Engravings - by L. Gruner, after the Frescoes in the Cappella Chigiana at Rome_ 80 - - IV. 1. St. Luke painting the Virgin. _After the Picture in the Academy - of St. Luke attributed to Raphael._ 2. St. Mark attended by St. - Gregory. _After Correggio_ 156 - - V. The Madonna della Cintola. The Virgin, as she ascends to heaven, - presents her girdle to St. Thomas; who kneels by the tomb, which is - full of roses. On the other side, the Archangel Michael, in reference - to the Legend. _From a Picture by Francesco Granacci in the Florence - Gallery_ 248 - - VI. The Last Supper. 1. _After Giotto._ 2. _After Leonardo da Vinci._ - 3. _After Raphael._ (For this etching I am indebted to Mr. George - Scharf.) 261 - - VII. The Four Latin Fathers. _From a Picture by Antonio Vivarini, in - the Academy at Venice_ 280 - - VIII. The Five Greek Fathers. _Drawing from an Ancient Greek Picture - in the Vatican_ 324 - - IX. Martha conducts her Sister Mary Magdalene to the Presence of our - Lord. _From the Engraving by Marc’ Antonio, after Raphael_ 381 - - - - -[Illustration: 1 Laus Deo!] - - - - - Introduction. - -I. OF THE ORIGIN AND GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LEGENDS REPRESENTED IN - ART. - - -We cannot look round a picture gallery—we cannot turn over a portfolio -of prints after the old masters, nor even the modern engravings which -pour upon us daily, from Paris, Munich, or Berlin—without perceiving -how many of the most celebrated productions of Art, more particularly -those which have descended to us from the early Italian and German -schools, represent incidents and characters taken from the once popular -legends of the Catholic Church. This form of ‘_Hero-Worship_’ has -become, since the Reformation, strange to us—as far removed from our -sympathies and associations as if it were antecedent to the fall of -Babylon and related to the religion of Zoroaster, instead of being -left but two or three centuries behind us and closely connected with -the faith of our forefathers and the history of civilisation and -Christianity. Of late years, with a growing passion for the works -of Art of the Middle Ages, there has arisen among us a desire to -comprehend the state of feeling which produced them, and the legends -and traditions on which they are founded;—a desire to understand, and -to bring to some surer critical test, representations which have become -familiar without being intelligible. To enable us to do this, we must -pause for a moment at the outset; and, before we plunge into the midst -of things, ascend to higher ground, and command a far wider range of -illustration than has yet been attempted, in order to take cognizance -of principles and results which, if not new, must be contemplated in a -new relation to each other. - - * * * * * - -The Legendary Art of the Middle Ages sprang out of the legendary -literature of the preceding ages. For three centuries at least, this -literature, the only literature which existed at the time, formed -the sole mental and moral nourishment of the _people_ of Europe. The -romances of Chivalry, which long afterwards succeeded, were confined to -particular classes, and left no impress on Art, beyond the miniature -illuminations of a few manuscripts. This legendary literature, on -the contrary, which had worked itself into the life of the people, -became, like the antique mythology, as a living soul diffused through -the loveliest forms of Art, still vivid and vivifying, even when the -old faith in its mystical significance was lost or forgotten. And it -is a mistake to suppose that these legends had their sole origin in -the brains of dreaming monks. The wildest of them had some basis of -truth to rest on, and the forms which they gradually assumed were but -the necessary result of the age which produced them. They became the -intense expression of that inner life, which revolted against the -desolation and emptiness of the outward existence; of those crushed and -outraged sympathies which cried aloud for rest, and refuge, and solace, -and could nowhere find them. It will be said, ‘In the purer doctrine of -the GOSPEL.’ But where was that to be found? The Gospel was not then -the heritage of the poor: Christ, as a comforter, walked not among men. -His own blessed teaching was inaccessible except to the learned: it was -shut up in rare manuscripts; it was perverted and sophisticated by the -passions and the blindness of those few to whom it _was_ accessible. -The bitter disputes in the early Church relative to the nature of the -Godhead, the subtle distinctions and incomprehensible arguments of -the theologians, the dread entertained by the predominant church of -any heterodox opinions concerning the divinity of the Redeemer, had -all conspired to remove _Him_, in his personal character of Teacher -and Saviour, far away from the hearts of the benighted and miserable -people—far, far away into regions speculative, mysterious, spiritual, -whither they could not, dared not follow Him. In this state of things, -as it has been remarked by a distinguished writer, ‘Christ became the -object of a remoter, a more awful adoration. The mind began, therefore, -to seek out, or eagerly to seize, some other more material beings in -closer alliance with human sympathies.’ And the same author, after -tracing in vivid and beautiful language the dangerous but natural -consequences of this feeling, thus sums up the result: ‘During the -perilous and gloomy days of persecution, the reverence for those who -endured martyrdom for the religion of Christ had grown up out of the -best feelings of man’s improved nature. Reverence gradually grew into -veneration, worship, adoration: and although the more rigid theology -maintained a marked distinction between the honour shown to the -martyrs, and that addressed to the Redeemer and the Supreme Being, -the line was too fine and invisible not to be transgressed by excited -popular feeling.’[1] - - * * * * * - -‘We live,’ says the poet, ‘through admiration, hope, and love.’ Out -of these vital aspirations—not indeed always ‘well or wisely placed,’ -but never, as in the heathen mythology, degraded to vicious and -contemptible objects—arose and spread the universal passion for the -traditional histories of the saints and martyrs,—personages endeared -and sanctified in all hearts, partly as examples of the loftiest -virtue, partly as benign intercessors between suffering humanity and -that Deity who, in every other light than as a God of Vengeance, had -been veiled from their eyes by the perversities of schoolmen and -fanatics, till He had receded beyond their reach, almost beyond their -comprehension. Of the prevalence and of the incalculable influence -of this legendary literature from the seventh to the tenth century, -that is, just about the period when Modern Art was struggling into -existence, we have a most striking picture in Guizot’s ‘Histoire de la -Civilisation.’ ‘As after the siege of Troy (says this philosophical -and eloquent writer) there were found, in every city of Greece, men who -collected the traditions and adventures of heroes, and sung them for -the recreation of the people, till these recitals became a national -passion, a national poetry, so, at the time of which we speak, the -traditions of what may be called the heroic ages of Christianity had -the same interest for the nations of Europe. There were men who made it -their business to collect them, to transcribe them, to read or recite -them aloud, for the edification and delight of the people. And this was -the only literature, properly so called, of that time.‘ - -Now, if we go back to the _authentic_ histories of the sufferings and -heroism of the early martyrs, we shall find enough there, both of the -wonderful and the affecting, to justify the credulity and enthusiasm of -the unlettered people, who saw no reason why they should not believe -in one miracle as well as in another. In these universally diffused -legends, we may recognise the means, at least one of the means, by -which a merciful Providence, working through its own immutable laws, -had provided against the utter depravation, almost extinction, of -society. Of the ‘Dark Ages,’ emphatically so called, the period to -which I allude was perhaps the darkest; it was ‘of Night’s black arch -the key-stone.’ At a time when men were given over to the direst evils -that can afflict humanity,—ignorance, idleness, wickedness, misery; -at a time when the every-day incidents of life were a violation of -all the moral instincts of mankind; at a time when all things seemed -abandoned to a blind chance, or the brutal law of force; when there was -no repose, no refuge, no safety anywhere; when the powerful inflicted, -and the weak endured, whatever we can conceive of most revolting and -intolerable; when slavery was recognised by law throughout Europe; -when men fled to cloisters, to shut themselves from oppression, and -women to shield themselves from outrage; when the manners were harsh, -the language gross; when all the softer social sentiments, as pity, -reverence, tenderness, found no resting-place in the actual relations -of life; when for the higher ranks there was only the fierce excitement -of war, and on the humbler classes lay the weary, dreary monotony of -a stagnant existence, poor in pleasures of every kind, without aim, -without hope; _then_—wondrous reaction of the ineffaceable instincts -of good implanted within us!—arose a literature which reversed the -outward order of things, which asserted and kept alive in the hearts -of men those pure principles of Christianity which were outraged in -their daily actions; a literature in which peace was represented as -better than war, and sufferance more dignified than resistance; which -exhibited poverty and toil as honourable, and charity as the first -of virtues; which held up to imitation and emulation, self-sacrifice -in the cause of good and contempt of death for conscience’ sake: a -literature, in which the tenderness, the chastity, the heroism of -woman, played a conspicuous part; which distinctly protested against -slavery, against violence, against impurity in word and deed; which -refreshed the fevered and darkened spirit with images of moral beauty -and truth; revealed bright glimpses of a better land, where ‘the wicked -cease from troubling,’ and brought down the angels of God with shining -wings and bearing crowns of glory, to do battle with the demons of -darkness, to catch the fleeting soul of the triumphant martyr, and -carry it at once into a paradise of eternal blessedness and peace! - -Now the Legendary Art of the three centuries which comprise the revival -of learning, was, as I have said, the reflection of this literature, of -this teaching. Considered in this point of view, can we easily overrate -its interest and importance? - - * * * * * - -When, after the long period of darkness which followed upon the decline -of the Roman Empire, the Fine Arts began to revive, the first, and for -several ages the only, impress they received was that of the religious -spirit of the time. Painting, Sculpture, Music, and Architecture, as -they emerged one after another from the ‘formless void,’ were pressed -into the service of the Church. But it is a mistake to suppose that -in adroitly adapting the reviving Arts to her purposes, in that -magnificent spirit of calculation which at all times characterised her, -the Church from the beginning selected the subjects, or dictated the -use that was to be made of them. We find, on the contrary, edicts and -councils _repressing_ the popular extravagances in this respect, and -denouncing those apocryphal versions of sacred events and traditions -which had become the delight of the people. But vain were councils and -edicts; the tide was too strong to be so checked. The Church found -herself obliged to accept and mould to her own objects the exotic -elements she could not eradicate. She _absorbed_, so to speak, the -evils and errors she could not expel. There seems to have been at this -time a sort of compromise between the popular legends, with all their -wild mixture of northern and classical superstitions, and the Church -legends properly so called. The first great object to which reviving -Art was destined, was to render the Christian places of worship a -theatre of instruction and improvement for the people, to attract and -to interest them by representations of scenes, events, and personages, -already so familiar as to require no explanation, appealing; at once -to their intelligence and their sympathies; embodying in beautiful -shapes (beautiful at least in their eyes) associations and feelings and -memories deep-rooted in their very hearts, and which had influenced, -in no slight degree, the progress of civilisation, the development of -mind. Upon these creations of ancient Art we cannot look as _those_ did -for whom they were created; we cannot annihilate the centuries which -lie between us and them; we cannot, in simplicity of heart, forget the -artist in the image he has placed before us, nor supply what may be -deficient in his work, through a reverentially excited fancy. We are -critical, not credulous. We no longer accept this polytheistic form of -Christianity; and there is little danger, I suppose, of our falling -again into the strange excesses of superstition to which it led. But -if we have not much sympathy with modern imitations of Mediæval Art, -still less should we sympathise with that narrow puritanical jealousy -which holds the monuments of a real and earnest faith in contempt. All -that God has permitted once to exist in the past should be considered -as the possession of the present; sacred for example or warning, and -held as the foundation on which to build up what is better and purer. -It should seem an established fact, that all revolutions in religion, -in government, and in art, which begin in the spirit of scorn, and -in a sweeping destruction of the antecedent condition, only tend -to a reaction. Our puritanical ancestors chopped off the heads of -Madonnas and Saints, and paid vagabonds to smash the storied windows -of our cathedrals;—_now_, are these rejected and outraged shapes of -beauty coming back to us, or are we not rather going back to them? As -a Protestant, I might fear lest in doing so we confound the eternal -spirit of Christianity with the mutable forms in which it has deigned -to speak to the hearts of men, forms which must of necessity vary -with the degree of social civilisation, and bear the impress of the -feelings and fashions of the age which produced them; but I must also -feel that we ought to comprehend, and to hold in due reverence, that -which has once been consecrated to holiest aims, which has shown us -what a magnificent use has been made of Art, and how it may still be -adapted to good and glorious purposes, if, while we respect these -time-consecrated images and types, we do not allow them to fetter us, -but trust in the progressive spirit of Christianity to furnish us with -new impersonations of the good—new combinations of the beautiful. I -hate the destructive as I revere the progressive spirit. We must laugh -if any one were to try and persuade us that the sun was guided along -his blazing path by a ‘fair-haired god who touched a golden lyre;’ but -shall we therefore cease to adore in the Apollo Belvedere the majestic -symbol of light, the most divine impersonation of intellectual power -and beauty? So of the corresponding Christian symbols:—may that time -never come, when we shall look up to the effigy of the winged and -radiant angel trampling down the brute-fiend, without a glow of faith -in the perpetual supremacy and final triumph of good over evil! - - * * * * * - -It is about a hundred years since the passion, or the fashion, for -collecting works of Art, began to be generally diffused among the -rich and the noble of this land; and it is amusing to look back -and to consider the perversions and affectations of the would-be -connoisseurship during this period;—the very small stock of ideas -on which people set up a pretension to taste—the false notions, the -mixture of pedantry and ignorance, which everywhere prevailed. The -publication of Richardson’s book, and Sir Joshua Reynolds’s Discourses, -had this advantage,—that they, to a certain degree, diffused a more -elevated idea of Art as _Art_, and that they placed connoisseurship -on a better and truer basis. In those days we had Inquiries into the -Principles of Taste, Treatises on the Sublime and Beautiful, Anecdotes -of Painting; and we abounded in Antiquarian Essays on disputed Pictures -and mutilated Statues: but then, and up to a late period, any inquiry -into the true spirit and significance of works of Art, as connected -with the history of Religion and Civilisation, would have appeared -ridiculous—or perhaps dangerous:—we should have had another cry of -‘No Popery,’ and acts of parliament forbidding the importation of -Saints and Madonnas. It was fortunate, perhaps, that connoisseurs -meddled not with such high matters. They talked volubly and harmlessly -of ‘hands,’ and ‘masters,’ and ‘schools,’—of ‘draperies,’ of ‘tints,’ -of ‘handling,’—of ‘fine heads,’ ‘fine compositions;’ of ‘the grace of -Raphael,’ and of the ‘Correggiosity of Correggio.’ The very manner in -which the names of the painters were pedantically used instead of the -name of the subject, is indicative of this factitious feeling; the only -question at issue was, whether such a picture was a genuine ‘Raphael?’ -such another a genuine ‘Titian?’ The spirit of the work—whether _that_ -was genuine; how far it was influenced by the faith and the condition -of the age which produced it; whether the conception was properly -characteristic, and of _what_ it was characteristic—of the subject? or -of the school? or of the time?—whether the treatment corresponded to -the idea within our own souls, or was modified by the individuality -of the artist, or by received conventionalisms of all kinds?—these -were questions which had not then occurred to any one; and I am not -sure that we are much wiser even now: yet, setting aside all higher -considerations, how can we do common justice to the artist, unless -we can bring his work to the test of truth? and how can we do this, -unless we know what to look for, what was _intended_ as to incident, -expression, character? One result of our ignorance has been the -admiration wasted on the flimsy mannerists of the later ages of Art; -men who apparently had no definite _intention_ in anything they did, -except a dashing outline, or a delicate finish, or a striking and -attractive management of colour. - - * * * * * - -It is curious, this general ignorance with regard to the subjects of -Mediæval Art, more particularly now that it has become a reigning -fashion among us. We find no such ignorance with regard to the subjects -of Classical Art, because the associations connected with them form a -part of every liberal education. Do we hear any one say, in looking at -Annibal Caracci’s picture in the National Gallery, ‘Which is Silenus, -and which is Apollo?’ Who ever confounds a Venus with a Minerva, or -a Vestal with an Amazon; or would endure an undraped Juno, or a -beardless Jupiter? Even the gardener in Zeluco knew Neptune by his -‘fork,’ and Vulcan by his ‘lame leg.’ We are indeed so accustomed, in -visiting the churches and the galleries abroad, and the collections at -home, to the predominance of sacred subjects, that it has become a mere -matter of course, and excites no particular interest and attention. -We have heard it all accounted for by the fact that the Church and -churchmen were the first, and for a long time the only, patrons of Art. -In every sacred edifice, and in every public or private collection -enriched from the plunder of sacred edifices, we look for the usual -proportion of melancholy martyrdoms and fictitious miracles,—for -the predominance of Madonnas and Magdalenes, St. Catherines and St. -Jeromes: but why these should predominate, why certain events and -characters from the Old and the New Testament should be continually -repeated, and others comparatively neglected; whence the predilection -for certain legendary personages, who seemed to be multiplied to -infinity, and the rarity of others; of this we know nothing. - -We have learned, perhaps, after running through half the galleries -and churches in Europe, to distinguish a few of the attributes and -characteristic figures which meet us at every turn, yet without any -clear idea of their meaning, derivation, or relative propriety. The -palm of victory, we know, designates the martyr triumphant in death. -We so far emulate the critical sagacity of the gardener in Zeluco -that we have learned to distinguish St. Laurence by his gridiron, -and St. Catherine by her wheel. We are not at a loss to recognise -the Magdalene’s ‘loose hair and lifted eye,’ even when without her -skull and her vase of ointment. We learn to know St. Francis by his -brown habit and shaven crown and wasted ardent features; but do we -distinguish him from St. Anthony, or St. Dominick? As for St. George -and the dragon—from the St. George of the Louvre,—Raphael’s,—who sits -his horse with the elegant tranquillity of one assured of celestial -aid, down to him ‘who swings on a sign post at mine hostess’s door,’—he -is our familiar acquaintance. But who is that lovely being in the first -blush of youth, who, bearing aloft the symbolic cross, stands with one -foot on the vanquished dragon? ‘That is a copy after Raphael.’ And who -is that majestic creature holding her palm branch, while the unicorn -crouches at her feet? ‘That is the famous Moretto at Vienna.’ Are we -satisfied?—not in the least! but we try to look wiser, and pass on. - - * * * * * - -In the old times the painters of these legendary scenes and subjects -could always reckon securely on certain associations and certain -sympathies in the minds of the spectators. We have outgrown these -associations, we repudiate these sympathies. We have taken these -works from their consecrated localities, in which they once held each -their dedicated place, and we have hung them in our drawing-rooms -and our dressing-rooms, over our pianos and our side-boards—and now -what do they say to us? That Magdalene, weeping amid her hair, who -once spoke comfort to the soul of the fallen sinner—that Sebastian, -arrow-pierced, whose upward ardent glance spoke of courage and hope -to the tyrant-ridden serf,—that poor tortured slave, to whose aid St. -Mark comes sweeping down from above,—can they speak to _us_ of nothing -save flowing lines and correct drawing and gorgeous colour? must we be -told that one is a Titian, the other a Guido, the third a Tintoret, -before we dare to melt in compassion or admiration?—or the moment we -refer to their ancient religious signification and influence, must -it be with disdain or with pity? This, as it appears to me, is to -take not a rational, but rather a most irrational as well as a most -irreverent, view of the question; it is to confine the pleasure and -improvement to be derived from works of Art within very narrow bounds; -it is to seal up a fountain of the richest poetry, and to shut out a -thousand ennobling and inspiring thoughts. Happily there is a growing -appreciation of these larger principles of criticism as applied to -the study of Art. People look at the pictures which hang round their -walls, and have an awakening suspicion that there is more in them than -meets the eye—more than mere connoisseurship can interpret; and that -they have another, a deeper, significance than has been dreamed of by -picture dealers and picture collectors, or even picture critics. - - - II. OF THE DISTINCTION TO BE DRAWN BETWEEN THE DEVOTIONAL AND THE - HISTORICAL SUBJECTS. - -At first, when entering on a subject so boundless and so diversified, -we are at a loss for some leading classification which shall be -distinct and intelligible, without being mechanical. It appears to me, -that all sacred representations, in as far as they appeal to sentiment -and imagination, resolve themselves into two great classes, which I -shall call the DEVOTIONAL and the HISTORICAL. - -Devotional pictures are those which portray the objects of our -veneration with reference only to their sacred character, whether -standing singly or in company with others. They place before us -no action or event, real or supposed. They are neither portrait -nor history. A group of sacred personages where no action is -represented, is called in Italian a ‘_sacra conversazione_:’ the word -_conversazione_, which signifies a society in which there is communion, -being here, as it appears to me, used with peculiar propriety. All -subjects, then, which exhibit to us sacred personages, alone or in -groups, simply in the character of superior beings, must be considered -as _devotionally_ treated. - -But a sacred subject, without losing wholly its religious import, -becomes historical the moment it represents any story, incident, or -action, real or imagined. All pictures which exhibit the events of -Scripture story, all those which express the actions, miracles, and -martyrdoms of saints, come under this class; and to this distinction I -must call the attention of the reader, requesting that it may be borne -in mind throughout this work. - -We must also recollect that a story, action, or fact may be so -represented as to become a symbol expressive of an abstract idea: -and some scriptural and some legendary subjects may be devotional, -or historical, according to the sentiment conveyed: for example, the -Crucifixion and the Last Supper may be so represented as either to -exhibit an event, or to express a symbol of our Redemption. The raising -of Lazarus exhibits, in the catacombs, a mystical emblem of the general -resurrection; in the grand picture by Sebastian del Piombo, in our -National Gallery, it is a scene from the life of our Saviour. Among -the legendary subjects, the penance of the Magdalene, and St. Martin -dividing his cloak, may be merely incidents, or they may be symbolical, -the first of penitence, the latter of charity, in the general sense. -And, again, there are some subjects which, though expressing a scene or -an action, are _wholly_ mystical and devotional in their import; as the -vision of St. Augustine, and the marriage of St. Catherine. - - * * * * * - -Among the grandest of the devotional subjects, we may reckon those -compositions which represent the whole celestial hierarchy; the divine -personages of the Trinity, the angels and archangels, and the beatified -spirits of the just. Such is the subject called the ‘Paradiso,’ so -often met with in pictures and ecclesiastical decoration, where Christ -is enthroned in glory: such is also the Coronation of the Virgin, that -ancient and popular symbol of the triumph of Religion or the Church; -the Adoration of the Lamb; and the Last Judgment, from the Apocalypse. -The order of precedence in these sacred assemblages was early settled -by ecclesiastical authority, and was almost as absolute as that of -a modern code of honour. First after the Trinity, the Virgin Mary, -as _Regina Angelorum_, and St. John the Baptist: then, in order, the -Evangelists; the Patriarchs; the Prophets; the Apostles; the Fathers; -the Bishops; the Martyrs; the Hermits; the Virgins; the Monks, Nuns, -and Confessors. - -As examples, I may cite the Paradiso of Angelico, in the Florence -Academy; the Coronation of the Virgin by Hans Memling, in the -Wallerstein collection, which contains not less than fifty-two figures, -all individualised with their proper attributes; and which, if it -were possible, should be considered in contrast with the Coronation -by Angelico. The Flemish painter seems to have carried his intense -impression of earthly and individual life into the regions of heaven; -the Italian, through a purer inspiration, seems to have brought all -Paradise down before us upon earth. In the Adoration of the Lamb by -Van Eyck, there are not fewer than two hundred figures. For the Last -Judgment, the grand compositions of Orcagna in the Campo Santo,—of Luca -Signorelli and Angelico at Orvieto,—and the fresco of Michael Angelo in -the Sistine Chapel, may be consulted. - -Where the usual order is varied, there is generally some reason for -it; for instance, in the exaltation of a favourite saint, as we -sometimes find St. Dominick and St. Francis by the side of St. Peter -and St. Paul: and among the miniatures of that extraordinary MS., the -Hortus Deliciarum, now at Strasbourg, painted for a virgin abbess, -there is a ‘Paradiso’ in which the painter, either by her command or in -compliment to her, has placed the virgins immediately after the angels. - - * * * * * - -The representation of the Virgin and Child with saints grouped around -them, is a devotional subject familiar to us from its constant -recurrence. It also frequently happens that the tutelary saint of the -locality, or the patron saint of the votary, is represented as seated -on a raised throne in the centre; and other saints, though under every -other circumstance taking a superior rank, become here accessories, -and are placed on each side or lower down in the picture: for example, -where St. Augustine is enthroned, and St. Peter and St. Paul stand on -each side, as in a picture by B. Vivarini,[2] or where St. Barbara is -enthroned, and Mary Magdalene and St. Catherine stand on each side, as -in a picture by Matteo di Siena.[3] - -In such pictures, the votary or donor is often introduced kneeling at -the feet of his patron, either alone or accompanied by his wife and -other members of his family: and to express the excess of his humility, -he is sometimes so diminutive in proportion to the colossal object -of his veneration, as to be almost lost to sight; we have frequent -examples of this _naïveté_ of sentiment in the old mosaics and votive -altar-pieces; for instance, in a beautiful old fresco at Assisi, -where the Magdalene, a majestic figure about six feet high, holds out -her hand in benediction to a little Franciscan friar about a foot in -height: but it was abandoned as barbarous in the later schools of Art, -and the votary, when retained, appears of the natural size; as in the -_Madonna del Donatore_ of Raphael[4], where Sigismond Conti is almost -the finest and most striking part of that inestimable picture: and in -the _Madonna_ of the Meyer family by Holbein.[5] - -When a bishop is introduced into a group of saints kneeling, while all -the others are standing, he may be supposed to be the _Donatore_ or -_Divoto_, the person who presents the picture. When he is standing, he -is one of the bishop-patrons or bishop-martyrs, of whom there are some -hundreds, and who are more difficult to discriminate than any other -pictured saints. - - * * * * * - -And this leads me to the subject of the so-called _anachronisms_ in -devotional subjects, where personages who lived at different and -distant periods of time are found grouped together. It is curious -to find the critics of the last century treating with pity and -ridicule, as the result of ignorance or a barbarous unformed taste, -the noblest and most spiritual conceptions of poetic art. Even Sir -Joshua Reynolds had so little idea of the true object and feeling of -such representations, that he thinks it necessary to apologise for the -error of the painter, or the mistaken piety of his employer. We must -remember that the personages here brought together in their sacred -character belong no more to our earth, but to heaven and eternity: for -them there is no longer time or place; they are here assembled together -in the perpetual ‘communion of saints,’—immortal contemporaries in that -kingdom where the Angel of the Apocalypse proclaimed ‘that there should -be time no longer.’ - -Such groups are sometimes arranged with an artless solemnity, all the -personages standing and looking straight out of the picture at the -worshipper. Sometimes there is a touch of dramatic sentiment, which, -without interfering with the solemn devotional feeling, lights up the -whole with the charm of a purpose: as in the Correggio at Parma, where -St. Jerome presents his translation of the Scriptures to the infant -Christ, while an angel turns the leaves, and Mary Magdalene, symbol of -redemption and reconciliation, bends to kiss the feet of the Saviour. - - * * * * * - -Our ancestors of the middle ages were not particular in drawing -that strong line of demarcation between the classical, Jewish and -Christian periods of history, that we do. They saw only Christendom -every where; they regarded the past only in relation to Christianity. -Hence we find in the early ecclesiastical monuments and edifices such -a strange assemblage of pagan, scriptural, and Christian worthies; -as, Hector of Troy, Alexander the Great, King David, Judas Maccabeus, -King Arthur, St. George, Godfrey of Boulogne, Lucretia, Virginia, -Judith, St. Elizabeth, St. Bridget (as in the Cross of Nuremburg). -In the curious Manual of Greek Art, published by Didron, we find the -Greek philosophers and poets entering into a scheme of ecclesiastical -decoration, as in the carved stalls in the Cathedral of Ulm, where -Solon, Apollonius, Plutarch, Plato, Sophocles, are represented, holding -each a scroll, on which is inscribed a passage from their works, -interpreted into an allusion to the coming of Christ: and I have seen -a picture of the Nativity in which the sibyls are dancing hand-in-hand -around the cradle of the new-born Saviour. This may appear profane to -some, but the comprehension of the whole universe within the pale of -Christianity strikes me as being in the most catholic, as well as in -the most poetical, spirit. - - * * * * * - -It is in devotional subjects that we commonly find those -anthropomorphic representations of the Divinity which shock devout -people; and which no excuse or argument can render endurable to those -who see in them only ignorant irreverence, or intentional profaneness. -It might be pleaded that the profaneness is not intentional; that -emblems and forms are, in the imitative arts, what figures of speech -are in language; that only through a figure of speech can any attempt -be made to place the idea of Almighty Power before us. Familiar -expressions, consecrated by Scripture usage, represent the Deity as -reposing, waking, stretching forth his hand, sitting on a throne; -as pleased, angry, vengeful, repentant; and the ancient painters, -speaking the language proper to their art, appear to have turned these -emblematical words into emblematical pictures. I forbear to say more on -this point, because I have taken throughout the poetical and not the -religious view of Art, and this is an objection which must be left, -as a matter of feeling, to the amount of candour and knowledge in the -critical reader. - - * * * * * - -In the sacred subjects, properly called HISTORICAL, we must be careful -to distinguish between those which are _Scriptural_, representing -scenes from the Old or New Testament; and those which are _Legendary_. - -Of the first, for the present; I do not speak, as they will be fully -treated hereafter. - -The historical subjects from the lives of the saints consist -principally of _Miracles_ and _Martyrdoms_. - -In the first, it is worth remarking that we have no pictured miracle -which is not imitated from the Old or the New Testament (unless it be -an obvious emblem, as where the saint carries his own head). There is -no act of supernatural power related of any saint which is not recorded -of some great scriptural personage. The object was to represent the -favourite patron as a copy of the great universal type of beneficence, -CHRIST OUR REDEEMER. And they were not satisfied that the resemblance -should lie in character only; but should emulate the power of Christ -in his visible actions. We must remember that the common people of -the middle ages did not, and could not, distinguish between miracles -accredited by the testimony of Scripture, and those which were -fabrications, or at least exaggerations. All miracles related as divine -interposition were to them equally possible, equally credible. If a -more extended knowledge of the natural laws renders us in these days -less credulous, it also shows us that many things were possible, under -particular conditions, which were long deemed supernatural. - - * * * * * - -We find in the legendary pictures, that the birth of several saints -is announced by an angel, or in a dream, as in the stories of St. -Catherine, St. Roch, &c. They exhibit precocious piety and wisdom, as -in the story of St. Nicholas, who also calms a tempest, and guides -the storm-tossed vessel safe to land. They walk on the water, as in -the stories of St. Raymond and St. Hyacinth; or a river divides, -to let them pass, as in the story of St. Alban. Saints are fed and -comforted miraculously, or delivered from prison by angels; or resist -fire, like the ‘Three Children.’ The multiplication of bread, and the -transformation of water into wine, are standing miracles. But those -which most frequently occur in pictures, are the healing of the sick, -the lame, the blind; the casting out of demons, the restoration of the -dead, or some other manifestation of compassionate and beneficent power. - - * * * * * - -Some of the pictured legends are partly scriptural, partly historical, -as the story of St. Peter; others are clearly religious apologues -founded on fact or tradition, as those of St. Mary of Egypt and St. -Christopher; others are obviously and purely allegorical, as the -Greek story of St. Sophia (i. e. Heavenly Wisdom, ΣΟΦΙΑ) and her -celestial progeny, St. Faith, St. Hope, and St. Charity, all martyred -by the blind and cruel Pagans. The names sound as if borrowed from the -‘Pilgrim’s Progress;’ and it is curious to find Bunyan’s allegorical -legend, the favourite picture-book of the people, appearing just at -the time when the legends and pictures of the saints became objects -of puritanical horror, and supplying their place in the popular -imagination. - -Martyrdoms are only too common: they present to us Christianity under -its most mystical aspect—the deification of suffering; but to render -these representations effective, they should be pathetic without being -terrible, they should speak to us - - Of melancholy fear subdued by faith, - Of blessed consolations in distress; - -but not of the horrid cruelty of man towards man. It has been well -remarked by my friend M. Rio, (to whose charming and eloquent -exposition of Christian Art I refer with ever-new delight,) that the -early painters of Western Christendom avoided these subjects, and that -their prevalence in ecclesiastical decoration marked the decline of -religious feeling, and the degeneracy of Art. But this remark does -not apply to Byzantine Art; for we find from the exact description of -a picture of the martyrdom of St. Euphemia (both the picture and the -description dating from the third century), that such representations -were then common, and were appealed to in the same manner as now, to -excite the feelings of the people. - -The martyrdoms generally met with are those of St. Peter and St. -Paul, St. Stephen Protomartyr, St. Laurence, St. Catherine, and St. -Sebastian. These we find everywhere, in all countries and localities. -Where the patron of the church or chapel is a martyr, his martyrdom -holds a conspicuous place, often over the high altar, and accompanied -by all the moving circumstances which can excite the pity, or horror, -or enthusiasm of the pious votaries; but in the best examples we find -the saint preparing for his death, not suffering the torments actually -inflicted; so that the mind is elevated by the sentiment of his -courage, not disturbed and disgusted by the spectacle of his agonies. - - - III. OF CERTAIN PATRON SAINTS, - - WHO ARE COMMONLY GROUPED TOGETHER IN WORKS OF ART, OR WHO BELONG TO - PARTICULAR COUNTRIES, CITIES, OR LOCALITIES. - -While such assemblages of holy persons as are found grouped together -in devotional pictures are to be considered as quite independent -of chronology, we shall find that the selection has been neither -capricious nor arbitrary, and, with a little consideration, we shall -discover the leading idea in the mind of the artist that, at least, -which was intended to be conveyed to the mind of the spectator, and -which was much more intelligible in former times than it is now. - -Sometimes we find certain saints placed in companionship, because they -are the joint patrons and protectors of the city or locality for which -the picture was painted. Thus in the Bologna pictures we constantly -find the bishop St. Petronius, St. Eloy, St. Dominick, and the warrior -St. Proculus; while in the Venetian pictures we have perpetual St. -Marks, St. Georges, and St. Catherines. - -Or, secondly, they are connected by kindred powers and attributes. Thus -we find St. Sebastian, the patron against pestilence, in company with -St. Roch, who ministered to the sick of the plague. Thus St. Catherine -and St. Jerome, the two patrons of school theology, are often found in -companionship. Where St. Catherine and St. Barbara are found together, -the first figures as patroness of the ecclesiastical, and the second of -the military, power—or they represent respectively the contemplative -and the active life. - -Or, thirdly, they are combined in the fancy by some inevitable -association; as St. Augustine and St. Stephen are often in the same -picture, because St. Augustine dedicated some of his most eloquent -works to the glory of the martyr. - -Or they were friends on earth, for which reason St. Cyprian and St. -Cornelius are placed together. - -Or their relics repose in the same spot; whence St. Stephen and St. -Laurence have become almost inseparable. When St. Vincent and St. -Laurence are placed together, (as in a lovely composition of Parmigiana -where they sit reading out of the same book,) it is because of the -similarity of their fate, and that the popular tradition supposed them -to be brothers. - - * * * * * - -A point of more general importance, and capable of more definite -explanation, is the predominance of certain sacred personages in -particular schools of Art. St. Cosmo and St. Damian, for instance, -are perpetually recurring in the Florentine pictures as the patron -saints of the Medici family. In the Lombard pictures St. Ambrose is -often found without his compeers—not as doctor of the Church, but as -bishop of Milan. In the Siena pictures, we may look for the nun St. -Catherine of Siena, and St. Ansano, the apostle of the Sienese, holding -his banner and palm. And in the Augustine chapels and churches, St. -Augustine figures, not as doctor of the Church, but as patriarch of the -Order. - -A bishop-martyr, holding his palm, and not otherwise designated either -by name or attribute, would be—in one if Perugino’s pictures, St. -Ercolano or St. Costanzo; in a Florentine picture, St. Donato or St. -Romulo; if the picture were painted in the March of Ancona, it would -probably be St. Apollinaris of Ravenna; at Naples it would be St. -Januarius; at Paris, or in a picture painted for a French church, of -which there are many in Italy, it would be St. Denis; and in German -prints, St. Boniface or St. Lambert. I need not further multiply -examples. - -If the locality from which the picture came will sometimes determine -the names of the personages, so the personages represented will often -explain the purpose and intended situation of the picture. There is -in Lord Ashburton’s gallery a noble group representing together St. -Peter, St. Leonard, St. Martha, and Mary Magdalene. Such a combination -points it out at once as intended for a charitable institution, and, on -enquiry, we find that it was painted for the chapel of a brotherhood -associated to redeem prisoners, to ransom slaves, to work for the -poor, and to convert the sinner to repentance. Many such interesting -and instructive analogies will be pointed out in the course of the -following pages, and the observer of works of Art will discover others -for himself. - -I add here, in alphabetical order, those countries and localities of -which the patron saints are distinguished in works of Art.[6] - - ANCONA: St. Cyriacus, _Bishop_; and his mother Anna, _Martyr_. - - AREZZO: St. Donato, _Bishop_. - - ASTI, NOVARA, and all through the cities of PIEDMONT and the north - of Italy, we find the _Warrior_, St. Maurice, and his companions St. - Secundus, St. Alexander, and the other Martyrs of the Theban Legion. - - AUGSBURG: St. Ulrich, _Bishop_; St. Afra, _Martyr_. - - AUSTRIA: St. Leopold, St. Stephen, St. Maximilian, St. Coloman. - - BAMBERG: St. Henry and St. Cunegunda, _Emperor_ and _Empress_. - - BARCELONA: St. Eulalia, _Martyr_. (In Spanish pictures only.) - - BAVARIA: St. George, _Martyr_. - - BERGAMO: St. Alexander, _Warrior_; St. Grata, _Widow_. - - BOHEMIA: St. John Nepomuck, _Priest_; St. Wenceslaus, _King_; St. - Ludmilla, _Queen_; St. Vitus, _young Martyr_; St. Procopius, _Hermit_. - - BOLOGNA: St. Petronius, _Bishop_; St. Dominick, _Friar_; St. Proculus, - _Warrior Martyr_; St. Eloy (Eligio), _Bishop_ and _Smith_. - - BRESCIA: St. Faustinus and Jovita; St. Julia, St. Afra, _Martyrs_. - - BRUGES: St. John the Baptist. - - BURGUNDY: St. Andrew, _Apostle_. - - COLOGNE: The Three Kings; St. Ursula, _Virgin Martyr_; St. Gereon, - _Warrior Martyr_. - - COMO: St. Abbondio, _Bishop_. - - CORTONA: St. Margaret, _Nun_ and _Penitent_. - - CREMONA: St. Omobuono, _Secular Habit_. - - FERRARA: St. Geminiano, _Bishop_; St. George, _Martyr_; St. Barbara, - _Martyr_. - - FIESOLE: St. Romolo, _Bishop_. - - FLORENCE: St. John the Baptist; St. Zenobio, St. Antonino, _Bishops_; - St. Reparata, _Virgin Martyr_; St. Cosmo and Damian (the Apothecary - Saints, especial patrons of the Medici family); St. Verdiana, _Nun_; - St. Miniato, _Warrior_. - - FRANCE: St. Michael, _Angel_; St. Dionysius (Denis), _Bishop_; St. - Geneviève, _Virgin_; St. Martin, _Bishop_. - - GENOA: St. George, St. Laurence, _Martyrs_. - - GHENT: St. Bavon, _Prince_ and _Hermit_. - - - GRENOBLE: St. Hugh the Carthusian. - - IRELAND: St. Patrick, _Bishop_; St. Bridget, _Abbess_. - - LUCCA: St. Martin, _Bishop_; St. Frediano, _Priest_; St. Zita, - _Virgin_. - - LIEGE: St. Hubert, _Bishop_ and _Huntsman_; St. Lambert, _Bishop_. - - MADRID: St. Isidore, _Labourer_; St. Dominick, _Friar_; (Patron of the - Escurial, St. Laurence). - - MANTUA: St. Andrew; St. Barbara; St. George and St. Longinus, _Warrior - Saints_. - - MARSEILLES and all PROVENCE: St. Lazarus; St. Mary Magdalen; St. - Martha; St. Marcella. - - MESSINA: St. Agatha, _Martyr_. - - MILAN: St. Ambrose, _Bishop_ and _Doctor_; St. Gervasius and St. - Protasius, _Martyrs_; St. Maurice, St. Victor, _Warriors_. - - MODENA: St. Geminiano, _Bishop_. (In Pictures of the Correggio School.) - - NAPLES: St. Januarius, _Martyr_. - - NOVARA: St. Gaudenzio, _Bishop_. - - NUREMBURG: St. Laurence, _Martyr_; St. Sebald, _Pilgrim_ and _Hermit_. - (The latter an important person in pictures and prints of the Albert - Dürer school.) - - PADUA: St. Anthony of Padua, _Friar_. - - PARIS: St. Geneviève, _Virgin_; St. Germain, _Bishop_; St. Hippolitus, - _Martyr_. - - PARMA: St. John, B.; St. Thomas the Apostle; St. Bernard, _Monk_; St. - Hilary (Ilario), _Bishop_. - - PERUGIA: St. Ercolano and St. Costanzo, _Bishops_. - - PIACENZA: St. Justina, _Martyr_; St. Antoninus, _Warrior_ (Theban - Legion). - - PIEDMONT and SAVOY: St. John, B.; St. Maurice and St. George, - _Warriors_; St. Amadeus, _King_. - - PISA: St. Ranieri, _Hermit_; St. Torpé, _Warrior_; St. Ephesus and St. - Potita, _Warriors_. (These only in the ancient Pisan school.) - - RAVENNA: St. Appolinaris, _Bishop_. - - RIMINI: St. Juliana, _Martyr_. (A young saint, popular all through the - north and down the east coast of Italy.) - - SEVILLE: St. Leander, _Bishop_; St. Justina, St. Rufina, _Sisters_ and - _Martyrs_. (These are only found in Spanish pictures.) - - SICILY: St. Vitus, _Martyr_; St. Rosalia, _Recluse_ (Palermo); St. - Agatha (Messina), St. Lucia (Syracuse), _Martyrs_. - - SIENA: St. Ansano, _Martyr_; St. Catherine of Siena, _Nun_; St. - Bernardino, _Friar_. - - THURINGIA and all that part of SAXONY: St. Elizabeth of Hungary; St. - Boniface, _Bishop_. - - TOLEDO: St. Ildefonso, _Bishop_; and St. Leocadia, _Martyr_. (Only in - Spanish pictures.) - - TREVISO: St. Liberale, _Warrior_. - - TURIN: St. John the Baptist; St. Maurice, _Warrior_. - - UMBRIA: All through this region and the eastern coast of Italy, very - important in respect to Art, the favourite saints are—St. Nicholas, - _Bishop_; St. Francis of Assisi, _Friar_; St. Clara, _Nun_; St. - Julian, _Martyr_; and St. Catherine, _Virgin Martyr_. - - VALENCIA: St. Vincent, _Martyr_. - - VENICE: St. Mark, _Apostle_; St. George, St. Theodore, _Warriors_; St. - Nicholas, _Bishop_; St. Catherine, St. Christina, _Virgin Martyrs_. - - VERCELLI: St. Eusebius, _Bishop_; St. Thronestus, _Warrior_ (Theban - Legion). - - VERONA: St. Zeno, _Bishop_; St. Fermo, _Martyr_; St. Euphemia, - _Martyr_. - -VOTIVE PICTURES are those which have been dedicated in certain -religious edifices, in fulfilment of vows; either as the expression of -thanksgiving for blessings which have been vouchsafed, or propitiative -against calamities to be averted. The far greater number of these -pictures commemorate an escape from danger, sickness, death; and more -especially, some visitation of the plague, that terrible and frequent -scourge of the middle ages. The significance of such pictures is -generally indicated by the presence of St. Sebastian or St. Roch, the -patrons against the plague; or St. Cosmo and St. Damian, the healing -and medical saints; accompanied by the patron saints of the country -or locality, if it be a public act of devotion; or, if dedicated by -private or individual piety, the donor kneels, presented by his own -patron saint. In general, though not always, this expressive group is -arranged in attendance on the enthroned Madonna and her divine Son, as -the universal protectors from all evil. Such pictures are among the -most interesting and remarkable of the works of sacred Art which remain -to us, and have often a pathetic and poetical beauty, and an historical -significance, which it is a chief purpose of these volumes to interpret -and illustrate. - -[Illustration: - _S^t. Damian._ _S^t. Mark._ _S^t. Roch._ _A. J. fecit_ - _S^t. Cosmo._ _S^t. Sebastian._ - - _A Venetian votive picture against the plague._] - - - IV. OF CERTAIN EMBLEMS AND ATTRIBUTES. - -To know something of the attributes and emblems of general application, -as well as those proper to each saint, is absolutely necessary; but it -will also greatly assist the fancy and the memory to _understand_ their -origin and significance. For this reason I will add a few words of -explanation. - - * * * * * - -The GLORY, NIMBUS, or AUREOLE—the Christian attribute of sanctity, and -used generally to distinguish all holy personages—is of pagan origin. -It expressed the luminous nebula (Homer, _Il._ xxiii. 205), supposed to -emanate from, and surround, the Divine Essence, which stood, ‘a shade -in midst of its own brightness.’ Images of the gods were decorated -with a crown of rays, or with stars; and when the Roman emperors -assumed the honours due to divinity, they appeared in public crowned -with golden radii. The colossal statue of Nero wore a circle of rays, -imitating the glory of the sun. This ornament became customary; and -not only the first Cæsars, but the Christian emperors, adopted the -same divine insignia; and it became at length so common that we find -it on some medals, round the heads of the consuls of the later empire. -Considered in the East as _the attribute of power only_, whether good -or evil, we find, wherever early Art has been developed under Byzantine -influences, the nimbus thus applied. Satan, in many Greek, Saxon, and -French miniatures, from the ninth to the thirteenth century, wears a -glory. In a psalter of the twelfth century, the Beast of the Apocalypse -with seven heads has six heads surrounded by the nimbus; the seventh, -wounded and drooping, is without the sign of power. - -But in Western Art the associations with this attribute were not -merely those of dignity, but of something divine and consecrated. It -was for a long time avoided in the Christian representations as being -appropriated by false gods or heathen pride; and when first adopted -does not seem clear.[7] The earliest example cited is a gem of St. -Martin of the early part of the sixth century, in which the glory -round his head seems to represent his apotheosis: and in all instances -it is evidently intended to represent divine glory and beatitude. - -The glory round the head is properly the nimbus or aureole. The oblong -glory surrounding the whole person, called in Latin the _vesica -piscis_, and in Italian the _mandorla_ (almond), from its form, is -confined to figures of Christ and the Virgin, or saints who are in -the act of ascending into heaven. When used to distinguish one of -the three divine persons of the Trinity the glory is often cruciform -or triangular. The square nimbus designates a person living at the -time the work was executed. In the frescoes of Giotto at Assisi, the -allegorical personages are in some instances distinguished by the -hexagonal nimbus. In other instances it is circular. From the fifth to -the twelfth century the nimbus had the form of a disc or plate over -the head.[8] From the twelfth to the fifteenth century, it was a broad -golden band, round, or rather behind, the head, composed of circle -within circle, often adorned with precious stones, and sometimes having -the name of the saint inscribed within it. From the fifteenth century -it was a bright fillet over the head, and in the seventeenth century -it disappeared altogether. In pictures the glory is always golden, the -colour of light; in miniatures and stained glass I have seen glories of -various colours, red, blue, or green.[9] - - * * * * * - -The FISH was the earliest, the most universal, of the Christian -emblems, partly as the symbol of water and the rite of baptism, and -also because the five Greek letters which express the word Fish form -the anagram of the name of Jesus Christ. In this sense we find the -fish as a general symbol of the Christian faith upon the sarcophagi of -the early Christians; on the tombs of the martyrs in the catacombs; on -rings, coins, lamps, and other utensils; and as an ornament in early -Christian architecture. It is usually a dolphin, which among the Pagans -had also a sacred significance. - -The passage in the Gospel, ‘Follow me, and I will make ye fishers of -men,’ is supposed to have originated the use of this symbol; and I -may observe here, that the fish placed in the hands of St. Peter has -probably a double or treble signification, alluding to his former -occupation as a fisherman, his conversion to Christianity, and his -vocation as a Christian apostle, i. e. a fisher of men, in the sense -used by Christ; and in the same sense we find it given as an attribute -to bishops who were famous for converting and baptising, as St. Zeno of -Verona, and Gregory of Tours. - - * * * * * - -The CROSS.—About the tenth century the Fish disappeared, and the -Cross—symbol of our redemption, from the apostolic times—became the -sole and universal emblem of the Christian faith. The cross placed in -the hand of a saint is usually the Latin cross (1), the form ascribed -to the cross on which our Saviour suffered. Other crosses are used as -emblems or ornaments, but still having the same signification; as the -Greek cross (2), in which the arms are all of the same length; the -transverse cross, on which St. Andrew is supposed to have suffered, -in this form (3); the Egyptian cross, sometimes placed in the hands -of St. Philip the apostle, and it was also the form of the crutch of -St. Anthony, and embroidered on his cope or robe—hence it is called -St. Anthony’s cross (4). There is also the Maltese cross, and various -ornamental crosses. The double cross on the top of a staff, instead of -the crosier, is borne by the Pope only; the staff with a single cross, -by the Greek bishops. - -[Illustration: - (1) (2) (3) (4)] - -At first the cross was a sign only. When formed of gold or silver, the -five wounds of Christ were signified by a ruby or carbuncle at each -extremity, and one in the centre. It was not till the sixth century -that the cross became a CRUCIFIX, no longer an emblem but an _image_. - - * * * * * - -The LAMB, in Christian Art, is the peculiar symbol of the Redeemer -as the sacrifice without blemish: in this sense it is given as an -attribute to John the Baptist. The lamb is also the general emblem of -innocence, meekness, modesty; in this sense it is given to St. Agnes, -of whom Massillon said so beautifully, ‘peu de pudeur, où il n’y a pas -de religion; peu de religion, où il n’y a pas de pudeur.’ - -The PELICAN, tearing open her breast to feed her young with her own -blood, was an early symbol of our redemption through Christ. - -One or both of these emblems are frequently found in ancient crosses -and crucifixes; the lamb at the foot, the pelican at the top, of the -cross. - -The DRAGON is the emblem of sin in general, and of the sin of idolatry -in particular; and the dragon slain or vanquished by the power of the -cross, is the perpetually recurring myth, which, varied in a thousand -ways, we find running through all the old Christian legends: not -subject to misapprehension in the earliest times; but, as the cloud of -ignorance darkened and deepened, the symbol was translated into a fact. -It has been suggested that the dragon, which is to us a phantasm and an -allegory, which in the middle ages was the visible shape of the demon -adversary of all truth and goodness, might have been, as regards form, -originally _a fact_: for wherever we have dragon legends, whether the -scene be laid in Asia, Africa, or Europe, the imputed circumstances and -the form are little varied. The dragons introduced into early painting -and sculpture so invariably represent a gigantic winged crocodile, that -it is presumed there must have been some common origin for the type -chosen as if by common consent; and that this common type may have -been some fossil remains of the Saurian species, or even some far-off -dim tradition of one of these tremendous reptiles surviving in Heaven -knows what vast desolate morass or inland lake, and spreading horror -and devastation along its shores. At Aix, a huge fossilised head of -one of the Sauri was for a long time preserved as the head of the -identical dragon subdued by St. Martha; and St. Jerome relates that -he had himself beheld at Tyre the bones of the sea monster to which -Andromeda had been exposed—probably some fossil remains which in the -popular imagination were thus accounted for. Professor Owen told me -that the head of a dragon in one of the legendary pictures he had seen -in Italy closely resembled in form that of the Deinotherium Giganteum. -These observations have reference only to the type adopted when the old -Scripture allegory took form and shape. The dragon of Holy Writ is the -same as the serpent, i. e., personified sin, the spiritual enemy of -mankind. - -The scriptural phrase of the ‘jaws of hell’ is literally rendered -in the ancient works of Art by the huge jaws of a dragon, wide open -and emitting flames, into which the souls of sinners are tumbled -headlong. In pictures, sin is also typified by a serpent or snake; in -this form it is placed under the feet of the Madonna, sometimes with -an apple in its mouth; sometimes, but only in late pictures of the -seventeenth century, winding its green scaly length round and round a -globe, significant of the subjugation of the whole earth to the power -of sin till delivered by the Redeemer. On this subject I shall have -much more to say when treating of the pictures of the Fall of Man, and -the subjects taken from the Apocalypse: for the present we need only -bear in mind the various significations of the popular Dragon myth, -which may shadow forth the conquest over sin, as in the legends of St. -Michael and St. Margaret; or over paganism, as in the legends of St. -Sylvester and St. George; or sometimes a destroying flood, as in the -legend of St. Martha, where the inundation of the Rhone is figured -by a dragon emerging from the waters and spreading around death and -pestilence,—like the Python of the Grecian myth. - - * * * * * - -The LION, as an ancient Christian symbol, is of frequent recurrence, -more particularly in architectural decoration. Antiquaries are not -agreed as to the exact meaning attached to the mystical lions placed in -the porches of so many old Lombard churches; sometimes with an animal, -sometimes with a man, in their paws. But we find that the lion was an -ancient symbol of the Redeemer, ‘the Lion of the tribe of Judah:’ -also of the resurrection of the Redeemer; because, according to an -oriental fable, the lion’s cub was born dead, and in three days its -sire licked it into life. In this sense it occurs in the windows of the -cathedral at Bourges. In either sense it may probably have been adopted -as a frequent ornament in the church utensils, and in ecclesiastical -decoration, supporting the pillars in front, or the carved thrones, &c. - -The lion also typifies solitude—the wilderness; and, in this sense, is -placed near St. Jerome and other saints who did penance, or lived as -hermits in the desert; as in the legends of St. Paul the hermit, St. -Mary of Egypt, St. Onofrio. Further, the lion as an attribute denoted -death in the amphitheatre, and with this signification is placed near -certain martyrs, as St. Ignatius and St. Euphemia. The lion, as the -type of fortitude and resolution, was placed at the feet of those -martyrs who had suffered with singular courage, as St. Adrian and St. -Natalia.[10] - -When other wild beasts, as wolves and bears, are placed at the feet -of a saint attired as abbot or bishop, it signifies that he cleared -waste land, out down forests, and substituted Christian culture and -civilisation for paganism and the lawless hunter’s life: such is the -significance in pictures of St. Magnus, St. Florentius and St. Germain -of Auxerre. - - * * * * * - -The HART or HIND was also an emblem of double signification. It was a -type of solitude and of purity of life, and was also a type of piety -and religious aspiration, adopted from the forty-second Psalm, ‘Like as -the hart panteth after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul for thee, O -God!’ - -When the original meaning of the lion, the hart, and other emblems, -was no longer present to the popular mind, legends were invented to -account for them; and that which had been a symbol, became an incident, -or an historical attribute,—as in the stories of the lion healed by St. -Jerome, or digging the grave of St. Paul; the miraculous stag which -appeared to St. Eustace and St. Hubert; the wounded doe in the legend -of St. Giles; and the hind which spoke to St. Julian. - - * * * * * - -The PEACOCK, the bird of Juno, was an ancient pagan symbol, signifying -the apotheosis of an empress, as we find from many of the old -Roman coins and medals. The early Christians, accustomed to this -interpretation, adopted it as a general emblem of the mortal exchanged -for the immortal existence; and, with this signification, we find the -peacock with outspread train on the walls and ceilings of catacombs, -the tombs of the martyrs, and many of the sarcophagi, down to the -fourth and fifth centuries. It is only in modern times that the peacock -has become the emblem of worldly pride. - - * * * * * - -The CROWN, as introduced in Christian Art, is either an emblem or an -attribute. It has been the emblem from all antiquity of victory, and -of recompense due to superior power or virtue. In this sense the word -and the image are used in Scripture in many passages: for example, -‘Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of glory.’ And in this -sense, as the recompense of those who had fought the good fight to the -end, and conquered, the crown became the especial symbol of the glory -of martyrdom. In very ancient pictures, a hand is seen coming out of -heaven holding a wreath or circlet; afterwards it is an angel who -descends with a crown, which is sometimes a coronet of gold and jewels, -sometimes a wreath of palm or myrtle. In general only the female -martyrs wear the symbolical crown of glory; martyrs of the other sex -hold the crown in their hands, or it is borne by an angel. Hence we may -presume that the crown, which among the Jews was the especial ornament -of a bride, signified the bride or spouse of Christ—one dedicated to -virginity for his sake; and in this sense, down to the present time, -the crown is placed on the head of a nun at the moment of consecration. -Therefore in the old pictures of female martyrs we may interpret the -crown in this double sense, as signifying at once the bride and the -martyr. - -But it is necessary also to distinguish between the _symbol_ and the -_attribute_: thus, where St. Cecilia and St. Barbara wear the crown, it -is the symbol of their glorious martyrdom; when St. Catherine and St. -Ursula wear the crown, it is at once as the symbol of martyrdom and the -attribute of their royal rank as princesses. - -The crown is also the symbol of sovereignty. When it is placed on the -head of the Virgin, it is as Queen of Heaven, and also as the ‘Spouse’ -of Scripture allegory. - -But the crown is also an attribute, and frequently, when worn by -a saint or placed at his feet, signifies that he was royal or of -princely birth: as in the pictures of Louis of France, St. William, St. -Elizabeth, St. Helena, and many others. - -[Illustration: Four Crowns] - -The crowns in the Italian pictures are generally a wreath, or a simple -circle of gold and jewels, or a coronet radiated with a few points. -But in the old German pictures the crown is often of most magnificent -workmanship, blazing with jewels. - -I have seen a real silver crown placed on the figures of certain -popular saints, but as a votive tribute, not an emblem. - - -The SWORD is also either a symbol or an attribute. As a symbol it -signifies generally martyrdom by any violent death, and, in this sense, -is given to many saints who did not die by the sword. As an attribute -it signifies the particular death suffered, and that the martyr in -whose hand or at whose feet it is placed was beheaded: in this sense it -is given to St. Paul, St. Catherine, and many others. It is given also -to the warrior-martyrs, as the attribute of their military profession. -Other symbols of martyrdom are the AXE, the LANCE, and the CLUB. - - -ARROWS, which are attributes, St. Ursula, St. Christina, and St. -Sebastian. - - -The PONIARD, given to St. Lucia. - - -The CAULDRON, given to St. John the Evangelist and St. Cecilia. - - -The PINCERS and SHEARS, St. Apollonia and St. Agatha. - - -The WHEELS, St. Catherine. - - -FIRE and FLAMES are sometimes an emblem of martyrdom and punishment, -and sometimes of religious fervour. - - -A BELL was supposed to have power to exorcise demons, and for this -reason is given to the haunted St. Anthony. - - -The SHELL signifies pilgrimage. - - -The SKULL, penance. - - -The ANVIL, as an attribute of martyrdom, belongs to St. Adrian only. - - -The PALM, the ancient classical symbol of victory and triumph, was -early assumed by the Christians as the universal symbol of martyrdom, -and for this adaptation of a pagan ornament they found warrant in -Scripture: Rev. vii. 9, ‘And after this I beheld, and, lo, a great -multitude stood before the throne clothed with white robes and with -palms in their hands.‘... ‘And he said to me, These are they which -came out of great tribulation.’ Hence in pictures of martyrdoms an -angel descends with the palm; hence it is figured on the tombs of early -martyrs, and placed in the hands of those who suffered in the cause of -truth, as expressing their final victory over the powers of sin and -death. - - The sensual think with reverence of the palm - Which the chaste votary wields. - -[Illustration: Four palm fronds] - -The palm varies in form from a small leaf to the size of a palm branch, -almost a tree. It is very small in the early Italian pictures, very -large in the Spanish pictures. In the Siena pictures it has a bunch of -dates depending from it. It is only in late pictures that the palm, -with a total disregard to the sacredness of its original signification, -is placed on the ground, or under the feet of the saint. - - -The STANDARD, or banner, is also the symbol of victory, the spiritual -victory over sin, death, and idolatry. It is borne by our Saviour -after his resurrection, and is placed in the hands of St. George, St. -Maurice, and other military saints; in the hands of some victorious -martyrs, as St. Julian, St. Ansano, and of those who preached the -Gospel among infidels; also in the hands of St. Ursula and St. -Reparata, the only female saints, I believe, who bear this attribute. - - -The OLIVE, as the well-known emblem of peace and reconciliation, is -figured on the tombs of the early martyrs; sometimes with, sometimes -without, the dove. The olive is borne as the attribute of peace by the -angel Gabriel, by St. Agnes, and by St. Pantaleon; sometimes also by -the angels in a Nativity, who announce ‘peace on earth.’ - - -The DOVE in Christian Art is the emblem of the Holy Ghost; and, besides -its introduction into various subjects from the New Testament, as the -Annunciation, the Baptism, the Pentecost, it is placed near certain -saints who are supposed to have been particularly inspired, as St. -Gregory, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Hilarius, and others. - -The dove is also a symbol of simplicity and purity of heart, and as -such it is introduced into pictures of female saints, and especially of -the Madonna and Child. - -It is also the emblem of the soul; in this sense it is seen issuing -from the lips of dying martyrs, and is found in pictures of St. Eulalia -of Merida, and St. Scholastica the sister of St. Benedict. - - -The LILY is another symbol of purity, of very general application. -We find it in pictures of the Virgin, and particularly in pictures -of the Annunciation. It is placed significantly in the hand of St. -Joseph, the husband of the Virgin Mary, his staff, according to the -legend, having put forth lilies; it is given, as an emblem merely, to -St. Francis, St. Anthony of Padua, St. Dominick, and St. Catherine of -Siena, to express the particular purity of their lives. - - -The UNICORN is another ancient symbol of purity, in allusion to the -fable that it could never be captured except by a virgin stainless in -mind and life; it has become in consequence the emblem peculiarly of -_female_ chastity, but in Christian Art is appropriate only to the -Virgin Mary and St. Justina. - - -The FLAMING HEART expresses fervent piety and love: in early pictures -it is given to St. Augustine, merely in allusion to a famous passage -in his ‘Confessions;’ but in the later schools of Art it has become a -general and rather vulgar emblem of spiritual love: in this sense it is -given to St. Theresa; St. Maria Maddalena de’ Pazzi, a Florentine nun; -and some of the Jesuit saints. - - -The BOOK in the hands of the Evangelists and the Apostles is an -attribute, and represents the Gospel. In the hand of St. Stephen it is -the Old Testament; in the hand of any other saint it may be the Gospel, -but it may also be an emblem only, signifying that the saint was famous -for his learning or his writings; it has this sense in pictures of -St. Catherine, the Doctors of the Church, St. Thomas Aquinas, and St. -Bonaventura. - - -A CHURCH placed in the hands of a saint signifies that he was the -founder of some particular church: in this sense St. Henry bears the -cathedral of Bamberg; or, that he was the protector and first bishop -of the church, as St. Petronius bears the cathedral of Bologna. I must -except the single instance of St. Jerome; the church in his hands -signifies no particular edifice, but, in a general sense, the Catholic -Church, of which he was the great support and one of the primitive -fathers; to render the symbol more expressive, rays of light are seen -proceeding from the portal. - - -The SCOURGE in the hand of a saint, or at his feet, signifies the -penances he inflicted upon himself; but in the hand of St. Ambrose, it -signifies the penance he inflicted upon others. - - -The CHALICE, or Sacramental Cup, with the Host, signifies Faith; it is -given to St. Barbara. The Cup, with the Serpent, is the attribute of -St. John. - - -The SHIP.—The Ark of Noah, floating safe amid the Deluge, in which all -things else were overwhelmed, was an obvious symbol of the Church of -Christ. Subsequently the _Ark_ became a ship. St. Ambrose likens the -Church of God to a ship, and the Cross to the mast set in the midst -of it. ‘_Arbor quædam in nari est crux in ecclesia._’ The Bark of St. -Peter tossed in the storm, and by the Redeemer guided safe to land, -was also considered as symbolical. These mingled associations combined -to give to the emblem of the ship a sacred significance. Every one who -has been at Rome will remember the famous mosaic of the ship tossed by -the storms, and assailed by demons, called THE NAVICELLA, which was -executed by Giotto for the old Basilica of St. Peter’s, and is now -under the Portico, opposite to the principal door. I believe that in -the pictures of St. Nicholas and St. Ursula the ship had originally -a sacred and symbolical significance, and that the legends were -afterwards invented or modified to explain the emblem, as in so many -other instances. - - -The ANCHOR is the Christian symbol of immovable firmness, hope, -and patience; and in this sense we find it very frequently in the -catacombs, and on the ancient Christian gems. It was given to several -of the early saints as a symbol. Subsequently a legend was invented to -account for the symbol, turning it into an attribute, as was the case -with the lion and the stag. For example: to St. Clement the anchor -was first given as the symbol of his constancy in Christian hope, and -thence we find, subsequently invented, the story of his being thrown -into the sea with the anchor round his neck. On the vane of the Church -of St. Clement in the Strand, the anchor, the parish device, was -anciently placed; and as in the English fancy no anchor can be well -separated from a ship, they have lately placed a ship on the other -side,—the original signification of the anchor, as applied to St. -Clement the martyr, being unknown or forgotten. - - -The LAMP, LANTERN, or TAPER, is the old emblem of piety: ‘Let your -light so shine before men:’—and it also signifies wisdom. In the first -sense we find this attribute in the hand of St. Gudula, St. Geneviève -of Paris, and St. Bridget; while the lamp in the hand of St. Lucia -signifies celestial light or wisdom. - - -FLOWERS and FRUITS, often so beautifully introduced into ecclesiastical -works of Art, may be merely ornamental; Crivelli, and some of the -Venetian and Lombard painters, were fond of rich festoons of fruit, and -backgrounds of foliage and roses. But in some instances they have a -definite significance. Roses are symbolical in pictures of the Madonna, -who is the ‘_Rose of Sharon_.’[11] The wreath of roses on the brow of -St. Cecilia, the roses and fruits borne by St. Dorothea, are explained -by the legends. - -The apple was the received emblem of the Fall of Man and original sin. -Placed in pictures of the Madonna and Child, either in the hand of the -Infant Christ, or presented by an angel, it signified Redemption from -the consequences of the Fall. The pomegranate, bursting open, and the -seeds visible, was an emblem of the future—of hope in immortality. -When an apple, a pear, or a pomegranate is placed in the hand of St. -Catherine as the mystical _Sposa_ of Christ, which continually occurs, -particularly in the German pictures, the allusion is to be taken in the -scriptural sense: ‘The _fruit_ of the Spirit is love, joy, peace.’ - - - V. OF THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COLOURS. - -In very early Art we find colours used in a symbolical or mystic -sense, and, until the ancient principles and traditions were wholly -worn out of memory or set aside by the later painters, certain colours -were appropriate to certain subjects and personages, and could not -arbitrarily be applied or misapplied. In the old specimens of stained -glass we find these significations scrupulously attended to. Thus:— - - -WHITE, represented by the diamond or silver, was the emblem of light, -religious purity, innocence, virginity, faith, joy, and life. Our -Saviour wears white after his resurrection. In the judge it indicated -integrity; in the rich man humility; in the woman chastity. It was -the colour consecrated to the Virgin, who, however, never wears white -except in pictures of the Assumption. - - -RED, the ruby, signified fire, divine love, the Holy Spirit, heat, or -the creative power, and royalty. White and red roses expressed love and -innocence, or love and wisdom, as in the garland with which the angel -crowns St. Cecilia. In a bad sense, red signified blood, war, hatred, -and punishment. Red and black combined were the colours of purgatory -and the Devil. - - -BLUE, or the sapphire, expressed heaven, the firmament, truth, -constancy, fidelity. Christ and the Virgin wear the red tunic and -the blue mantle, as signifying heavenly love and heavenly truth.[12] -The same colours were given to St. John the evangelist, with this -difference,—that he wore the blue tunic and the red mantle; in later -pictures the colours are sometimes red and green. - - -YELLOW, or gold, was the symbol of the sun; of the goodness of God; -initiation, or marriage; faith, or fruitfulness. St. Joseph, the -husband of the Virgin, wears yellow. In pictures of the apostles, St. -Peter wears a yellow mantle over a blue tunic. In a bad sense, yellow -signifies inconstancy, jealousy, deceit; in this sense it is given to -the traitor Judas, who is generally habited in dirty yellow. - - -GREEN, the emerald, is the colour of spring; of hope, particularly -hope in immortality; and of victory, as the colour of the palm and the -laurel. - - -VIOLET, the amethyst, signified love and truth: or, passion and -suffering. Hence it is the colour often worn by the martyrs. In some -instances our Saviour, after his resurrection, is habited in a violet -instead of a blue mantle. The Virgin also wears violet after the -crucifixion. Mary Magdalene, who as patron saint wears the red robe, as -penitent wears violet and blue, the colours of sorrow and of constancy. -In the devotional representation of her by Timoteo della Vite,[13] she -wears red and green, the colours of love and hope. - - -GREY, the colour of ashes, signified mourning, humility, and innocence -accused; hence adopted as the dress of the Franciscans (the Grey -Friars); but it has since been changed for a dark rusty brown. - - -BLACK expressed the earth, darkness, mourning, wickedness, negation, -death; and was appropriate to the Prince of Darkness. In some old -illuminated MSS., Jesus, in the Temptation, wears a black robe. -White and black together signified purity of life, and mourning or -humiliation; hence adopted by the Dominicans and the Carmelites. - -The mystical application of attributes and colours was more -particularly attended to in that class of subjects I have distinguished -as _devotional_. In the sacred historical pictures we find that the -attributes are usually omitted as superfluous, and characteristic -propriety of colour often sacrificed to the general effect. - - -These introductory observations and explanations will be found -illustrated in a variety of forms as we proceed; and readers will be -led to make comparisons and discover analogies and exceptions for -themselves. I must stop here;—yet one word more. - -All the productions of Art, from the time it has been directed and -developed by Christian influences, may be regarded under three -different aspects. 1. The purely religious aspect, which belongs to -one mode of faith; 2. The poetical aspect, which belongs to all; 3. -The artistic, which is the individual point of view, and has reference -only to the action of the intellect on the means and material employed. -There is pleasure, intense pleasure, merely in the consideration of -Art as _Art_; in the faculties of comparison and nice discrimination, -brought to bear on objects of beauty; in the exercise of a cultivated -and refined taste on the productions of mind in any form whatever. But -a three-fold, or rather a thousand-fold, pleasure is theirs who to a -sense of the poetical unite a sympathy with the spiritual in Art, and -who combine with delicacy of perception, and technical knowledge, more -elevated sources of pleasure, more variety of association, habits of -more excursive thought. Let none imagine, however, that, in placing -before the uninitiated these unpretending volumes, I assume any such -superiority as is here implied. Like a child that has sprung on a -little way before its playmates, and caught a glimpse through an -opening portal of some varied Eden within, all gay with flowers, and -musical with birds, and haunted by divine shapes which beckon onward; -and, after one rapturous survey, runs back and catches its companions -by the hand and hurries them forwards to share the new-found pleasure, -the yet unexplored region of delight; even so it is with me:—I am on -the outside, not the inside, of the door I open. - -[Illustration: 2 After Gaudenzio Ferrari, at Saronno] - - - - - PART I. - - Ye too must fly before a chasing hand, - Angels and saints in every hamlet mourned! - Ah! if the old idolatry be spurn’d, - Let not your radiant shapes desert the land! - Her adoration was not your demand,— - The fond heart proffer’d it,—the servile heart, - And therefore are ye summon’d to depart; - Michael, and thou St. George, whose flaming brand - The Dragon quell’d; and valiant Margaret, - Whose rival sword a like opponent slew; - And rapt Cecilia, seraph-haunted queen - Of harmony; and weeping Magdalene, - Who in the penitential desert met - Gales sweet as those that over Eden blew! WORDSWORTH. - - ‘I can just remember,’ says a theologian of the last century, ‘when - the women first taught me to say my prayers, I used to have an idea - of a venerable old man, of a composed, benign countenance, with his - own hair, clad in a morning gown of a grave-coloured flowered damask, - sitting in an elbow-chair.’ And he proceeds to say that, in looking - back to these beginnings, he is in no way disturbed at the grossness - of his infant theology. The image thus shaped by the imagination of - the child was, in truth, merely one example of the various forms - and conceptions fitted to divers states and seasons, and orders - and degrees, of the religious mind, whether infant or adult, which - represent the several approximations such minds at such seasons can - respectively make to the completeness of faith. These imperfect ideas - should be held to be reconciled and comprehended in that completeness, - not rejected by it; and the nearest approximation which the greatest - of human minds can accomplish is surely to be regarded as much nearer - to the imperfection of an infantine notion than to the fulness of - truth. The gown of flowered damask and the elbow-chair may disappear; - the anthropomorphism of childhood may give place to the divine - incarnation of the Second Person in after-years; and we may come - to conceive of the Deity as Milton did when his epithets were most - abstract:— - - ‘So spake the SOVRAN PRESENCE.’ - - But after all, these are but different grades of imperfection in the - forms of doctrinal faith; and if there be a devouter love on the part - of the child for what is pictured in his imagination as a venerable - old man, than in the philosophic poet for the ‘Sovran Presence,’ - the child’s faith has more of the efficacy of religious truth in it - than the poet’s and philosopher’s. (_Vide_ ‘Notes on Life,’ by HENRY - TAYLOR, p. 136.) - - -[Illustration: 3 Gloria in excelsis Deo!] - - - - - Of Angels and Archangels. - - - I. THE ANGELS. - -There is something so very attractive and poetical, as well as soothing -to our helpless finite nature, in all the superstitions connected with -the popular notion of Angels, that we cannot wonder at their prevalence -in the early ages of the world. Those nations who acknowledged one -Almighty Creator, and repudiated with horror the idea of a plurality -of Gods, were the most willing to accept, the most enthusiastic in -accepting, these objects of an intermediate homage; and gladly placed -between their humanity and the awful supremacy of an unseen God, the -ministering spirits who were the agents of his will, the witnesses of -his glory, the partakers of his bliss, and who in their preternatural -attributes of love and knowledge filled up that vast space in the -created universe which intervened between mortal man and the infinite, -omnipotent LORD OF ALL. - -The belief in these superior beings, dating from immemorial antiquity, -interwoven as it should seem with our very nature, and authorised by a -variety of passages in Scripture, has descended to our time. Although -the bodily forms assigned to them are allowed to be impossible, and -merely allegorical, although their supposed functions as rulers of -the stars and elements have long been set aside by a knowledge of the -natural laws, still the coexistence of many orders of beings superior -in nature to ourselves, benignly interested in our welfare, and -contending for us against the powers of evil, remains an article of -faith. Perhaps the belief itself, and the feeling it excites in the -tender and contemplative mind, were never more beautifully expressed -than by our own Spenser:— - - And is there care in heaven? And is there love - In heavenly spirits to these creatures base, - That may compassion of their evils move? - There is!—else much more wretched were the case - Of men than beasts! But O th’ exceeding grace - Of highest God that loves his creatures so, - And all his works with mercy doth embrace, - That blessed angels he sends to and fro - To serve to wicked man, to serve his wicked foe - - How oft do they their silver bowers leave, - And come to succour us that succour want? - How oft do they with golden pinions cleave - The flitting skies, like flying pursuivant, - Against foul fiends, to aid us militant? - They for its fight, they watch, and duly ward, - And their bright squadrons round about us plant, - And all for love, and nothing for reward! - Oh why should heavenly God to men have such regard! - -It is this feeling, expressed or unexpressed, lurking at the very core -of all hearts, which renders the usual representations of angels, spite -of all incongruities of form, so pleasing to the fancy: we overlook -the anatomical solecisms, and become mindful only of that emblematical -significance which through its humanity connects it with us, and -through its supernatural appendages connects _us_ with heaven. - -But it is necessary to give a brief summary of the scriptural and -theological authorities, relative to the nature and functions of -angels, before we can judge of the manner in which these ideas have -been attended to and carried out in the artistic similitudes. Thus -angels are represented in the Old Testament— - -1. As beings of a higher nature than men, and gifted with superior -intelligence and righteousness.[14] - -2. As a host of attendants surrounding the throne of God, and as a kind -of celestial court or council.[15] - -3. As messengers of his will conveyed from heaven to earth: or as sent -to guide, to correct, to instruct, to reprove, to console. - -4. As protecting the pious. - -5. As punishing by command of the Most High the wicked and -disobedient.[16] - -6. As having the form of men; as eating and drinking. - -7. As wielding a sword. - -8. As having power to slay.[17] - -I do not recollect any instance in which angels are represented in -Scripture as instigated by human passions; they are merely the agents -of the mercy or the wrath of the Almighty. - -After the period of the Captivity, the Jewish ideas concerning angels -were considerably extended and modified by an admixture of the -Chaldaic belief, and of the doctrines taught by Zoroaster.[18] It -is then that we first hear of good and bad angels, and of a fallen -angel or impersonation of evil, busy in working mischief on earth and -counteracting good; also of archangels, who are alluded to by name; -and of guardian angels assigned to nations and individuals; and these -foreign ideas concerning the spiritual world, accepted and promulgated -by the Jewish doctors, pervade the whole of the New Testament, in which -angels are far more familiar to us as agents, more frequently alluded -to, and more distinctly brought before us, than in the Old Testament. -For example: they are represented— - -1. As countless. - -2. As superior to all human wants and weaknesses. - -3. As the deputed messengers of God. - -4. They rejoice over the repentant sinner. They take deep interest in -the mission of Christ. - -5. They are present with those who pray; they bear the souls of the -just to heaven. - -6. They minister to Christ on earth, and will be present at his second -coming.[19] - -In the Gospel of St. John, which is usually regarded as the fullest and -most correct exposition of the doctrines of Christ, angels are only -three times mentioned, and in none of these instances does the word -angel fall from the lips of Christ. On the other hand, the writings of -St. Paul, who was deeply versed in all the learning and philosophy of -the Jews, abound in allusions to angels, and, according to the usual -interpretation of certain passages, he shows them divided into several -classes.[20] St. Luke, who was the friend and disciple of St. Paul, -some say his convert, is more direct and explicit on the subject of -angels than any of the other Evangelists, and his allusions to them -much more frequent. - - * * * * * - -The worship of angels, which the Jews brought from Chaldea, was early -introduced into the Christian Church. In the fourth century the council -of Laodicea published a decree against places of worship dedicated to -angels under names which the Church did not recognise. But neither -warning nor council seems to have had power to modify the popular -creed, countenanced as it was by high authority. All the Fathers are -unanimous as to the existence of angels good and evil. They hold that -it is evermore the allotted task of good angels to defend us against -evil angels, and to carry on a daily and hourly combat against our -spiritual foes: they teach that the good angels are worthy of all -reverence as the ministers of God and as the protectors of the human -race; that their intercession is to be invoked, and their perpetual, -invisible presence to be regarded as an incitement to good and a -preventive to evil. - -This, however, was not enough. Taking for their foundation a few -Scripture texts, and in particular the classification of St. Paul, -the imaginative theologians of the middle ages ran into all kinds -of extravagant subtleties regarding the being, the nature, and the -functions of the different orders of angels. Except as far as they have -been taken as authorities in Art, I shall set aside these fanciful -disquisitions, of which a mere abstract would fill volumes. For our -present purpose it is sufficient to bear in mind that the great -theologians divide the angelic host into three hierarchies, and these -again into nine choirs, three in each hierarchy: according to Dionysius -the Areopagite, in the following order: 1. Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones. -2. Dominations, Virtues, Powers. 3. Princedoms, Archangels, Angels. -The order of these denominations is not the same in all authorities: -according to the Greek formula, St. Bernard, and the Legenda Aurea, -the Cherubim precede the Seraphim, and in the hymn of St. Ambrose they -have also the precedence—_To Thee, Cherubim and Seraphim continually do -cry_, &c.; but the authority of St. Dionysius seems to be admitted as -paramount, for according to the legend he was the convert and intimate -friend of St. Paul, and St. Paul, who had been transported to the -seventh heaven, had made him acquainted with all he had there beheld. - - Desire - In Dionysius so intensely wrought - That he, as I have done, ranged them, and named - Their orders, marshall’d in his thought; - ... For he had learn’d - Both this and much beside of these our orbs - From an eye-witness to Heaven’s mysteries. DANTE, _Par._ 28. - -The first three choirs receive their glory immediately from God, and -transmit it to the second; the second illuminate the third; the third -are placed in relation to the created universe and man. The first -Hierarchy are as councillors; the second as governors; the third as -ministers. The Seraphim are absorbed in perpetual love and adoration -immediately round the throne of God. The Cherubim know and worship. -The Thrones sustain the seat of the Most High. The Dominations, -Virtues, Powers, are the Regents of stars and elements. The three last -orders, Princedoms, Archangels, and Angels, are the protectors of -the great Monarchies on earth, and the executors of the will of God -throughout the universe. - -The term angels is properly applied to all these celestial beings; but -it belongs especially to the two last orders, who are brought into -immediate communication with the human race. The word angel, Greek in -its origin, signifies a messenger, or more literally _a bringer of -tidings_. - -In this sense the Greeks entitle Christ ‘The great Angel of the will of -God;’ and I have seen Greek representations of Christ with wings to his -shoulders. John the Baptist is also an angel in this sense; likewise -the Evangelists; all of whom, as I shall show hereafter, bear, as -celestial messengers, the angel-wings. - -[Illustration: 4 Greek Seraph; wings of gold - and crimson (Ninth century)] - -In ancient pictures and illuminations which exhibit the glorification -of the Trinity, Christ, or the Virgin, the hierarchies of angels are -represented in circles around them, orb within orb. This is called a -glory of angels. In pictures it is seldom complete: instead of nine -circles, the painters content themselves with one or two circles only. -The innermost circles, the Seraphim and the Cherubim, are in general -represented as _heads_ merely, with two or four or six wings, and of -a bright-red or blue colour; sometimes with variegated wings, green, -yellow, violet, &c. This emblem—intended to shadow forth to human -comprehension a pure spirit glowing with love and intelligence, in -which all that is bodily is put away, and only the head, the seat of -soul, and wings, the attribute of spirit and swiftness, retained—is of -Greek origin. When first adopted I do not know, but I have met with -it in Greek MSS. of the ninth century. Down to the eleventh century -the faces were human, but not childish; the infant head was afterwards -adopted to express innocence in addition to love and intelligence. - -[Illustration: 5 Cherubim, Italian (Fourteenth century)] - -Such was the expressive and poetical symbol which degenerated in the -later periods of Art into those little fat baby heads, with curly hair -and small wings under the chin, which the more they resemble nature in -colour, feature, and detail, the more absurd they become, the original -meaning being wholly lost or perverted. - -[Illustration: 6 Cherub Heads] - -In painting, where a glory of angels is placed round the Divine Being -or the glorified Virgin, those forming the innermost circles are or -ought to be of a glowing red, the colour of fire, that is, of love; the -next circle is painted blue, the colour of the firmament, or light, -that is, of knowledge. Now as the word seraph is derived from a Hebrew -root signifying love, and the word cherub from a Hebrew root signifying -to know, should not this distinction fix the proper place and name of -the first two orders? It is admitted that the spirits which _love_ are -nearer to God than those which _know_, since we cannot know that which -we do not first love: that Love and Knowledge, ‘the two halves of a -divided world,’ constitute in their union the perfection of the angelic -nature; but the Seraphim, according to the derivation of their name, -should _love_ most; their whole being is fused, as it were, in a glow -of adoration; therefore they should take the precedence, and their -proper colour is red. The Cherubim, ‘the lords of those that know,’ -come next, and are to be painted blue. - -Thus it should seem that, in considering the religious pictures of the -early ages of Art, we have to get rid of certain associations as to -colour and form, derived from the phraseology of later poets and the -representations of later painters. ‘Blue-eyed Seraphim,’ and the ‘blue -depth of Seraph’s eyes,’ are not to be thought of any more than smiling -Cherubim.’ The Seraphim, where distinguished by colour, are red; the -Cherubim blue: the proper character, where character is attended to, -is, in the Seraph, adoration; in the Cherub, contemplation. So Milton— - - With thee bring - Him who soars on golden wing, - The Cherub, Contemplation. - -I remember a little Triptyca, a genuine work of Fiesole, in which one -of the lateral compartments represents his favourite subject, the -souls of the blessed received into Paradise. They are moving from the -lower part of the picture towards the top, along an ascent paved with -flowers, all in white garments and crowned with roses. At one side, -low down, stands a blue Cherub robed in drapery spangled with golden -stars, who seems to encourage the blessed group. Above are the gates of -heaven. Christ welcomes to his kingdom the beatified spirits, and on -each side stands a Seraph, all of a glowing red, in spangled drapery. -The figures are not here merely heads and wings, but full length, -having all that soft peculiar grace which belongs to the painter.[21] - -In a Coronation of the Virgin,[22] a glory of Seraphim over-arches the -principal group. Here the angelic beings are wholly of a bright red -colour: they are human to the waist, with hands clasped in devotion: -the bodies and arms covered with plumage, but the forms terminating -in wings; all uniformly red. In the same collection is a small Greek -picture of Christ receiving the soul of the Virgin; over his head -hovers a large, fiery-red, six-winged Seraph; and on each side a Seraph -with hair and face and limbs of glowing red, and with white draperies. -Vasari mentions an Adoration of the Magi by Liberale of Verona, in -which a group of angels, all of a red colour, stand as a celestial -guard round the Virgin and her divine Infant.[23] - -The distinction of hue in the red and blue angels we find wholly -omitted towards the end of the fifteenth century. Cherubim with blue, -red, green, and variegated wings we find in the pictures of Perugino -and other masters in the beginning of the sixteenth century, also -in early pictures of Raphael. Liberale di Verona has given us, in a -Madonna picture, Cherub heads without wings, and of a blue colour, -emerging from golden clouds. And in Raphael’s Madonna di San Sisto -the whole background is formed of Cherubim and Seraphim of a uniform -delicate bluish tinge, as if composed of air, and melting away into an -abyss of golden glory, the principal figures standing relieved against -this flood of living love and light—beautiful! So are the Cherubim -with many-coloured wings which float in the firmament in Perugino’s -Coronation of the Virgin; but none of these can be regarded as so -theologically correct as the fiery-red and bright-blue Seraphim and -Cherubim, of which are formed the hierarchies and glories which figure -in the early pictures, the stained glass, the painted sculpture, and -the illuminated MSS. from the tenth to the sixteenth century. - -[Illustration: 7 Cherubim (Liberale di Verona)] - -The next five choirs of angels, the Thrones, Dominations, Princedoms, -Virtues, Powers, though classed and described with great exactitude by -the theologians, have not been very accurately discriminated in Art. -In some examples the Thrones have green wings, a fiery aureole, and -bear a throne in their hands. The Dominations, Virtues, and Powers -sometimes bear a globe and a long sceptre surmounted by a cross. The -Principalities, according to the Greek formula, should bear a branch -of lily. The Archangels are figured as warriors, and carry a sword -with the point upwards. The angels are robed as deacons, and carry a -wand. In one of the ancient frescoes in the Cathedral at Orvieto, there -is a complete hierarchy of angels, so arranged as to symbolise the -Trinity, each of the nine choirs being composed of three angels, but -the Seraphim only are distinguished by their red colour and priority -of place. In the south porch of the Cathedral of Chartres, each of -the nine orders is represented by two angels: in other instances, one -angel only represents the order to which he belongs, and nine angels -represent the whole hierarchy.[24] Where, however, we meet with groups -or rows of angels, as in the Greek mosaics and the earliest frescoes -all alike, all with the tiara, the long sceptre-like wands, and the orb -of sovereignty, I believe these to represent the Powers and Princedoms -of Heaven. The Archangels alone, as we shall see presently, have -distinct individual names and attributes assigned to them. - -[Illustration: 8 Part of a Glory of Angels surrounding the figure of -Christ in a picture by Ambrogio Borgognone] - -The angels, generally, have the human form; are winged; and are endowed -with immutable happiness and perpetual youth, because they are ever -in the presence of Him with whom there is no change and no time. They -are direct emanations of the beauty of the Eternal mind, therefore -beautiful; created, therefore not eternal, but created perfect, and -immortal in their perfection: they are always supposed to be masculine; -perhaps for the reason so beautifully assigned by Madame de Staël, -‘because the union of power with purity (_la force avec la pureté_) -constitutes all that we mortals can imagine of perfection.’ There -is no such thing as an old angel, and therefore there ought to be -no such thing as an infant angel. The introduction of infant angels -seems to have arisen from the custom of representing the regenerate -souls of men as new-born infants, and perhaps also from the words of -our Saviour, when speaking of children: ‘I say unto you, their angels -do always behold the face of my Father which is in heaven.’ Such -representations, when religiously and poetically treated as spirits of -love, intelligence, and innocence, are of exquisite beauty, and have a -significance which charms and elevates the fancy; but from this, the -true and religious conception, the Italian _putti_ and _puttini_, and -the rosy chubby babies of the Flemish school, are equally remote. - -[Illustration: 9 Egyptian winged genius (Louvre)] - -In early Art, the angels in the bloom of adolescence are always amply -draped: at first, in the classical tunic and pallium; afterwards in -long linen vestments with the alba and stole, as levites or deacons; or -as princes, with embroidered robes and sandals, and jewelled crowns or -fillets. Such figures are common in the Byzantine mosaics and pictures. -The expression, in these early representations, is usually calm and -impassive. Angels partially draped in loose, fluttering, meretricious -attire, poised in attitudes upon clouds, or with features animated by -human passion, or limbs strained by human effort, are the innovations -of more modern Art. White is, or ought to be, the prevailing colour -in angelic draperies, but red and blue of various shades are more -frequent: green often occurs; and in the Venetian pictures, yellow, or -rather saffron-coloured, robes are not unfrequent. In the best examples -of Italian Art the tints, though varied, are tender and delicate: all -dark heavy colours and violent contrasts of colour are avoided. On -the contrary, in the early German school, the angels have rich heavy -voluminous draperies of the most intense and vivid colours, often -jewelled and embroidered with gold. Flight, in such garments, seems as -difficult as it would be to swim in coronation robes. - -[Illustration: 10 Winged figure from Nineveh] - -But, whatever be the treatment as to character, lineaments, or dress, -wings are almost invariably the attribute of the angelic form. As -emblematical appendages, these are not merely significant of the -character of celestial messengers, for, from time immemorial, wings -have been the Oriental and Egyptian symbol of power, as well as of -swiftness; of the spiritual and aerial, in contradistinction to the -human and the earthly. Thus, with the Egyptians, the winged globe -signified power and eternity, that is, the Godhead; a bird, with a -human head, signified the soul; and nondescript creatures, with wings, -abound not only in the Egyptian paintings and hieroglyphics, but also -in the Chaldaic and Babylonian remains, in the Lycian and Nineveh -marbles, and on the gems and other relics of the Gnostics. I have -seen on the Gnostic gems figures with four wings, two springing from -the shoulders and two from the loins. This portentous figure, from the -ruins of Nineveh, is similarly constructed. (10.) - -In Etruscan Art all their divinities are winged; and where Venus -is represented with wings, as in many of the antique gems (and by -Correggio in imitation of them),[25] these brilliant wings are not, as -some have supposed, emblematical of the _transitoriness_, but of the -might, the majesty, and the essential divinity of beauty. In Scripture, -the first mention of Cherubim with wings is immediately after the -departure of the Israelites from Egypt (Exod. xxxi. 2). Bezaleel, the -first artist whose name is recorded in the world’s history, and who -appears to have been, like the greatest artists of modern times, at -once architect, sculptor, and painter, probably derived his figures -of Cherubim with outstretched wings, guarding the mercy-seat, from -those Egyptian works of Art with which the Israelites must have been -familiarised. Clement of Alexandria is so aware of the relative -similitude, that he supposes the Egyptians to have borrowed from the -Israelites, which is obviously the reverse of the truth. How far the -Cherubim, which figure in the Biblical pictures of the present day, -resemble the carved Cherubim of Bezaleel we cannot tell, but probably -the idea and the leading forms are the same: for the ark, we know, was -carried into Palestine; these original Cherubim were the pattern of -those which adorned the temple of Solomon, and these, again, were the -prototype after which the imagery of the second temple was fashioned. -Although in Scripture the shape under which the celestial ministers -appeared to man is nowhere described, except in the visions of the -prophets (Dan. x. 5), and there with a sort of dreamy incoherent -splendour, rendering it most perilous to clothe the image placed before -the fancy in definite forms, still the idea of wings, as the angelic -appendages, is conveyed in many places distinctly, and occasionally -with a picturesque vividness which inspires and assists the artist. -For instance, in Daniel, ch. vii., ‘they had wings like a fowl.’ In -Ezekiel, ch.i., ‘their wings were stretched upward when they flew; -when they stood, they let down their wings:’ ‘I heard the noise of -their wings as the noise of great waters:’ and in Zechariah, ch. v., ‘I -looked, and behold there came out two women, and the wind was in their -wings, for they had wings like the wings of a stork.’ And Isaiah, ch. -vi., in the description of the Seraphim, ‘Each one had six wings; with -twain he covered his face, and with twain he covered his feet, and with -twain he did fly.’ By the early artists this description was followed -out in a manner more conscientious and reverential than poetical. - -[Illustration: 11 Seraph -(Greek mosaic, Cathedral of Monreale)] - -They were content with a symbol. But mark how Milton, more daring, -could paint from the same original:— - - A seraph wing’d; six wings he wore to shade - His lineaments divine: the pair that clad - Each shoulder broad, came mantling o’er his breast - With regal ornament; the middle pair - Girt like a starry zone his waist, and round - Skirted his loins and thighs with downy gold - And colours dipp’d in heaven; the third his feet - Shadow’d from either heel with feather’d mail, - Sky-tinctured grain. - -I have sometimes thought that Milton, in his descriptions of angels, -was not indebted merely to the notions of the old theological writers, -interpreted and embellished by his own fancy: may he not, in his -wanderings through Italy, have beheld with kindling sympathy some of -those glorious creations of Italian Art, which, when I saw them, made -me break out into his own divine language as the only fit utterance to -express those forms in words?—But, to return—Is it not a mistake to -make the wings, the feathered appendages of the angelic form, as like -as possible to real wings—the wings of storks, or the wings of swans, -or herons, borrowed for the occasion? Some modern painters, anxious to -make wings look ‘natural,’ have done this; Delaroche, for instance, -in his St. Cecilia. Infinitely more beautiful and consistent are the -nondescript wings which the early painters gave their angels:—large—so -large, that when the glorious creature is represented as at rest, they -droop from the shoulders to the ground; with long slender feathers, -eyed sometimes like the peacock’s train, bedropped with gold like the -pheasant’s breast, tinted with azure and violet and crimson, ‘colours -dipp’d in heaven,’—they are really angel-wings, not bird-wings. - -[Illustration: 12 Angels (Orcagna)] - -[Illustration: 13 Fiery Cherub (Raphael)] - -Orcagna’s angels in the Campo Santo are, in this respect, peculiarly -poetical. Their extremities are wings instead of limbs; and in a few -of the old Italian and German painters of the fifteenth century we -find angels whose extremities are formed of light waving folds of pale -rose-coloured or azure drapery, or of a sort of vapoury cloud, or, in -some instances, of flames. The cherubim and seraphim which surround the -similitude of Jehovah when He appears to Moses in the burning bush,[26] -are an example of the sublime and poetical significance which may be -given to this kind of treatment. They have heads and human features -marvellous for intelligence and beauty; their hair, their wings, their -limbs, end in lambent fires; they are ‘celestial Ardours bright,’ which -seem to have being without shape. - -Dante’s angels have less of dramatic reality, less of the aggrandised -and idealised human presence, than Milton’s. They are wondrous -creatures. Some of them have the quaint fantastic picturesqueness -of old Italian Art and the Albert Dürer school; for instance, those -in the Purgatorio, with their wings of a bright green, and their -green draperies, ‘verde come fogliette,’ kept in a perpetual state of -undulation by the breeze created by the fanning of their wings, with -features too dazzling to be distinguished: - - Ben discerneva in lor la testa bionda, - Ma nelle facce l’ occhio si smarria - Come virtù ch’ a troppo si confonda.[27] - -And the Shape, glowing red as in a furnace, with an air from the -fanning of its wings, ‘fresh as the first breath of wind in a May -morning, and fragrant as all its flowers.’ That these and other -passages scattered through the Purgatorio and the Paradiso assisted the -fancy of the earlier painters, in portraying their angelic Glories and -winged Beatitudes, I have little doubt; but, on the other hand, the -sublime angel in the Inferno—he who comes speeding over the waters with -vast pinions like sails, sweeping the evil spirits in heaps before him, -‘like frogs before a serpent,’ and with a touch of his wand making the -gates of the city of Dis fly open; then, with a countenance solemn and -majestic, and quite unmindful of his worshipper, as one occupied by -higher matters, turning and soaring away—this is quite in the sentiment -of the grand old Greek and Italian mosaics, which preceded Dante by -some centuries.[28] - -But besides being the winged messengers of God to man, the deputed -regents of the stars, the rulers of the elements, and the dispensers -of the fate of nations, angels have another function in which we love -to contemplate them. They are the choristers of heaven. Theirs is -the privilege to sound that hymn of praise which goes up from this -boundless and harmonious universe of suns and stars and worlds and -rejoicing creatures, towards the God who created them: theirs is the -music of the spheres— - - They sing, and singing in their glory move; - -they tune divine instruments, named after those of earth’s harmonies— - - The harp, the solemn pipe - And dulcimer, all organs of sweet stop, - All sounds on fret by string or golden wire, - ... And with songs - And choral symphonies, day without night, - Circle his throne rejoicing. - -There is nothing more beautiful, more attractive, in Art than the -representations of angels in this character. Sometimes they form -a chorus round the glorified Saviour, when, after his sorrow and -sacrifice on earth, he takes his throne in heaven; or, when the crown -is placed on the head of the Maternal Virgin in glory, pour forth their -triumphant song, and sound their silver clarions on high: sometimes -they stand or kneel before the Madonna and Child, or sit upon the steps -of her throne, singing,—with such sweet earnest faces! or playing on -their golden lutes, or piping celestial symphonies; or they bend in -a choir from the opening heavens above, and welcome, with triumphant -songs, the liberated soul of the saint or martyr; or join in St. -Cecilia’s hymn of praise: but whatever the scene, in these and similar -representations, they appear in their natural place and vocation, and -harmonise enchantingly with all our feelings and fancies relative to -these angelic beings, made up of love and music. - -[Illustration: 14 Angel (Francia)] - -[Illustration: 15 Piping Angel (Gian Bellini)] - -Most beautiful examples of this treatment occur both in early painting -and sculpture; and no one who has wandered through churches and -galleries, with feeling and observation awake, can fail to remember -such. It struck me as characteristic of the Venetian school, that the -love of music seemed to combine with the sense of harmony in colour; -nowhere have I seen musical angels so frequently and so beautifully -introduced: and whereas the angelic choirs of Fiesole, Ghirlandajo, -and Raphael, seem to be playing as an act of homage for the delight of -the Divine Personages, those of Vivarini and Bellini and Palma appear -as if enchanted by their own music; and both together are united in -the grand and beautiful angels of Melozzo da Forli, particularly in -one who is bending over a lute, and another who with a triumphant and -ecstatic expression strikes the cymbals.[29] Compare the cherubic -host who are pouring forth their hymns of triumph, blowing their -uplifted trumpets, and touching immortal harps and viols in Angelico’s -‘Coronation,’[30] or in Signorelli’s ‘Paradiso,’[31] with those lovely -Venetian choristers, the piping boys, myrtle-crowned, who are hymning -Bellini’s Madonna,[32] or those who are touching the lute to the praise -and glory of St. Ambrose in Vivarini’s most beautiful picture; you will -feel immediately the distinction in point of sentiment. - -The procession of chanting angels which once surmounted the organ in -the Duomo of Florence is a perfect example of musical angels applied to -the purpose of decoration. Perhaps it was well to remove this exquisite -work of art to a place of safety, where it can be admired and studied -as a work of art; but the removal has taken from it the appropriate -expression. How they sing!—when the tones of the organ burst forth, we -might have fancied we heard their divine voices through the stream of -sound! The exquisite little bronze choristers round the high altar of -St. Antonio in Padua are another example; Florentine in elegance of -form, Venetian in sentiment, intent upon their own sweet song! - - * * * * * - -There is a third function ascribed to these angelic natures, which -brings them even nearer to our sympathies; they are the deputed -guardians of the just and innocent. St. Raphael, whose story I shall -presently relate, is the prince of the guardian angels. The Jews held -that the angels deputed to Lot were his guardian angels.[33] The -fathers of the Christian Church taught that every human being, from -the hour of his birth to that of his death, is accompanied by an -angel appointed to watch over him. The Mahometans give to each of us -a good and an evil angel; but the early Christians supposed us to be -attended each by a good angel only, who undertakes that office, not -merely from duty to God, and out of obedience and great humility, but -as inspired by exceeding charity and love towards his human charge. It -would require the tongues of angels themselves to recite all that we -owe to these benign and vigilant guardians. They watch by the cradle of -the new-born babe, and spread their celestial wings round the tottering -steps of infancy. If the path of life be difficult and thorny, and evil -spirits work its shame and woe, they sustain us; they bear the voice of -our complaining, of our supplication, of our repentance, up to the foot -of God’s throne, and bring us back in return a pitying benediction, to -strengthen and to cheer. When passion and temptation strive for the -mastery, they encourage us to resist; when we conquer, they crown us; -when we falter and fail, they compassionate and grieve over us; when -we are obstinate in polluting our own souls, and perverted not only -in act but in will, they leave us—and woe to them that are so left! -But the good angel does not quit his charge until his protection is -despised, rejected, and utterly repudiated. Wonderful the fervour of -their love—wonderful their meekness and patience— who endure from day -to day the spectacle of the unveiled human heart with all its miserable -weaknesses and vanities, its inordinate desires and selfish purposes! -Constant to us in death, they contend against the powers of darkness -for the emancipated spirit: they even visit the suffering sinner in -purgatory; they keep alive in the tormented spirit faith and hope, and -remind him that the term of expiation will end at last. So Dante[34] -represents the souls in purgatory as comforted in their misery; and -(which has always seemed to me a touch of sublime truth and tenderness) -as rejoicing over those who were on earth conspicuous for the very -virtues wherein themselves were deficient. When at length the repentant -soul is sufficiently purified, the guardian angel bears it to the bosom -of the Saviour. - -The earlier painters and sculptors did not, apparently, make the same -use of guardian angels that we so often meet with in works of Modern -Art. Poetical allegories of angels guiding the steps of childhood, -extending a shield over innocence, watching by a sick bed, do not, I -think, occur before the seventeenth century; at least I have not met -with such. The ancient masters, who really believed in the personal -agency of our angelic guardians, beheld them with awe and reverence, -and reserved their presence for great and solemn occasions. The -angel who presents the pious votary to Christ or the Virgin, who -crowns St. Cecilia and St. Valerian after their conquest over human -weakness; the angel who cleaves the air with flight precipitant’ to -break the implements of torture, or to extend the palm to the dying -martyr, victorious over pain; the angels who assist and carry in their -arms the souls of the just; are, in these and all similar examples, -representations of guardian angels. - - * * * * * - -Such, then, are the three great functions of the angelic host: they are -Messengers, Choristers, and Guardians. But angels, without reference to -their individuality or their ministry—with regard only to their species -and their form, as the most beautiful and the most elevated of created -essences, as intermediate between heaven and earth—are introduced into -all works of art which have a sacred purpose or character, and must -be considered not merely as decorative accessories, but as a kind of -presence, as attendant witnesses; and, like the chorus in the Greek -tragedies, looking on where they are not actors. In architectural -decoration, the cherubim with which Solomon adorned his temple have -been the authority and example.[35] ‘Within the oracle he made two -cherubims, each ten cubits high, and with wings five cubits in length’ -(the angels in the old Christian churches on each side of the altar -correspond with these cherubim), ‘and he overlaid the cherubims with -gold, and carved all the walls of the house with carved figures of -cherubims, and he made doors of olive tree, and he carved on them -figures of cherubims.’ So, in Christian art and architecture, angels, -with their beautiful cinctured heads and outstretched wings and flowing -draperies, fill up every space. The instances are so numerous that they -will occur to every one who has given a thought to the subject. I may -mention the frieze of angels in Henry the Seventh’s Chapel, merely as -an example at hand, and which can be referred to at any moment; also -the angels round the choir of Lincoln Cathedral, of which there are -fine casts in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham; and in some of the old -churches in Saxony which clearly exhibit the influence of Byzantine -Art—for instance, at Freyberg, Merseburg, Naumburg—angels with -outspread wings fill up the spandrils of the arches along the nave. - -But, in the best ages of Art, angels were not merely employed as -decorative accessories; they had their appropriate place and a solemn -significance as a part of that theological system which the edifice, as -a whole, represented. - -As a celestial host, surrounding the throne of the Trinity; or of -Christ, as redeemer or as a judge; or of the Virgin in glory; or the -throned Madonna and Child; their place is immediately next to the -Divine Personages, and before the Evangelists. - -In what is called a Liturgy of Angels, they figure in procession On -each side of the choir, so as to have the appearance of approaching the -altar: they wear the stole and alba as deacons, and bear the implements -of the mass. In the Cathedral of Rheims there is a range of colossal -angels as a grand procession along the vaults of the nave, who appear -as approaching the altar: these bear not only the gospel, the missal, -the sacramental cup, the ewer, the taper, the cross, &c., but also the -attributes of sovereignty, celestial and terrestrial: one carries the -sun, another the moon, a third the kingly sceptre, a fourth the globe, -a fifth the sword; and all these, as they approach the sanctuary, they -seem about to place at the feet of Christ, who stands there as priest -and king in glory. Statues of angels in an attitude of worship on each -side of the altar, as if adoring the sacrifice—or bearing in triumph -the instruments of Christ’s passion, the cross, the nails, the spear, -the crown of thorns—or carrying tapers—are more common, and must be -regarded not merely as decoration, but as a _presence_ in the high -solemnity. - -[Illustration: 16 Angel bearing the Moon - (Greek, 12th century)] - -In the Cathedral of Auxerre may be seen angels attending on the -triumphant coming of Christ; and, which is most singular, they, as well -as Christ, are on horseback (17). - -[Illustration: 17 Two angels on horseback] - -When, in subjects from Scripture history, angels figure not merely as -attendants and spectators, but as personages necessary to the action, -they are either ministers of the divine wrath, or of the divine mercy; -agents of destruction, or agents of help and good counsel. As all -these instances belong to the historical scenes of the Old or the New -Testament, they will be considered separately, and I shall confine -myself here to a few remarks on the introduction and treatment of -angels in some subjects of peculiar interest. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: 18 Adam and Eve expelled (N. Pisano)] - -In relating ‘the expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise,’ it is not -said that an angel was the immediate agent of the divine wrath, but it -is so represented in works of Art. In the most ancient treatment I have -met with,[36] a majestic armed angel drives forth the delinquents, and -a cherub with six wings stands as guard before the gate. I found the -same _motif_ in the sculptures on the façade of the Duomo at Orvieto, -by Niccolò Pisano. In another instance, an ancient Saxon miniature, the -angel is represented not as driving them forth, but closing the door -against them. But these are exceptions to the usual mode of treatment, -which seldom varies; the angel is not represented in wrath, but calm, -and stretches forth a sword which is often (literally rendering the -text) a waving lambent flame. I remember an instance in which the -preternatural sword, ‘turning every way,’ as the form of a wheel of -flames. - -An angel is expressly introduced as a minister of wrath in the story -of Balaam, in which I have seen no deviation from the obvious prosaic -treatment, rendering the text literally, ‘and the ass saw the angel of -the Lord standing in the way and his sword drawn in his hand.’ - -‘The destroying angel, leaning from heaven, presents to David three -arrows, from which to choose—war, pestilence, or famine.’ I have found -this subject beautifully executed in several MSS., for instance, in the -‘Heures d’Anne de Bretagne;’ also in pictures and in prints. - -‘The destroying angel sent to chastise the arrogance of David, is -beheld standing between heaven and earth with his sword stretched over -Jerusalem to destroy it.’ Of this sublime vision I have never seen -any but the meanest representations; none of the great masters have -treated it; perhaps Rembrandt might have given us the terrible and -glorious angel standing like a shadow in the midst of his own intense -irradiation. David fallen on his face, and the sons of Ornan hiding -themselves by their rude threshing-floor, with that wild mixture of the -familiar and the unearthly in which he alone has succeeded. - -‘The Chastisement of Heliodorus’ has given occasion to the sublimest -composition in which human genius ever attempted to embody the -conception of the supernatural—Raphael’s fresco in the Vatican. St. -Michael, the protecting angel of the Hebrew nation, is supposed to -have been the minister of divine wrath on this occasion; but Raphael, -in omitting the wings, and all exaggeration or alteration of the -human figure, has shown how unnecessary it was for _him_ to have -recourse to the prodigious and impossible in form, in order to give -the supernatural in sentiment. The unearthly warrior and his unearthly -steed—the weapon in his hand, which is not a sword to pierce, nor a -club to strike, but a sort of mace, of which, as it seems, a touch -would annihilate; the two attendant spirits, who come gliding above the -marble floor, with their hair streaming back with the rapidity of their -aërial motion—are in the very spirit of Dante, and, as conceptions of -superhuman power, superior to anything in pictured form which Art has -bequeathed to us. - -In calling to mind the various representations of the angels of the -Apocalypse let loose for destruction, one is tempted to exclaim, ‘O -for a warning voice!’ When the Muse of Milton quailed, and fell ten -thousand fathom deep into Bathos, what could be expected from human -invention? In general, where this subject is attempted in pictures, we -find the angels animated, like those of Milton in the war of heaven, -with ‘fierce desire of battle,’ breathing vengeance, wrath, and fury. -So Albert Dürer, in those wonderful scenes of his ‘Apocalypse,’ has -exhibited them; but some of the early Italians show them merely -impassive, conquering almost without effort, punishing without anger. -The immediate instruments of the wrath of God in the day of judgment -are not angels, but devils or demons, generally represented by the -old painters with every possible exaggeration of hideousness, and as -taking a horrible and grotesque delight in their task. The demons are -fallen angels, their deformity a consequence of their fall. Thus, in -some very ancient representations of the expulsion of Lucifer and his -rebel host, the degradation of the form increases with their distance -from heaven.[37] Those who are uppermost are still angels; they bear -the aureole, the wings, and the tunic; they have not yet lost all their -original brightness: those below them begin to assume the bestial -form: the fingers become talons, the heads become horned; and at last, -as they touch the confines of the gulf of hell, the transformation -is seen complete, from the luminous angel into the abominable and -monstrous devil, with serpent tail, claws, bristles, and tusks. This -gradual transformation, as they descend into the gulf of sin, has a -striking allegorical significance which cannot escape the reader. -In a Greek MS. of the ninth century,[38] bearing singular traces of -antique classical art in the conception and attributes of the figures, -I found both angels and demons treated in a style quite peculiar and -poetical. The angels are here gigantic, majestic, Jove-like figures, -with great wings. The demons are also majestic graceful winged figures, -but painted of a dusky grey colour (it may originally have been black). -In one scene, where Julian the Apostate goes to seek the heathen -divinities, they are thus represented, that is, as _black angels_; -showing that the painter had here assumed the devils or demons to be -the discrowned and fallen gods of the antique world. - - * * * * * - -These are a few of the most striking instances of angels employed as -ministers of wrath. Angels, as ministers of divine grace and mercy, - - Of all those arts which Deity supreme - Doth ease its heart of love in. - -occur much more frequently. - -The ancient heresy that God made use of the agency of angels in the -creation of the world, and of mankind, I must notice here, because -it has found its way into Art; for example, in an old miniature -which represents an angel having before him a lump of clay, a kind -of _ébauche_ of humanity, which he appears to be moulding with his -hands, while the Almighty stands by directing the work.[39] This idea, -absurd as it may appear, is not perhaps more absurd than the notion of -those who would represent the Great First Cause as always busied in -fashioning or altering the forms in his visible creation, like a potter -or any other mechanic. But as we are occupied at present with the -scriptural, not the legendary subjects, I return to the Old Testament. -The first time that we read of an angel sent as a messenger of mercy, -it is for the comfort of poor Hagar; when he found her weeping by the -spring of water in the wilderness, because her mistress had afflicted -her: and again, when she was cast forth and her boy fainted for thirst. -In the representation of these subjects, I do not know a single -instance in which the usual angelic form has not been adhered to. In -the sacrifice of Isaac, ‘the angel of the Lord calls to Abraham out of -heaven.’ This subject, as the received type of the sacrifice of the -Son of God, was one of the earliest in Christian Art. We find it on -the sarcophagi of the third and fourth centuries; but in one of the -latest only have I seen a personage introduced as staying the hand of -Abraham, and this personage is without wings. In painting, the angel -is sometimes in the act of taking the sword out of Abraham’s hand, -which expresses the nature of his message: or he lays one hand on his -arm, and with the other points to the ram which was to replace the -sacrifice, or brings the ram in his arms to the altar; but, whatever -the action, the form of the angelic messenger has never varied from the -sixth century. - -[Illustration: 19 The Angels who visit Abraham (Raphael)] - -In the visit of the angels to Abraham, there has been a variety -caused by the wording of the text. It is not said that three _angels_ -visited Abraham, yet in most of the ancient representations the three -celestial guests are, winged angels. I need hardly observe that these -three angels are assumed to be a figure of the Trinity, and in some -old illuminations the interpretation is not left doubtful, the angels -being characterised as the three persons of the Trinity, wearing each -the cruciform nimbus: two of them, young and beardless, stand behind; -the third, representing the Father, has a beard, and, before _Him_, -Abraham is prostrated. Beautiful for grace and simplicity is the winged -group by Ghiberti, in which the three seem to step and move together -as one. More modern artists have given us the celestial visitants -merely as men. Pre-eminent in this style of conception are the pictures -of Raphael and Murillo. Raphael here, as elsewhere, a true poet, -has succeeded in conveying, with exquisite felicity, the sentiment -of power, of a heavenly presence, and of a mysterious significance. -The three youths, who stand linked together hand in hand before the -Patriarch, with such an air of benign and superior grace, want no wings -to show us that they belong to the courts of heaven, and have but just -descended to earth— - - So lively shines - In them divine resemblance, and such grace - The hand that form’d them on their shape hath pour’d. - -Murillo, on the contrary, gives us merely three young men, travellers, -and has set aside wholly both the angelic and the mystic character of -the visitants.[40] - -The angels who descend and ascend the ladder in Jacob’s dream are -in almost every instance represented in the usual form; sometimes -a few[41]—sometimes in multitudes[42]—sometimes as one only, who -turns to bless the sleeper before he ascends;[43] and the ladder is -sometimes a flight, or a series of flights, of steps ascending from -earth to the empyrean. But here it is Rembrandt who has shown himself -the poet; the ladder is a slanting stream of light; the angels are -mysterious bird-like luminous forms, which emerge one after another -from a dazzling fount of glory, and go floating up and down,—so like a -dream made visible!—In Middle-Age Art this vision of Jacob occurs very -rarely. I shall have to return to it when treating of the subjects from -the Old Testament. - -In the New Testament angels are much more frequently alluded to than -in the Old; more as a reality, less as a vision; in fact, there is no -important event throughout the Gospels and Acts in which angels do not -appear, either as immediate agents, or as visible and present; and -in scenes where they are not distinctly said to be visibly present, -they are assumed to be so invisibly, St. Paul having said expressly -that ‘their ministry is continual.’ It is therefore with undeniable -propriety that, in works of Art representing the incidents of the -Gospels, angels should figure as a perpetual presence, made visible -under such forms as custom and tradition have consecrated. - -I pass over, for the present, the grandest, the most important mission -of an angel, the announcement brought by Gabriel to the blessed -Virgin. I shall have to treat it fully hereafter.[44] The angel who -appears to Joseph in a dream, and the angel who commands him to flee -into Egypt, was in both cases probably the same angel who hailed Mary -as blessed above all women; but we are not told so; and according to -some commentators it was the guardian angel of Joseph who appeared to -him. In these and other scenes of the New Testament, in which angels -are described as direct agents, or merely as a chorus of ministering -attendants, they have the usual form, enhanced by as much beauty, and -benignity, and aërial grace as the fancy of the artist could bestow on -them. In the Nativity they are seen hovering on high, pouring forth -their song of triumph; they hold a scroll in their hands on which their -song is written: in general there are three angels; the first sings, -_Gloria in excelsis Deo!_ the second, _Et in terra pax!_ the third, -_Hominibus bonæ voluntatis!_ but in some pictures the three angels are -replaced by a numerous choir, who raise the song of triumph in the -skies, while others are seen kneeling round and adoring the Divine -Infant. - -The happiest, the most beautiful, instance I can remember of this -particular treatment is the little chapel in the Riccardi Palace at -Florence. This chapel is in the form of a Greek cross, and the frescoes -are thus disposed:— - -[Illustration: 20 - Altar - ┌────────┐ - │ 4 5 │ - │ │ - ┌─────┘ └─────┐ - │ 3 1 │ - │3 1│ - │ 3 1 │ - └─────┐ ┌─────┘ - │ │ - │2 2│ - └────────┘ - Door -] - -The walls 1, 2, and 3, are painted with the journey of the Wise -Men, who, with a long train of attendants mounted on horseback and -gorgeously apparelled, are seen travelling over hill and dale led by -the guiding star. Over the altar was the Nativity (now removed); on -each side (4, 5) is seen a choir of angels, perhaps fifty in number, -rejoicing over the birth of the Redeemer: some kneel in adoration, with -arms folded over the bosom, others offer flowers; some come dancing -forward with flowers in their hands or in the lap of their robe; others -sing and make celestial music: they have glories round their heads, -all inscribed alike, ‘Gloria in excelsis Deo!’ The naïve grace, the -beautiful devout expression, the airy movements of these lovely beings, -melt the soul to harmony and joy. The chapel having been long shut up, -and its existence scarcely remembered, these paintings are in excellent -preservation; and I saw nothing in Italy that more impressed me with -admiration of the genuine feeling and piety of the old masters. The -choral angels of Angelico da Fiesole already described are not more -pure in sentiment, and are far less animated, than these.[45] - -But how different from both is the ministry of the angels in some of -the pictures of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, both German -and Italian! The Virgin Mary is washing her Divine Infant; angels dry -the clothes, or pour out water: Joseph is planing a board, and angels -assist the Infant Saviour in sweeping up the chips. In a beautiful -little Madonna and Child, in Prince Wallerstein’s collection, an angel -is playing with the Divine Infant, is literally his _play-fellow_; a -very graceful idea, of which I have seen but this one instance. - -In the Flight into Egypt, an angel often leads the ass. In the Riposo, -a subject rare before the fifteenth century, angels offer fruit and -flowers, or bend down the branches of the date tree, that Joseph may -gather the fruit; or weave the choral dance, hand in hand, for the -delight of the Infant Christ, while others make celestial music—as in -Vandyck’s beautiful picture in Lord Ashburton’s collection. After the -Temptation, they minister to the Saviour in the wilderness, and spread -for him a table of refreshment— - - ... celestial food divine, - Ambrosial fruit, fetch’d from the tree of life, - And from the fount of life ambrosial drink. - -It is not said that angels were visibly present at the baptism -of Christ; but it appears to me that they ought not therefore to -be supposed absent, and that there is a propriety in making them -attendants on this solemn occasion. They are not introduced in the -very earliest examples, those in the catacombs and sarcophagi; nor yet -in the mosaics of Ravenna; because angels were then rarely figured, -and instead of the winged angel we have the sedge-crowned river god, -representing the Jordan. In the Greek formula, they are required -to be present ‘in an attitude of respect:’ no mention is made of -their holding the garments of our Saviour; but it is certain that -in Byzantine Art, and generally from the twelfth century, this has -been the usual mode of representing them. According to the Fathers, -our Saviour had no guardian angel; because he did not require one: -notwithstanding the sense usually given to the text, ‘He shall give -his angels charge concerning thee, lest at any time thou dash thy foot -against a stone,’ the angels, they affirm, were not the guardians, -but the servants, of Christ; and hence, I presume, the custom of -representing them, not merely as present, but as ministering to him -during his baptism. The gates of San Paolo (tenth century) afford -the most ancient example I have met with of an angel holding the -raiment of the Saviour: there is only one angel. Giotto introduces two -graceful angels kneeling on the bank of the river, and looking on with -attention. The angel in Raphael’s composition bows his head, as if -awe-struck by the divine recognition of the majesty of the Redeemer; -and the reverent manner in which he holds the vestment is very -beautiful. Other examples will here suggest themselves to the reader, -and I shall resume the subject when treating of the life of our Saviour. - - * * * * * - -In one account of our Saviour’s agony in the garden of Gethsemane, -it is expressly said that an angel ‘appeared unto him out of heaven, -strengthening him;’ therefore, where this awful and pathetic subject -has been attempted in Art, there is propriety in introducing a visible -angel. Notwithstanding the latitude thus allowed to the imagination, -or perhaps for that very reason, the greatest and the most intelligent -painters have here fallen into strange errors, both in conception and -in taste. For instance, is it not a manifest impropriety to take the -Scripture phrase in a literal sense, and place a cup in the hand of the -angel? Is not the word _cup_ here, as elsewhere, used as a metaphor, -signifying the destiny awarded by Divine will, as Christ had said -before, ‘Ye shall drink of my cup,’ and as we say, ‘his cup overfloweth -with blessings’? The angel, therefore, who does not bend from heaven to -announce to him the decree he knew full well, nor to present the cup -of bitterness, but to strengthen and comfort him, should not bear the -cup;—still less the cross, the scourge, the crown of thorns, as in many -pictures. - -Where our Saviour appears bowed to the earth, prostrate, half swooning -with the anguish of that dread moment, and an angel is seen sustaining -him, there is a true feeling of the real meaning of Scripture; but even -in such examples the effect is often spoiled by an attempt to render -the scene at once more mystical and more palpable. Thus a painter -equally remarkable for the purity of his taste and deep religious -feeling, Niccolò Poussin, has represented Christ, in his agony, -supported in the arms of an angel, while a crowd of child-angels, -very much like Cupids, appear before him with the instruments of the -Passion; ten or twelve bear a huge cross; others hold the scourge, -the crown of thorns, the nails, the sponge, the spear, and exhibit -them before him, as if these were the images, these the terrors, which -could overwhelm with fear and anguish even the _human_ nature of such a -Being![46] It seems to me also a mistake, when the angel is introduced, -to make him merely an accessory (as Raphael has done in one of his -early pictures), a little figure in the air to help the meaning: since -the occasion was worthy of angelic intervention, in a visible shape, -bringing divine solace, divine sympathy, it should be represented under -a form the most mighty and the most benign that Art could compass;—but -has it been so? I can recollect no instance in which the failure has -not been complete. If it be said that to render the angelic comforter -so superior to the sorrowing and prostrate Redeemer would be to detract -from _His_ dignity as the principal personage of the scene, and thus -violate one of the first rules of Art, I think differently—I think it -could do so only in unskilful hands. Represented as it ought to be, and -might be, it would infinitely enhance the idea of that unimaginable -anguish which, as we are told, was compounded of the iniquities and -sorrows of all humanity laid upon _Him_. It was not the pang of the -Mortal, but the Immortal, which required the presence of a ministering -spirit sent down from heaven to sustain him. - -[Illustration: 21 Lamenting Angel in a Crucifixion (Campo Santo)] - -In the Crucifixion, angels are seen lamenting, wringing their hands, -averting or hiding their faces. In the old Greek crucifixions, one -angel bears the sun, another the moon, on each side of the cross:— - - ... dim sadness did not spare, - That time, celestial visages. - -Michael Angelo gives us two unwinged colossal-looking angel heads, -which peer out of heaven in the background of his Crucifixion in a -manner truly supernatural, as if they sympathised in the consummation, -but in awe rather than in grief. - -Angels also receive in golden cups the blood which flows from the -wounds of our Saviour. This is a representation which has the authority -of some of the most distinguished and most spiritual among the old -painters, but it is to my taste particularly unpleasing and unpoetical. -Raphael, in an early picture, the only crucifixion he ever painted, -thus introduces the angels; and this form of the angelic ministry is -a mystical version of the sacrifice of the Redeemer not uncommon in -Italian and German pictures of the sixteenth century. - -As the scriptural and legendary scenes in which angels form the -poetical machinery will be discussed hereafter in detail as separate -subjects, I shall conclude these general and preliminary remarks -with a few words on the characteristic style in which the principal -painters have set forth the angelic forms and attributes. - -It appears that, previous to the end of the fourth century, there were -religious scruples which forbade the representation of angels, arising -perhaps from the scandal caused in the early Church by the worship -paid to these supernatural beings, and so strongly opposed by the -primitive teachers. We do not find on any of the Christian relics of -the first three centuries, neither in the catacombs, nor on the vases -or the sarcophagi, any figure which could be supposed to represent -what we call an angel. On one of the latest sarcophagi we find little -winged figures, but evidently the classical winged genii, used in the -classical manner as ornament only.[47] In the second council of Nice, -John of Thessalonica maintained that angels have the human form, and -may be so represented; and the Jewish doctors had previously decided -that God consulted his angels when He said, ‘Let us make man after -_our_ image,’ and that consequently we may suppose the angels to be -like men, or, in the words of the prophet, ‘like unto the similitude of -the sons of men.’[48] (Dan. x. 16.) - -But it is evident that, in the first attempt at angelic effigy, it -was deemed necessary, in giving the human shape, to render it as -superhuman, as imposing, as possible: colossal proportions, mighty -overshadowing wings, kingly attributes, these we find in the earliest -figures of angels which I believe exist—the mosaics in the church of -Santa Agata at Ravenna (A.D. 400). Christ is seated on a throne (as in -the early sarcophagi): he holds the Gospel in one hand, and with the -left gives the benediction. An angel stands on each side: they have -large wings, and bear a silver wand, the long sceptre of the Grecian -kings; they are robed in classical drapery, but wear the short pallium -(the ‘garb succinct for flight’); their feet are sandaled, as prepared -for a journey, and their hair bound by a fillet. Except in the wings -and short pallium, they resemble the figures of Grecian kings and -priests in the ancient bas-reliefs. - -This was the truly majestic idea of an angelic presence (in -contradistinction to the angelic _emblem_), which, well or ill -executed, prevailed during the first ten centuries. In the MS.[49] -already referred to as containing such magnificent examples of this -God-like form and bearing, I selected one group less ruined than -most of the others; Jacob wrestling with the angel. The drawing -is wonderful for the period, that of Charlemagne; and see how the -mighty Being grasps the puny mortal, who was permitted for a while to -resist him!—‘He touched the hollow of Jacob’s thigh, and it was out -of joint’—the action is as significant as possible. In the original, -the drapery of the angel is white; the fillet binding the hair, the -sandals, and the wings, of purple and gold. - -[Illustration: 22 Angel (Greek MSS., ninth century)] - -[Illustration: 23 A.D. 1000.] - -This lank, formal angel is from the Greco-Italian school of the -eleventh century. From the eleventh to the thirteenth century the forms -of the angels became, like all things in the then degraded state of -Byzantine Art, merely conventional. They are attired either in the -imperial or the sacerdotal vestments, as already described, and are -richly ornamented, tasteless and stiff, large without grandeur, and in -general ill drawn: as in these figures from Monreale (24). - -[Illustration: 24 Greek Angels (Cathedral of Monreale. Eleventh -century)] - -On the revival of Art, we find the Byzantine idea of angels everywhere -prevailing. The angels in Cimabue’s famous ‘Virgin and Child enthroned’ -are grand creatures, rather stern; but this arose, I think, from his -inability to express beauty. The colossal angels at Assisi (A.D. -1270), solemn sceptred kingly forms, all alike in action and attitude, -appeared to me magnificent (30). - -In the angels of Giotto (A.D. 1310) we see the commencement of a softer -grace and a purer taste, further developed by some of his scholars. -Benozzo Gozzoli and Orcagna have left in the Campo Santo examples of -the most graceful and fanciful treatment. Of Benozzo’s angels in the -Riccardi palace I have spoken at length. His master Angelico (worthy -the name!) never reached the same power of expressing the rapturous -rejoicing of celestial beings, but his conception of the angelic nature -remains unapproached, unapproachable (A.D. 1430); it is only his, for -it was the gentle, passionless, refined nature of the recluse which -stamped itself there. Angelico’s angels are unearthly, not so much in -form as in sentiment; and superhuman, not in power but in purity. In -other hands, any imitation of his soft ethereal grace would become -feeble and insipid. With their long robes falling round their feet, and -drooping many-coloured wings, they seem not to fly or to walk, but to -float along, ‘smooth sliding without step.’ Blessed, blessed creatures! -love us, only love us—for we dare not task your soft serene Beatitude -by asking you to _help_ us! - -There is more sympathy with humanity in Francia’s angels: they look as -if they could weep, as well as love and sing. - -[Illustration: 25 Angels (F. Granacci)] - -Most beautiful are the groups of adoring angels by Francesco -Granacci,[50] so serenely tender, yet with a touch of grave earnestness -which gives them a character apart: they have the air of guardian -angels, who have discharged their trust, and to whom the Supreme -utterance has voiced forth, ‘Servant of God, well done!’ - -The angels of Botticelli are often stiff, and those of Ghirlandajo -sometimes fantastic; but in both I have met with angelic countenances -and forms which, for intense and happy expression, can never be -forgotten. One has the feeling, however, that they used human -models—the _portrait_ face looks through the _angel_ face. This is -still more apparent in Mantegna and Filippo Lippi. As we might have -expected from the character of Fra Filippo, his angels want refinement: -they have a boyish look, with their crisp curled hair, and their bold -beauty; yet some of them are magnificent for that sort of angel-beings -supposed to have a volition of their own. Andrea del Sarto’s angels -have the same fault in a less degree: they have, if not a bold, yet a -self-willed boyish expression. - -Perugino’s angels convey the idea of an unalterable sweetness: those -of his earlier time have much natural grace, those of his later time -are mannered. In early Venetian Art the angels are charming: they are -happy affectionate beings, with a touch of that voluptuous sentiment, -afterwards the characteristic of the Venetian school. - -In the contemporary German school, angels are treated in a very -extraordinary and original style (26). one cannot say that they are -earthly, or commonplace, still less are they beautiful or divine; but -they have great simplicity, earnestness, and energy of action. They -appear to me conceived in the Old Testament spirit, with their grand -stiff massive draperies, their jewelled and golden glories, their -wings ‘eyed like the peacock, speckled like the pard,’ their intense -expression, and the sort of personal and passionate interest they throw -into their ministry. This is the character of Albert Dürer’s angels -especially; those of Martin Schoen and Lucus v. Leyden are of a gentler -spirit. - -Leonardo da Vinci’s angels do not quite please me, elegant, refined, -and lovely as they are:—‘methinks they smile too much.’ By his scholar -Luini there are some angels in the gallery of the Brera, swinging -censers and playing on musical instruments, which, with the peculiar -character of the Milanese school, combine all the grace of a purer, -loftier nature. - -Correggio’s angels are grand and lovely, but they are like children -enlarged and sublimated, not like spirits taking the form of children: -where they smile it is truly, as Annibal Caracci expresses it, ‘_con -una naturalezza e semplicità che innamora e sforza a ridere con -loro_;’ but the smile in many of Correggio’s angel heads has something -sublime and spiritual, as well as _simple_ and _natural_. - -[Illustration: 26 Angel. German School. (Albert Dürer)] - -And Titian’s angels impress me in a similar manner—I mean those in the -glorious Assumption at Venice—with their childish forms and features, -but with an expression caught from beholding the face of ‘our Father -that is in heaven:’ it is glorified infancy. I remember standing before -this picture, contemplating those lovely spirits one after another, -until a thrill came over me like that which I felt when Mendelssohn -played the organ, and I became music while I listened. The face of one -of those angels is to the face of a child just what that of the Virgin -in the same picture is compared with the fairest of the daughters of -earth: it is not here superiority of beauty, but mind and music and -love, _kneaded_, as it were, into form and colour. - -I have thought it singular and somewhat unaccountable, that among the -earliest examples of undraped boy-angels are those of Fra Bartolomeo—he -who on one occasion, at the command of Savonarola, made a bonfire of -all the undressed figures he could lay his hands on. - -But Raphael, excelling in all things, is here excellent above all: -his angels combine, in a higher degree than any other, the various -faculties and attributes in which the fancy loves to clothe these -pure, immortal, beatified creatures. The angels of Giotto, of -Benozzo, of Fiesole, are, if not female, feminine; those of Lippi, -and of A. Mantegna, masculine; but you cannot say of those of Raphael -that they are masculine or feminine. The idea of sex is wholly lost -in the blending of power, intelligence, and grace. In his earlier -pictures grace is the predominant characteristic, as in the dancing -and singing angels in his Coronation of the Virgin.[51] In his later -pictures the sentiment in his ministering angels is more spiritual, -more dignified. As a perfect example of grand and poetical feeling, -I may cite the angels as ‘Regents of the Planets,’ in the Capella -Chigiana.[52] The cupola represents in a circle the creation of the -solar system, according to the theological and astronomical (or rather -_astrological_) notions which then prevailed—a hundred years before -‘the starry Galileo and his woes.’ In the centre is the Creator; -around, in eight compartments, we have, first, the angel of the -celestial sphere, who seems to be listening to the divine mandate, -‘Let there be lights in the firmament of heaven;’ then follow, in -their order, the Sun, the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and -Saturn. The name of each planet is expressed by its mythological -representative; the Sun by Apollo, the Moon by Diana: and over each -presides a grand colossal winged spirit seated or reclining on a -portion of the zodiac as on a throne. I have selected two angels to -give an idea of this peculiar and poetical treatment. The union of the -theological and the mythological attributes is in the classical taste -of the time, and quite Miltonic.[53] In Raphael’s child-angels, the -expression of power and intelligence, as well as innocence, is quite -wonderful; for instance, look at the two angel-boys in the Dresden -Madonna di San Sisto, and the angels, or celestial genii, who bear -along the Almighty when He appears to Noah.[54] No one has expressed -like Raphael the action of flight, except perhaps Rembrandt. The angel -who descends to crown Santa Felicità cleaves the air with the action -of a swallow;[55] and the angel in Rembrandt’s Tobit soars like a lark -with upward motion, spurning the earth. - -[Illustration: _Angels of the Planets from the Capella Chigi._] - -Michael Angelo rarely gave wings to his angels; I scarcely recollect -an instance, except the angel in the Annunciation: and his exaggerated -human forms, his colossal creatures, in which the idea of power is -conveyed through attitude and muscular action, are, to my taste, -worse than unpleasing. My admiration for this wonderful man is so -profound that I can afford to say this. His angels are superhuman, -but hardly angelic: and while in Raphael’s angels we do not feel the -want of wings, we feel while looking at those of Michael Angelo that -not even the ‘sail-broad vans’ with which Satan laboured through the -surging abyss of chaos could suffice to lift those Titanic forms from -earth, and sustain them in mid-air. The group of angels over the Last -Judgment, flinging their mighty limbs about, and those that surround -the descending figure of Christ in the Conversion of St. Paul, may be -referred to here as characteristic examples. The angels, blowing their -trumpets, puff and strain like so many troopers. Surely this is not -angelic: there may be _power_, great imaginative and artistic power, -exhibited in the conception of form, but in the beings themselves there -is more of effort than of power: serenity, tranquillity, beatitude, -ethereal purity, spiritual grace, are out of the question. - -The later followers of his school, in their angelic as in their human -forms, caricatured their great master, and became, to an offensive -degree, forced, extravagant, and sensual. - - * * * * * - -When we come to the revival of a better taste under the influence of -the Caracci, we find the angels of that school as far removed from the -early Christian types as were their apostles and martyrs. They have -often great beauty, consummate elegance, but bear the same relation -to the religious and ethereal types of the early painters that the -angels of Tasso bear to those of Dante. Turn, for instance, to the -commencement of the _Gerusalemme Liberata_, where the angel is deputed -to carry to Godfrey the behest of the Supreme Being. The picture of -the angel is distinctly and poetically brought before us; he takes to -himself a form between boyhood and youth; his waving curls are crowned -with beams of light; he puts on a pair of wings of silver tipped with -gold, with which he cleaves the air, the clouds, the skies; he alights -on Mount Lebanon, and poises himself on his balanced wings— - - E si librò su l’ adeguate penne. - -This is exactly the angel which figures in the best pictures of the -Caracci and Guido: he is supremely elegant, and nothing more. - -I must not here venture on minute criticism, as regards distinctive -character in the crowds of painters which sprung out of the eclectic -school. It would carry us too far; but one or two general remarks -will lead the reader’s fancy along the path I would wish him to -pursue. I would say, therefore, that the angels of Ludovico have -more of sentiment, those of Annibal more of power, those of Guido -more of grace: and of Guido it may be said that he excels them all -in the expression of adoration and humility; see, for instance, the -adoring seraphs in Lord Ellesmere’s ‘Immaculate Conception.’ The -angels of Domenichino, Guercino, and Albano, are to me less pleasing. -Domenichino’s angels are merely human. I never saw an angel in one of -Guercino’s pictures that had not, with the merely human character, a -touch of vulgarity. As for Albano, how are we to discriminate between -his angels and his nymphs, Apollos, and Cupids? But for the occasion -and the appellation, it would be quite impossible to distinguish the -Loves that sport round Venus and Adonis, from the Cherubim, so called, -that hover above a Nativity or a Riposo; and the little angels, in his -Crucifixion, cry so like naughty little boys, that one longs to put -them in a corner. This merely heathen grace and merely human sentiment -is the general tendency of the whole school; and no beauty of form -or colour can, to the feeling and religious mind, redeem such gross -violations of propriety. As for Poussin, of whom I think with due -reverence, his angels are often exquisitely beautiful and refined: they -have a chastity and a moral grace which pleases at first view; but here -again the scriptural type is neglected and heathenised in obedience to -the fashion of the time. If we compare the Cupids in his Rinaldo and -Armida, with the angels which minister to the Virgin and Child; or the -Cherubim weeping in a Deposition, with the Amorini who are lamenting -over Adonis; in what respect do they differ? They are evidently painted -from the same models, the beautiful children of Titian and Fiamingo. - -[Illustration: 27 Angels in a Nativity (Seventeenth century)] - -[Illustration: 28 Angel: in a picture of Christ healing the Sick (N. -Poussin)] - -Rubens gives us strong well-built youths, with redundant yellow hair; -and chubby naked babies, as like flesh and blood, and as natural, as -the life: and those of Vandyck are more elegant, without being more -angelic. Murillo’s child-angels are divine, through absolute beauty; -the expression of innocence and beatitude was never more perfectly -given; but in grandeur and power they are inferior to Correggio, and -in all that should characterise a divine nature, immeasurably below -Raphael. - -Strange to say, the most poetical painter of angels in the seventeenth -century is that inspired Dutchman, Rembrandt; not that his angels -are scriptural; still less classical; and beautiful they are not, -certainly—often the reverse; but if they have not the Miltonic dignity -and grace, they are at least as unearthly and as poetical as any -of the angelic phantasms in Dante,—unhuman, unembodied creatures, -compounded of light and darkness, ‘the somewhat between a _thought_ and -a _thing_,’ haunting the memory like apparitions. For instance, look at -his Jacob’s Dream, at Dulwich; or his etching of the Angels appearing -to the Shepherds,—breaking through the night, scattering the gloom, -making our eyes ache with excess of glory,—the _Gloria in excelsis_ -ringing through the fancy while we gaze! - - * * * * * - -I have before observed that angels are supposed to be masculine, with -the feminine attributes of beauty and purity; but in the seventeenth -century the Florentine painter, Giovanni di S. Giovanni, scandalised -his contemporaries by introducing into a glory round the Virgin, female -angels (_angelesse_). Rubens has more than once committed the same -fault against ecclesiastical canons and decorum; for instance, in his -Madonna ‘aux Anges’ in the Louvre. Such aberrations of fancy are mere -caprices of the painter, improprieties inadmissible in high art. - -Of the sprawling, fluttering, half-naked angels of the Pietro -da Cortona and Bernini school, and the feeble mannerists of the -seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, what shall be said? that they -are worthy to illustrate Moore’s Loves of the Angels? ‘_non ragioniam -di lor_;’ no, nor even _look_ at them! I have seen angels of the later -Italian and Spanish painters more like opera dancers, with artificial -wings and gauze draperies, dressed to figure in a ballet, than anything -else I could compare them to. - -The most original, and, in truth, the only new and original version of -the Scripture idea of angels which I have met with, is that of William -Blake, a poet painter, somewhat mad as we are told, if indeed his -madness were not rather ‘the telescope of truth,’ a sort of poetical -_clairvoyance_, bringing the unearthly nearer to him than to others. -His adoring angels float rather than fly, and, with their half-liquid -draperies, seem about to dissolve into light and love: and his -rejoicing angels—behold them—sending up their voices with the morning -stars, that ‘singing, in their glory move!’ - -[Illustration: 29 ‘All the sons of God shouted for joy!’] - -As regards the treatment of angels in the more recent productions of -art, the painters and sculptors have generally adhered to received and -known types in form and in sentiment. The angels of the old Italians, -Giotto and Frate Angelico, have been very well imitated by Steinle -and others of the German school: the Raffaelesque feeling has been in -general aimed at by the French and English painters. Tenerani had the -old mosaics in his mind when he conceived that magnificent colossal -Angel of the Resurrection seated on a tomb, and waiting for the signal -to sound his trumpet, which I saw in his atelier, prepared I believe -for the monument of the Duchess Lanti.[56] - - * * * * * - -I pause here, for I have dwelt upon these celestial Hierarchies, -winged Splendours, Princedoms, Virtues, Powers, till my fancy is -becoming somewhat mazed and dazzled by the contemplation. I must leave -the reader to go into a picture-gallery, or look over a portfolio of -engravings, and so pursue the theme, whithersoever it may lead him, and -it _may_ lead him, in Hamlet’s words, ‘to thoughts beyond the reaches -of his soul!’[57] - - - - -[Illustration: 30 Archangels (Cimabue. In San Francesco d’Assisi)] - - - - - II. The Archangels. - - The Seven - Who in God’s presence, nearest to his throne, - Stand ready at command.—MILTON. - - -Having treated of the celestial Hierarchy in general, we have now to -consider those angels who in artistic representations have assumed an -individual form and character. These belong to the order of Archangels, -placed by Dionysius in the third Hierarchy: they take rank between the -Princedoms and the Angels, and partake of the nature of both, being, -like the Princedoms, Powers; and, like the Angels, Ministers and -Messengers. - -Frequent allusion is made in Scripture to the seven Angels who stand -in the presence of God. (Rev. viii. 2, xv. 1, xvi. 1, &c.; Tobit xxii. -15.) This was in accordance with the popular creed of the Jews, who -not only acknowledged the supremacy of the Seven Spirits, but assigned -to them distinct vocations and distinct appellations, each terminating -with the syllable _El_, which signifies God. Thus we have— - -I. MICHAEL (i.e. who is like unto God), captain-general of the host of -heaven, and protector of the Hebrew nation. - -II. GABRIEL (i.e. God is my strength), guardian of the celestial -treasury, and preceptor of the patriarch Joseph. - -III. RAPHAEL (i.e. the Medicine of God), the conductor of Tobit; thence -the chief guardian angel. - -IV. URIEL (i.e. the Light of God), who taught Esdras. He was also -regent of the sun. - -V. CHAMUEL (i.e. one who sees God?), who wrestled with Jacob, and who -appeared to Christ at Gethsemane. (But, according to other authorities, -this was the angel Gabriel.) - -VI. JOPHIEL (i.e. the Beauty of God), who was the preceptor of the sons -of Noah, and is the protector of all those who, with an humble heart, -seek after truth, and the enemy of those who pursue vain knowledge. -Thus Jophiel was naturally considered as the guardian of the tree of -knowledge and the same who drove Adam and Eve from Paradise. - -VII. ZADKIEL (i.e. the Righteousness of God), who stayed the hand of -Abraham when about to sacrifice his son. (But, according to other -authorities, this was the archangel Michael.) - -The Christian Church does not acknowledge these Seven Angels by name; -neither in the East, where the worship of angels took deep root, -nor yet in the West, where it has been tacitly accepted. Nor have I -met with them as a series, _by name_, in any ecclesiastical work of -art, though I have seen a set of old anonymous prints in which they -appear with distinct names and attributes: Michael bears the sword -and scales; Gabriel, the lily; Raphael, the pilgrim’s staff and gourd -full of water, as a traveller. Uriel has a roll and a book: he is the -interpreter of judgments and prophecies, and for this purpose was sent -to Esdras:—‘The angel that was sent unto me, whose name was Uriel, -gave me an answer.’ (Esdras, ii. 4.) And in Milton— - - Uriel, for thou of those Seven Spirits that stand - In sight of God’s high throne, gloriously bright, - The first art wont his great authentic will - Interpreter through highest heaven to bring. - -[Illustration: 31 The Archangels Michael and Raphael (Campo Santo)] - -According to an early Christian tradition, it was this angel, and not -Christ in person, who accompanied the two disciples to Emmaus. Chamuel -is represented with a cup and a staff; Jophiel with a flaming sword. -Zadkiel bears the sacrificial knife which he took from the hand of -Abraham. - -But the Seven Angels, without being distinguished by name, are -occasionally introduced into works of art. For example, over the arch -of the choir in San Michele, at Ravenna (A.D. 545), on each side of -the throned Saviour are the Seven Angels blowing trumpets like cow’s -horns:—‘And I saw the Seven Angels which stand before God, and to them -were given seven trumpets.’ (Rev. viii. 2, 6.) In representations of -the Crucifixion and in the Pietà, the Seven Angels are often seen in -attendance, bearing the instruments of the Passion. Michael bears the -cross, for he is ‘the Bannerer of heaven;’ but I do not feel certain of -the particular avocations of the others. - -In the Last Judgment of Orcagna, in the Campo Santo at Pisa (31), -the Seven Angels are active and important personages. The angel who -stands in the centre of the picture, below the throne of Christ, -extends a scroll in each hand; on that in the right hand is inscribed -‘Come, ye blessed of my Father,’ and on that in the left hand, ‘Depart -from me, ye accursed:’ him I suppose to be Michael, the angel of -judgment. At his feet crouches an angel who seems to shrink from -the tremendous spectacle, and hides his face: him I suppose to be -Raphael, the guardian angel of humanity. The attitude has always -been admired—cowering with horror, yet sublime. Beneath are other -five angels, who are engaged in separating the just from the wicked, -encouraging and sustaining the former, and driving the latter towards -the demons who are ready to snatch them into flames. These Seven Angels -have the garb of princes and warriors, with breastplates of gold, -jewelled sword-belts and tiaras, rich mantles; while the other angels -who figure in the same scene are plumed, and bird-like, and hover above -bearing the instruments of the Passion (32). - -Again we may see the Seven Angels in quite another character, attending -on St. Thomas Aquinas, in a picture by Taddeo Gaddi.[58] Here, instead -of the instruments of the Passion, they bear the allegorical attributes -of those virtues for which that famous saint and doctor is to be -reverenced: one bears an olive-branch, i.e. Peace; the second, a book, -i.e. Knowledge; the third, a crown and sceptre, i.e. Power; the fourth, -a church, i.e. Religion; the fifth, a cross and shield, i.e. Faith; -the sixth, flames of fire in each hand, i.e. Piety and Charity; the -seventh, a lily, i.e. Purity. - -[Illustration: 32] - -In general it may be presumed when seven angels figure together, or -are distinguished from among a host of angels by dress, stature, or -other attributes, that these represent the ‘Seven Holy Angels who -stand in the presence of God.’ Four only of these Seven Angels are -individualised by name, Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Uriel. According -to the Jewish tradition, these four sustain the throne of the Almighty: -they have the Greek epithet _arch_, or chief, assigned to them, from -the two texts of Scripture in which that title is used (1 Thess. iv. -16; Jude ix.); but only the three first, who in Scripture have a -distinct personality, are reverenced in the Catholic Church as saints; -and their gracious beauty, and their divine prowess, and their high -behests to mortal man, have furnished some of the most important and -most poetical subjects which appear in Christian Art. - -The earliest instance I have met of the Archangels introduced by name -into a work of art is in the old church of San Michele at Ravenna (A.D. -545). The mosaic in the apse exhibits Christ in the centre, bearing in -one hand the cross as a trophy or sceptre, and in the other an open -book on which are the words ‘_Qui videt me videt et Patrem meum_.’ On -each side stand Michael and Gabriel, with vast wings and long sceptres; -their names are inscribed above, but without the _Sanctus_ and without -the Glory. It appears, therefore, that at this time, the middle of the -sixth century, the title of _Saint_, though in use, had not been given -to the Archangels. - -When, in the ancient churches, the figure of Christ or of the Lamb -appears in a circle of glory in the centre of the roof; and around, or -at the four corners, four angels who sustain the circle with outspread -arms, or stand as watchers, with sceptres or lances in their hands, -these I presume to be the four Archangels who sustain the throne of -God. Examples may be seen in San Vitale at Ravenna; in the chapel of -San Zeno, in Santa Prassede at Rome; and on the roof of the choir of -San Francesco d’Assisi. - -So the four Archangels, stately colossal figures, winged and armed -and sceptred, stand over the arch of the choir in the Cathedral of -Monreale, at Palermo.[59] - -So the four angels stand at the four corners of the earth and hold the -winds, heads with puffed cheeks and dishevelled hair.[60] (Rev. vii. 1.) - -But I have never seen Uriel represented by name, or alone, in any -sacred edifice. In the picture of Uriel painted by Allston,[61] he -is the ‘Regent of the Sun,’ as described by Milton; not a sacred or -scriptural personage. On a shrine of carved ivory[62] I have seen the -four Archangels as keeping guard, two at each end; the three first are -named, as usual, St. Michael, St. Gabriel, St. Raphael; the fourth is -styled _St. Chérubin_; and I have seen the same name inscribed over -the head of the angel who expels Adam and Eve from Paradise. There is -no authority for such an appellation applied individually; but I find, -in a famous legend of the middle ages, ‘La Pénitence d’Adam;’ that the -angel who guards the gates of Paradise is thus designated:—‘Lorsque -l’Ange Chérubin vit arriver Seth aux portes de Paradis,’ &c. The four -Archangels, however, seldom occur together, except in architectural -decoration. On the other hand, devotional pictures of the three -Archangels named in the canonical Scriptures are of frequent -occurrence. They are often grouped together as patron saints or -protecting spirits; or they stand round the throne of Christ, or below -the glorified [Illustration: 33 The Three Archangels (from an ancient -Greek picture)] - -Virgin and Child, in an attitude of adoration. According to the Greek -formula, the three in combination represent the triple power, military, -civil, and religious, of the celestial hierarchy: St. Michael being -habited as a warrior, Gabriel as a prince, and Raphael as a priest. -In a Greek picture, of which I give an outline, the three Archangels -sustain in a kind of throne the figure of the youthful Christ, here -winged, as being Himself _the_ supreme Angel (ἂγγελος), and with both -hands blessing the universe. The Archangel Raphael has here the place -of dignity as representing the Priesthood; but in Western Art Michael -takes precedence of the two others, and is usually placed in the centre -as Prince or Chief: with him, then, as considered individually, we -begin. - - - ST. MICHAEL. - - _Lat._ Sanctus Michael Angelus. _Ital._ San Michele, Sammichele. - _Fr._ Monseigneur Saint Michel. (Sept. 29.) - - ‘Michael, the Great Prince that standeth for the children of thy - people.’—_Dan._ xii. 1. - - It is difficult to clothe in adequate language the divine attributes - with which painting and poetry have invested this illustrious - archangel. Jews and Christians are agreed in giving him the - pre-eminence over all created spirits. All the might, the majesty, - the radiance, of Thrones, Dominations, Princedoms, Virtues, Powers, - are centred in him. In him God put forth his strength when He exalted - him chief over the celestial host, when angels warred with angels - in heaven; and in him God showed forth his glory when He made him - conqueror over the power of sin, and ‘over the great dragon that - deceived the world.’ - -To the origin of the worship paid to this great archangel I dare not do -more than allude, lest I stray wide from my subject, and lose myself, -and my readers too, in labyrinths of Orientalism. But, in considering -the artistic representations, it is interesting to call to mind that -the glorification of St. Michael may be traced back to that primitive -Eastern dogma, the perpetual antagonism between the Spirit of Good and -the Spirit of Evil, mixed up with the Chaldaic belief in angels and -their influence over the destinies of man. It was subsequent to the -Captivity that the active Spirit of Good, under the name of Michael, -came to be regarded as the especial protector of the Hebrew nation: the -veneration paid to him by the Jews was adopted, or rather retained, -by the Oriental Christians, and, though suppressed for a time, was -revived and spread over the West, where we find it popular and almost -universal from the eighth century. - -The legends which have grown out of a few mystical texts of Scripture, -amplified by the fanciful disquisitions of the theological writers, -place St. Michael before us in three great characters:—1. As captain of -the heavenly host, and conqueror of the powers of hell. 2. As lord of -souls, conductor and guardian of the spirits of the dead. 3. As patron -saint and prince of the Church Militant. - - * * * * * - -When Lucifer, possessed by the spirit of pride and ingratitude, refused -to fall down and worship the Son of man, Michael was deputed to punish -his insolence, and to cast him out from heaven. Then Michael chained -the revolted angels in middle air, where they are to remain till the -day of judgment, being in the mean time perpetually tortured by hate, -envy, and despair: for they behold man, whom they had disdained, -exalted as their superior; above them they see the heaven they have -forfeited; and beneath them the redeemed souls continually rising from -earth, and ascending to the presence of God, whence they are shut out -for ever. - -‘Now,’ says the old Legend,[63] ‘if it be asked wherefore the books of -Moses, in revealing the disobedience and the fall of man, are silent -as to the revolt and the fall of the angels, the reason is plain; and -in this God acted according to his wisdom. For, let us suppose that a -certain powerful lord hath two vassals, both guilty of the crime of -treason, and one of these is a nobleman of pure and lofty lineage, -and the other a base-born churl:—what doth this lord? He hangs up the -churl in the market-place as a warning and example to others;—but, for -the nobleman, fearing the scandal that may arise among the people, and -perhaps also some insult to the officers of the law, the judge causes -him to be tried secretly, and shuts him up in a dungeon; and when -judgment is pronounced against him, he sends to his prison, and puts -him privily to death; and when one asketh after him, the answer is only -“He is dead:”—and nothing more. Thus did God in respect to the rebel -angels of old; and their fate was not revealed until the redemption of -man was accomplished.’ - -This passage from the old Italian legend is so curiously characteristic -of the feudal spirit of Christianity in the middle ages, that I have -ventured to insert it verbatim. If religion did, in some degree, modify -the institutions of chivalry, in a much greater degree did the ruling -prejudices of a barbarian age modify the popular ideas of religion. -Here, notwithstanding the primary doctrine of Christ—the equality of -all men before God, we have the distinction between noble and churl -carried into the very councils of Heaven. - -But, to return to St. Michael: on whom, as the leader of his triumphant -hosts, God bestowed many and great privileges. To him it was given - - to bid sound th’ archangel trumpet, - -and exalt the banner of the Cross in the day of judgment; and to him -likewise was assigned the reception of the immortal spirits when -released by death. It was his task to weigh them in a balance (Dan. v. -27; Ps. lxii. 9): those whose good works exceeded their demerits, he -presented before the throne of God; but those who were found wanting -he gave up to be tortured in purgatory, until their souls, from being -‘as crimson, should become as white as snow.’ Therefore, in the hour -of death, he is to be invoked by the faithful, saying, ‘_O Michael, -militiæ cœlestis signifer, in adjutorium nostrum veni, princeps et -propugnator!_’ - -Lastly, when it pleased the Almighty to select from among the nations -of the earth one people to become peculiarly his own, He appointed St. -Michael to be president and leader over that chosen people.[64] ‘At -that time shall Michael stand up, the great prince which standeth for -the children of thy people’ (Dan. x. 13, xii. 1): and when the power of -the Synagogue was supposed to cease, and to be replaced by the power -of the Church, so that the Christians became the people of God, then -Michael, who had been the great prince of the Hebrew people, became -the prince and leader of the Church militant in Christendom, and the -guardian of redeemed souls, against his old adversary the Prince of -Hell. (Rev. xii. 6, 7.) - -The worship paid to St. Michael, and which originated in the far -East, is supposed to have been adopted by the Oriental Christians -in consequence of a famous apparition of the Archangel at Colossæ, -in Phrygia, which caused him to be held in especial honour by the -people of that city, and perhaps occasioned the particular warning -of St. Paul addressed to the Colossians. But although the worship of -angels was considered among the heresies of the early Church, we find -Constantine no sooner master of the empire, and a baptized Christian, -than he dedicates a church to the Archangel Michael (by his Greek -name Michaëlion), and this church, one of the most magnificent in -Constantinople, became renowned for its miracles, and the parent and -model of hundreds more throughout the East. - -In the West, the honours paid to St. Michael are of later date: that -a church dedicated to him must have existed in Rome long before the -year 500 seems clear, because at that time it is mentioned as having -fallen into ruin. But the West had its angelic apparitions as well as -the East, and St. Michael owes his wide-spread popularity in the middle -ages to three famous visions which are thus recorded. - -In the fifth century, in the city of Siponte, in Apulia (now -Manfredonia), dwelt a man named Galgano or Garganus, very rich in -cattle, sheep, and beasts; and as they pastured on the sides of the -mountain, it happened that a bull strayed and came not home: then the -rich man took a multitude of servants and sought the bull, and found -him at the entrance of a cave on the very summit of the mountain, -and, being wroth with the bull, the master ordered him to be slain; -but when the arrow was sent from the bow it returned to the bosom of -him who sent it, and he fell dead on the ground: then the master and -his servants were troubled, and they sent to inquire of the bishop -what should be done. The bishop, having fasted and prayed three days, -beheld in a vision the glorious Archangel Michael, who descended on -the mountain, and told him that the servant had been slain because he -had violated a spot peculiarly sacred to him, and he commanded that a -church should be erected and sanctified there to his honour. And when -they entered the cavern they found there three altars already erected, -one of them covered with a rich embroidered altar-cloth of crimson -and gold, and a stream of limpid water springing from the rock, which -healed all diseases. So the church was built, and the fame of the -vision of Monte Galgano, though for some time confined to the south of -Italy, spread throughout Europe, and many pilgrimages were made to the -spot on which the angelic footsteps had alighted. - -The second vision is much more imposing. When Rome was nearly -depopulated by a pestilence in the sixth century, St. Gregory, -afterwards pope, advised that a procession should be made through -the streets of the city, singing the service since called the Great -Litanies. He placed himself at the head of the faithful, and during -three days they perambulated the city; and on the third day, when -they had arrived opposite to the mole of Hadrian, Gregory beheld the -Archangel Michael alight on the summit of that monument, and sheathe -his sword bedropped with blood. Then Gregory knew that the plague -was stayed, and a church was there dedicated to the honour of the -Archangel: and the Tomb of Hadrian has since been called the Castle of -Sant’ Angelo to this day. - -This, of all the recorded apparitions of St. Michael, is the only one -which can be called poetical; it is evidently borrowed from the vision -of the destroying angel in Scripture. As early as the ninth century, a -church or chapel dedicated to St. Michael was erected on the summit of -the huge monument, which at that time must have preserved much of its -antique magnificence. The church was entitled _Ecclesia Sancti Angeli -usque ad Cœlos_. The bronze statue, which in memory of this miracle now -surmounts the Castle of St. Angelo, was placed there in recent times -by Benedict XIV., and is the work of a Flemish sculptor, Verschaffelt. -I suppose no one ever looked at this statue critically—at least, for -myself, I never could: nor can I remember now, whether, as a work of -art, it is above or below criticism; perhaps both. With its vast wings, -poised in air, as seen against the deep blue skies of Rome, or lighted -up by the golden sunset, to me it was ever like what it was intended to -represent—like a vision. - -A third apparition was that accorded to Aubert, bishop of Avranches -(A.D. 706). This holy man seems to have been desirous to attract to his -own diocese a portion of that sanctity (and perhaps other advantages) -which Monte Galgano derived from the worship of St. Michael. In -the Gulf of Avranches, in Normandy, stands a lofty isolated rock -inaccessible from the land at high water, and for ages past celebrated -as one of the strongest fortresses and state prisons in France. In -the reign of Childebert II., St. Aubert, bishop of Avranches, had a -vision, in which the Archangel Michael commanded him to repair to -this rock, then the terror of mariners, and erect a church to his -honour on the highest point, where a bull would be found concealed, -and it was to cover as much space as the bull had trampled with his -hoofs: he also discovered to the bishop a well-spring of pure water, -which had before been unknown. As the bishop treated this command as -a dream, the Archangel appeared to him a second and a third time; and -at length, to impress it on his waking memory, he touched his head -with his thumb, and made a mark or hole in his skull, which he carried -to the grave. This time the bishop obeyed, and a small church was -built on the spot indicated; afterwards replaced by the magnificent -Abbey Church, which was begun by Richard duke of Normandy, in 966, and -finished by William the Conqueror. The poverty of invention shown in -this legend, which is little more than a repetition of that of Monte -Galgano, is very disappointing to the fancy, considering the celebrity -of Mont-Saint-Michel as a place of pilgrimage, and as one of the most -picturesque objects in European scenery, with its massive towers, which -have braved the tempests of a thousand years, rising from the summit -of the peak, and the sea weltering round its base. It failed not, -however, in the effect anticipated. The worship of St. Michael became -popular in France from the ninth century; the Archangel was selected -as patron saint of France, and of the military order instituted in his -honour by Louis XI. in 1469. The worship paid to St. Michael as patron -saint of Normandy naturally extended itself to England after the Norman -conquest, and churches dedicated to this archangel abound in all the -towns and cities along the southern and eastern shores of our island; -we also have a Mount St. Michael on the coast of Cornwall, in situation -and in name resembling that on the coast of France. At this day there -are few cities in Christendom which do not contain a church or churches -dedicated to St. Michael, some of them of great antiquity. - -I must not omit that St. Michael is considered as the angel of good -counsel:—that ‘Le vrai office de Monseigneur Saint Michel est de faire -grandes revelations aux hommes en bas, en leur donnant moult saints -conseils,’ and in particular, ‘sur le bon nourissement que le père -et la mère donnent à leurs enfans.’[65] It is to be regretted that -‘Monseigneur Saint Michel’ should be found rather remiss in this part -of his angelic functions. - - * * * * * - -We shall now see how far these various traditions and popular notions -concerning St. Michael have been carried out in Art. - -In all representations of St. Michael, the leading idea, well or ill -expressed, is the same. He is young and beautiful, but ‘severe in -youthful beauty,’ as one who carries on a perpetual contest with the -powers of evil. In the earlier works of art he is robed in white, with -ample many-coloured wings, and bears merely the sceptre or the lance -surmounted by a cross, as one who conquered by spiritual might alone. -But in the later representations, those coloured by the spirit of -chivalry, he is the angelic Paladin, armed in a dazzling coat of mail, -with sword, and spear, and shield. He has a lofty open brow, long fair -hair floating on his shoulders, sometimes bound by a jewelled tiara; -sometimes, but not often, shaded by a helmet. From his shoulders spring -two resplendent wings. Thus we see him standing by the throne of the -Madonna, or worshipping at the feet of the Divine Infant; an exquisite -allegory of spiritual and intellectual power protecting purity and -adoring innocence. - -There is a most beautiful little figure by Angelico, of St. Michael -standing in his character of archangel and patron of the Church -Militant, ‘as the winged saint;’ no demon, no attribute except the -lance and shield. The attitude, so tranquilly elegant, may be seen in -this sketch (34). In the original the armour is of a dark crimson and -gold, the wings are of rainbow tints, vivid and delicate; a flame of -lambent fire rests on the brow. - -But the single devotional figures of St. Michael usually represent -him as combining the two great characters of captain of the heavenly -host, and conqueror of the powers of hell. He stands armed, setting -his foot on Lucifer, either in the half-human or the dragon form, and -is about to transfix him with his lance, or to chain him down in the -infernal abyss. Such, however varied in the attitude, expression, and -accessories, is the most frequent and popular representation of St. -Michael, when placed before us, as the universally received emblem of -the final victory of good over evil. - -[Illustration: 34 St. Michael. (Angelico, Fl. Acad.)] - -In those churches of Christendom which have not been defaced by a -blind destructive zeal, this image meets us at every turn: it salutes -us in the porch as we enter, or it shines upon us in gorgeous colours -from the window, or it is wreathed into the capitals of columns, or it -stands in its holy heroic beauty over the altar. It is so common and -so in harmony with our inmost being, that we rather feel its presence -than observe it. It is the visible, palpable reflection of that great -truth stamped into our very souls, and shadowed forth in every form -of ancient belief,—the final triumph of the spiritual over the animal -and earthly part of our nature. This is the secret of its perpetual -repetition, and this the secret of the untired complacency with which -we regard it; for even in the most inefficient attempts at expression, -we have always the leading _motif_ distinct and true, the winged virtue -is always victorious above, and the bestial vice is always prostrate -below: and if to this primal moral significance be added all the charm -of poetry, grace, animated movement, which human genius has lavished -on this ever blessed, ever welcome symbol, then, as we look up at -it, we are ‘not only touched, but wakened and inspired,’ and the -whole delighted imagination glows with faith and hope, and grateful -triumphant sympathy,—so at least I have felt, and I must believe that -others have felt it too. - -In the earliest representations of this subject, we see the simplest -form of the allegory, literally rendering the words of Scripture, -‘The dragon shalt thou trample under foot’ (Ps. xci. 13). Here there -is no risk of a divided interest or a misdirected sympathy. The -demon, grovelling under the feet of the victorious spirit, is not the -star-bright apostate who drew after him the third part of heaven; it -is the bestial malignant reptile:—not the emblem of resistance, but -the emblem of sin; not of the sin that aspires, which, in fact, is a -contradiction in terms;—no sin aspires;—but of the sin which degrades -and brutifies, as all sin does. In the later representations, where the -demon takes the half-human shape, however hideous and deformed, the -allegory may so be brought nearer to us, and rendered more terrible -even by a horrid sympathy with that human face, grinning in despite and -agony; but much of the beauty of the scriptural metaphor is lost.[66] - - * * * * * - -The representations of St. Michael and the dragon are so multifarious -that I can only select a few among them as examples of the different -styles of treatment. - -The symbol, as such, is supposed to have originated with the Gnostics -and Arians, and the earliest examples are to be found in the ancient -churches on the western coast of Italy, and the old Lombard churches. -I have never seen it in the old mosaics of the sixth century, but in -the contemporary sculpture frequently. It would be difficult to point -to the most ancient example, such is the confusion of dates as regards -dedications, restorations, alterations; but I remember a carving in -white marble on the porch of the Cathedral of Cortona (about the -seventh century), which may be regarded as an example of this primitive -style of treatment: the illustration, from a slight sketch made on the -spot, will be better than any description (35). - -Another instance will be remembered by the traveller in Italy, the -strange antique bas-relief on the façade of that extraordinary old -church the San Michele at Pavia; not the figure in the porch, which -is modern, but that which is above. In the Menologium Grecum is a St. -Michael standing with a long sceptre, a majestic colossal figure, while -kneeling angels adore him, and the demons crouch under his feet.[67] - -[Illustration: 35] - -By Martin Schoen: St. Michael, attired in a long loose robe and -floating mantle, tramples on the demon; he has thrown down the shield, -and with his lance in both hands, but without effort, and even with a -calm angelic dignity, prepares to transfix his adversary. The figure is -singularly elegant. The demon has not here the usual form of a dragon, -but is a horrible nondescript reptile, with multitudinous flexile -claws, like those of a crab, stretched out to seize and entangle the -unwary;—for an emblematical figure, very significant (36). In an old -fresco by Guariente di Padova[68] the angel is draped as in Martin -Schoen’s figure, but the attitude is far less elegant. - -Sometimes the dragon has a small head at the end of his tail, instead -of the forked sting. I recollect an instance of St. Michael transfixing -the large head, while a smaller angel, also armed, transfixes the other -head.[69] This is an attempt to render literally the description in the -Apocalypse: ‘For their power is in their mouth, and in their tails: -for their tails were like unto serpents, and had heads, and with them -they do hurt.’ (Rev. ix. 19.) In a most elegant figure of St. Michael, -from the choir of the San Giovanni, at Malta, I found the demon thus -characterised, with a tail ending in the serpent head. - -In an old Siena picture[70] St. Michael is seated on a throne: in one -hand a sword, in the other the orb of sovereignty; under his feet lies -the dragon mangled and bleeding: a bad picture, but curious for the -singular treatment. - -[Illustration: 36 St. Michael (Martin Schoen)] - -In the sixteenth century these figures of St. Michael become less -ideal and angelic, and more and more chivalrous and picturesque. In -a beautiful altar-piece by Andrea del Sarto, now in the Florence -Academy, there is a fine martial figure of the Archangel, which, -but for the wings, might be mistaken for a St. George; and in the -predella underneath, on a small scale, he is conqueror of the demon. -The peculiarity here is, that the demon, though vanquished, makes a -vain struggle, and has seized hold of the belt of the angel, who, with -uplifted sword, and an action of infinite grace and dignity, looks -superior down, as one assured of victory. - -Raphael has given us three figures of St. Michael, all different, and -one of them taking rank with his masterpieces. - -The first is an early production, painted when he was a youth of -nineteen or twenty, and now in the Louvre. St. Michael, armed with a -shield on which is a red cross, his sword raised to strike, stands with -one foot on a monster; other horrible little monsters, like figures in -a dream, are around him: in the background are seen the hypocrites and -thieves as described by Dante; the first, in melancholy procession, -weighed down with leaden cowls; the others, tormented by snakes: and, -in the distance, the flaming dolorous city. St. Michael is here the -vanquisher of the Vices. It is a curious and fantastic, rather than -poetical, little picture. - -The second picture, also in the Louvre, was painted by Raphael, in the -maturity of his talent, for Francis I.: the king had left to him the -choice of the subject, and he selected St. Michael, the military patron -of France, and of that knightly Order of which the king was grand -master. - -St. Michael—not standing, but hovering on his poised wings, and -grasping his lance in both hands—sets one foot lightly on the shoulder -of the demon, who, prostrate, writhes up, as it were, and tries to lift -his head and turn it on his conqueror with one last gaze of malignant -rage and despair. The archangel looks down upon him with a brow calm -and serious; in his beautiful face is neither vengeance nor disdain—in -his attitude no effort; his form, a model of youthful grace and -majesty, is clothed in a brilliant panoply of gold and silver; an azure -scarf floats on his shoulders; his wide-spread wings are of purple, -blue, and gold; his light hair is raised, and floats outward on each -side of his head, as if from the swiftness of his downward motion. The -earth emits flames, and seems opening to swallow up the adversary. The -form of the demon is human, but vulgar in its proportions, and of a -swarthy red, as if fire-scathed; he has the horns and the serpent-tail; -but, from the attitude into which he is thrown, the monstrous form is -so fore-shortened that it does not disgust, and the majestic figure of -the archangel fills up nearly the whole space—fills the eye—fills the -soul—with its victorious beauty. - -[Illustration: 37 The St. Michael painted by Raphael for Francis I.] - -That Milton had seen this picture, and that when his sight was quenched -the ‘winged saint’ revisited him in his darkness, who can doubt?— - - Over his lucid arms - A military vest of purple flowed - Livelier than Melibœan, or the grain - Of Sarra worn by kings and heroes old - In time of truce. - By his side, - As in a glittering zodiac, hung the sword, - Satan’s dire dread, and in his hand the spear. - -A third St. Michael, designed by Raphael, exists only as an -engraving.[71] The angel here wears a helmet, and is classically -draped; he stands in an attitude of repose, his foot on the neck of the -demon; one hand rests on the pummel of his sword, the other holds the -lance. - -It seems agreed that, as a work of art, there is only the St. Michael -of Guido (in the Capuccini at Rome) which can be compared with that of -Raphael; the moment chosen is the same; the treatment nearly the same; -the sentiment quite different. - -Here the angel, standing, yet scarcely touching the ground, poised on -his outspread wings, sets his left foot on the head of his adversary; -in one hand he brandishes a sword, in the other he holds the end -of a chain, with which he is about to bind down the demon in the -bottomless pit. The attitude has been criticised, and justly; the -grace is somewhat mannered, verging on the theatrical; but Forsyth is -too severe when he talks of the ‘air of a dancing-master:’ one thing, -however, is certain, we do not think about attitude when we look at -Raphael’s St. Michael; in Guido’s, it is the first thing that strikes -us; but when we look farther, the head redeems all; it is singularly -beautiful, and in the blending of the masculine and feminine graces, in -the serene purity of the brow, and the flow of the golden hair, there -is something divine: a slight, very slight expression of scorn is in -the air of the head. The fiend is the worst part of the picture; it -is not a fiend, but a degraded prosaic human ruffian; we laugh with -incredulous contempt at the idea of an angel called down from heaven -to overcome such a wretch. In Raphael the fiend is human, but the head -has the god-like ugliness and malignity of a satyr; Guido’s fiend is -only stupid and base. It appears to me that there is just the same -difference—the same _kind_ of difference—between the angel of Raphael -and the angel of Guido, as between the description in Tasso and the -description in Milton; let any one compare them. In Tasso we are struck -by the picturesque elegance of the description as a piece of art, the -melody of the verse, the admirable choice of the expressions, as in -Guido by the finished but somewhat artificial and studied grace. In -Raphael and Milton we see only the vision of a ‘shape divine.’ - -One of the most beautiful figures of St. Michael I ever saw, occurs in -a coronation of the Virgin by Moretto, and is touched by his peculiar -sentiment of serious tenderness.[72] - -In devotional pictures such figures of St. Michael are sometimes -grouped poetically with other personages, as in a most beautiful -picture by Innocenza da Imola,[73] where the archangel tramples on the -demon; St. Paul standing on one side, and St. Benedict on the other, -both of whom had striven with the fiend and had overcome him: the -Madonna and Child are seen in a glory above. - -And again in a picture by Mabuse,[74] where St. Michael, as patron, -sets his foot on the black grinning fiend, and looks down on a kneeling -votary, while the votary, with his head turned away, appears to be -worshipping, not the protecting angel, but the Madonna, to whom St. -Michael presents him (38). Such votive pictures are not uncommon, and -have a peculiar grace and significance. Here the archangel bears the -victorious banner of the cross;—he has conquered. In some instances he -holds in his hand the head of the Dragon, and in _all_ instances it is, -or ought to be, the head of the Dragon which is transfixed:—‘Thou shalt -bruise his head.’ - -[Illustration: 38 St. Michael (Mabuse, 1510)] - -Those representations in which St. Michael is not conqueror, but -combatant, in which the moment is one of transition, are less frequent; -it is then an _action_, not an _emblem_, and the composition is -historical rather than symbolical. It is the strife with Lucifer; -‘when Michael and his angels fought against the dragon, and the dragon -fought and his angels, and the great dragon was cast out.’ (Rev. xii. -7.) In churches and chapels dedicated to St. Michael, or to ‘the Holy -Angels,’ this appropriate subject often occurs; as in a famous fresco -by Spinello d’Arezzo, at Arezzo.[75] In the middle of the composition, -Michael, armed with sword and shield, is seen combating the dragon -with seven heads, as described in the Apocalypse. Above and around are -many angels also armed. At the top of the picture is seen an empty -throne, the throne which Lucifer had ‘set in the north;’ below is seen -Lucifer, falling with his angels over the parapet of heaven. (Isaiah -xiv. 13.) The painter tasked his skill to render the transformation -of the spirits of light into spirits of darkness as fearful and as -hideous as possible; and, being a man of a nervous temperament, the -continual dwelling on these horrors began at length to trouble his -brain. He fancied that Lucifer appeared to him in a dream, demanding by -what authority he had portrayed him under an aspect so revolting?—the -painter awoke in horror, was seized with delirious fever, and so died. - -In his combat with the dragon, Michael is sometimes represented alone, -and sometimes as assisted by the two other archangels, Gabriel and -Raphael: as in the fresco by Signorelli, at Orvieto, where one of the -angels, whom we may suppose to be Raphael, looks down on the falling -demons with an air of melancholy, almost of pity. - -In a picture by Marco Oggione,[76] Michael has precipitated the demon -into the gulf, and hovers above, while Raphael and Gabriel stand below -on each side, looking on; all are clothed in voluminous loose white -draperies, more like priests than warriors; but it is a fine picture. - -In the large Rubens-room at Munich, there are two pictures of Michael -subduing the revolted angels. The large one, in which Michael is the -principal figure, is not agreeable. Rubens could not lift himself -sufficiently above the earth to conceive and embody the spiritual, and -heroic, and beautiful in one divine form; his St. Michael is vulgar. -The smaller composition, where the fallen, or rather falling, angels -fill the whole space, is a most wonderful effort of artistic invention. -At the summit of the picture stands St. Michael, the shield in one -hand, in the other the forked lightnings of divine wrath; and from -above the rebel host tumble headlong ‘in hideous ruin and combustion -hurled,’ and with such affright and amazement in every face, such a -downward movement in every limb, that we recoil in dizzy horror while -we look upon it. It is curious that Rubens should have introduced -female reprobate spirits: if he intended his picture as an allegory, -merely the conquest of the spiritual over the sensual, he is excusable; -but if he meant to figure the vision in the Apocalypse, it is a -deviation from the proper scriptural treatment, which is inexcusable. -This picture remains, however, as a whole, a perfect miracle of art: -the fault is, that we feel inclined to applaud as we do at some -astonishing _tour de force_; such at least was my own feeling, and -this is not the feeling appropriate to the subject. Though this famous -picture is entitled the Fall of the Angels, I have some doubts as to -whether this was the intention of the painter; whether he did not mean -to express the fall of sinners, flung by the Angel of judgment into the -abyss of wrath and perdition? - -[Illustration: 39 St. Michael as Angel of Judgment and Lord of Souls -(Justus of Ghent)] - -In those devotional pictures which exhibit St. Michael as Lord of -souls, he is winged and unarmed, and holds the balance. In each scale -sits a little naked figure, representing a human soul; one of these -is usually represented with hands joined as in thankfulness—he is the -_beato_, the elected; the other is in an attitude of horror—he is the -rejected, the reprobate; and often, but not necessarily, the idea -is completed by the introduction of a demon, who is grasping at the -descending scale, either with his talons, or with the long two-pronged -hook, such as is given to Pluto in the antique sculpture. - -Sometimes St. Michael is thus represented singly; sometimes very -beautifully in Madonna pictures, as in a picture by Leonardo da Vinci -(A.D. 1498), where St. Michael, a graceful angelic figure, with light -flowing hair, kneels before the Madonna, and presents the balance to -the Infant, who seems to welcome the pious little soul who sits in the -uppermost scale. - -[Illustration: 40 St. Michael (Signorelli, 1500. In the San Gregorio, -Rome)] - -I have seen this idea varied. St. Michael stands majestic with the -balance poised in his hands: instead of a human figure in either -scale, there are weights; on one side is seen a company of five or six -little naked shivering souls, as if waiting for their doom; on the -other several demons, one of whom with his hook is pulling down the -ascending scale.[77] With or without the balance, St. Michael figures -as Lord of souls when introduced into pictures of the Assumption or -the Glorification of the Virgin. To understand the whole beauty and -propriety of such representations, we must remember, that according to -one of the legends of the death of the Virgin her spirit was consigned -to the care of St. Michael until it was permitted to reanimate the -spotless form, and with it ascend to heaven. - -In one or two instances only, I have seen St. Michael without wings. -In general, an armed figure, unwinged and standing on a dragon, we may -presume to be a St. George; but where the balance is introduced, it -leaves no doubt of the personality—it is a St. Michael. Occasionally -the two characters—the protecting Angel of light and the Angel of -judgment—are united, and we see St. Michael, with the dragon under his -feet and the balance in his hand. This was a favourite and appropriate -subject on tombs and chapels dedicated to the dead; such is the -beautiful bas-relief on the tomb of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey. - -In some representations of the last judgment, St. Michael, instead -of the banner and cross, bears the scales; as in the very curious -bas-relief on the façade of the church of St. Trophime at Arles. St. -Michael here has a balance so large that it is almost as high as -himself; it is not a mere emblem, but a fact; a soul sits in each -scale, and a third is rising up; the angel holds out one hand to -assist him. In another part of the same bas-relief St. Michael is -seen carrying a human soul (represented as a little naked figure) and -bringing it to St. Peter and St. Paul. In a celebrated Last Judgment, -attributed by some authors to John Van Eyck, by others to Justus of -Ghent, St. Michael is grandly introduced.[78] High up, in the centre, -sits the Saviour, with the severe expression of the judge. Above him -hover four angels with the instruments of the Passion, and below him -three others sounding trumpets (_v._ p. 54),—I suppose the seven -pre-eminent angels: the Virgin and St. John the Baptist on each side, -and then the Apostles ranged in the usual manner. ‘In the lower half of -the picture stands St. Michael, clad in golden armour, so bright as to -reflect in the most complete manner all the surrounding objects. His -figure is slender and elegant, but colossal as compared to the rest. He -seems to be bending earnestly forward, a splendid purple mantle falls -from his shoulders to the ground, and his large wings are composed of -glittering peacock’s feathers. He holds the balance; the scale with the -good rests on earth, but that with the souls which are found wanting -mounts into air. A demon stands ready to receive them, and towards -this scale St. Michael points with the end of a black staff which he -holds in his right hand.’ This picture, which is a chef-d’œuvre of the -early German school, is now in the church of St. Mary at Dantzig. - - * * * * * - -The historical subjects in which St. Michael is introduced exhibit -him as prince of the Hebrew nation, and belong properly to the Old -Testament.[79] ‘After the confusion of tongues, and the scattering of -the people, which occurred on the building of the Tower of Babel, every -separate nation had an angel to direct it. To Michael was given in -charge the people of the Lord. The Hebrews being carried away captive -into the land of Assyria, Daniel prayed that they might be permitted -to return when the seventy years of captivity were over: but the Angel -of Persia opposed himself on this occasion to the angels Michael and -Gabriel. He wished to retain the Jews in captivity, because he was -glad to have, within the bounds of his jurisdiction, a people who -served the true God, and because he hoped that in time the captive Jews -would convert to the truth the Assyrians and Persians committed to his -care.’ This curious passage from one of the early Christian fathers, -representing the good angels as opposed to each other, and one of them -as disputing the commands of God, is an instance of the confused ideas -on the subject of angels which prevailed in the ancient Church, and -which prevail, I imagine, in the minds of many even at this day. - -In the story of Hagar in the wilderness, it is Michael who descends to -her aid. In the sacrifice of Isaac, it is Michael who stays the arm -of Abraham. It is Michael who brings the plagues on Egypt, and he it -is who leads the Israelites through the wilderness. It was the belief -of the Jews, and of some of the early Christian fathers, that through -his angel (not in person) God spoke to Moses from the burning bush, -and delivered to him the law on Mount Sinai; and that the angel so -delegated was Michael. - -It is Michael who combats with Lucifer for the body of Moses. (Jude -v. 9.) According to one interpretation of this curious passage of -Scripture, the demon wished to enter and to possess the form of Moses, -in order to deceive the Jews by personating their leader; but others -say, that Michael contended for the body, that he might bury it in an -unknown place, lest the Jews should fall into the sin of paying divine -honours to their legislator. This is a fine picturesque subject; the -rocky desert, the body of Moses dead on the earth, the contest of the -good and evil angel confronting each other,—these are grand materials! -It must have been rarely treated, for I remember but one instance—the -fresco by L. Signorelli, in the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. - -It is Michael who intercepts Balaam[80] when on his way to curse the -people of Israel, and puts blessings into his mouth instead of curses: -a subject often treated, but as a fact rather than a vision. - -It is Michael who stands before Joshua in the plain by Jericho:—‘And -Joshua said unto him, Art thou for us, or for our adversaries? And he -said, Nay; but as captain of the host of the Lord am I now come. And -Joshua fell on his face to the earth, and did worship, and said unto -him, What saith my Lord unto his servant? And the captain of the Lord’s -host said unto Joshua, Loose thy shoe from off thy foot; for the place -whereon thou standest is holy.’ (Joshua v. 13-15.) This subject is very -uncommon. In the Greek MS. already alluded to, I met with a magnificent -example—magnificent in point of sentiment, though half ruined and -effaced; the God-like bearing of the armed angel, looking down on the -prostrate Joshua, is here as fine as possible. - -It is Michael who appears to Gideon.[81] It is Michael who chastises -David.[82] It is Michael who exterminates the army of Sennacherib; a -subject magnificently painted by Rubens. (Some suppose that on this -occasion God made use of the ministry of an evil angel.[83]) - -It is Michael who descends to deliver the Three Children from the -burning fiery furnace. The Three Children in the furnace is a subject -which appears very early in the catacombs and on the sarcophagi -as a symbol of the Redemption;—so early, that it is described by -Tertullian;[84] but in almost all the examples given there are -three figures only: where there is a fourth, it is, of course, the -protecting angel, but he is without wings.[85] - -Michael seizes the prophet Habakkuk by the hair of the head, and -carries him to Babylon, to the den of lions, that he may feed -Daniel.[86] This apocryphal subject occurs on several sarcophagi.[87] I -have seen it also in illuminated MSS., but cannot at this moment refer -to it. It occurs in a series of late Flemish prints after Hemskirk,—of -which there are good impressions in the British Museum. - - * * * * * - -The Archangel Michael is not named in the Gospels; but in the legends -of the Madonna, as we shall see hereafter, he plays a very important -part, being deputed by Christ to announce to his mother her approaching -end, and to receive her soul. For the present I will only remark, -that when, in accordance with this very ancient legend, an angel is -represented kneeling before the Madonna, and holding in his hand a palm -surmounted by stars, or a lighted taper, this angel is not Gabriel, -announcing the conception of Christ, as is usually supposed, but -Michael, as the angel of death.[88] - -The legend of Monte Galgano I saw in a large fresco, in the Santa Croce -at Florence, by a painter of the Giotto school; but in so bad a state, -that I could only make out a bull on the top of a mountain, and a man -shooting with a bow and arrow. On the opposite wall is the combat of -Michael with the dragon—very spirited, and in much better preservation. -To distinguish the apparition of St. Michael on Monte Galgano from -the apparition on Mont St. Michel, in both of which a bull and a -bishop are principal figures, it is necessary to observe, that, in the -last-named subject, the sea is always introduced at the base of the -picture, and that the former is most common in Italian, and the latter -in French, works of art. In the French stained glass of the thirteenth -and fourteenth centuries, St. Michael is a very popular subject, either -with the dragon, or the scales, or both. - -Lately, in removing the whitewash from the east wall of the nave of -Preston Church, near Brighton, was discovered the outline of a group of -figures representing St. Michael, fully draped, and with large wings, -bearing the balance; in each scale a human soul. The scale containing -the _beato_ is assisted by a figure fully draped, but so ruined that -it is not possible to say whether it represents the Virgin, or the -guardian saint of the person who caused the fresco to be painted. I -am told that in the old churches of Cornwall, and of the towns on the -south coast, which had frequent intercourse with France, effigies of -St. Michael occur frequently, both in painting and sculpture. On the -old English coin, thence called an _angel_, we have the figure of St. -Michael, who was one of the patron saints of our Norman kings. - -I must now trust to the reader to contemplate the figures of St. -Michael, so frequent and so varied in Art, with reference to these -suggestions; and leaving for the present this radiant Spirit, this -bright similitude of a primal and universal faith, we turn to his -angelic companions. - -[Illustration: 41 Egyptian hieroglyphic of the Genius of Good -overcoming Evil (_v._ p. 108)] - -ST. GABRIEL. - - _Lat._ Sanctus Gabriel. _Ital._ San Gabriello, San Gabriele, L’Angelo - Annunziatore. _Fr._ St. Gabriel. - - ‘I am GABRIEL, that stand in the presence of God.’—_Luke_ i. 19. - -In those passages of Scripture where the Angel Gabriel is mentioned by -name, he is brought before us in the character of a Messenger only, -and always on important occasions. In the Old Testament he is sent -to Daniel to announce the return of the Jews from captivity, and to -explain the vision which prefigures the destinies of mighty empires. -His contest with the Angel of the kingdom of Persia, when St. Michael -comes to his assistance, would be a splendid subject in fit hands; -I do not know that it has ever been painted. In the New Testament -the mission of Gabriel is yet more sublime: he first appears to the -high priest Zacharias, and foretells the birth of John the Baptist,—a -subject which belongs especially to the life of that saint. Six months -later, Gabriel is sent to announce the appearance of the Redeemer of -mankind.[89] - -In the Jewish tradition, Gabriel is the guardian of the celestial -treasury. Hence, I presume, Milton has made him chief guardian of -Paradise:— - - Betwixt these rocky pillars Gabriel sat, - Chief of the angelic guards, awaiting night. - -As the Angel who announced the birth of Christ, he has been venerated -as the Angel who presides over childbirth. He foretells the birth of -Samson, and, in the apocryphal legends, he foretells to Joachim the -birth of the Virgin. In the East, he is of great importance. Mahomet -selected him as his immediate teacher and inspirer, and he became -the great protecting angel of Islamism: hence between Michael, the -protector of the Jews and Christians, and Gabriel, the protector of -the Moslem, there is supposed to exist no friendly feeling—rather the -reverse. - -In the New Testament, Gabriel is a much more important personage than -Michael; yet I have never met with any picture in which he figures -singly as an object of worship. In devotional pictures he figures as -the second of the three Archangels—‘Secondo fra i primi,’ as Tasso -styles him; or in his peculiar character as the divine messenger of -grace, ‘_l’Angelo annunziatore_.’ He then usually bears in one hand a -lily or a sceptre; in the other a scroll on which is inscribed, ‘AVE -MARIA, GRATIA PLENA!’[90] - -The subject called the ANNUNCIATION is one of the most frequent and -most important, as it is one of the most beautiful, in the whole range -of Christian Art. It belongs, however, to the history of the Virgin, -where I shall have occasion to treat it at length; yet as the Angel -Gabriel here assumes, by direct scriptural testimony, a distinct name -and personality, and as the dignity and significance proper to a -subject so often unworthily and perversely treated depend very much on -the character and deportment given to the celestial messenger, I shall -make a few observations in this place with respect to the treatment of -the angel, only reserving the theme in its general bearing for future -consideration. - -In the early representations of the Annunciation it is treated as -a religious mystery, and with a solemn simplicity and purity of -feeling, which is very striking and graceful in itself, as well as -in harmony with the peculiar manner of the divine revelation. The -scene is generally a porch or portico of a temple-like building; the -Virgin stands (she is very seldom seated, and then on a kind of raised -throne); the angel stands before her, at some distance: very often, -she is within the portico; he is without. Gabriel is a majestic being, -generally robed in white, wearing the tunic and pallium _à l’antique_, -his flowing hair bound by a jewelled tiara, with large many-coloured -wings, and bearing the sceptre of sovereignty in the left hand, while -the right is extended in the act of benediction as well as salutation: -‘Hail! thou that art highly favoured! Blessed art thou among women!’ He -is the principal figure: the attitude of the Virgin, with her drapery -drawn over her head, her eyes drooping, and her hands folded on her -bosom, is always expressive of the utmost submission and humility. So -Dante introduces the image of the lowly Virgin receiving the angel as -an illustration of the virtue of Humility:— - - Ed avea in atto impressa esta favella - ‘Ecce ancilla Dei!’— - -and Flaxman has admirably embodied this idea, both in the lofty angel -with outspread arms, and the kneeling Virgin. Sometimes the angel -floats in, with his arms crossed over his bosom, but still with the air -of a superior being, as in this beautiful figure after Lorenzo Monaco, -from a picture in the Florence Gallery. - -[Illustration: 42] - -The two figures are not always in the same picture; it was a very -general custom to place the Virgin and the Angel, the ‘Annunziata’ -and the ‘Angelo annunziatore,’ one on each side of the altar, the -place of the Virgin being usually to the right of the spectator; -sometimes the figures are half-length: sometimes, when placed in the -same picture, they are in two separate compartments, a pillar, or some -other ornament, running up the picture between them; as in many old -altar-pieces, where the two figures are placed above or on each side of -the Nativity, or the Baptism, or the Marriage at Cana, or some other -scene from the life and miracles of our Saviour. This subject does not -appear on the sarcophagi; the earliest instance I have met with is in -the mosaic series over the arch in front of the choir in the church -of Santa Maria Maggiore, at Rome, executed in the fifth century. Here -we have two successive moments represented together. In the first the -angel is sent on his mission, and appears flying down from heaven; -the earliest instance I have seen of an angel in the act of flight. -In the second group the Virgin appears seated on a throne; two angels -stand behind her, supposed to represent her guardian angels, and the -angel Gabriel stands in front with one hand extended. The dresses are -classical, and there is not a trace of the mediæval feeling, or style, -in the whole composition. - -In the Greek pictures, the Angel and the Virgin both stand; and in the -Annunciation of Cimabue the Greek formula is strictly adhered to. I -have seen pictures of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, in which -Gabriel enters as a princely ambassador, with three little angels -bearing up his mantle behind: in a picture in the collection of Prince -Wallerstein, one meek and beautiful angel bears up the rich robes of -the majestic archangel, like a page in the train of a sovereign prince. -But from the beginning of the fourteenth century we perceive a change -of feeling, as well as a change of style: the veneration paid to the -Virgin demanded another treatment. She becomes not merely the principal -person, but the superior being; she is the ‘Regina angelorum,’ and the -angel bows to her, or kneels before her as to a queen.[91] Thus in the -famous altar-piece at Cologne, the angel kneels; he bears a sceptre, -and also a sealed roll, as if he were a celestial ambassador delivering -his credentials: about the same period we sometimes see the angel -merely with his hands folded over his breast, and his head inclined, -delivering his message as if to a superior being. - -[Illustration: 43 The Angel Gabriel (Wilhelm of Cologne. 1440)] - -I cannot decide at what period the lily first replaced the sceptre in -the hand of the angel, not merely as the emblem of purity, but as the -symbol of the Virgin from the verse in the Canticles usually applied -to her: ‘I am the rose of Sharon, and the lily of the valley.’ A lily -is often placed in a vase near the Virgin, or in the foreground of the -picture: of all the attributes placed in the hand of the angel, the -lily is the most usual and the most expressive. - -The painters of Siena, who often displayed a new and original sentiment -in the treatment of a subject, have represented the angel Gabriel as -the announcer of ‘peace on earth;’ he kneels before the Virgin, crowned -with olive, and bearing a branch of olive in his hand, as in a picture -by Taddeo Bartoli. There is also a beautiful St. Gabriel by Martin -Schoen, standing, and crowned with olive. So Dante— - - L’ angel che venne in terra col decreto - Della molt’ anni lagrimata pace. - -Another passage in Dante which the painters seem to have had before -them shows us the Madonna as queen, and the angel as adoring:— - - ‘Qual è quel angel che con tanto giuoco - Guarda negli occhi la nostra regina - Innamorato sì che par di fuoco?’ - Ed egli a me,—‘Baldezza e leggiadria - Quanta esser puote in angelo ed in alma - Tutta è in lui, e si volem che sia!’ - -It is in seeking this _baldezza e leggiadria_ in a mistaken sense that -the later painters have forgotten all the spiritual dignity of the -Angel Messenger. - -Where the angel bears a lighted taper, which the Virgin extends her -hand to take from him; or, kneeling, bears in his hand a palm-branch, -surmounted by seven or twelve stars (44), the subject represented is -not the announcement of the birth of the Saviour, but the death of -the Virgin, a part of her legendary history which is rarely treated -and easily mistaken; then the announcing angel is not Gabriel, but -Michael.[92] - -[Illustration: 44 Angel announcing the death of the Virgin (F. Filippo -Lippi)] - -In old German Art, the angel in the Annunciation is habited in priestly -garments richly embroidered (42). The scene is often the bedroom of -the Virgin; and while the announcing angel enters and kneels at the -threshold of the door, the Holy Ghost enters at the window. I have -seen examples in which Gabriel, entering at a door behind the Virgin, -unfolds his official ‘Ave Maria.’ He has no lily, or sceptre, and she -is apparently conscious of his presence without seeing him.[93] - -But in the representations of the sixteenth century we find neither -the solemnity of the early Italian nor the naïveté of the early German -school; and this divine subject becomes more and more materialised -and familiarised, until, losing its spiritual character, it strikes -us as shockingly prosaic. One cannot say that the angel is invariably -deficient in dignity, or the Virgin in grace. In the Venetian -school and the Bologna school we find occasionally very beautiful -Annunciations; but in general the half-draped fluttering angels and the -girlish-looking Virgins are nothing less than offensive; and in the -attempt to vary the sentiment, the _naturalisti_ have here run the -risk of being much _too_ natural. - -[Illustration: 45 The Archangel Gabriel (Van Eyck)] - -In the Cathedral at Orvieto, the Annunciation is represented in front -of the choir by two colossal statues by Francesco Mochi: to the right -is the angel Gabriel, poised on a marble cloud, in an attitude so -fantastic that he looks as if he were going to dance; on the other side -stands the Virgin, conceived in a spirit how different!—yet not less -mistaken; she has started from her throne; with one hand she grasps -it, with the other she seems to guard her person against the intruder: -majesty at once, and fear, a look of insulted dignity, are in the -air and attitude,—‘_par che minacci e tema nel tempo istesso_’—but I -thought of Mrs. Siddons while I looked, not of the Virgin Mary. - -This fault of sentiment I saw reversed, but equally in the extreme, in -another example—a beautiful miniature.[94] The Virgin, seated on the -side of her bed, sinks back alarmed, almost fainting; the angel in a -robe of crimson, with a white tunic, stands before her, half turning -away and grasping his sceptre in his hand, with a proud commanding air, -like a magnificent surly god—a Jupiter who had received a repulse. - -I pass over other instances conceived in a taste even more -blamable—Gabriels like smirking, winged lord chamberlains; and Virgins, -half prim, half voluptuous—the sanctity and high solemnity of the event -utterly lost. Let this suffice for the present: I may now leave the -reader to his own feeling and discrimination. - - - ST. RAPHAEL. - - _Lat._ Sanctus Raphael. _Ital._ San Raffaello. _Fr._ Saint Raphael. - _Ger._ Der Heilige Rafael. - - ‘I am RAPHAEL, one of the Seven Holy Angels which present the prayers - of the Saints, and which go in and out before the glory of the HOLY - ONE.’—_Tobit_ xii. 15. - -I have already alluded to the established belief, that every individual -man, nay, every created being, hath a guardian angel deputed to watch -over him:—‘Woe unto us, if, by our negligence or our self-will, we -offend him on whose vigilance we depend for help and salvation! But -the prince of guardian spirits, the guardian angel of all humanity, is -Raphael; and in this character, according to the early Christians, he -appeared to the shepherds by night ‘with good tidings of great joy, -which shall be for all people.’ It is, however, from the beautiful -Hebrew romance of Tobit that his attributes are gathered: he is the -protector of the young and innocent, and he watches over the pilgrim -and the wayfarer. The character imputed to him in the Jewish traditions -has been retained and amplified by Milton: Raphael is the angel sent by -God to warn Adam:— - - . . . . . The affable archangel - Raphael; the sociable spirit that deign’d - To travel with Tobias, and secured - His marriage with the seven times wedded maid. - -And the character of the angel is preserved throughout: his sympathy -with the human race, his benignity, his eloquence, his mild and social -converse. So when Adam blesses him:— - - . . . . Since to part, - Go, heavenly guest, ethereal messenger, - Sent from whose sovereign goodness I adore! - Gentle to me and affable hath been - Thy condescension, and shall be honour’d ever - With grateful memory. Thou to mankind - Be good and friendly still, and oft return! - -This character of benignity is stamped on all the best representations -of Raphael, which, however, are not common: they occur principally in -the chapels dedicated to the holy guardian angels; but there are also -churches and chapels dedicated to him singly. - -The devotional figures of Raphael exhibit him in the dress of a pilgrim -or traveller, ‘his habit fit for speed succinct,’ sandals on his feet, -his hair bound with a fillet or diadem, the staff in his hand, and -sometimes a bottle of water or a wallet (_panetière_) slung to his -belt. In this figure by Murillo (46), from one of the most beautiful -pictures in the Leuchtenberg Gallery, Raphael is the guardian and guide -of the votary who appears below—a bishop who probably bore the same -name.[95] - -Sometimes, as guardian spirit, he has a sword: the most beautiful -example I could cite of this treatment is the figure in the Breviary of -Anne of Bretagne (A.D. 1500); he wears a pale-green tunic bordered with -gold, and wings of a deep rose-colour; he has a casket or wallet slung -over his shoulder by a golden belt; in one hand he holds a sword, and -the other is raised with a warning gesture; his countenance, beautiful -and benign as possible, yet says, ‘Take heed.’ More commonly, however, -he carries a small casket, box, or vase, supposed to contain the ‘fishy -charm’ against the evil spirits. (Tobit vi. 6, 7.) - -Raphael, in his character of guardian angel, is generally represented -as leading the youthful Tobias. When, in order to mark the difference -between the celestial and the mortal being, Tobit is figured so small -as to look like a child, and when the angel wears his spirit-wings, -and is not disguised, the whole subject becomes idealised: it is no -longer an historical action, but a devotional allegory; and Tobias with -his fish represents the Christian, the believer, guarded and guided -through his life-pilgrimage by the angelic monitor and minister of -divine mercy. - -[Illustration: 46 St. Raphael (Murillo. Leuchtenberg Gallery)] - -There is a small side chapel in the church of Saint Euphemia, at -Verona, dedicated to St. Raphael. The walls are painted with frescoes -from the story of Tobit; and over the altar is that masterpiece -of Carotto, representing the three archangels as three graceful -spirit-like figures without wings. The altar being dedicated to -Raphael, he is here the principal figure; he alone has the glory -encircling his head, and takes precedence of the others; he stands -in the centre leading Tobias, and looking down on him with an air of -such saintly and benign protection, that one feels inclined to say -or sing, in the words of the litany, ‘Sancte Raphaël, adolescentium -pudicitiæ defensor, ora pro nobis!’ Even more divine is the St. Michael -who stands on the right, with one hand gathering up the folds of his -crimson robe, the other leaning on his great two-handed sword; but such -a head, such a countenance looking out upon us—so earnest, powerful, -and serious!—we recognise the Lord of Souls, the Angel of Judgment. To -the left of Raphael stands Gabriel, the Angel of Redemption; he holds -the lily, and looks up to heaven adoring: this is the least expressive -of the three heads, but still beautiful; and, on the whole, the picture -left a stronger impression on my mind than any I had seen at Venice, -the glorious Assumption excepted. The colouring in its glowing depth -is like that of Giorgione. Vasari tells us, that this picture, painted -when Carotto was young (about A.D. 1495), was criticised because the -limbs of the angels were too slender; to which Carotto, famous for -his repartees, replied, ‘Then they will fly the better!’ The drawing, -however, it must be conceded, is not the best part of the picture. - -The earliest picture of Titian which remains to us is a St. Raphael -leading Tobias;[96] beautiful, but not equal, certainly, to that of -Carotto. Raphael, as we might naturally suppose, painted his guardian -angel and patron saint _con amore_:[97] we have by him two St. -Raphaels; the first, a little figure executed when he was a boy in the -studio of his master Perugino, is now on one side of an altar-piece in -the Certosa at Pavia. Later in life, and in one of his finest works, -he has introduced his patron saint with infinite beauty of feeling: -in the Madonna della Pesce,[98] the Virgin sits upon her throne, with -the Infant Christ in her arms; the angel Raphael presents Tobias, who -is not here a youth but a child; while the Infant Christ turns away -from the wise bearded old doctor, who is intently studying his great -book, to welcome the angel and his charge. The head of the angel, -looking up in the face of the Madonna, is in truth sublime: it would be -impossible to determine whether it belongs to a masculine or a feminine -being; but none could doubt that it is a _divine_ being, filled with -fervent, enthusiastic, adoring love. The fish in the hand of Tobias has -given its name to the picture; and I may as well observe that in the -devotional pictures, where the fish is merely an attribute, expressing -Christian baptism, it is usually very small: in the story it is a sort -of monster, which sprang out of the river and would have devoured him. - -All the subjects in which the Archangel Raphael is an actor belong -to the history of Tobit. The scenes of this beautiful scriptural -_legend_—I must call it so—have been popular subjects of Art, -particularly in the later schools, and have been admirably treated by -some of the best Dutch and Flemish painters: the combination of the -picturesque and poetical with the homely and domestic recommended it -particularly to Rembrandt and his school. Tobias dragging the fish -ashore, while the angel stands by, is a fine picturesque landscape -subject which has been often repeated. The spirited little sketch by -Salvator,[99] in which the figure of the guardian angel is admirable -for power and animated grace; the twilight effect by Rembrandt;[100] -another by Domenichino; three by Claude; may be cited as examples. - -[Illustration: 47 Archangel (Rembrandt)] - -In such pictures, as it has been rightly observed, the angel ought not -to have wings: he is disguised as the friendly traveller. The dog, -which ought to be omitted in the devotional pictures, is here a part of -the story, and figures with great propriety. - -Rembrandt painted the parting of Tobias and his parents four times; -Tobias led by the angel, four times; Tobias healing his father, once; -the departure of the angel, twice. Of this last subject, the picture in -the Louvre may be pronounced one of his finest;—miraculous for true and -spirited expression, and for the action of the soaring angel, who parts -the clouds and strikes through the air like a strong swimmer through -the waves of the sea (47). - -The story of Tobit, as a series of subjects, has been very frequently -represented, always in the _genre_ and picturesque style of the later -schools. I shall have to return to it hereafter; here I have merely -alluded to the devotional treatment, in order to direct attention to -the proper character of the Archangel Raphael. - -And thus we have shown - - ... how Holy Church - Doth represent with human countenance - Gabriel and Michaël, and him who made - Tobias whole.—DANTE, _Par._ c. iv. - - - ADDITIONAL NOTES ON ANGELS. - - 1. In a picture by Gentile da Fabriano (_Berlin Gallery_, 1130), the - Virgin and Child are enthroned, and on each side of the throne is a - tree, on the branches of which are little red Seraphim winged and - perched like birds, singing and making music. I remember also a little - Dutch print of a Riposo (_v._ ‘Legends of the Madonna,’ p. 256), in - which five little angels are perched on the trees above, singing and - playing for the solace of the divine Infant. Thus we have Dante’s idea - of the _Uccelli di Dio_, reproduced in a more familiar form. - - 2. In the Convent of Sant-Angelo at Bologna, Camillo Procaccino - painted the ‘Acts of the Holy Angels’ in the following order:—1. The - Fall of the Dragon. 2. The Angels drive Adam and Eve from Paradise. 3. - The three Angels visit Abraham. 4. The Angel stays the arm of Abraham. - 5. The Angel wrestles with Jacob. 6. The Angels visit Jacob in a - Dream. 7. The Angel delivers the three Children in the burning fiery - Furnace. 8. The Angel slays the Host of Sennacherib. 9. The Angel - protects Tobit. 10. The Punishment of Heliodorus. 11. The Annunciation - to Mary. It will be remarked that all these subjects are strictly - scriptural. - - - - - The Four Evangelists. - - ‘Matthew wrote for the Hebrews; Mark, for the Italians; Luke, for the - Greeks; for ALL, the great herald John.’—_Gregory Nazianzen._ - - -Since on the Four Evangelists, as the witnesses and interpreters of a -revealed religion, the whole Christian Church may be said to rest as -upon four majestic pillars, we cannot be surprised that representations -of them should abound, and that their effigies should have been -introduced into Christian places of worship, from very early times. -Generally, we find them represented together, grouped, or in a series; -sometimes in their collective character, as the _Four Witnesses_; -sometimes in their individual character, each as an inspired teacher, -or beneficent patron. As no authentic resemblances of these sacred -personages have ever been known or even supposed to exist, such -representations have always been either _symbolical_ or _ideal_. In -the symbol, the aim was to embody, under some emblematical image, the -spiritual mission; in the ideal portrait, the artist, left to his own -conception, borrowed from Scripture some leading trait (when Scripture -afforded any authority for such), and adding, with what success his -skill could attain, all that his imagination could conceive, as -expressive of dignity and persuasive eloquence—the look ‘commercing -with the skies,’ the commanding form, the reverend face, the ample -draperies—he put the book or the pen into his hand, and thus the writer -and the teacher of the truth was placed before us. - -The earliest type under which the Four Evangelists are figured is -an emblem of the simplest kind: four scrolls placed in the four -angles of a Greek cross, or four books (the Gospels), represented -allegorically those who wrote or promulgated them. The second type -chosen was more poetical—the four rivers which had their source in -Paradise: representations of this kind, in which the Saviour, figured -as a lamb holding the cross, or in his human form, with a lamb near -him, stands on an eminence, from which gush four rivers or fountains, -are to be met with in the catacombs, on ancient sarcophagi preserved -among the Christian relics in the Vatican, and in several old churches -constructed between the second and the fifth century. - -At what period the four mysterious creatures in the vision of Ezekiel -(ch. i. 5) were first adopted as significant symbols of the Four -Evangelists, does not seem clear. The Jewish doctors interpreted them -as figuring the four Archangels,—Michael, Raphael, Gabriel, Uriel; and -afterwards applied them as emblems of the Four Great Prophets,—Isaiah, -Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. By the early Oriental Christians, who -typified the whole of the Old Testament, the transfer of the emblem to -the Four Evangelists seems obvious and easy; we find it alluded to as -early as the second century. The four ‘Beasts’ of corresponding form in -the Revelation (chap. iv. 7), which stood round the throne of the Lamb, -were likewise thus interpreted; but it was not till the fifth century -that we find these symbols assuming a visible form, and introduced into -works of art. In the seventh century they had become almost universal, -as distinctive attributes. - -[Illustration: 48 St. Matthew (Mosaic, fifth century)] - -The general application of the Four Creatures to the Four Evangelists -is of much earlier date than the separate and individual application of -each symbol, which has varied at different times; that propounded by -St. Jerome, in his commentary on Ezekiel, has since his time prevailed -universally. Thus, then, 1. To St. Matthew was given the CHERUB, or -human semblance, because he begins his gospel with the human generation -of Christ; or, according to others, because in his gospel the human -nature of the Saviour is more insisted on than the divine. In the most -ancient mosaics, the type is human, not angelic, for the head is that -of a man with a beard. 2. St. Mark has the LION, because he has set -forth the royal dignity of Christ; or, according to others, because he -begins with the mission of the Baptist—‘_the voice of one crying in -the wilderness_’—which is figured by the lion: or, according to a third -interpretation, the lion was allotted to St. Mark, because there was, -in the middle ages, a popular belief that the young of the lion was -born dead, and after three days was awakened to vitality by the breath -of its sire; some authors, however, represent the lion as vivifying -his young not by his breath, but by his roar. In either case the -application is the same; the revival of the young lion was considered -as symbolical of the resurrection, and Mark was commonly called the -‘Historian of the Resurrection.’ Another commentator observes that -Mark begins his gospel with ‘roaring’—‘the voice of one crying in the -wilderness;’ and ends it fearfully with a curse—‘He that believeth not -shall be damned;’ and that, therefore, his appropriate attribute is the -most terrible of beasts, the lion.[101] 3. Luke has the OX, because he -has dwelt on the priesthood of Christ, the _ox_ being the emblem of -sacrifice. 4. John has the EAGLE, which is the symbol of the highest -inspiration, because he soared upwards to the contemplation of the -divine nature of the Saviour. - -But the order in which, in theological Art, these symbols are placed, -is not the same as the order of the Gospels according to the canon. -Rupertus considers the Four Beasts as typical of the Incarnation, the -Passion, the Resurrection, and the Ascension; an idea previously dwelt -upon by Durandus, who adds, that the man and the lion are placed on -the right, because the incarnation and the resurrection are the joy -of the whole earth; whilst the ox is on the left, because Christ’s -sacrifice was a trouble to the apostles; and the eagle is above the ox, -as suggestive of our Lord’s upward flight into heaven: according to -others, the proper order in the ascending scale is thus—at the lowest -point on the left, the ox; to the right, the lion; above the ox, the -eagle; and above all, the angel. So in Raphael’s Vision of Ezekiel, the -angel gazes into the face of the Holy One, the others form his throne. - -I have dwelt on these fanciful interpretations and disquisitions, -because the symbols of the Evangelists meet us at every turn; in the -mosaics of the old Italian churches, in the decorative sculpture -of our old cathedrals, in the Gothic stained glass, in the ancient -pictures and miniatures, on the carved and chased covers of old -books; everywhere, in short, where enters the idea of their divine -mission—and where is it not? The profound thought, as well as the -vivid imagination, exercised in some of these early works of art, is -beginning to be appreciated; and we should lose the half of what is -poetical, and significant, and venerable in these apparently arbitrary -and fanciful symbols, if we merely seized the general intention, and -not the relative and appropriate meaning of each. - -I will only add (for I have restricted myself to the consideration -of the mysteries of faith only so far as they are carried into the -forms of Art) that these symbols of the Four Evangelists were in their -combination held to be symbolical of the Redeemer, in the fourfold -character then universally assigned to him, as man, as king, as -high-priest, and as God; according to this Latin verse: - - Quatuor hæc Dominum signant animalia Christum: - Est _Homo_ nascendo, _vitulus_ que sacer moriendo, - Et _Leo_ surgendo, cœlos _aquila_ que petendo; - Nec minus hos scribas animalia et ipsa figurant. - -This would again alter the received order of the symbols, and place the -angelic or human semblance lower than the rest: but I have never seen -them so placed, at least I can recollect no instance. - -A Greek mosaic, existing in the Convent of Vatopedi, on Mount Athos, -exhibits an attempt to reduce to form the wild and sublime imagery -of the prophet Ezekiel: the Evangelists, or rather the Gospels, are -represented as the tetramorph, or four-faced creature, with wings full -of eyes, and borne on wheels of living flame (49). - -The Tetramorph, i.e. the union of the four attributes of the -Evangelists, in one figure, is in Greek Art always angelic or winged—a -mysterious thing. The Tetramorph in Western Art has in some instances -become monstrous, instead of mystic and poetical. In a miniature of the -_Hortus Deliciarum_, we find the new Law, or Christianity, represented -as a woman crowned and seated on an animal which, with the body of a -horse, has the four heads of the mystic creatures; and of the four -feet, one is human; one hoofed, for the ox; one clawed like an eagle’s; -and one like a lion’s: underneath is inscribed _Animal Ecclesiæ_. -In some other examples, the Church, or the new Law, is seated in a -triumphal car drawn by the eagle, the lion, and the ox, while the angel -holds the reins and drives as charioteer. - -[Illustration: 49 Tetramorph] - -The early images of the Evangelical symbol are uniformly represented -with wings, for the same reason that wings were given to the -angels,—they were angels, i.e. bringers of good tidings: for instance, -in the earliest example to which I can refer, a rude fragment of a -bas-relief in terracotta, found in the catacombs, which represents -a lamb with a glory holding a cross; on the right, an angel in a -sacerdotal garment (St. Matthew), on the left the winged ox (St. Luke), -each holding a book. - -[Illustration: 50 St. Luke (Mosaic, A.D. 750)] - -[Illustration: 51 St. Luke (Mosaic, fifth century)] - -In the most ancient Christian churches we find these symbols -perpetually recurring, generally in or over the recess at the east end -(the apsis, or tribune), where stands the altar. And as the image of -Christ, as the Redeemer, either under the semblance of the lamb, or in -his human likeness, as a grand, calm, solemn figure enthroned, and in -the act of benediction, forms invariably the principal object; almost -as invariably the Evangelists are either at the four corners, or -ranged in a line above or below, or they are over the arch in front of -the tribune. Sometimes they are the heads only of the mystic creatures, -on an azure ground, studded with stars, floating as in a firmament, -thus (50): or the half figure ends in a leafy scroll, like the genii -in an arabesque, as thus (51): or the creature is given at full length -and entire, with four wings, holding the book, and looking much like a -figure in heraldry (52, 53). - -[Illustration: 52 St. John (Mosaic, eleventh century)] - -[Illustration: 53 St. Mark (Mosaic)] - -The next step was the combination of the emblem with the human form, -i.e. the head of the lion, ox, or eagle, set upon the figure of a -man. Here is a figure of St. John standing with the head of an eagle, -holding the gospel (54). There is another rudely engraved in Münter’s -work, with the eagle’s head, wings upon the shoulders, and a scroll. I -remember another of St. John seated, writing, with the head and clawed -feet of an eagle, and the body and hands of a man. Such figures as a -series I have seen in ornaments, and frequently in illuminated MSS., -but seldom in churches, and never of a large size. A very striking -and comparatively modern example of this peculiar treatment occurs -in a bas-relief on the door of the College of St. Stephen and St. -Lawrence, at Castiglione, in which the Four Evangelists are represented -as half-length human figures, amply draped and holding the gospels, -each with the emblematic head and large outspread wings (55). The -bronze bas-reliefs of the Evangelists on each side of the choir of -St. Antonio, at Padua, are similar in form, and very fine, both in -conception and workmanship. - -[Illustration: 54 St. John] - -This series of full-length figures is from the first compartment of -the Life of Christ by Angelico da Fiesole.[102] In the original the -figures stand round a mystic circle, alternately with the prophets -(56). We must remember, that however monstrous and grotesque such -figures may appear to the eye, they are not more unnatural than the -angelic representations with which we are so familiar that we see in -them beauty only—not considering that men with the wings of birds are -as merely emblematical and impossible as men with animal heads. It is -interesting, and leads the mind to many speculations, to remark that -the Babylonish captivity must have familiarised the Israelites with -the combination of the human and animal attributes in the same figure. -The gigantic bas-reliefs from Nineveh show us winged bulls with human -heads, and the human form with the eagle’s head and wings. This figure, -for example, (57) is not unlike some early figures of St. John, if we -substitute the book and the pen for the basket and the pine-cone. - -[Illustration: 55 St. Mark] - -[Illustration: 56] - -[Illustration: 57 From Nineveh] - -In a few later examples the only symbolical attribute retained is -a pair of wings. The next figure (58) is from a curious set of -Evangelists, of a minute size, and exquisitely engraved by Hans Beham: -they are habited in the old German fashion; each has his book, his -emblem, and in addition the expressive wings. - -[Illustration: 58] - -These animal symbols, whether alone or in combination with the human -forms, were perfectly intelligible to the people, sanctified in their -eyes by tradition, by custom, and by the most solemn associations. -All direct imitation of nature was, by the best painters, carefully -avoided. In this respect how fine is Raphael’s Vision of Ezekiel! how -sublime and how true in feeling and conception! where the Messiah comes -floating along, upborne by the Four Creatures—mysterious, spiritual, -wonderful beings, animals in form, but in all else unearthly, and -the winged ox not less divine than the winged angel![103] Whereas in -the later times, when the artist piqued himself upon the imitation -of nature, the mystic and venerable significance was wholly lost. As -a striking instance of this mistaken style of treatment, we may turn -to the famous group of the Four Evangelists by Rubens,[104] grand, -colossal, standing or rather moving figures, each with his emblem, -if emblems they can be called which are almost as full of reality as -nature itself:—the ox so like life, we expect him to bellow at us; the -magnificent lion flourishing his tail, and looking at St. Mark as if -about to roar at him!—and herein lies the mistake of the great painter, -that, for the religious and mysterious emblem, he has substituted the -creatures themselves: this being one of the instances, not unfrequent -in Art, in which the literal truth becomes a manifest falsehood. - -In ecclesiastical decoration the Four Evangelists are sometimes grouped -significantly with the Four Greater Prophets; thus representing the -connexion between the new and the old Law. I met with a curious -instance in the Cathedral of Chartres. The five great windows over -the south door may be said to contain a succinct system of theology, -according to the belief of the thirteenth century: here the Virgin, -i.e. the Church or Religion, occupies the central window; on one side -is Jeremiah, carrying on his shoulders St. Luke, and Isaiah carrying -St. Matthew; on the other side, Ezekiel bears St. John, and Daniel St. -Mark; thus representing the New Testament resting on the Old. - -In ecclesiastical decoration, and particularly in the stained glass, -they are often found in combination with the Four Doctors, the -Evangelists being considered as witnesses, the Doctors as interpreters, -of the truth: or as a series with the Four Greater Prophets, the Four -Sibyls, and the Four Doctors of the Church, the Evangelists taking the -third place. - -If, as late as the sixteenth century, we find the Evangelists still -expressed by the mystic emblems (as in the fine bronzes in the choir -of Sant’ Antonio at Padua), as early as the sixth we have in the Greek -MSS. and mosaics the Evangelists as venerable men, and promulgators -of a revelation; as in San Vitale at Ravenna (A.D. 547): on each side -of the choir, nearest the altar, we find the prophets Isaiah and -Jeremiah; then follow the Evangelists, two on each side, all alike, -all classically draped in white tunics, each holding an open book, on -which is inscribed ‘Secundum Marcum,’ ‘Secundum Johannem,’ &c.; and -above each the animal symbol or attribute, large, full length, and -grandly designed. In modern ecclesiastical decoration, the usual and -appropriate situation of the Four Evangelists is immediately under the -dome, nearest to the Saviour after the angels, or after the prophets, -where either are introduced. I will mention here a few examples -celebrated in the history of Art; premising that among the works of -Leonardo, of Michael Angelo, and Raphael, we find no representations of -the Four Evangelists; which is singular, considering that such figures -entered necessarily into every scheme of theological decorative art. - -By Cimabue (A.D. 1270), larger than life, on the vault of the choir in -San Francesco d’Assisi. - -By Giotto (A.D. 1320), in the choir of Sant’ Apollinare, at Ravenna; -seated, and each accompanied by one of the doctors of the Church. - -By Angelico (A.D. 1390), round the dome of the chapel of San Niccolò, -in the Vatican; all seated, each with his emblem. - -By Masaccio (A.D. 1420), round the dome of the chapel of the Passion in -San Clemente, at Rome; admirable for simple grandeur. - -By Perugino (A.D. 1490), on the dome of the chapel del Cambio, at -Perugia; the heads admirable. - -By Correggio (A.D. 1520), immediately under the cupola of San Giovanni, -in four lunettes, magnificent figures: and again in the Cathedral of -Parma, each seated in glory, with one of the doctors of the Church. - -By Domenichino, two sets (A.D. 1620). Those in the church of St. Andrea -della Valle, at Rome, are considered his finest works, and celebrated -in the history of Art: they are grand figures. The emblematical animals -are here combined with the personages in a manner the most studied and -picturesque; and the angels which sport around them, playing with the -mane of St. Mark’s lion, or the pallet and pencils of St. Luke, are -like beautiful ‘Amoretti,’—but we hardly think of angels. The series at -Grotta-Ferrata is inferior. - -The Four Evangelists by Valentin (A.D. 1632), in the Louvre, had once -great celebrity, and have been often engraved; they appear to me signal -examples of all that should be avoided in character and sentiment. St. -Matthew, for example, is an old beggar; the model for the attendant -angel is a little French _gamin_, ‘à qui Valentin a commandé de sortir -un bras de la manche de sa chemise, que de l’autre main il soutient -gauchement.’ - -Le Sueur (A.D. 1655) has represented the Four Evangelists seated at a -table writing; the Holy Ghost descends upon them in the form of a dove. - -Towards the end of the seventeenth century, we find sets of the -Evangelists in which the emblems are altogether omitted, and the -personages distinguished by their situation, or by their names -inscribed under or over them: but we miss those antique scriptural -attributes which placed them before us as beings foreshadowed in the -prophecies uttered of old; they have become mere men. - - * * * * * - -This must suffice for the Evangelists considered as a series and in -their collective character; but it will be interesting to pause for a -moment, and take a rapid retrospective view of the progress, from first -to last, in the expression of an idea through form. - -First, we have the mere _fact_; the four scrolls, or the four books. - -Next, the _idea_; the four rivers of salvation flowing from on high, to -fertilise the whole earth. - -Thirdly, the _prophetic_ Symbol; the winged cherub of fourfold aspect. - -Next, the _Christian_ Symbol; the four ‘beasts’ in the Apocalypse, with -or without the angel-wings. - -Then the combination of the _emblematical animal_ with the _human_ form. - -Then the _human_ personages, each of venerable or inspired aspect, as -becomes the teacher and witness; and each attended by the scriptural -emblem—no longer an emblem, but an attribute—marking his individual -vocation and character. - -And, lastly, the emblem and attribute both discarded, we have the human -being only, holding his gospel, i.e. _his_ version of the doctrine of -Christ. - - - ST. MATTHEW. - - _Lat._ S. Mattheus. _Ital._ San Matteo. _Fr._ Saint Matthieu. _Ger._ - St. Matthäus. (Sept. 21.) - -St. Matthew among the Apostles takes the seventh or eighth place, but -as an Evangelist he always stands first, because his gospel was the -earliest written. Very little is certainly known concerning him, his -name occurring but once in his own gospel, and in the other gospels -only incidentally with reference to two events. - -He was a Hebrew by birth; by profession a publican, or tax-gatherer, in -the service of the Romans—an office very lucrative, but particularly -odious in the sight of his countrymen. His original name was Levi. It -is recorded in few words, that as he sat at the receipt of custom by -the lake of Gennesareth, Jesus in passing by saw him, and said unto -him, ‘Follow me,’ and he left all and followed him; and farther, that -he made a feast in his house, at which many publicans and sinners sat -down with the Lord and his disciples, to the great astonishment and -scandal of the Jews. So far the sacred record: the traditional and -legendary history of St. Matthew is equally scanty. It is related in -the _Perfetto Legendario_ that after the dispersion of the apostles -he travelled into Egypt and Ethiopia, preaching the Gospel; and -having arrived in the capital of Ethiopia, he lodged in the house of -the eunuch who had been baptized by Philip, and who entertained him -with great honour. There were two terrible magicians at that time in -Ethiopia, who by their diabolical spells and incantations kept all the -people in subjection, afflicting them at the same time with strange and -terrible diseases; but St. Matthew overcame them, and having baptized -the people, they were delivered for ever from the malignant influence -of these enchanters. And further, it is related that St. Matthew raised -the son of the King of Egypt from the dead, and healed his daughter of -the leprosy. The princess, whose name was Iphigenia, he placed at the -head of a community of virgins dedicated to the service of God; and a -certain wicked heathen king, having threatened to tear her from her -asylum, was struck by leprosy, and his palace destroyed by fire. St. -Matthew remained twenty-three years in Egypt and Ethiopia, and it is -said that he perished in the ninetieth year of our era, under Domitian: -but the manner of his death is uncertain; according to the Greek -legend, he died in peace, but according to the tradition of the Western -Church, he suffered martyrdom either by the sword or the spear. - -[Illustration: 59 St. Matthew] - -Few churches are dedicated to St. Matthew. I am not aware that he is -the patron saint of any country, trade, or profession, unless it be -that of tax-gatherer or exciseman; and this is perhaps the reason -that, except where he figures as one of the series of evangelists or -apostles, he is so seldom represented alone, or in devotional pictures. -In a large altar-piece, the ‘San Matteo’ of Annibal Caracci,[105] he -is standing before the throne of the Madonna, as a pendant to John -the Baptist, and gives his name to the picture: but such examples are -uncommon. When he is portrayed as an evangelist, he holds a book or a -pen; and the angel, his proper attribute and attendant, stands by, -pointing up to heaven, or dictating; or he holds the inkhorn, or he -supports the book. In his character of apostle, St. Matthew frequently -holds a purse or money-bag, as significant of his former vocation (56). - -Neither are pictures from his life of frequent occurrence. The -principal incident, entitled the ‘Calling of Matthew,’ has been -occasionally, but not often, treated in painting. The _motif_ is simple -and not easily mistaken. St. Matthew is seated at a kind of desk with -money before him; various personages bring tribute; on one side is -seen Christ, with one or two of his disciples, generally Peter and -Andrew; St. Matthew is either looking towards him with an expression of -awe-struck attention, or he is rising from his seat, as in the act to -follow: the mere accessories and number of the personages vary with the -period of the composition and the taste of the painter. - -1. The earliest instance I can cite, probably the oldest which has come -down to us, is in a Greek MS. of the ninth century.[106] St. Matthew -sits with both hands on a heap of gold, lying on a table before him: he -looks round at Christ, who is a little behind. - -2. St. Matthew is about to rise to follow the Saviour; by Matte di Ser -Cambio of Perugia, who has represented his patron saint in a small -composition.[107] - -3. In the Queen’s Gallery at Buckingham Palace, there is a very curious -and interesting picture of this subject, by Mabuse, which once belonged -to King Charles I., and is quaintly described in the old catalogue of -his pictures ‘as a very old, defaced, curious altar-piece, upon a thick -board, where Christ is calling St. Matthew out of the custom-house; -which picture was got in Queen Elizabeth’s days, in the taking of Calus -Malus (Cadiz), in Spain. Painted upon a board in a gilded arched frame, -like an altar-piece; containing ten big figures, less than half so big -as the life, and some twenty-two afar off less figures. Given to the -King.’ In the foreground there is a rich architectural porch, from -which St. Matthew is issuing in haste, leaving his money-bags behind; -and in the background is seen the lake of Gennesareth and shipping. -This picture was among the booty taken in Essex’s expedition against -Cadiz in 1596, and probably stolen from some church. - -4. In the Vienna Gallery I found three pictures of the same subject, -all by Hemessen, very quaint and curious. - -5. At Dresden the same subject in the Venetian style by Pordenone. - -6. By Ludovico Caracci, a grand scenic picture, painted for the -Mendicanti in Bologna. - -7. In a chapel of the church of San Luigi de’ Francesi, at Rome, -there are three pictures by Caravaggio from the life of St. Matthew. -Over the altar is the saint writing his gospel; he looks up at the -attendant angel, who is behind with outspread wings, and in the act -of dictating. On the left is the calling of St. Matthew; the saint, -who has been counting money, rises with one hand on his breast, and -turns to follow the Saviour: an old man, with spectacles on his nose, -examines with curiosity the personage whose summons has had such a -miraculous effect: a boy is slyly appropriating the money which the -apostle has thrown down. The third picture is the martyrdom of the -saint, who, in the sacerdotal habit, lies extended on a block, while a -half-naked executioner raises the sword, and several spectators shrink -back with horror. There is nothing dignified or poetical in these -representations; and though painted with all that power of effect which -characterised Caravaggio, then at the height of his reputation, they -have also his coarseness of feeling and execution: the priests were -(not without reason) dissatisfied; and it required all the influence -of his patron, Cardinal Giustiniani, to induce them to retain the -pictures in the church where we now see them;—here we sympathise with -the priests, rather than with the artist and his patron. - -The Feast which St. Matthew made for our Saviour and his disciples is -the subject of one of Paul Veronese’s gorgeous banquet scenes; that -which he painted for the refectory of the Convent of St. John and St. -Paul at Venice. It is now in the Academy, filling up the end wall of -one of the great rooms from side to side, and seeming to let in light -and air through the lofty marble porticoes, which give us such a -magnificent idea of the splendour which surrounded Levi before he left -all to follow Jesus. - -In all the representations of the death of St. Matthew, except those of -the Greek or Byzantine school, he dies by the sword. The Greek artists -uniformly exhibit him as dying in peace, while an angel swings the -censer beside his bed: as on the ancient doors of San Paolo at Rome. - -Pictures from the legendary life of St. Matthew are very rare. The -most remarkable are the frescoes in the chapel of San Matteo at -Ravenna, attributed to Giotto. They are so much ruined, that, of the -eight subjects represented, only three—his vocation, his preaching and -healing the sick in Ethiopia, and the baptism of the king and queen—can -be made out. In the Bedford missal at Paris I found a miniature, -representing St. Matthew ‘healing the son and daughter of King Egyptus -of the leprosy;’ but, as a subject of art, he is not popular. - - - ST. MARK. - - _Lat._ S. Marcus. _Ital._ San Marco Evangelista. _Fr._ St. Marc. - _Ger._ Der Heilige Marcus. (April 25. A.D. 68.) - -St. Mark the Evangelist was not one of the twelve Apostles: his -conversion apparently took place after the ascension. He was the -companion and assistant of Paul and Barnabas, with whom he preached the -Gospel among the Gentiles. According to the traditions received in the -Roman Church, he was converted by St. Peter, and became his favourite -disciple; attended him first to Aquileia, where they converted and -baptized the people on the shores of the Adriatic, and thence to Rome. -While there he wrote his gospel for the use of the Roman converts,—some -say from the dictation of the apostle. He afterwards, by command of St. -Peter, went to preach the Gospel in Egypt; and after preaching in Lybia -and Thebais for twelve years, he founded the church of Alexandria, -subsequently one of the most celebrated of all the early Christian -churches. The ire of the heathen being stirred up against him because -of his miracles, they reviled him as a magician, and, during the feast -of their god Serapis, seized him while in the act of worship, bound -him, and dragged him along the streets and highways, and over stony and -rocky places, till he perished miserably; at the same time a dreadful -tempest of hail and lightning fell upon his murderers, by which they -were dispersed and destroyed. The Christians of Alexandria buried his -mangled remains, and his sepulchre was regarded with great reverence -for several centuries. About 815 A.D., some Venetian merchants trading -to Alexandria carried off the relics (literally stole them,—‘_convey_ -the wise it call!’), and they were deposited in the city of Venice, -where the stately church of St. Mark was built over them. Since that -time, St. Mark has been honoured as the patron saint of Venice, and -his legendary history has supplied the Venetian painters with many -beautiful and picturesque subjects. - -When St. Mark is represented as one of the four Evangelists, either -singly or grouped with the others, he is almost invariably accompanied -by the lion, winged or unwinged, but generally winged,—which -distinguishes him from St. Jerome, who is also accompanied by the lion, -but unwinged, as we shall see hereafter. - -In devotional representations, St. Mark often wears the habit of -bishop, as first bishop of Alexandria. He is thus represented in the -colossal mosaic over the principal door of St. Mark’s at Venice[108] in -the pontificals of a Greek bishop, no mitre, short grey hair and beard; -one hand raised in benediction, the other holding the gospel. - -Of the innumerable pictures in which St. Mark figures as patron of -Venice, I can afford to give a few examples only. - -1. A. Busati. He is seated on a throne; an open book in one hand, -bearing inscribed the Venetian motto (‘_la Leggenda de’ Veneti_‘) PAX -TIBI, MARCE, EVANGELISTA MEUS; the other hand blessing: behind him a -fig-tree, with leaves and no fruit; probably in allusion to the text, -ch. xi. 13, which is peculiar to St. Mark. On his right stands St. -Andrew bearing a cross; on the left St. Bernardino of Siena; behind him -the apple-tree which ‘brought death into the world and all our woe.’ -This votive picture, from its mystical accessories and the introduction -of St. Bernardino, was probably painted for the Franciscans (_i Frari_) -of Venice: it is now in the Academy there. - -2. St. Mark on a lofty throne holds his gospel in his hand; at his feet -the four saints who are protectors against sickness and pestilence, St. -Sebastian, St. Roch, St. Cosmo, and St. Damian: a splendid picture, -in Titian’s early manner.[109] 3. St. Mark plants the standard of -Venice, by Bonifazio. And 4. ‘San Marco che assista all’ coscrizione -maritima;’ (i.e. the enlisting of the mariners for the service of the -State) by G. del Moro, both curious instances of the manner in which -the Venetians mixed up their patron saint with all their political and -military transactions. 5. St. Mark presents the Doge Leonardo Dona to -the Virgin; the most remarkable of a numerous class of votive pictures -common in the Venetian school, in which St. Mark introduces either the -Doge or some general or magnifico to the Virgin.[110] - -Among the devotional pictures of St. Mark, one of the most famous is -that of Fra Bartolomeo, in the Palazzo Pitti. He is represented as a -man in the prime of life, with bushy hair and a short reddish beard, -throned in a niche, and holding in one hand the gospel, in the other a -pen; the lion is omitted. The Frate painted this picture for his own -convent of San Marco at Florence. It is much lauded and celebrated, -but the attitude appeared to me rather forced, and the features rather -commonplace. - -The legend which describes St. Mark as the disciple and amanuensis -of St. Peter, has given occasion for those votive pictures in which -they are represented together. 1. In the treasury of St. Mark’s is -preserved a golden reliquary of a square form, containing, it is said, -a fragment of the original gospel in the handwriting of St. Mark; the -chased cover represents St. Peter on a throne, and before him kneels -the evangelist, writing from his dictation.[111] 2. And again, in an -ancient Greek Evangelarium, St. Mark is seated, writing; St. Peter -stands before him with his hand raised as dictating. 3. In a beautiful -picture by Angelico da Fiesole,[112] St. Peter is in a pulpit preaching -to the Romans; and Mark, seated, is taking down his words in a book. -4. St. Peter and St. Mark standing together, the former holding a -book, the latter a pen, with an inkhorn suspended from his girdle, by -Bellini;[113] and, 5, a similar one by Bonvicino—very beautiful.[114] -Such pictures are extremely interesting, showing the opinion generally -entertained of the origin of St. Mark’s Gospel. - -Historical pictures from the legendary life of St. Mark abound in the -Venetian school, but are not often found out of Venice. - -St. Mark preaching the Gospel at Alexandria, by Gentil Bellini,[115] -a very large composition with numerous figures, is on many accounts -extremely curious. The painter, who had been at Constantinople, -transferred to Alexandria the Oriental scenery and costume with which -he had become acquainted. The church of St. Euphemia at Alexandria, in -the background, has the air of a Turkish mosque; a crowd of persons, -men and women, in the costume of the Turks, surround the saint, who is -standing on a kind of pedestal or platform, ascended by a flight of -steps, from which he addresses his audience with great fervour. Gentil -Bellini painted this picture for the Scuola di San Marco, at Venice. - -It is related that one day St. Mark, in his progress through the city -of Alexandria, saw a poor cobbler, who had wounded his hand severely -with his awl, so as to be incapacitated from gaining his bread: St. -Mark healed the wound; and the cobbler, whose name was Anianus, being -converted and properly instructed, became a zealous Christian, and -succeeded St. Mark as bishop of Alexandria. This miraculous cure of St. -Anianus, and his subsequent baptism, are represented in two pictures -by Mansueti.[116] In the Berlin Gallery is the cure of St. Anianus, by -Cima da Conegliano; a large composition with many figures. The cure -and baptism of St. Anianus, represented as a very aged man, form the -subjects of two fine bas-reliefs on the façade of the School of St. -Mark, by Tullio Lombardo, A.D. 1502. - -In the Martyrdom of St. Mark, he is dragged through the streets by the -enraged populace, who haul him along by a rope; a storm from above -overwhelms the idolaters. The subject is thus represented by Angelico -da Fiesole.[117] - - * * * * * - -A famous legend of St. Mark, which has been the subject of several -pictures, can only be worthily given in the language of the old -Venetian chronicle: there is something perfectly charming in the -picturesque naïveté and matter-of-fact detail with which this wild and -wonderful story is related; and if you, reader, have ever stood on the -steps of the Piazzetta and looked over to San Giorgio, or San Niccolò, -when the waves of the Lagune were foaming and driving up to your feet, -and storm-clouds stooping and lowering seemed to touch the very domes -and campanile around, then you will have the whole scene as a reality -before you. - -‘On the 25th of February, 1340, there fell out a wonderful thing in -this land; for during three days the waters rose continually, and in -the night there was fearful rain and tempest, such as had never been -heard of. So great was the storm that the waters rose three cubits -higher than had ever been known in Venice; and an old fisherman being -in his little boat in the canal of St. Mark, reached with difficulty -the Riva di San Marco, and there he fastened his boat, and waited the -ceasing of the storm. And it is related that, at the time this storm -was at the highest, there came an unknown man, and besought him that he -would row him over to San Giorgio Maggiore, promising to pay him well; -and the fisherman replied, “How is it possible to go to San Giorgio? -we shall sink by the way!” But the man only besought him the more that -he should set forth. So, seeing that it was the will of God, he arose -and rowed over to San Giorgio Maggiore; and the man landed there, and -desired the boatman to wait. In a short while he returned with a young -man; and they said, “Now row towards San Niccolò di Lido.” And the -fisherman said, “How can one possibly go so far with one oar?” And they -said, “Row boldly, for it shall be possible to thee, and thou shalt -be well paid.” And he went; and it appeared to him as if the waters -were smooth. Being arrived at San Niccolò di Lido, the two men landed, -and returned with a third, and, having entered into the boat, they -commanded the fisherman that he should row beyond the two castles. And -the tempest raged continually. Being come to the open sea, they beheld -approaching, with such terrific speed that it appeared to fly over the -waters, an enormous galley full of demons (as it is written in the -Chronicles, and Marco Sabellino also makes mention of this miracle): -the said bark approached the castles to overwhelm Venice, and to -destroy it utterly; anon the sea, which had hitherto been tumultuous, -became calm; and these three men, having made the sign of the cross, -exorcised the demons, and commanded them to depart, and immediately -the galley or the ship vanished. Then these three men commanded the -fisherman to land them, the one at San Niccolò di Lido, the other at -San Giorgio Maggiore, and the third at San Marco. And when he had -landed the third, the fisherman, notwithstanding the miracle he had -witnessed, desired that he would pay him; and he replied, “Thou art -right; go now to the Doge, and to the Procuratore of St. Mark, and tell -them what thou hast seen, for Venice would have been overwhelmed had it -not been for us three. I am St. Mark the evangelist, the protector of -this city; the other is the brave knight St. George; and he whom thou -didst take up at the Lido is the holy bishop St. Nicholas. Say to the -Doge and to the Procuratori[118] that they are to pay you; and tell -them likewise that this tempest arose because of a certain schoolmaster -dwelling at San Felice, who did sell his soul to the devil, and -afterwards hanged himself.” And the fisherman replied, “If I should -tell them this, they will not believe me.” Then St. Mark took off a -ring which was on his finger, which ring was worth five ducats; and he -said, “Show them this, and tell them when they look in the sanctuary -they will not find it:” and thereupon he disappeared. The next morning, -the said fisherman presented himself before the Doge and related all he -had seen the night before, and showed him the ring for a sign. And the -Procuratori having sent for the ring, and sought in the usual place, -found it not; by reason of which miracle the fisherman was paid, and a -solemn procession was ordained, giving thanks to God, and to the relics -of the three holy saints, who rest in our land, and who delivered us -from this great danger. The ring was given to Signor Marco Loredano -and to Signor Andrea Dandolo the Procuratori, who placed it in the -sanctuary; and, moreover, a perpetual provision was made for the aged -fisherman above mentioned.’[119] - -This legend is the subject of two celebrated pictures:—The first, -attributed to Giorgione,[120] represents the storm. A ship, manned by -demons, is seen towering over the waves: the demons appear to be seized -with consternation; some fling themselves headlong over the side of -their vessel, others are clinging to the rigging, others sit on the -masts which flame with fire, and the glare is seen over the murky sky -and sea. More in front are two barks, one rowed by four satyr-like -demons, splendid figures admirably painted, literally glowing as if -they were red-hot, and full of fierce animation. In the other bark -are seen the three saints, St. Mark, St. Nicholas, and St. George, -rowed by the fisherman; sea-monsters are sporting amid the waves, -demons bestride them; the city of Venice is just visible in the far-off -distance. The whole picture is full of vigour and poetic feeling; the -fiery glow of colour and the romantic style of Giorgione suited the -subject; and it has been admirably restored. - -The second picture is by Paris Bordone,[121] and represents the -fisherman presenting the miraculous ring of St. Mark to the Doge -Gradenigo. It is like a grand piece of scenic decoration: we have -before us a magnificent marble hall, with columns and buildings in -perspective; to the right, on the summit of a flight of steps, sits -the Doge in council; the poor fisherman, ascending the steps, holds -forth the ring. The numerous figures, the vivid colour, the luxuriant -architecture, remind us of Paul Veronese, with, however, more delicacy, -both in colour and execution. - - * * * * * - -A Christian slave, in the service of a certain nobleman of Provence, -disobeyed the commands of his lord, and persisted in paying his -devotions at the shrine of St. Mark, which was at some distance. On his -return home, he was condemned to the torture. As it was about to be -inflicted, the saint himself descended from heaven to aid his votary; -the instruments of torture were broken or blunted, the oppressor and -his executioners confounded. This legend is the subject of a celebrated -picture by Tintoretto,[122] of which Mr. Rogers had the original -sketch. The slave lies on the ground amid a crowd of spectators, who -look on, animated by all the various emotions of sympathy, rage, -terror; a woman in front, with a child in her arms, has always been -admired for the life-like vivacity of her attitude and expression. -The executioner holds up the broken implements; St. Mark, with a -headlong movement, seems to rush down from heaven in haste to save his -worshipper; the dramatic grouping in this picture is wonderful; the -colouring, in its gorgeous depth and harmony, is in Mr. Rogers’s sketch -finer than in the picture. - - * * * * * - -In St. Mark’s, at Venice, we find the whole history of St. Mark on the -vault of the Cappella Zen (opening from the Baptistery), in a series -of very curious mosaics of the twelfth century. The translation of the -body of St. Mark; the carrying off the relics from Alexandria; their -arrival in Venice; the grand religious ceremonies which took place on -their arrival; are also represented in the mosaics over the portico -of St. Mark’s, executed chiefly between 1650 and 1680. We have the -same legend in two compositions of Tintoretto:[123] in the first, the -remains of St. Mark are taken forcibly from the tomb by the Venetian -mariners; in the other, they are borne away to sea in a night-storm, -while in the air is seen hovering a bright transparent form,—the soul -of the saint flitting with his body to Venice. - - - ST. LUKE. - - _Lat._ Sanctus Luca. _Ital._ San Luca. _Fr._ Saint Luc. (Oct. 18.) - -Of the real history of St. Luke we know very little. He was not an -apostle; and, like St. Mark, appears to have been converted after the -ascension. He was a beloved disciple of St. Paul, whom he accompanied -to Rome, and remained with his master and teacher till the last. It -is related, that, after the martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul, he -preached the Gospel in Greece and Egypt; but whether he died a natural -death, or suffered martyrdom, does not seem clear. The Greek traditions -represent him as dying in peace, and his death was thus figured on the -ancient doors of San Paolo at Rome. Others affirm that he was crucified -at Patras with St. Andrew. - -There is some ground for the supposition that Luke was a physician. -(Col. iv. 14.) But the pretty legend which makes him a painter, -and represents him as painting the portrait of the Virgin Mary, is -unsupported by any of the earlier traditions. It is of Greek origin, -still universally received by the Greek Church, which considers -painting a religious art, and numbers in its calendar of saints a long -list of painters, as well as poets, musicians, and physicians. ‘Les -Grecs,’ says Didron, ‘semblent avoir canonisé des chrétiens uniquement -parce qu’ils s’occupaient de soulager le corps ou de charmer l’esprit.’ -In the west of Europe, the legend which represents St. Luke as a -painter can be traced no higher than the tenth century; the Greek -painters introduced it; and a rude drawing of the Virgin discovered -in the catacombs, with an inscription purporting that it was ‘one of -seven painted by Luca,’ confirmed the popular belief that St. Luke -the evangelist was meant. Thus originated the fame of innumerable -Virgins of peculiar sanctity, all attributed to his hand, and regarded -with extreme veneration. Such ancient pictures are generally of Greek -workmanship, and of a black complexion.[124] In the legend of St. Luke -we are assured that he carried with him everywhere two portraits, -painted by himself; one of our Saviour, and one of the Virgin; and -that by means of these he converted many of the heathen, for not only -did they perform great miracles, but all who looked on these bright -and benign faces, which bore a striking resemblance to each other, -were moved to admiration and devotion. It is also said, that St. Luke -painted many portraits of the Virgin, delighting himself by repeating -this gracious image; and in the church of Santa Maria in Via Lata, at -Rome, they still show a little chapel in which, ‘as it hath been handed -down from the first ages, St. Luke the Evangelist wrote, and painted -the effigy of the Virgin-Mother of God.’ - -On the strength of this tradition, St. Luke has been chosen as the -patron saint of painters. Academies of art are placed under his -particular protection; their chapels are dedicated to him, and over the -altar we see him in his charming and pious avocation, that of painting -portraits of the Blessed Virgin for the consolation of the faithful. - -The devotional figures of St. Luke, in his character of evangelist, -represent him in general with his gospel and his attendant ox, winged -or unwinged, as already described; but in Greek Art, and in those -schools of Art which have been particularly under the Byzantine -influence (as the early Venetian), we see St. Luke as evangelist young -and beardless, holding the portrait of the Virgin as his attribute -in one hand, and his gospel in the other. A beautiful figure of St. -Luke as evangelist and painter is in the famous ‘Heures d’Anne de -Bretagne.’[125] - -In an engraving by Lucas v. Leyden, executed as it should seem in -honour of his patron saint, St. Luke is seated on the back of his ox, -writing the gospel; he wears a hood like an old professor, rests his -book against the horns of the animal, and his inkstand is suspended on -the bough of a tree. But separate devotional figures of him as patron -are as rare as those of St. Matthew. - -St. Luke painting the Virgin has been a frequent and favourite subject. -The most famous of all is a picture in the Academy of St. Luke, at -Rome, ascribed to Raphael. Here St. Luke, kneeling on a footstool -before an easel, is busied painting the Virgin with the Child in her -arms, who appears to him out of heaven sustained by clouds: behind St. -Luke stands Raphael himself, looking on. Another of the same subject, a -very small and beautiful picture, also ascribed to Raphael, is in the -Grosvenor Gallery. In neither of these pictures is the treatment quite -worthy of that great painter, wanting his delicacy both of sentiment -and execution. There is a most curious and quaint example in the Munich -Gallery, attributed to Van Eyck: here the Virgin, seated under a rich -Gothic canopy, holds on her lap the Infant Christ, in a most stiff -attitude; St. Luke, kneeling on one knee, is taking her likeness. There -is another, similar in style, by Aldegraef, in the Vienna Gallery. -Carlo Maratti represents St. Luke as presenting to the Virgin the -picture he has painted of her. St. Luke painting the Madonna and Child, -while an angel is grinding his colours, I remember in the Aguado -Gallery; a late Spanish picture.[126] - -[Illustration: _St. Mark attended by St. Gregory._] - -[Illustration: _St. Luke painting the Virgin._] - - - ST. JOHN. - - _Lat._ Sanctus Johannes. _Gr._ St. John Theologos, or the Divine. - _Ital._ San Giovanni Evangelista. _Fr._ Saint Jean; Messire Saint - Jehan. _Ger._ Der Heilige Johann. (Dec. 27, A.D. 99.) - -Of St. Matthew, St. Mark, and St. Luke, so little is certainly known, -that we have no data on which to found an individual portrait; -therefore any representation of them as venerable and inspired teachers -suffices to the fancy: but it is quite otherwise with St. John, the -most distinguished of the evangelists, and the most beloved of the -disciples of our Lord. Of him sufficient is known to convey a distinct -impression of his personal character, and an idea of what his personal -appearance may have been, supposing this outward semblance to have -harmonised with the inward being. - -He was the son of the fisherman Zebedee, and, with his brother James, -among the first followers of the Saviour. He is emphatically called -‘the disciple whom Jesus loved;’ a preference which he merited, not -only from the extreme purity of his life and character, but from -his devoted and affectionate nature. He appears to have been at all -times the constant companion of his divine Lord; and his life, while -the Saviour was on earth, inseparable from His. In all the memorable -circumstances recorded in the Gospel he was a party, or at least -present. He witnessed the glory of the transfiguration; he leaned -on the bosom of Jesus at the last supper; he stood by the cross in -the hour of agony; he laid the body of his crucified Master in the -sepulchre. After the death of the Virgin Mother, who had been confided -to his care, he went about Judæa, preaching the Gospel with St. Peter. -He then travelled into Asia Minor, where he founded the Seven Churches, -and resided principally at Ephesus. During the persecution of the -Christians under Domitian, St. John was sent in fetters to Rome; and, -according to a tradition generally received in the Roman Church, he was -cast into a cauldron of boiling oil, but was miraculously preserved, -and ‘came out of it as out of a refreshing bath.’ He was then accused -of magic, and exiled to the island of Patmos, in the Ægean Sea, -where he is said to have written his Revelation. After the death of -the Emperor Domitian he was released, and returned to his church at -Ephesus; and for the use of the Christians there he is said to have -written his gospel, at the age of ninety. A few years afterwards he -died in that city, being nearly a century old. All the incidents here -touched upon occur frequently as subjects of art, but most of them -belong properly to the life of Christ. - - * * * * * - -The personal character of St. John, at once attractive and picturesque, -has rendered him popular as a patron saint, and devotional pictures of -him are far more numerous than of any of the other evangelists. - -He is represented in one of his three characters: 1, as evangelist; 2, -as apostle; 3, as prophet; or the three are combined in one figure. - -1. Of the early eagle symbol, I have spoken at length. - -In Greek Art, whether as apostle or evangelist, St. John is always -an aged man with white hair, and a venerable beard descending to -his breast; and by the earlier Latin painters, where he figures as -evangelist only, not as apostle, this type has been adhered to; but -the later painters set it aside, and St. John the Evangelist, nearly -a century old, has all the attributes of the youthful apostle. He -is beardless, with light curling hair, and eyes gazing upwards in a -rapture of inspiration: he is sometimes seated with his pen and his -book, sometimes standing; the attendant eagle always near him, and -frequently holding the pen or inkhorn in his beak. - -In some of the old prints and pictures, which represent St. John -as writing the gospel, his eyes are turned on the Virgin with the -Infant Christ in her arms, who appear as a vision in the skies above; -underneath, or on his book, is inscribed,—‘The Word was made flesh,’ or -some other text of the same import. The eagle at his side has sometimes -the nimbus or a crown of stars,[127] and is then perhaps intended to -figure the Holy Ghost. - -I remember an instance in which the devil, intent on intercepting -the message of reconcilement and ‘goodwill towards men,’ which was -destined to destroy his empire on earth, appears behind St. John, and -is oversetting the ink upon the pages; another, in which he is stealing -away the inkhorn. - -2. As one of the series of apostles, St. John is always, in Western -Art, young, or in the prime of life; with little or no beard; flowing -or curling hair, generally of a pale brown or golden hue, to express -the delicacy of his nature; and in his countenance an expression of -benignity and candour. His drapery is, or ought to be, red, with a blue -or green tunic. He bears in his hand the sacramental cup, from which a -serpent is seen to issue. St. Isidore relates that, at Rome, an attempt -was made to poison St. John in the cup of the sacrament: he drank -of the same and administered it to the communicants without injury, -the poison having by a miracle issued from the cup in the form of a -serpent, while the hired assassin fell down dead at his feet. According -to another version of this story, the poisoned cup was administered -by order of the Emperor Domitian. According to a third version, -Aristodemus, the high-priest of Diana, at Ephesus, defied him to drink -of the poisoned chalice, as a test of the truth of his mission; St. -John drank unharmed,—the priest fell dead. Others say, and this seems -the more probable interpretation, that the cup in the hand of St. John -alludes to the reply given by our Saviour, when the mother of James and -John requested for her sons the place of honour in heaven,—‘Ye shall -drink indeed of my cup.’ As in other instances, the legend was invented -to explain the symbol. When the cup has the consecrated wafer instead -of the serpent, it signifies the institution of the Eucharist. - -[Illustration: 60 St. John (Hans Hemling)] - -Some of the old German representations of St. John are of singular -beauty: for example, one by _Hans Hemling_, one by _Isaac von -Melem_,[128] standing figures; simple, graceful, majestic; in the -prime of youth, with a charming expression of devotion in the heads: -both hold the sacramental cup with the serpent; no eagle; therefore -St. John is here to be considered as the apostle only: when, with the -cup, the eagle is placed by his side, he is represented in the double -character of apostle and evangelist (61). - -[Illustration: 61 St. John (Raphael)] - - * * * * * - -In the early Siena school, and in some old illuminations, I have seen -St. John carrying in his hand a radiant circle, inscribed ‘_In primo -est verbum_,’ and within the circle an eagle with outspread wings: but -this is uncommon. - - -3. St. John as the prophet, the writer of the Revelation, is usually -an aged man, with a white flowing beard, seated in a rocky desert; the -sea in the distance, or flowing round him, to represent the island of -Patmos; the eagle at his side. In the old frescoes, and the illuminated -MSS. of the Apocalypse, this is the usual representation. - - -Some examples of the ideal and devotional figures of St. John, as -evangelist and prophet, will give an idea of the variety of treatment -in this favourite subject:— - - -1. Ancient Greek. St. John, with the head of an eagle and large wings, -the figure fully draped, is soaring upwards. In such representations -the inscription is usually ‘_Quasi aquila ascendet et avolabit_’ -(‘Behold, he shall come up and fly as the eagle.’ Jer. xlix. 22). - -2. Perugino. St. John as an aged man, with long grey beard and -flowing hair, attended by a black eagle, looking up at the Madonna in -glory.[129] - -3. Raphael (?). St. John, young and beautiful, mounted on the back -of an eagle, and soaring heavenwards: in one hand he holds a tablet, -in the other a pen: sea and land below. This treatment, which recalls -the antique Jupiter bestriding his eagle, appears to me at once too -theatrical and too commonplace for Raphael.[130] - -[Illustration: 62 St. John] - -4. Correggio. St. John seated writing his gospel; the eagle at his feet -is pluming his wing: inscribed ‘_Altius cæteris Dei patefecit arcana_.’ -One of the series of Evangelists in the Duomo of Parma—wonderfully -beautiful. - -5. Domenichino. St. John, full length, life size; young and beautiful, -in an ecstasy of inspiration, and sustained by two angels; the eagle -at his feet: formerly in the Giustiniani Gallery;[131]—finer, I think, -than the St. John in Sant’ Andrea. Another, half length, a scroll in -his hand, looking upwards as one to whom the glory of the heavens had -been opened;—you see it reflected in his eyes,—while love, wonder, -devotion, beam from his beautiful face and parted lips: behind him -hovers the attendant eagle, holding the pen in his beak; near him -is the chalice, with the serpent; so that here he is in his double -character of apostle and evangelist.[132] Domenichino excelled in St. -Johns, as Guido in Magdalenes; perhaps the most beautiful of all is -that in the Brera, at Milan, where St. John bends on one knee at the -foot of the throne of the Madonna and Child, his pen in one hand, the -other pressed to his bosom, and looking up to them with an air of -ecstatic inspiration. Two little angels, or rather _amoretti_, are in -attendance: one has his arms round the neck of the eagle, sporting -with it; the other holds up the cup and the serpent. Every detail -is composed and painted to admiration; but this is the artistic and -picturesque, not the religious, version of the subject. - -St. John is frequently represented with St. Peter, because, after the -ascension, they taught and acted in concert. In such pictures, the -contrast between the fiery resolve and sturdy, rugged grandeur which is -given to St. Peter, and the refinement, mildness, and personal grace of -St. John, produces a fine effect: as in Albert Dürer’s picture,[133] -where John is holding open the Gospel, and Peter apparently reading it; -two grand and simple figures, filling the mind as we gaze upon them. -As this picture was painted _after_ Albert Dürer became a Protestant, -I have thought it possible that he might have had some particular -meaning in thus making Peter study the Gospel of John. At all events, -Albert Dürer was quite capable of such an intention; and, whether -intended or not, the picture may be, and has been, thus interpreted. -The prophets and the poets often say more than they intended, for -their light was for others more than for themselves: so also the great -painters—the Raphaels and Albert Dürers—prophets and poets in their -way. When I have heard certain critics ridiculed because they found -more in the productions of a Shakspeare or a Raphael than the poet -or painter himself ever perceived or ‘intended,’ such ridicule has -appeared to me in the highest degree presumptuous and absurd. The true -artist ‘feels that he is greater than he knows.’ In giving form or -utterance to the soul within him, does he account to himself for all -the world of thoughts his work will excite in the minds of others? Is -its significance to be circumscribed either by the intention and the -knowledge of the poet, or the comprehension of the age in which he -lived? That is the characteristic of the second-rate, self-conscious -poets or painters, whom we read or study because they reflect to us -a particular meaning—a particular period,—but not of the Homers and -Shakspeares, the Raphaels and Albert Dürers; _they_ speak to all times, -to _all_ men, with a suggestive significance, widening, deepening with -every successive generation; and to measure their depth of meaning by -their own _intention_, or by the comprehension of their own or any -one generation, what is it but to measure the star of heaven by its -apparent magnitude?—an inch rule will do that! - -But to return from this digression. In devotional pictures we often -see St. John the Evangelist and St. John the Baptist standing together; -or on each side of Christ, or of the Madonna and Child. There is a -peculiar propriety and significance in this companionship: both are, -then, to be considered as prophets; they were, besides, kinsmen, and -bore the same name; and St. John the Evangelist was the disciple of -John the Baptist before he was called by Christ. Here, again, the -contrast between the dark, emaciated, hairy prophet of the wilderness, -and the graceful dignity of the youthful apostle, has a striking -effect. An example at hand is the bronze bas-relief on the tomb of -Henry VII.[134] Madonna pictures, in which the two St. Johns stand -before her throne, occur frequently. I remember, also, a marble group -of the Virgin and Child, in which the two St. Johns, as infants, are -playing at her feet, one with his eagle, the other with his reed -cross.[135] - -As one who bore the most direct testimony to the Incarnation, St. -John is often introduced into Madonna pictures, and pictures of the -Nativity; but in the later schools only. In these instances he points -significantly to the Child, and the sacramental cup and wafer is either -in his hand or at his feet, or borne by an angel. - - * * * * * - -The historical and dramatic subjects in which St. John figures as a -principal personage are very numerous. As the scriptural scenes belong -properly to the life of Christ, I shall confine myself here to some -observations on the manner in which St. John is introduced and treated -in such pictures. In general he is to be distinguished from the other -apostles by his youth and beauty, and flowing hair; and by being placed -nearest to Christ as the most beloved of his disciples. - -‘The mother of James and John imploring from our Saviour the highest -place in heaven for her two sons.’ (Matt. xx. 21): a picture by -Bonifazio, in the Borghese Gallery, beautiful both in sentiment and -colour. There is another example by Paul Veronese; and another, by -Tintoretto, was in the Coesvelt Gallery. I must observe that, except -in Venetian pictures, I have not met with this incident as a separate -subject. - -In the last supper, Peter is generally on the right of Christ, and St. -John on the left: he leans his head down on the bosom of Christ (this -is always the attitude in the oldest pictures); or he leans towards -Christ, who places his hand upon his shoulder, drawing him towards him -with an expression of tenderness: this is the action in the fresco by -Raphael lately discovered at Florence. But I must reserve the full -consideration of this subject for another place. - -Where, instead of the last supper, our Saviour is represented as -administering the Eucharist, St. John is seen on his right hand, -bearing the cup. - -In the crucifixion, when treated as a religious rather than an -historical subject, St. John stands on the left of the Cross, and the -Virgin on the right; both in attitudes of the profoundest grief and -adoration mingled. In general the _motif_ of this sacred subject does -not vary; but I remember examples, in which St. John is seen trampling -a Jew under his feet; on the other side the Virgin tramples on a -veiled woman, signifying the old law, the synagogue, as opposed to the -Christian Church, of which the Virgin was the received symbol. - -When the crucifixion is a _scene_ or action, not a _mystery_, then -St. John is beheld afar off, with the women who followed their divine -Master to Calvary. - -St. John and the Virgin Mary returning from the crucifixion: he appears -to be sustaining her slow and fainting steps. I have only once met with -this beautiful subject, in a picture by Zurbaran, in the Munich Gallery. - -In the descent from the Cross, St. John is a chief actor; he generally -sustains the head of the Saviour, and is distinguished by an expression -of extreme sorrow and tenderness. In the entombment he is sometimes -one of the bearers, sometimes he follows lamenting. In a print of -the entombment after Andrea Mantegna, he is not only weeping and -wringing his hands as usual, but absolutely crying aloud with the -most exaggerated expression of anguish. In pictures of the descent of -the Holy Ghost, St. John is usually a conspicuous figure, and in the -foreground. In the assumption of the Virgin, he is also conspicuous, -generally in front, as the pendant to St. Peter, and gazing upwards -with ecstatic faith and devotion. - -Of course there is great variety in these representations: the later -painters thought less of individual character and significant propriety -of arrangement than of artistic grouping; therefore the above remarks -have reference to the early painters only. - -In the scenes taken from the Acts, St. John is always in companionship -with St. Peter, and becomes the secondary figure. - -[Illustration: 63 St. John (Lucas v. Leyden)] - -St. John writing his Revelation in the island of Patmos is a subject -which frequently occurs in MSS. of the Apocalypse, and in the chapels -dedicated to St. John. The _motif_ is generally the same in all; -we have a desert island, with the sea in the distance, or flowing -round it; St. John, seated on a rock or under a tree, is in the act -of writing; or he is looking up to heaven, where the ‘Woman crowned -with stars,’ or ‘the Woman fleeing from the dragon,’ appears as in -his vision.[136] (Rev. xii.) Or he beholds St. Michael, armed, cast -down the dragon in human form; he has the eagle and book, and looks -up at the Virgin, as in a picture by Ambrogio Figino.[137] The eagle -is always in attendance as the symbol of inspiration in a general -sense; when represented with a diadem, or glory, as in some very early -examples, it is a symbol of the Holy Ghost, which, among the Jews, was -figured by the eagle. - -The subjects from the legendary life of St. John are exceedingly -interesting, but they are not easily recognised, and require particular -attention; some are of frequent occurrence, others rarely met with. - -1. Israel v. Meckenen. St. John instructing his disciples at Ephesus. -(Acts iv. 37.) The scene is the interior of a Gothic church, the -windows painted with heraldic emblazonments: St. John is seated -expounding the Scriptures, and five disciples sit opposite to him with -coarse ugly faces, but most intent, expressive countenances; in the -background, a large chest full of money. - -2. Vatican, Chr. Mus. St. John drinking from the poisoned chalice; -a man falls down dead at his feet, several figures look on with awe -and astonishment: this is a frequent subject in the elder schools of -art, and in the illuminated MSS. of the Gospel and Apocalypse: but I -have never met with a representation later than the beginning of the -fourteenth century.[138] - -3. It is related by Clement of Alexandria, that when St. John was at -Ephesus, and before he was exiled to Patmos, he had taken to his care -a young man of promising qualities of person and mind. During his -absence he left him under the spiritual guidance of a certain bishop; -but, after a while, the youth took to evil courses, and, proceeding -from one excess to another, he at length became the leader of a band of -robbers and assassins who struck terror into the whole country. When -St. John returned to Ephesus, he went to the bishop and demanded ‘the -precious deposit he had left in his hands.’ At first the priest did not -understand him; but when St. John explained the allusion to his adopted -son, he cast down his eyes with sorrow and shame, and told of what -had befallen. Then St. John rent his garments, and wept with a loud -voice, and cried out, ‘Alas! alas! to what a guardian have I trusted -our brother!’ And he called for a horse and rode towards the forest in -which the robbers sojourned; and when the captain of the robbers beheld -his old master and instructor, he turned and would have fled from his -presence; but St. John, by the most fervent entreaties, prevailed on -him to stop and listen to his words. After some conference, the robber, -utterly subdued, burst into tears of penitence, imploring forgiveness; -and while he spoke, he hid beneath his robe his right hand, which had -been sullied with so many crimes; but St. John, falling on his knees -before him, seized that blood-polluted hand, and kissed it, and bathed -it with his tears; and he remained with his re-converted brother till -he had, by prayers and encouraging words and affectionate exhortations, -reconciled him with Heaven and with himself. - -This beautiful legend is the subject of some old engravings, in which -St. John is represented embracing the robber, who is weeping on his -neck, having flung away his weapons. It has been, however, too rarely -treated; I have never met with a picture of the subject; and yet it -abounds in picturesque capabilities: the forest background—the contrast -of youth and age—bright armour, flowing drapery, and the most striking -and affecting moral, are here all combined. - -4. Another very pretty apologue relating to St. John is sometimes -included in a series of subjects from his life. Two young men, who had -sold all their possessions to follow him, afterwards repented. He, -perceiving their thoughts, sent them to gather pebbles and faggots, -and, on their return, changed these into money and ingots of gold, -saying to them, ‘Take back your riches and enjoy them on earth, as you -regret having exchanged them for heaven!’ This story is represented on -one of the windows of the Cathedral at Bourges. The two young men stand -before St. John, with a heap of gold on one side, and a heap of stones -and faggots on the other. - -5. When St. John had sojourned in the island of Patmos a year and a -day, he returned to his church at Ephesus; and as he approached the -city, being received with great joy by the inhabitants, lo! a funeral -procession came forth from the gates; and of those who followed weeping -he inquired ‘who was dead?’ They said, ‘Drusiana.’ Now when he heard -that name he was sad, for Drusiana had excelled in all good works, and -he had formerly dwelt in her house; and he ordered them to set down the -bier, and having prayed earnestly, God was pleased to restore Drusiana -to life; she arose up, and the apostle went home with her and dwelt in -her house. - -This incident is the subject of a fine fresco, painted by Filippo -Lippi, on the left-hand wall of the Strozzi Chapel at Florence. It has -the forcible expression and dramatic spirit of the painter, with that -characteristic want of elevated feeling in the countenances and in the -general treatment which is apparent in all his works: the group in one -corner, of a child starting from a dog, is admired for its truth; but, -by disturbing the solemnity of the marvellous scene, it repels like a -falsehood. - -6. There is another beautiful and picturesque legend relating to St. -John, of which I have never seen any representation; but it may, -possibly, have occasioned the frequent introduction of a partridge into -the pictures of sacred subjects, particularly in the Venetian School. -St. John had a tame partridge, which he cherished much; and he amused -himself with feeding and tending it. ‘A certain huntsman, passing by -with his bow and arrows, was astonished to see the great apostle, so -venerable for his age and sanctity, engaged in such an amusement. The -apostle asked him if he always kept his bow bent? He answered, that -would be the way to render it useless. “If,” replied St. John, “you -unbend your bow to prevent its being useless, so do I thus unbend my -mind for the same reason.”’ - -7. The subject entitled the Martyrdom of St. John represents his -immersion in a cauldron of boiling oil, by order of the Emperor -Domitian. According to the received tradition, this event took place -outside the Latin gate at Rome; and on the spot stands the chapel of -San Giovanni _in Olio_, commemorating his miraculous deliverance, which -is painted in fresco on the walls. The subject forms, of course, one of -a series of the life of St. John, and is occasionally met with in old -prints and pictures; but it is uncommon. The treatment affords little -variety; in Albert Dürer’s famous woodcut, St. John is sitting in a pot -of boiling oil; one executioner is blowing the fire, another is pouring -oil from a ladle on the saint’s head; a judge, probably intended for -Domitian, is seated on a throne to the left, and there are numerous -spectators. Padovanino painted this subject for the San Pietro at -Venice; Rubens, with horrible truth of detail, for the altar-piece of -St. John at Malines. - -It is the martyrdom in the boiling oil which gives St. John the right -to bear the palm, with which he is occasionally seen. - -8. St. John, habited in priest’s garments, descends the steps of an -altar into an open grave, in which he lays himself down, not in death, -but in sleep, until the coming of Christ; ‘being reserved alive with -Enoch and Elijah (who also knew not death), to preach against the -Antichrist in the last days.’ This fanciful legend is founded on the -following text: ‘Peter, seeing the disciple whom Jesus loved following, -saith unto Jesus, Lord, and what shall this man do? Jesus saith unto -him, If I will that he tarry till I come, what is that to thee? Then -went this saying abroad among the brethren that that disciple should -not die.’ (John xxi. 21, 22.) - -The legend which supposes St. John reserved alive has not been -generally received in the Church, and as a subject of painting it is -very uncommon. It occurs in the Menologium Græcum,[139] where the grave -into which St. John descends is, according to the legend, ‘_fossa in -crucis figuram_’ (in the form of a cross). In a series of the deaths -of the Apostles,[140] St. John is ascending from the grave; for, -according to the Greek legend, St. John died without pain or change, -and immediately rose again in bodily form, and ascended into heaven to -rejoin Christ and the Virgin. - -In a small and very curious picture which I saw at Rome,[141] forming -part of a Predella, there is a tomb something like the Xanthian tombs -in form: one end is open; St. John, with a long grey beard, is seen -issuing from it, and, as he ascends, he is met by Christ, the Virgin, -St. Peter, and St. Paul, who are descending from above; while figures -below look up with astonishment. On the ancient doors of San Paolo he -is lying in an open grave or sarcophagus. - - * * * * * - -Of the miracles performed by John after his death, two are singularly -interesting in the history of Art; both have been treated in sculpture. - -9. When the Empress Galla Placidia was returning from Constantinople to -Ravenna with her two children (A.D. 425), she encountered a terrible -storm. In her fear and anguish she vowed a vow to St. John the -Evangelist, and, being landed in safety, she dedicated to his honour a -magnificent church. When the edifice was finished, she was extremely -desirous of procuring some relics of the evangelist, wherewith to -consecrate his sanctuary; but as it was not the manner of those days -to exhume, and buy and sell, still less to steal, the bodies of holy -men and martyrs, the desire of the pious empress remained unsatisfied. -However, as it is related, St. John himself took pity upon her; for -one night, as she prayed earnestly, he appeared to her in a vision; -and when she threw herself at his feet to embrace and kiss them, he -disappeared, leaving one of his slippers or sandals in her hand, which -sandal was long preserved. - -The antique church of Galla Placidia still exists at Ravenna, to -keep alive, after the lapse of fourteen centuries, the memory of -her dream, and of the condescension of the blessed apostle. Not -much of the original building is left; the superb mosaics have all -disappeared, except a few fragments, in which may be traced the -storm at sea, and Galla Placidia making her vow. Over the principal -porch, which is of white marble, in the Lombard style, and richly -and elegantly ornamented, the miracle of the slipper is represented -in two bas-reliefs, one above the other. The lower compartment, or -lunette, represents a tabernacle, and within it an altar: St. John the -Evangelist is seen offering incense; on the other side is Barbation, -the confessor of the empress; she, prostrate at the feet of the -apostle, seems to take off his sandal: on each side are six hovering -angels bearing the implements of the mass. In the upper compartment, -Galla Placidia is seen kneeling at the feet of Christ, and offering -to him the sacred sandal, while the evangelist stands on one side, -and Barbation on the other. These bas-reliefs are not older than the -twelfth century, and are in excellent preservation: I should suppose, -from the style of the grouping, that they were copied, or imitated, -from the older mosaics, once in the interior of the church. - -10. The other miracle has the rare interest of being English in its -origin and in its representation. ‘King Edward the Confessor had, after -Christ and the Virgin Mary, a special veneration for St. John the -Evangelist. One day, returning from his church at Westminster, where -he had been hearing mass in honour of the evangelist, he was accosted -by a pilgrim, who asked of him an alms for the love of God and St. -John. The king, who was ever merciful to the poor, immediately drew -from his finger a ring, and, unknown to any one, delivered it to the -beggar. When the king had reigned twenty-four years, it came to pass -that two Englishmen, pilgrims, returning from the Holy Land to their -own country, were met by one in the habit of a pilgrim, who asked of -them concerning their country; and being told they were of England, -he said to them, “When ye shall have arrived in your own country, go -to King Edward, and salute him in my name: say to him, that I thank -him for the alms which he bestowed on me in a certain street in -Westminster; for there, on a certain day, as I begged of him an alms, -he bestowed on me this ring, which till now I have preserved, and ye -shall carry it back to him, saying that in six months from this time -he shall quit the world, and come and remain with me for ever.” And -the pilgrims, being astounded, said, “Who art thou, and where is thy -dwelling-place?” And he answered, saying, “I am John the Evangelist. -Edward, your king, is my friend, and for the sanctity of his life I -hold him dear. Go now, therefore, deliver to him this message and this -ring, and I will pray to God that ye may arrive safely in your own -country.” When St. John had spoken thus, he delivered to them the ring, -and vanished out of their sight. The pilgrims, praising and thanking -the Lord for this glorious vision, went on their journey; and being -arrived in England, they repaired to King Edward, and saluted him, and -delivered the ring and the message, relating all truly. And the king -received the news joyfully, and feasted the messengers royally. Then he -set himself to prepare for his departure from this world. On the eve of -the Nativity, in the year of our Lord 1066, he fell sick, and on the -eve of the Epiphany following he died. The ring he gave to the Abbot of -Westminster, to be for ever preserved among the relics there.’[142] - -According to one account,[143] the pilgrims met the king near his -palace at Waltham, at a place since called _Havering_. The writer -adds,—‘In allusion to this story, King Edward II. offered at his -coronation a pound of gold made in the figure of a king holding a ring, -and a mark of gold (8 oz.) made like to a pilgrim putting forth his -hand to receive the ring.’ These must have been two little statuettes -of gold. - -The legend of King Edward and St. John the Evangelist is represented, -with other legends of the same monarch, along the top of the screen of -Edward the Confessor’s chapel. It is in three compartments. The first -represents King Edward bestowing the ring on St. John in the disguise -of a pilgrim; Westminster Abbey is seen behind. The second shows us -the meeting of the pilgrims and St. John in Palestine; he holds what -seems a palm. In the third the pilgrims deliver the ring to King -Edward, who is seated at table. The sculpture is very rude; the figures -disproportioned and ungraceful. They are supposed to be of the time of -Henry VI. - -The same legend was painted on one of the windows of Romford church, in -Essex, but whether it still exists there I know not.[144] - - * * * * * - -Before I quit the subject of the Evangelists, it is worth while to -observe that, in Greek Art, not only the Four Evangelists, but the six -writers of the Acts and Epistles, are considered as a sacred series. In -an ancient and beautiful MS. of the _Epistole Canoniche_, presented by -the Queen of Cyprus to Pope Innocent VIII., they are thus represented, -two and two together:— - -St. Luke, with a very thoughtful, earnest countenance, holds a scroll, -on which is written in Greek the commencement of the Acts, ‘The former -treatise have I made, O Theophilus; &c.; and St. James, with a long, -very earnest, and refined face, holds a single roll. - -St. Peter, with a broad, coarse, powerful physiognomy, strongly -characterised, holds two rolls; and St. John, with a long and very -refined face, grey hair and beard, holds three rolls. - -St. Jude, with a long white beard and very aquiline nose, holds one -roll. St. Paul, bald in front, with long brown hair and beard, and a -refined face, bears many rolls tied up together. - -All the figures are on a gold ground, about six inches in height, very -finely conceived, though, as is usual in Byzantine Art, formal and -mechanical in execution. They look like small copies of very grand -originals. The draperies are all classical; a pale violet or brown -tunic and a white mantle, as in the old mosaics; the rolls in their -hands corresponding with the number of their writings. - - - - - The Twelve Apostles. - - -Next to those who recorded the word of God, were those called by Christ -to the task of diffusing his doctrine, and sent to preach the kingdom -of heaven ‘through all nations.’ - -[Illustration: 64] - -The earliest representations of the Twelve Apostles appear to have -been, like those of the Four Evangelists, purely emblematical: they -were figured as twelve sheep, with Christ in the midst, as the Good -Shepherd, bearing a lamb in his arms; or, much more frequently, Christ -is himself the Lamb of God, raised on an eminence and crowned with a -cruciform nimbus, and the apostles were ranged on each side as sheep. -Instances are to be met with in the old Christian bas-reliefs. In -the old Roman churches[145] we find this representation but little -varied, and the situation is always the same. In the centre is the lamb -standing on an eminence, from which flow the four rivers of Paradise; -on one side six sheep issuing from the city of Jerusalem, on the other -six sheep issuing from the city of Bethlehem, the whole disposed in a -line forming a sort of frieze, just below the decoration of the vault -of the apsis. The church of S. M. Maggiore exhibits the only exception -I have met with; there we find a group of sheep, entering, not issuing -from, the gates of Jerusalem and Bethlehem: in this case, however, the -sheep may represent believers, or disciples in general, not the Twelve -Apostles. Upon the great crucifix in the apsis of San Clemente, at -Rome, are twelve doves, which appear to signify the Twelve Apostles. - -The next step was to represent the Apostles as twelve men all alike, -each with a sheep, and Christ in the middle, also with a sheep, -sometimes larger than the others. We find this on some of the -sarcophagi.[146] Again, a little later, we have them represented as -twelve venerable men, bearing tablets or scrolls in their hands, no -emblems to distinguish one from another, but their names inscribed over -or beside each. They are thus represented in relief on several ancient -sarcophagi now in the Christian Museum in the Vatican, and in several -of the most ancient churches at Rome and Ravenna, ranged on each side -of the Saviour in the vault of the apsis, or standing in a line beneath. - - * * * * * - -But while in the ancient Greek types, and the old mosaics, the -attributes are omitted, they adhere almost invariably to a certain -characteristic individual representation, which in the later ages -of painting was wholly lost, or at least neglected. In these eldest -types, St. Peter has a broad face, white hair, and short white beard: -St. Paul, a long face, high bold forehead, dark hair and beard: St. -Andrew is aged, with flowing white hair and beard: St. John, St. -Thomas, St. Philip, young and beardless: St. James Major and St. James -Minor, in the prime of life, short brown hair and beard; both should -bear a resemblance more or less to the Saviour, but St. James Minor -particularly: St. Matthew, St. Jude, St. Simon, St. Matthias, aged, -with white hair. The tablets or scrolls which they carry in their -hands bear, or are supposed to bear, the articles of the Creed. It is -a tradition, that, before the apostles dispersed to preach the Gospel -in all lands, they assembled to compose the declaration of faith since -called the Apostles’ Creed, and that each of them furnished one of -the twelve propositions contained in it, in the following order:—St. -Peter: _Credo in Deum Patrem omnipotentem, creatorem cœli et terræ_. -St. Andrew: _Et in Jesum Christum Filium ejus unicum, Dominum nostrum_. -St. James Major: _Qui conceptus est de Spiritu Sancto, natus ex Maria -Virgine_. St. John: _Passus sub Pontio Pilato, crucifixus, mortuus et -sepultus_. St. Philip: _Descendit ad inferos, tertia die resurrexit à -mortuis_. St. James Minor: _Ascendit ad cœlos, sedet ad dexteram Dei -Patris omnipotentis_. St. Thomas: _Inde venturus est judicare vivos et -mortuos_. St. Bartholomew: _Credo in Spiritum Sanctum_. St. Matthew: -_Sanctam Ecclesiam Catholicam; sanctorum communionem_. St. Simon: -_Remissionem peccatorum_. St. Matthias: _Carnis resurrectionem_. St. -Thaddeus: _Et vitam æternam_. - -The statues of the apostles on the shrine of the Virgin in the San -Michele at Florence exhibit a fine example of this arrangement. I give -the figure of St. Philip holding his appropriate sentence of the Creed -on a scroll (65). - -[Illustration: 65 Orcagna] - - * * * * * - -In later times, the Apostles, instead of being disposed in a line, are -grouped round the Saviour in glory, or they form a circle of heads in -medallions: as statues, they ornament the screen in front of the altar, -or they are placed in a line on each side of the nave, standing against -the pillars which support it. From the sixth century it became usual to -distinguish each of them by a particular emblem or attribute borrowed -from some circumstance of his life or death. Thus, taking them in -order, according to the canon of the mass,— - -St. Peter bears the keys or a fish. - -St. Paul, the sword: sometimes two swords. - -St. Andrew, the transverse cross. - -St. James Major, the pilgrim’s staff. - -St. John, the chalice with the serpent; sometimes the eagle also: but -the eagle, as I have observed, belongs to him properly only in his -character of Evangelist. - -St. Thomas, a builder’s rule: also, but more seldom, a spear. - -St. James Minor, a club. - -St. Philip, the staff or crosier, surmounted by a cross; or a small -cross in his hand. - -St. Bartholomew, a large knife. - -St. Matthew, a purse. - -St. Simon, a saw. - -St. Thaddeus (or Jude), a halberd or lance. - -St. Matthias, a lance. - -The origin and meaning of these attributes will be explained presently: -meantime it must be borne in mind, that although in sacred Art the -Apostles are always twelve in number, they are not always the same -personages. St. Jude is frequently omitted to make room for St. Paul. -Sometimes, in the most ancient churches (as in the Cathedral of -Palermo), St. Simon and St. Matthias are omitted, and the evangelists -St. Mark and St. Luke figure in their places. The Byzantine manual -published by Didron omits James Minor, Jude, and Matthias; and inserts -Paul, Luke, and Mark. This was the arrangement on the bronze doors of -San Paolo-fuori-le-Mura at Rome, executed by Byzantine artists in the -tenth century, and now destroyed. - -On an ancient pulpit, of beautiful workmanship, in the Cathedral of -Troyes, the arrangement is according to the Greek formula.[147] Thus— - - ───────────── ───────────── ───────────── ───────────── - S. John B. J. Christ. The Virgin. - ───────────── ───────────── ───────────── An Angel. - S. Matthew. S. Peter. S. Simon. - S. Philip. S. Luke. S. Bartholomew. ───────────── - S. Mark. S. Andrew. S. James. - S. Paul. S. Thomas. S. John. - ───────────── ───────────── ───────────── - - -Here, John the Baptist figures in his character of angel or messenger; -and St. Paul, St. Mark, and St. Luke take the place of St. James Minor, -St. Jude, and St. Matthias. - -The earliest instance of the Apostles entering into a scheme of -ecclesiastical decoration, as the consecrated and delegated teachers -of a revealed religion, occurs in the church of San Giovanni in Fonte -at Ravenna.[148] In the centre of the dome is the Baptism of Christ, -represented quite in the classical style; the figure of the Saviour -being entirely undraped, and the Jordan, signified by an antique river -god, sedge-crowned, and bearing a linen napkin as though he were an -attendant at a bath. Around, in a circle, in the manner of radii, are -the Twelve Apostles. The order is,—Peter, Andrew, James, John, Philip, -Bartholomew, Simon, Jude, James Minor, Matthew, Thomas, Paul; so that -Peter and Paul stand face to face at one extremity of the circle, and -Simon and Bartholomew back to back at the other. All wear pointed caps, -and carry the oblation in their hands. Peter has a yellow vest and -white mantle; Paul, a white vest and a yellow mantle, and so all round -alternately. The name of each is inscribed over his head, and without -the title _Sanctus_, which, though admitted into the Calendar in 449, -was not adopted in works of art till some years later, about 472. - -In the next instance, the attributes had not yet been admitted, except -in the figures of St. Peter and St. Paul. - -MOSAIC (A.D. 816). Christ, in the centre, stands on an eminence; in -one hand he holds an open book, on which is inscribed _Pax vobis_. St. -Peter, with the keys and a cross, stands on the right; and Christ, with -his right hand, points to the cross. St. Paul is on the left, with his -sword; beyond, there are five Apostles on one side, and four on the -other: in all, eleven (Judas being properly omitted). Each holds a -book, and all are robed in white; underneath the whole is inscribed, -in Latin, the words of our Saviour, ‘Go ye, and teach all nations.’ -On the arch to the right, Christ is seated on a throne, and presents -the keys to St. Peter, who kneels on one side, and the standard to -Constantine, who kneels on the other (alluding, of course, to the -famous standard). On the arch to the left, St. Peter is throned, and -presents the stole to Pope Leo III., and the standard to Charlemagne. -This singular monument, a kind of _résumé_ of the power of the Church, -is a restoration of the old mosaic, executed by order of Leo III. in -the Triclinium of the old palace of the Lateran, and now on one side of -the Scala Santa, the side facing the Porta San Giovanni. - -MOSAIC, in the old basilica of St. Paul (A.D. 1206). In the centre -an altar veiled, on which are the Gospels (or perhaps, rather, the -_Book of Life_, the seven-sealed book in the Revelations), and the -instruments of the Passion. Behind it rises a large Greek cross, -adorned with gold and jewels. Underneath, at the foot of the altar, -five small figures standing and bearing palms, representing those -who suffered for the cause of Christ; and on each side, kneeling, -the monk Aginulph, and Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, afterwards Nicholas -III. On each side of the altar, a majestic angel: one bears a scroll, -inscribed GLORIA IN EXCELSIS DEO; the other, ET IN TERRA PAX HOMINIBUS -BONÆ VOLUNTATIS. Beyond these the Apostles, six on each side, bearing -scrolls with the articles of the Creed. They are much alike, all in -white robes, and alternately with each stands a palm-tree, the symbol -of victory and resurrection. This composition, of a colossal size, -formed a kind of frieze (taking the place of the emblematical lamb and -twelve sheep) round the apsis of the Basilica. - - * * * * * - -In sculpture, the Apostles, as a series, entered into all decorative -ecclesiastical architecture: sometimes on the exterior of the edifice, -always in the interior. In our English cathedrals they are seldom found -unmutilated, except when out of the reach of the spoiler; such was the -indiscriminate rage which confounded the venerable effigies of these -delegated teachers of the truth with the images which were supposed to -belong exclusively to the repudiated religion! - -Where the scheme of decoration is purely theological, the proper place -of the Apostles is after the Angels, Prophets, and Evangelists; but -when the _motif_, or leading idea, implies a special signification, -such as the Last Judgment, Paradise, the Coronation of the Madonna, or -the apotheosis of a saint, then the order is changed, and the Apostles -appear immediately after the Divine Personages and before the angels, -as forming a part of the council or court of heaven;—‘When the Son -of man shall come in his glory, ye also shall sit on twelve thrones, -judging the twelve tribes of Israel.’[149] Such is the arrangement in -the Campo Santo, in Angelico’s ‘Paradiso’ in the Florence Gallery, -in Raphael’s ‘Disputa,’ and many other instances: and I may add the -architectural treatment on the façade of Wells Cathedral, where, -immediately under the Saviour sitting in judgment, _stand_ the Twelve -Apostles, and beneath them the hierarchy of angels, each of the nine -choirs being here expressed by a single angel.[150] Therefore to -determine the proper place of the Apostles, it is necessary to observe -well and to understand what has been the design of the artist, and the -leading idea of the whole composition, whether strictly _theological_ -or partly _scenic_. In all monuments which have a solemn or a sacred -purpose,—altars, pulpits, tombs,—the Apostles find an appropriate -place, either in connection with other sacred personages, or as a -company apart, the band of teachers. The range of statues along the top -of the screen in front of the choir of St. Mark’s at Venice will be -remembered by all who have seen them: in the centre stand the Virgin -and St. Mark, and then the Apostles, six on each side, grand solemn -figures, standing there as if to guard the sanctuary. These are by -Jacobelli, in the simple religious style of the fifteenth century, -but quite Italian. In contrast with them, as the finest example of -German sculptural treatment, we have the Twelve Apostles on the tomb -of St. Sebald, in his church at Nuremberg, cast in bronze by Peter -Vischer (about 1500). These have become well known by the casts which -have lately been brought to England; they are about two feet high, all -remarkable for the characteristic expression of the heads, and the -grand simplicity of the attitudes and draperies. - -There are instances of the Apostles introduced into a scheme of -ecclesiastical decoration as devotional figures, but assuming, -from the style of treatment and from being placed in relation with -other personages, a touch of the dramatic and picturesque. Such are -Correggio’s Apostles in the cupola of the duomo at Parma (1532), which -may be considered as the most striking instance that could be produced -of studied contrast to the solemnity and simplicity of the ancient -treatment: here the _motif_ is essentially _dramatic_. They stand round -the dome as spectators would stand in a gallery or balcony, all in -picturesque attitudes, studiously varied (some, it must be confessed, -rather extravagant), and all looking up with amazement, or hope, or -joy, or adoration, to the figure of the glorified Virgin ascending into -heaven. - -Another series of Apostles in the San Giovanni at Parma, which -Correggio had painted earlier (1522), are conceived, I think, in a -finer spirit as to character, but, perhaps, not more appropriate to -the scene. Here the Twelve Apostles are seated on clouds round the -glorified Saviour, as they are supposed to be in heaven: they are but -partially draped. In the heads but little attention has been paid to -the ancient types, except in those of St. Peter and St. Paul; but they -are sublime as well as picturesque in the conception of character and -expression. - -The Apostles in Michael Angelo’s Last Judgment (A.D. 1540) exhibit a -still further deviation from the antique style of treatment. They stand -on each side of the Saviour, who is not, here, Saviour and Redeemer, -but inexorable Judge. They are grandly and artificially grouped, all -without any drapery whatever, and with forms and attitudes which recall -an assemblage of Titans holding a council of war, rather than the -glorified companions of Christ. In early pictures of Christ in glory, -the Apostles, his companions in heaven as on earth, form, with the -Patriarchs and Prophets, the celestial court or council: they sit upon -thrones to the right and to the left.[151] Raphael’s ‘Disputa’ in the -Vatican is a grand example of this arrangement. - -Sets of the Apostles, in devotional pictures and prints are so common, -that I shall particularise only a few among the most interesting and -celebrated. Engravings of these can easily be referred to. - -1. A set by Raphael, engraved by Marc Antonio: grand, graceful figures, -and each with his appropriate attribute. Though admirably distinguished -in form and bearing, very little attention has been paid to the ancient -types, except perhaps in St. Peter and St. John. Here St. James Minor -is omitted to make room for St. Paul. - -2. A set by Lucas van Leyden, smaller than Raphael’s, but magnificent -in feeling: here also the ancient types are for the most part -neglected. These two sets should be compared as perfect examples of the -best Italian and the most characteristic German manner. Some of the -German sets are very curious and grotesque. - -3. By H. S. Beham, a most curious set, in what may be called the ultra -German style: they stand two and two together, like a procession of old -beggars; the workmanship exquisite. Another set by Beham, in which the -figures stand singly, and which includes the Four Evangelists, dressed -like old burgomasters, with the emblematical wings, has been already -mentioned. - -4. A set by Parmigiano, graceful and mannered, as is usual with him. - -5. By Agostino Caracci. This set, famous as works of art, must, when -compared with those of Raphael and Lucas van Leyden, be pronounced -absolutely vulgar. Here St. John is drinking out of his cup, —an idea -which might strike some people as picturesque; but it is in vile taste. -Thaddeus has a saw as well as Simon; Peter has the papal tiara at his -feet; St. James Minor, instead of Thomas, carries the builder’s rule; -and St. Bartholomew has his skin thrown over his shoulders. This set -is an example of the confusion which prevailed with respect to the old -religious types and attributes, after the first half of the sixteenth -century. - -6. ‘The Five Disciples,’ by Albert Dürer, seem intended to form part -of a complete set. We have St. Paul, St. Bartholomew, St. Thomas, -St. Philip, and St. Simon. The two last are the finest, and are most -grandly conceived. - -These are examples of the simplest devotional treatment. - - * * * * * - -When the Apostles are grouped together in various historical -scenes,—some scriptural, some legendary—they are more interesting as -individual personages; and the treatment should be more characteristic. -Some of these subjects belong properly to the life of Christ: as the -Delivery of the Keys to Peter; the Transfiguration; the Entry into -Jerusalem; the Last Supper; the Ascension. Others, as the Death and -Assumption of the Virgin, will be considered in the legends of the -Madonna. But there are others, again, which refer more particularly to -the personal history of the Apostles, as related in the Acts and in the -Legends. - -The Descent of the Holy Ghost was the first and most important event -after the Ascension of Christ. It is thus described: ‘When the day of -Pentecost was fully come, they were all with one accord in one place. -And suddenly there came a sound from heaven, as of a rushing mighty -wind, and it filled all the house where they were sitting. And there -appeared unto them cloven tongues, like as of fire, and sat upon each -of them, and they were all filled with the Holy Ghost, and began to -speak with other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance. And there -were dwelling at Jerusalem Jews, devout men, out of every nation under -heaven. Now when this was noised abroad the multitude came together, -and were confounded, because that every man heard them speak in his own -language.... But this is that which was spoken by the prophet Joel.’ -(Acts ii. 1-12, 16.) - -According to the usual interpretation, the word _they_, in the first -verse, does not signify the Apostles merely, but, with them, ‘the -women, and Mary the mother of Jesus, and his brethren:’ hence in so -many representations of this subject the Virgin is not only present, -but a principal person: Mary Magdalene and others are also frequently -introduced. - -1. The most striking example I have yet met with is the grand mosaic -in the principal dome of St. Mark’s at Venice. In the apex of the dome -is seen the Celestial Dove in a glory of light; rays proceed from the -centre on every side, and fall on the heads of the Virgin and the -Twelve Apostles, seated in a circle. Lower down is a series of twelve -figures standing all round the dome: ‘Parthians, Medes, and Elamites, -the dwellers in Mesopotamia, Judea, Cappadocia, Pontus, Asia, Phrygia, -Pamphylia, Cretes and Arabians,’—each nation represented by one person, -and all in strange dresses, and looking up with amazement. - -2. The Twelve Apostles and the Virgin are seen above seated in an -enclosure; tongues of fire descend from heaven; beneath is a closed -door, at which several persons in strange foreign dresses, with -turbans, &c., are listening with amazement. One of these is in the -Chinese costume,—a curious circumstance, considering the age of the -picture, and which could have occurred at that date nowhere but at -Venice.[152] - -3. In the interior of a temple, sustained by slender pillars, the -Twelve Apostles are seated in a circle, and in the midst the Virgin, -tongues of fire on each head. Here the Virgin is the principal -person.[153] - -4. An interior, the Twelve Apostles seated in a circle; above them, the -Celestial Dove in a glory, and from his beak proceed twelve tongues -of flame; underneath, in a small arch, is the prophet Joel, as an old -man crowned with a kingly crown and holding twelve rolls or scrolls, -indicating the Gospel in so many different languages. The allusion -is to the words of Joel, ii. 28: ‘And I will pour out my Spirit upon -all flesh.’[154] This is the Greek formula, and it is curious that it -should have been closely followed by Pinturicchio;—thus: - -5. In a rich landscape, with cypresses, palm-trees, and birds, the -Virgin is seen kneeling; St. Peter on the right, and James Minor on the -left, also kneeling; five other Apostles on each side. The Celestial -Dove, with outspread wings, descends in a glory surrounded by fifteen -cherubim: there are no tongues of fire. The prophet Joel is seen -above, with the inscription, ‘_Effundam de Spiritu meo super omnem -carnem_.’[155] - -6. The Virgin and the Apostles seated; flames of fire stand on their -heads; the Holy Ghost appears above in a glory of light, from which -rays are poured on every side. Mary Magdalene, and another Mary, are -present behind; astonishment is the prevailing expression in every -face, except in the Virgin and St. Peter. The composition is attributed -to Raphael.[156] - - * * * * * - -The next event of importance is the separation of the Twelve Apostles -when they disperse to preach the Gospel in all lands. According to the -ancient traditions, the Apostles determined by lot to what countries -they should go: Peter went to Antioch; James the Great remained in -Jerusalem and the neighbourhood; Philip went to Phrygia; John to -Ephesus; Thomas to Parthia and Judea; Andrew to Scythia; Bartholomew to -India and Judea. The Parting of the Apostles is a beautiful subject, of -which I have met with but few examples; one is a woodcut after Titian. -The Mission of the Apostles I remember to have seen by Bissoni over an -altar in the Santa Giustina at Padua: they are preparing to depart; one -reads from a book; another looses his shoes from his feet, in allusion -to the text, ‘Take neither purse, nor scrip, nor shoes;’ several are -bidding adieu to the Virgin. This picture struck me as dramatic; its -merits otherwise I do not remember. - - * * * * * - -We have next ‘The Twelve Baptisms.’[157] In the upper compartment -Christ is standing in a majestic attitude, and on each side are six -Apostles, all alike, and in white garments. The inscription above is -in Greek: ‘Go ye, and preach the Gospel to all nations.’ Below, in -twelve smaller compartments, each of the Apostles is seen baptizing a -convert: an attendant, in white garments, stands by each font, holding -a napkin. One of the converts and his attendant are black, denoting -clearly the chamberlain of the Queen of Ethiopia. This is a very -uncommon subject. - - * * * * * - -And, lastly, we have ‘The Twelve Martyrdoms.’ This is a more frequent -series, in pictures and in prints, and occurs in a set of large fresco -compositions in the church of San Nereo e Sant’ Achilleo at Rome. In -such representations the usual treatment is as follows:—1. St. Peter is -crucified with his head downwards. 2. St. Andrew, bound on a transverse -cross. 3. St. James Major, beheaded with a sword. 4. St. John, in a -cauldron of boiling oil. 5. St. Philip, bound on a cross in the form of -a T. 6. St. Bartholomew, flayed. 7. St. Thomas, pierced with a spear. -8. St. Matthew, killed with a sword. 9. St. James Minor, struck down -with a club. 10. St. Simon and St. Jude together: one is killed with a -sword, the other with a club. 11. St. Matthias has his head cloven by a -halbert. 12. St. Paul is beheaded.[158] - -The authority for many of these martyrdoms is wholly apocryphal,[159] -and they sometimes vary; but this is the usual mode of representation -in Western Art. In early Greek Art a series of the Deaths of the -Apostles often occurs, but they do not all suffer martyrdom; and the -subject of St. John in the cauldron of boiling oil, so famous in the -Latin Church, is, I believe, unknown, or, at least, so rare, that I -have not found it in genuine Byzantine Art. - -The most ancient series I have met with (in a Greek MS. of the ninth -century) shows us five Apostles crucified: St. Peter and St. Philip -with the head downwards; St. Andrew on the transverse cross, as usual; -St. Simon and St. Bartholomew, in the same manner as our Saviour. St. -Thomas is pierced by a lance; and St. John is buried, and then raised -by angels, according to the legend. The same series, similarly treated, -ornamented the doors of the old Basilica of St. Paul, executed by Greek -artists of the tenth century.[160] - -Wherever the Apostles appear as a series, we expect, of course, some -degree of discriminating propriety of character in each face and -figure. We seek it when they merely form a part of the general scheme -of significant decoration in the architectural arrangement of a place -of worship; we seek it with more reason when they stand before us -as a series of devotional representations; and still more when, as -actors in some particular scene, they are supposed to be animated by -sentiments called forth by the occasion, and modified by the individual -character. By what test shall we try the truth and propriety of such -representations? We ought to know both what to require from the artist, -and on what grounds to require it, before we can rest satisfied. - -In the Gospel-histories the Apostles are consistently and beautifully -distinguished in temper and bearing. Their characters, whether -exhibited at full length, or merely touched upon, are sustained with -dramatic truth. The mediæval legends, however wild, are, as far as -character goes, in harmony with these scriptural portraits, and fill -up the outline given. It becomes therefore a really interesting -speculation to observe how far this variety of characteristic -expression has been carried out in the early types, how far attended -to, or neglected, by the great painters, since the revival of Art. - - - ST. PETER AND ST. PAUL. - - _Lat._ SS. Petrus et Paulus. _Ital._ San Pietro or Piero, San Paolo. - _Fr._ S. Pierre, S. Paul. _Spa._ San Pedro, San Pablo. (June 29 and - 30.) - -I have already observed, that, as apostles and preachers of the word, -St. Peter and St. Paul take the first place. Even during their lives, -a superiority was accorded to them; and this superiority, as the -acknowledged heads and founders of the Christian Church, under Christ, -has been allowed down to the present time. The precedence is by common -consent given to St. Peter; but they are held to be equal in faith, in -merit, and in sanctity. - -The early Christian Church was always considered under two great -divisions: the church of the converted Jews, and the church of the -Gentiles. The first was represented by St. Peter, the second by St. -Paul. Standing together in this mutual relation, they represent the -universal Church of Christ; hence in works of art they are seldom -separated, and are indispensable in all ecclesiastical decoration. -Their proper place is on each side of the Saviour, or of the Virgin -throned; or on each side of the altar; or on each side of the arch -over the choir. In any case, where they stand together, not merely as -Apostles, but Founders, their place is next after the Evangelists and -the Prophets. - -[Illustration: 66 St. Paul St. Peter (Crivelli)] - -Thus seen almost everywhere in companionship, it becomes necessary -to distinguish them from each other; for St. Peter does not always -bear his keys, nor St. Paul his sword. In the earliest examples, these -attributes are wholly omitted; yet I scarcely know any instance in -which a distinct type of head has not been more or less attended to. - -[Illustration: 67 St. Peter (Greek type, eleventh century)] - -The ancient Greek type of the head of St. Peter, ‘the Pilot of the -Galilean lake,’ is so strongly characterised as to have the air of -a portrait. It is either taken from the description of Nicephorus, -so often quoted, or his description is taken from some very ancient -representation: it certainly harmonises with all our preconceived -notions of St. Peter’s temperament and character. He is a robust -old man, with a broad forehead, and rather coarse features, an open -undaunted countenance, short grey hair, and short thick beard, curled, -and of a silvery white: according to the descriptive portrait of -Nicephorus, he had red weak eyes,—a peculiarity which it has not been -thought necessary to preserve in his effigies. In some early pictures -he is bald on the top of the head, and the hair grows thick around in a -circle, somewhat like the priestly tonsure; and in some examples this -tonsure has the form of a triple row of curls close to the head, a kind -of tiara. A curious exception to this predominant, almost universal, -type is to be found in Anglo-Saxon Art,[161] where St. Peter is always -beardless, and wears the tonsure; so that but for the keys, suspended -to a ring on his finger, one might take him for an elderly monk. It is -a tradition that the Gentiles shaved the head of St. Peter in order -to make him an object of derision, and that this is the origin of the -priestly tonsure. - -[Illustration: 68 St. Peter with one Key (Taddeo Gaddi)] - -The dress of St. Peter in the mosaics and Greek pictures is a blue -tunic, with white drapery thrown over it, but in general the proper -colours are a blue or green tunic with yellow drapery. On the early -sarcophagi, and in the most ancient church mosaics, he bears merely -a scroll or book, and, except in the character of the head, he is -exactly like St. Paul: a little later we find him with the cross in -one hand, and the Gospel in the other. The keys in his hand appear -as his peculiar attribute about the eighth century. I have seen him -with one great key, but in general he carries two keys, one of gold -and one of silver, to absolve and to bind; or, according to another -interpretation, one is of gold and one of iron, opening the gates -of heaven and hell: occasionally, but rarely, he has a third key, -expressing the dominion over heaven, and earth, and hell.[162] - -St. Paul presents a striking contrast to St. Peter, in features as -in character. There must have existed effigies of him in very early -times, for St. Augustine says that a certain Marcellina, living in the -second century, preserved in her Lararium, among her household gods, -‘the images of Homer, Pythagoras, Jesus Christ, and Paul the apostle.’ -Chrysostom alludes to a portrait of Paul which hung in his chamber, -but unfortunately he does not describe it. The earliest allusion to -the personal appearance of St. Paul occurs in Lucian, where he is -styled, in a tone of mocking disparagement, ‘the bald-headed Galilean -with a hook-nose.’ The description given by Nicephorus, founded, we -may presume, on tradition and on the existing portraits, has been the -authority followed in the early representations. According to the -ancient tradition, Paul was a man of small and meagre stature, with -an aquiline nose, a high forehead, and sparkling eyes. In the Greek -type the face is long and oval, the nose aquiline, the forehead high -and bald, the hair brown, the beard long, flowing and pointed, and of -a dark brown (in the Greek formula it is said that his beard should -be greyish—I recollect no instance of St. Paul with a grey beard); -his dress is like St. Peter’s, a blue tunic and white mantle; he has -a book or scroll in one hand, sometimes twelve rolls, which designate -his epistles. He bears the sword, his attribute in a double sense; it -signifies the manner of his martyrdom, and it is emblematical of the -good fight fought by the faithful Christian, armed with ‘the sword of -the Spirit, which is the word of God’ (Ephes. vi. 17). The life of -St. Paul, after his conversion, was, as we know, one long spiritual -combat:—‘perplexed, but not in despair; cast down, but not destroyed.’ - -[Illustration: 69 St. Paul (Greek type, eleventh century)] - -These traditional characteristic types of the features and persons -of the two greatest apostles were long adhered to. We find them most -strictly followed in the old Greek mosaics, in the early Christian -sculpture, and the early pictures; in all which the sturdy dignity -and broad rustic features of St. Peter, and the elegant contemplative -head of St. Paul, who looks like a Greek philosopher, form a most -interesting and suggestive contrast. But, in later times, the old -types, particularly in the head of St. Paul, were neglected and -degraded. The best painters took care not to deviate wholly from the -square head and short grey beard of St. Peter; but, from the time of -Sixtus IV., we find substituted for the head of St. Paul an arbitrary -representation, which varied according to the model chosen by the -artist—which was sometimes a Roman porter or a German boor; sometimes -the antique Jupiter or the bust of a Greek rhetorician. - -I shall now give some examples, in chronological order, of the two -great Apostles represented together, as Founders of the Church. - -On the early sarcophagi (from A.D. 321 to 400), St. Peter and St. Paul -stand on each side of the Saviour. The former bears a cross, and is -generally on the left hand of Christ. The cross given to Peter, and -often set with jewels, is supposed to refer to the passage in St. -John, xxi. 19, ‘Signifying by what death he should die:’ but it may -surely bear another interpretation, i.e. the spirit of Christianity -transmitted to all nations by the first and greatest of the Apostles. -St. Paul carries a roll of writing; he has a very high bald forehead: -in other respects the two Apostles are not particularly discriminated; -they wear the classical costume.[163] Similar figures of Peter and -Paul occur on the ancient glass drinking-vessels and lamps preserved -in the Vatican; but the workmanship is so rude, that they are merely -curiosities, and cannot be cited as authorities. - -MOSAIC (Rome, A.D. 443) in Santa Maria Maggiore, over the arch which -separates the sanctuary from the nave. We have in the centre a throne, -on which lies the roll, sealed with seven seals; above the throne rises -a cross set with precious stones; on each side of the throne, St. -Peter and St. Paul; they have no attributes, are habited in classical -draperies, and the whole representation is strictly antique in style, -without a trace of any of the characteristics of Mediæval Art. This -is the oldest representation I have met with next to those on the -sarcophagi. - -MOSAIC (Rome, 6th century) in the church of Santa Sabina on the -interior of the arch over the door. We find on one side St. Peter, on -the other St. Paul. Under St. Peter stands a graceful female figure, -veiled, and inscribed _Ecclesia ex circumcisione;_ under St Paul, a -female figure, crowned, and inscribed _Ecclesia ex gentibus_. - -MOSAIC (Rome, A.D. 526) in St. Cosmo and St. Damian, on the vault of -the apsis. Christ stands in the centre, sustained by clouds; his right -hand is raised in the attitude of one who exhorts (not blessing, as -is the usual manner); the left hand holds the book of life; at his -feet flows the river Jordan, the symbol of Baptism. On each side, but -lower down and much smaller in size, stand St. Peter and St. Paul; they -seem to present St. Cosmo and St. Damian to the Saviour. Beyond these -again, on either side, stand St. Theodore and the pope (Felix I.) who -dedicated the church. Palm trees, and a Phœnix crowned with a starry -glory, emblems of Victory and Immortality, close this majestic and -significant composition on each side. Here St. Peter and St. Paul are -dignified figures, in which the Greek type is strongly characterised; -they wear long white mantles, and have no attributes. - - -MOSAIC (Milan, 9th century), in Sant’ Ambrogio. Christ enthroned -presents the Gospel to St. Paul, and the two keys to St. Peter. - - -MOSAIC (A.D. 936) on the tomb of Otho II. St. Peter and St. Paul -together, rather more than half length, and above life size. St. Peter -has three keys, suspended on a ring; St. Paul, the book and sword. -The original mosaic is preserved in the Vatican, and a copy is in the -Lateran. This relic is, as a document, invaluable. - - -MOSAIC (A.D. 1216-1227), in the apsis of the old basilica of St. Paul. -Christ is seated on a throne, with the cruciform glory and his name -ĪC̄. X̄C̄.: the right hand gives the benediction in the Greek form; -he holds in his left an open book, inscribed VENITE BENEDICTI PATRIS -MEI PERCIPITE REGNUM. (Matt. xxv. 34.) On the left, St. Peter with -his right hand raised to Christ, and an open scroll in his left hand, -inscribed TU ES CHRISTUS FILIUS DEI VIVI. On the other side of Christ, -St. Paul; his right hand on his breast, and in his left a scroll with -these words, IN NOMINE JESU OMNE GENU FLECTATUR CŒLESTIUM TERRESTRIUM -ET INFERNORUM. (Phil. xi. 10.) Beyond St. Peter stands his brother St. -Andrew; and beyond St. Paul his favourite disciple Luke. At the foot of -the throne kneels a diminutive figure of the pope, Honorius III., by -whom the mosaic was dedicated. Palm-trees close the composition on each -side; underneath runs the frieze of the Twelve Apostles, described at -p. 173. - - -MOSAIC (12th century) in the Cathedral of Monreale at Palermo. St. -Peter and St. Paul are seated on splendid thrones on each side of -the tribune; St. Peter holds in his left hand a book, and the right, -which gives the benediction, holds also the two keys: over his head is -inscribed, SANCTUS PETRUS PRINCEPS APOSTOLORUM CUI TRADITÆ SUNT CLAVES -REGNI CŒLORUM. St. Paul holds the sword with the point upwards like a -sceptre, and the book as usual: the intellectual Greek character of -the head is strongly discriminated. The inscription is, SANCTUS PAULUS -PRÆDICATOR VERITATIS ET DOCTOR GENTIUM GENTI. - -Among the rich and curious bas-reliefs in front of the church of St. -Trophime at Arles, we have St. Peter and St. Paul seated together -receiving the souls of the just. Each has two souls in his lap, and the -Archangel Michael is bringing another. - -In pictures, their proper place, as I have observed, is on each side of -the throne of the Redeemer, or on each side of the Virgin and Child: -sometimes they are standing together, or reading in the same book. - - -This must suffice for the devotional treatment of St. Peter and St. -Paul, when represented as joint founders and patrons of the universal -Christian Church. Before I notice those historical subjects in which -they appear together, I have to say a few words of the manner in which -they are treated separately and distinctly. And first of St. Peter. - - * * * * * - -The various events of the life of St. Peter are recorded in the Gospels -and the Acts so minutely, that they may be presumed to be familiar to -all readers. From these we may deduce his character, remarkable for -fervour and energy rather than sustained power. His traditional and -legendary history is full of incidents, miracles, and wonderful and -picturesque passages. His importance and popularity, considered as -Prince of the Apostles and Founder of the Church of Rome, have extended -with the influence of that powerful Church of which he is the head and -representative, and multiplied, almost to infinitude, pictures and -effigies of him in his individual character, as well as historical -representations of his life and actions, wherever his paramount dignity -is admitted. - -It struck me, when wandering over the grand old churches of Ravenna, -where the ecclesiastical mosaics are the most ancient that exist, and -still in wonderful preservation, that St. Peter and St. Paul do not -often appear, at least are in no respect distinguished from the other -apostles. Ravenna, in the fifth century, did not look to Rome for her -saints. On the other hand, among the earliest of the Roman mosaics, -St. Peter is sometimes found sustaining the throne of Christ, without -his companion St. Paul; as in S. Maria-in-Trastevere, S. Maria Nuova, -and others. At Rome, St. Peter is _the_ Saint, the _Santissimo_. The -secession of the Protestant Church dimmed his glory as Prince of the -Apostles and universal Saint; he fell into a kind of disrepute as -identified with the See of Rome, which exposed his effigies, in England -and Scotland particularly, to a sweeping destruction. Those were -disputatious days; and Peter, the affectionate, enthusiastic, devoted, -but somewhat rash apostle, veiled his head to the intellectual, -intrepid, subtle philosopher Paul. - - * * * * * - -Let us now see how Art has placed before us the sturdy Prince of the -Apostles. - -I have already mentioned the characteristic type which belongs to him, -and his prevalent attributes the key, the cross, the book. When he -figures among the disciples in the Gospel stories, he sometimes holds -the fish as the symbol of his original vocation: if the fish be given -to him in single devotional figures, it signifies also Christianity, or -the rite of Baptism. - -The figures of St. Peter standing, as Apostle and Patron Saint, -with book and keys, are of such perpetual occurrence as to defy all -attempts to particularise them, and so familiar as to need no further -illustration.[164] - -Representations of him in his peculiar character of Head and Founder of -the Roman Church, and first universal bishop, are less common. He is -seated on a throne; one hand is raised in the act of benediction; in -the other he holds the keys, and sometimes a book or scroll, inscribed -with the text, in Latin, ‘Thou art Peter, and on this rock have I built -my Church.’ This subject of the throned St. Peter is very frequent -in the older schools. The well-known picture by Giotto, painted for -Cardinal Stefaneschi, now in the sacristy of the Vatican, is very -fine, simple and solemn. In a picture by Cima da Conegliano,[165] -St. Peter is not only throned, but wears the triple tiara as pope; -the countenance is particularly earnest, fervent, almost fiery in -expression: the keys lie at his feet; on one side stands St. John the -Baptist, on the other St. Paul. - -As a deviation from the usual form of this subject, I must mention an -old bas-relief, full of character, and significantly appropriate to -its locality the church of San Pietro-in-Vincoli, at Rome. St. Peter, -enthroned, holds in one hand the keys and the Gospel; with the other he -presents his chains to a kneeling angel: this unusual treatment is very -poetical and suggestive. - -[Illustration: 70] - -There are standing figures of St. Peter wearing the papal tiara, and -brandishing his keys, as in a picture by Cola dell’ Amatrice (70). And -I should think Milton had some such picture in his remembrance when he -painted _his_ St. Peter:— - - Last came and last did go - The pilot of the Galilean Lake; - Two massy keys he bore of metals twain, - (The golden opes, the iron shuts amain,) - He shook his _mitred_ locks, and stern bespake. - -When, in devotional pictures, St. Peter is accompanied by another -apostle with no distinctive attributes, we may suppose it to be St. -Mark, who was his interpreter, companion, and amanuensis at Rome. -According to an early tradition, the Gospel of St. Mark was written -down from the dictation of St. Peter.[166] In a miniature frontispiece -to St. Mark’s Gospel, the evangelist is seated writing, and St. Peter -stands opposite, as if dictating. In a picture by Angelico,[167] Peter -is preaching from a pulpit to a crowd of people: Mark, seated on one -side, is diligently taking down his words. In a very fine picture by -Bonvicino[168] they stand together; St. Peter is reading from a book; -St. Mark holds a scroll and inkhorn; he is submitting to St. Peter the -Gospel he has just penned, and which was afterwards confirmed by the -apostle. - -Lastly, a magnificent Venetian picture[169] represents St. Peter -throned as bishop, with an earnest and rather stern countenance; he -holds a book in his hand; two angels with musical instruments are -seated on the steps of his throne: on his right hand stand John the -Baptist, and St. Jerome as cardinal; on his left St. Ambrose; while St. -Mark bends over a book, as if reading to this majestic auditory. - - * * * * * - -Those scenes and incidents related in the Gospels in which St. Peter is -a principal or conspicuous figure, I shall enlarge upon when treating -of the life of Christ, and will only indicate a few of them here, as -illustrating the manner in which St. Peter is introduced and treated in -such subjects. - -We have, first, the Calling of Peter and Andrew in a picture by -Basaiti,[170] where the two brothers are kneeling at the feet of -the Saviour; the fishing-boats and the Lake of Gennesareth in the -background: and in the beautiful fresco by Ghirlandajo in the Sistine -Chapel, where a number of contemporary personages are introduced as -spectators. St. Andrew presenting St. Peter to our Saviour (as in a -picture by Cavalucci, in the Vatican), is another version of the same -subject; or St. Andrew is seen at the feet of Christ, while St. Peter -is sitting on the edge of the boat, or descending from it in haste. - -‘Christ walking on the Sea’ is a familiar and picturesque subject, not -to be mistaken. The most ancient and most celebrated representation -is Giotto’s mosaic (A.D. 1298), now placed in the portico of St. -Peter’s, over the arch opposite to the principal door. The sentiment -in the composition of this subject is, generally, ‘Lord, help me; or I -perish:’ St. Peter is sinking, and Christ is stretching out his hand to -save him. It is considered as a type of the Church in danger, assailed -by enemies, and saved by the miraculous interposition of the Redeemer; -and in this sense must the frequent representations in churches be -understood. - -In the ‘Miraculous Draught of Fishes,’ St. Peter is usually on his -knees looking up with awe and gratitude:—‘Depart from me, O Lord! for -I am a sinful man.’ The composition of Raphael (the cartoon at Hampton -Court) is just what we should seek for in Raphael, a masterpiece of -dramatic expression,—the significant, the poetical, the miraculous -predominating. The composition of Rubens, at Malines, which deserves -the next place, should be looked at in contrast, as an instance of -the picturesque and vigorous treatment equally characteristic of the -painter;—all life and reality, even to the glittering fish which tumble -in the net. ‘St. Peter finding the tribute money’ is a subject I have -seldom met with: the _motif_ is simple, and not to be mistaken. - -In all the scenes of the life of our Saviour in which the apostles are -assembled,—in the Transfiguration, in the Last Supper, in the ‘Washing -the Feet of the Disciples,’ in the scene of the agony and the betrayal -of Christ,—St. Peter is introduced as a more or less prominent figure, -but always to be distinguished from the other apostles. In the third of -these subjects, the washing of the feet, St. Peter generally looks up -at Christ with an expression of humble expostulation, his hand on his -head: the sentiment is—‘Not my feet only, but my hands and my head.’ - -In the scene of the betrayal of Christ, St. Peter cutting off the ear -of Malthus is sometimes a _too_ prominent group; and I remember an old -German print in which St. Peter having cut off the ear, our Lord bends -down to replace it.[171] - -‘St. Peter denying the Saviour’ is always one of the subjects in the -series of the Passion of Christ. It occurs frequently on the ancient -sarcophagi as the symbol of repentance, and is treated with classical -and sculptural simplicity, the cock being always introduced, as in the -illustration (71): it is here to be understood as a general emblem of -human weakness and repentance. As an action separately, or as one of -the series of the life and actions of Peter, it has not been often -painted; it seems to have been avoided in general by the early Italian -painters as derogatory to the character and dignity of the apostle. -The only examples I can recollect are in the later Italian and Flemish -schools. Teniers has adopted it as a vehicle for a guard-room scene; -soldiers playing at cards, bright armour, &c. Rembrandt has taken it as -a vehicle for a fine artificial light; and, for the same reason, the -Caravaggio school delighted in it. The maiden, whose name in the old -traditions is Balilla, is always introduced with a look and gesture of -reproach, and the cock is often perched in the background. - -[Illustration: 71 Repentance of Peter (Sarcophagus, third century)] - -‘Christ turned and looked upon Peter:’ of this beautiful subject, -worthy of Raphael himself, I can remember no instance. - -The ‘Repentance of Peter’ is a subject seldom treated in the -earlier schools of Italy, but frequently by the later painters, and -particularly by the Bologna school; in some instances most beautifully. -It was a subject peculiarly suited to the genius of Guercino, who -excelled in the expression of profound rather than elevated feeling. - -There is a manner of representing the repentance of Peter which seems -peculiar to Spanish Art, and is more ideal than is usual with that -school. Christ is bound to a column and crowned with thorns; St. -Peter kneels before him in an attitude of the deepest anguish and -humiliation, and appears to be supplicating forgiveness. Except in -the Spanish school, I have never met with this treatment. The little -picture by Murillo[172] is an exquisite example; and in the Spanish -Gallery are two others, by Pedro de Cordova and Juan Juanes:—in the -former, St. Peter holds a pocket-handkerchief with which he has been -wiping his eyes, and the cock is perched on the column to which our -Saviour is bound. - -Another ideal treatment we find in a picture by Guercino; St. Peter -is weeping bitterly, and opposite to him the Virgin is seated in -motionless grief. - -Half-length figures of St. Peter looking up with an expression of -repentant sorrow, and wringing his hands, are of frequent occurrence, -more especially in the later followers of the Bologna and Neapolitan -schools of the seventeenth century: Ribera, Lanfranco, Caravaggio, -and Valentin. In most of these instances, the total absence of ideal -or elevated sentiment is striking;—any old bearded beggar out of the -streets, who could cast up his eyes and look pathetic, served as a -model. - - -I recollect no picture of the Crucifixion in which St. Peter is present. - - -‘The delivery of the keys to Peter’ and ‘the Charge to Peter,’ (Feed my -sheep,) either in separate pictures or combined into one subject, have -been of course favourite themes in a Church which founds its authority -on these particular circumstances. The bas-relief over the principal -door of St. Peter’s at Rome represents the two themes in one: Christ -delivers the keys to Peter, and the sheep are standing by. In the -panels of the bronze doors beneath (A.D. 1431), we have the chain of -thought and incident continued; Peter delivers the emblematical keys to -Pope Eugenius IV. - -It is curious that, while the repentance of Peter is a frequent subject -on the sarcophagi of the fourth century, the delivery of the keys to -Peter occurs but once. Christ, as a beardless youth, presents to Peter -two keys laid crosswise one over the other. Peter, in whose head the -traditional type is most distinctly marked, has thrown his pallium -over his outstretched hands, for, according to the antique ceremonial, -of which the early sculpture and mosaics afford us so many examples, -things consecrated could only be touched with covered hands. This -singular example is engraved in Bottari.[173] An example of beautiful -and solemn treatment in painting is Perugino’s fresco in the Sistine -Chapel. It contains twenty-one figures; the conception is quite ideal, -the composition regular even to formality, yet striking and dramatic. -In the centre, Peter, kneeling on one knee, receives the keys from the -hand of the Saviour; the apostles and disciples are arranged on each -side behind Christ and St. Peter; in the background is the rebuilding -of the Temple;—a double allegory: ‘Destroy this temple, I will build it -up in three days:’ and also, perhaps, alluding to the building of the -chapel by Sixtus IV. - -In Raphael’s cartoon[174] the scene is an open plain: Christ stands -on the right; in front, St. Peter kneels, with the keys in his hand; -Christ extends one hand to Peter, and with the other points to a -flock of sheep in the background. The introduction of the sheep into -this subject has been criticised as at once too literal and too -allegorical,—a too literal transcript of the words, a too allegorical -version of the meaning; but I do not see how the words of our Saviour -could have been otherwise rendered in painting, which must speak to us -through sensible objects. The other apostles standing behind Peter show -in each countenance the different manner in which they are affected by -the words of the Saviour. - -By Gian Bellini: a beautiful picture:[175] St. Peter kneeling, -half-length, receives the keys from Jesus Christ, seated on a throne. -Behind St. Peter stand the three Christian Graces, Faith, Hope, and -Charity. Poussin has taken this subject in his series of the Seven -Sacraments[176], to represent the sacrament of Ordination. In this -instance again, the two themes are united; and we must also remember, -that the allegorical representation of the disciples and followers of -Christ as sheep looking up to be fed, is consecrated by the practice of -the earliest schools of Christian Art. Rubens has rendered the subject -very simply, in a picture containing only the two figures, Christ and -St. Peter;[177] and again with five figures, less good.[178] Numerous -other examples might be given; but the subject is one that, however -treated, cannot be easily mistaken. - -A very ideal version of this subject is where St. Peter kneels at the -feet of the Madonna, and the Infant Christ, bending from her lap, -presents the keys to him; as in a singularly fine and large composition -by Crivelli,[179] and in another by Andrea Salaino. Another, very -beautiful and curious, is in the possession of Mr. Bromley of -Wootten.[180] - - * * * * * - -After the ascension of our Saviour, the personal history of St. Peter -is mingled first with that of St. John, and afterwards with that of St. -Paul. - -‘Peter and John healing the lame man at the gate called Beautiful’ is -the subject of one of the finest of the cartoons at Hampton Court. -Perin del Vaga, Niccolò Poussin, and others less renowned, have also -treated it; it is susceptible of much contrast and dramatic effect. - -‘The sick are brought out and placed in the shadow of Peter and John -that they may be healed,’ by Masaccio.[181] - -‘Peter preaching to the early converts:’ the two most beautiful -compositions I have seen, are the simple group of Masaccio; and another -by Le Sueur, full of variety and sentiment. - -‘Peter and John communicate the Holy Ghost by laying their hands on the -disciples,’ by Vasari.[182] I do not well remember this picture. - -The Vision of Peter: three angels sustain the curtain or sheet which -contains the various forbidden animals, as pigs, rabbits, &c. (as in a -print after Guercino). - -‘Peter baptizes the Centurion’ (very appropriately placed in the -baptistery of the Vatican). St. Peter meets the Centurion; he blesses -the family of the Centurion. All commonplace versions of very -interesting and picturesque subjects. - -‘The Death of Ananias.’ Raphael’s cartoon of this awful scene is a -masterpiece of dramatic and scenic power; never was a story more -admirably and completely told in painting. Those who had to deal with -the same subject, as if to avoid a too close comparison with his -unapproachable excellence, have chosen the death of Sapphira as the -_motif_: as, for example, Niccolò Poussin.[183] - -‘Dorcas or Tabitha restored to life.’ One of the finest and most -effective of Guercino’s pictures, now in the Palazzo Pitti: the simple -dignity of the apostle, and the look of sick amazement in the face of -the woman restored to consciousness, show how strong Guercino could be -when he had to deal with natural emotions of no elevated kind. The same -subject, by Costanzi, is among the great mosaics in St. Peter’s. ‘The -Death of Dorcas,’ by Le Sueur, is a beautiful composition. She lies -extended on a couch; St. Peter and two other apostles approach the foot -of it: the poor widows, weeping, show to St. Peter the garments which -Dorcas had made for them (Acts ix. 39). - - * * * * * - -The imprisonment of Peter, and his deliverance by the Angel, were -incidents so important, and offer such obvious points of dramatic -effect, that they have been treated in every possible variety of style -and sentiment, from the simple formality of the early mosaics, where -the two figures—Peter sitting on a stool, leaning his head on his hand, -and the Angel at his side—express the story like a vision,[184] down to -the scenic and architectural compositions of Steenwick, where, amid a -vast perspective of gloomy vaults and pillars, a diminutive St. Peter, -with an Angel or a sentinel placed somewhere in the foreground, just -serves to give the picture a name.[185] - -Some examples of this subject are of great celebrity. - -Masaccio, in the frescoes of the Brancacci Chapel, has represented -Peter in prison, looking through his grated window, and Paul outside -communing with him. (The noble figure of St. Paul in this fresco was -imitated by Raphael in the ‘St. Paul preaching at Athens.’) In the next -compartment of the series, Masaccio has given us the Angel leading -forth Peter, while the guard sleeps at the door: he sleeps as one -oppressed with an unnatural sleep. Raphael’s fresco in the Vatican is -not one of his best, but he has seized on the obvious point of effect, -both as to light and grouping; and we have three separate moments of -the same incident, which yet combine most happily into one grand scene. -Thus in the centre, over the window, we see through a grating the -interior of the prison, where St. Peter is sleeping between two guards, -who, leaning on their weapons, are sunk in a deep charmed slumber;[186] -an angel, whose celestial radiance fills the dungeon with a flood -of light, is in the act of waking the apostle: on the right of the -spectator, the angel leads the apostle out of the prison; two guards -are sleeping on the steps: on the left, the soldiers are roused from -sleep, and one with a lighted torch appears to be giving the alarm; the -crescent moon faintly illumines the background. - -The deliverance of St. Peter has always been considered as figurative -of the deliverance of the Church; and the two other frescoes of this -room, the Heliodorus and the Attila, bear the same interpretation. It -is worth while to compare this dramatic composition of Raphael with -others wherein the story is merely a vehicle for artificial effects -of light, as in a picture by Gerard Honthorst; or treated like a -supernatural vision, as by that poet, Rembrandt. - - -Those historical subjects in which St. Peter and St. Paul figure -together will be noticed in the life of St. Paul. - - -I come now to the legendary stories connected with St. Peter; an -inexhaustible source of popular and pictorial interest. - -Peter was at Jerusalem as late as A.D. 52; then at Antioch; also in -Babylon: according to the most ancient testimonies he was at Rome -about A.D. 63; but the tradition, that he resided as bishop in the -city of Rome for twenty-five years, first related by Jerome, seems -questionable.[187] Among the legendary incidents which marked his -sojourn in Rome, the first and the most important is the story of Simon -Magus. - -Simon, a famous magician among the Jews, had astonished the whole city -of Jerusalem by his wonderful feats; but his inventions and sorceries -were overcome by the real miracles of Peter, as the Egyptian magi had -been conquered by Aaron. He offered the apostles money to buy the -secret of their power, which Peter rejected with indignation. St. -Augustine tells us, as a characteristic trait of the fiery-spirited -apostle, that ‘if he had fallen on the traitor Simon, he would -certainly have torn him to pieces with his teeth.’ The magician, -vanquished by a superior power, flung his books into the Dead Sea, -broke his wand, and fled to Rome, where he became a great favourite -of the Emperor Claudius, and afterwards of Nero. Peter, bent on -counteracting the wicked sorceries of Simon, followed him to Rome. -About two years after his arrival he was joined there by the Apostle -Paul. Simon Magus having asserted that he was himself a god, and could -raise the dead, Peter and Paul rebuked his impiety, and challenged -him to a trial of skill in presence of the emperor. The arts of the -magician failed; Peter and Paul restored the youth to life: and on many -other occasions Simon was vanquished and put to shame by the miraculous -power of the apostles. At length he undertook to fly up to heaven in -sight of the emperor and the people; and, crowned with laurel, and -supported by demons, he flung himself from a tower, and appeared for a -while to float thus in the air: but St. Peter, falling on his knees, -commanded the demons to let go their hold, and Simon, precipitated to -the ground, was dashed to pieces. - -This romantic legend, so popular in the middle ages, is founded on some -antique traditions not wholly unsupported by historical testimony. - -There can be no doubt that there existed in the first century a Simon, -a Samaritan, a pretender to divine authority and supernatural powers; -who, for a time, had many followers; who stood in a certain relation to -Christianity; and who may have held some opinions more or less similar -to those entertained by the most famous heretics of the early ages, -the Gnostics. Irenæus calls this Simon the father of all heretics. -‘All those,’ he says, ‘who in any way corrupt the truth, or mar the -preaching of the Church, are disciples and successors of Simon, the -Samaritan magician.’ Simon gave himself forth as a god, and carried -about with him a beautiful woman named Helena, whom he represented as -the first conception of his—that is, of the divine—mind, the symbol -or manifestation of that portion of spirituality which had become -entangled in matter.[188] - -The incidents of the story of Simon Magus have been often and variously -treated. - -1. By Quintin Matsys: Peter refuses the offer of Simon Magus—‘Thy money -perish with thee!’ Here Peter wears the mitre of a bishop: the picture -is full of coarse but natural expression. - -2. ‘Peter and Paul accused before Nero:’ the fresco in the Brancacci -Chapel, attributed by Kugler to Filippino Lippi, is certainly one of -the most perfect pieces of art, as a dramatic composition, which we -have before the time of Raphael. To the right the emperor is seated on -his throne, on each side his ministers and attendants. The countenances -are finely varied; some of them animated by attention and curiosity, -others sunk in deep thought. The two apostles, and their accuser -Simon Magus, are in front. Simon, a magnificent figure, who might -serve for a Prospero, lays his hand on the vest of Peter, as if to -drag him forward; Paul stands aside with quiet dignity; Peter, with a -countenance full of energetic expression, points contemptuously to the -broken idol at his feet. For the felicity and animation with which the -story is told, and for propriety, grace, and grandeur, Raphael has not -often exceeded this picture. - -3. Another of the series of the life of Peter in the Brancacci Chapel -is the resuscitation of the youth, who in the legend is called the -nephew of the emperor; a composition of numerous figures. In the centre -stands St. Peter, and before him kneels the youth; a skull and a few -bones are near him—a naïve method of expressing his return from death -to life. The variety of expression in the countenances of the assembled -spectators is very fine. According to the custom of the Florentine -school at that time, many are portraits of distinguished persons; and, -considering that the fresco was painted at a period most interesting in -the Florentine history (A.D. 1440), we have much reason to regret that -these can no longer be discriminated. - -4. ‘The Fall of Simon Magus’ is a favourite and picturesque subject, -often repeated. A most ancient and most curious version is that on the -walls of the Cathedral at Assisi, older than the time of Giotto, and -attributed to Giunta Pisano. (A.D. 1232.) On one side is a pyramidical -tower formed of wooden bars; Peter and Paul are kneeling in front; the -figure of the magician is seen floating in the air and sustained by -hideous demons;—very dreamy, poetical, and fanciful. In Mr. Ottley’s -collection I saw a small ancient picture of the same subject, very -curious, attributed to Benozzo Gozzoli. Raphael’s composition in the -Vatican has the simplicity of a classical bas-relief,—a style which -does not appear suited to this romantic legend. The picture by L. -Caracci at Naples I have not seen. Over one of the altars of St. Peter, -we now see the great mosaic, after Vanni’s picture of this subject; a -clever commonplace treatment: the scene is an amphitheatre, the emperor -above in his balcony; Peter and Paul in front, invoking the name of -Christ, and Simon Magus tumbling headlong, forsaken by his demons; in -the background sit the vestals. Battoni’s great picture in the S. Maria -degli Angeli at Rome is considered his best production; it is full of -well-studied academic drawing, but scenic and mannered. - - * * * * * - -The next subject in the order of events is styled the ‘DOMINE, QUO -VADIS?’ After the burning of Rome, Nero threw upon the Christians the -accusation of having fired the city. This was the origin of the first -persecution, in which many perished by terrible and hitherto unheard-of -deaths. The Christian converts besought Peter not to expose his life, -which was dear and necessary to the well-being of all; and at length -he consented to depart from Rome. But as he fled along the Appian Way, -about two miles from the gates, he was met by a vision of our Saviour -travelling towards the city. Struck with amazement, he exclaimed, -‘Lord! whither goest thou?’ to which the Saviour, looking upon him -with a mild sadness, replied, ‘I go to Rome to be crucified a second -time,’ and vanished. Peter, taking this for a sign that he was to -submit himself to the sufferings prepared for him, immediately turned -back, and re-entered the city. Michael Angelo’s famous statue, now in -the church of S. Maria-sopra-Minerva at Rome, is supposed to represent -Christ as he appeared to Peter on this occasion; and a cast or copy of -it is in the little church of ‘Domine, quo vadis?’ erected on the spot -sanctified by this mysterious meeting. - -It is surprising that this most beautiful, picturesque, and, to my -fancy, sublime legend has been so seldom treated; and never, as it -appears to me, in a manner worthy of its capabilities and its high -significance. It is seldom that a whole story can be told by two -figures, and these two figures placed in such grand and dramatic -contrast;—Christ in his serene majesty and radiant with all the glory -of beatitude, yet with an expression of gentle reproach; the apostle -at his feet, arrested in his flight, amazed, and yet filled with a -trembling joy; and for the background the wide Campagna or the towering -walls of imperial Rome;—these are grand materials; but the pictures I -have met with are all ineffective in conception. The best fall short of -the sublime ideal; most of them are theatrical and commonplace. - -Raphael has interpreted it in a style rather too classical for the -spirit of the legend; with great simplicity and dignity, but as a -_fact_, rather than a vision conjured up by the stricken conscience and -tenderness of the affectionate apostle. The small picture by Annibale -Caracci in our National Gallery is a carefully finished academical -study and nothing more, but may be referred to as a fair example of the -usual mode of treatment. - -Peter returned to Rome, persisted in his appointed work, preaching -and baptizing; was seized with St. Paul and thrown into the Mamertine -dungeons under the Capitol. The two centurions who guarded them, -Processus and Martinian, and many of the criminals confined in the -same prison, were converted by the preaching of the apostle; and there -being no water to baptize them, at the prayer of St. Peter a fountain -sprang up from the stone floor; which may be seen at this day. - -‘The Baptism of St. Processus and St. Martinian in the Dungeon,’ by -Trevisani, is in the baptistery of St. Peter’s at Rome; they afterwards -suffered for the faith, and were canonised. In the same church is -the scene of their martyrdom by Valentino; they are seen bound and -stretched on a hurdle, the head of one to the feet of the other, and -thus beaten to death. The former picture—the Baptism—is commonplace; -the latter, terrible for dark and effective expression; it is just one -of those subjects in which the Caravaggio school delighted. - - * * * * * - -A few days after their incarceration, St. Peter and St. Paul were -condemned to death. According to one tradition, St. Peter suffered -martyrdom in the Circus of Caligula at the foot of the Vatican, and was -crucified between two metæ, i.e. the goals or terminæ in the Circus, -round which the chariots turned in the race; but, according to another -tradition, he was put to death in the court-yard of a barrack or -military station on the summit of Mons Janicula, where the church of -San Pietro in Montorio now stands; that is, on an eminence above the -site of the Circus of Caligula. At his own request, and that his death -might be even more painful and ignominious than that of his Divine -Master, he was crucified with his head downwards. - -[Illustration: 72 Crucifixion of St. Peter (Giotto)] - -In the earliest representations I have met with,[189] St. Peter is -raised on the cross with his head downwards, and wears a long shirt -which is fastened round his ankles. In the picture of Giotto,[190] the -local circumstances, according to the first tradition, are carefully -attended to: we have the cross erected between the two metæ, and about -twenty soldiers and attendants; among them a woman who embraces the -foot of the cross, as the Magdalene embraces the cross of the Saviour. -Above are seen angels, who bear the soul of the martyred saint in a -glory to heaven. Masaccio’s composition[191] is very simple; the scene -is the court-yard of a military station (according to the second -tradition). Peter is already nailed upon a cross; three executioners -are in the act of raising it with cords and a pulley to suspend it -against a great beam of wood; there are several soldiers, but no women, -present. In Guido’s composition[192] there are only three figures, the -apostle and two executioners; it is celebrated as a work of art, but -it appeared to me most ineffective. On the other hand, Rubens has gone -into the opposite extreme; there are only three persons, the principal -figure filling nearly the whole of the canvas: it is full of vigour, -truth, and nature; but the brutality of the two executioners, and the -agony of the aged saint, too coarsely and painfully literal. These -simple representations of the mere act or fact should be compared with -the fresco of Michael Angelo,[193] in which the event is evolved into -a grand drama. Here the scene is evidently the summit of the Mons -Janiculum: in the midst of a crowd of soldiers and spectators, St. -Peter lies nailed to the cross, which a number of men are exerting -their utmost strength to raise from the ground. - - * * * * * - -The legend which makes St. Peter the keeper of the gate of Paradise, -with power to grant or refuse admission, is founded on the delivery of -the keys to Peter. In most of the pictures which represent the entrance -of the blessed into Paradise or the New Jerusalem, Peter stands with -his keys near the gate. There is a beautiful example in the great -fresco of Simone Memmi in the chapel _de’ Spagnuoli_ at Florence: St. -Peter stands at the open portal with his great key, and two angels -crown with garlands the souls of the just as they enter joyously hand -in hand. - -[Illustration: 73 From the fresco of Simone Memmi, Florence (S. Maria -Novella)] - -The legend of St. Petronilla, the daughter of St. Peter (in French, -Sainte Pernelle), has never been popular as a subject of Art, and I can -remember no series of incidents from the life of St. Peter in which -she is introduced, except those in the Carmine at Florence. It is -apparently a Roman legend, and either unknown to the earliest artists, -or neglected by them. It is thus related:— - - ‘The apostle Peter had a daughter born in lawful wedlock, who - accompanied him in his journey from the East. Being at Rome with - him, she fell sick of a grievous infirmity which deprived her of the - use of her limbs. And it happened that as the disciples were at meat - with him in his house, one said to him, ‘Master, how is it that thou, - who healest the infirmities of others, dost not heal thy daughter - Petronilla?’ And St. Peter answered, ‘It is good for her to remain - sick:’ but, that they might see the power that was in the word of God, - he commanded her to get up and serve them at table, which she did; - and having done so, she lay down again helpless as before; but many - years afterwards, being perfected by her long suffering, and praying - fervently, she was healed. Petronilla was wonderfully fair; and - Valerius Flaccus, a young and noble Roman, who was a heathen, became - enamoured of her beauty, and sought her for his wife; and he being - very powerful, she feared to refuse him; she therefore desired him - to return in three days, and promised that he should then carry her - home. But she prayed earnestly to be delivered from this peril; and - when Flaccus returned in three days with great pomp to celebrate the - marriage, he found her dead. The company of nobles who attended him - carried her to the grave, in which they laid her, crowned with roses; - and Flaccus lamented greatly.’[194] - - The legend places her death in the year 98, that is, 34 years after - the death of St. Peter; but it would be in vain to attempt to - reconcile the dates and improbabilities of this story. - -St. Peter raising Petronilla from her sick bed is one of the subjects -by Masaccio in the Brancacci Chapel. The scene of her entombment is the -subject of a once celebrated and colossal picture by Guercino: the -copy in mosaic is over the altar dedicated to her in St. Peter’s: in -front, and in the lower part of the picture, she is just seen as they -are letting her down into the grave, crowned with roses; behind stands -Flaccus with a handkerchief in his hand, and a crowd of spectators: -in the upper part of the picture Petronilla is already in Paradise, -kneeling, in a rich dress, before the feet of Christ, having exchanged -an earthly for a heavenly bridegroom. This great picture exhibits, in a -surpassing degree, the merits and defects of Guercino; it is effective, -dramatic, deeply and forcibly coloured, and arrests attention: on the -other hand, it is coarse, crowded, vulgar in sentiment, and repugnant -to our better taste. There is a standing figure of Petronilla in the -Duomo at Lucca, by Daniel di Volterra, very fine.[195] - - * * * * * - -The life of St. Peter, when represented as a series, generally -comprises the following subjects, commencing with the first important -incident after the Ascension of Christ. - -1. Peter and John heal the lame man at the Beautiful Gate. 2. Peter -heals the paralytic Eneas. 3. Peter raises Tabitha. 4. The angel takes -off the chains of Peter. 5. He follows the angel out of the prison. 6. -St. Peter and St. Paul meet at Rome. 7. Peter and Paul before Nero are -accused by Simon Magus. 8. The fall of Simon Magus. 9. The crucifixion -of St. Peter. This example is taken from the series of mosaics in the -Cathedral of Monreale, at Palermo. - -The fine series of frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel at Florence is -differently arranged; thus:—1. The tribute money found in the fish by -St. Peter. 2. Peter preaching to the converts. 3. Peter baptizes the -converts. In this fresco, the youth, who has thrown off his garments -and is preparing for baptism, is famous as the first really graceful -and well-drawn undraped figure which had been produced since the -revival of Art. 4. Peter and John heal the cripple at the Beautiful -Gate, and Petronilla is raised from her bed. 5. Peter in his prison is -visited by Paul. 6. Peter delivered by the angel. 7. The resuscitation -of the dead youth. 8. The sick are laid in the way of Peter and John, -‘that at the least the shadow of Peter passing by might overshadow some -of them.’ 9. Peter and John distribute alms; a dead figure lies at the -feet of the apostles, perhaps Ananias. The situation of the fresco -is very dark, so that it is difficult to distinguish the action and -expression of the figures. 10. Peter and Paul accused before Nero. 11. -The crucifixion of Peter. - -In St. Peter’s at Rome, we have of course every scene from the life of -the apostle which could well be expressed by Art; but none of these are -of great merit or interest: most of them are from the schools of the -seventeenth century. - - * * * * * - -ST. PAUL, though called to the apostleship after the ascension of the -Saviour, takes rank next to St. Peter as one of the chief witnesses of -the Christian faith. Of all the apostles he is the most interesting; -the one of whose personal character and history we know most, and -through the most direct and irrefragable testimony. The events of his -life, as conveyed in the Acts and the Epistles, are so well known, that -I need not here particularise them. The legends connected with him are -very few. - - * * * * * - -The earliest single figure of St. Paul to which I can refer was found -painted on the walls of the cemetery of Priscilla, near Rome.[196] He -stands, with outstretched arms, in the act of prayer; (in the early -ages of Christianity the act of supplication was expressed in the -classical manner, that is, not with folded hands, but with the arms -extended;) he has the nimbus; his dress is that of a traveller, the -tunic and pallium being short, and his feet sandalled, perhaps to -indicate his many and celebrated travels; perhaps, also, it represents -Paul praying for his flock before he departed from Macedon to return -to Jerusalem (Acts xx.): over this ancient figure, which, though ill -drawn, is quite classical in sentiment and costume, is inscribed -PAULUS. PASTOR. APOSTOLOS; on his right hand stands the Good Shepherd, -in reference to the title of PASTOR, inscribed over his effigy. Another -figure of St. Paul, which appears to be of later date, but anterior to -the fifth century, was found in the catacombs at Naples: in this effigy -he wears the dress of a Greek philosopher; the style in which the -drapery is worn recalls the time of Hadrian: he has no nimbus, nor is -the head bald; he has sandals on his feet: over his head is inscribed -his name, PAULUS; near him is a smaller figure similarly draped, who -offers him fruit and flowers in a vase; probably the personage who was -entombed on the spot. - - * * * * * - -At what period the sword was given to St. Paul as his distinctive -attribute, is with antiquaries a disputed point; certainly, much later -than the keys were given to Peter.[197] If we could be sure that the -mosaic on the tomb of Otho II., and another mosaic already described, -had not been altered in successive restorations, these would be -evidence that the sword was given to St. Paul as his attribute as early -as the 6th century; but there are no monuments which can be absolutely -trusted as regards the introduction of the sword before the end of -the 11th century; since the end of the 14th century, it has been so -generally adopted, that in the devotional effigies I can remember no -instance in which it is omitted. When St. Paul is leaning on the sword, -it expresses his martyrdom; when he holds it aloft, it expresses also -his warfare in the cause of Christ: when two swords are given to him, -one is the attribute, the other the emblem; but this double allusion -does not occur in any of the older representations. In Italy I never -met with St. Paul bearing two swords, and the only instance I can call -to mind is the bronze statue by Peter Vischer, on the shrine of St. -Sebald, at Nuremberg. - -Although devotional representations of St. Paul separate from St. Peter -and the other apostles occur very rarely, pictures from his life and -actions are commonly met with; the principal events are so familiar, -that they are easily recognised and discriminated even by the most -unlearned in biblical illustration: considered and treated as a series, -they form a most interesting and dramatic succession of scenes, often -introduced into the old churches; but the incidents chosen are not -always the same. - -Paul, before his conversion, was present at the stoning of Stephen, and -he is generally introduced holding on his knees the garments of the -executioners. In some ancient pictures, he has, even while looking on -and ‘consenting to the death’ of the victim, the glory round his head, -as one who, while ‘breathing out threatenings and slaughter against the -disciples of the Lord,’ was already a chosen vessel to bear His name -before the Gentiles.’ But in a set of pictures which relate expressly -to St. Paul the martyrdom of Stephen is, with proper feeling, omitted, -and the series generally begins with the CONVERSION OF PAUL,—in his -character of apostle, the first great event in his life. An incident so -important, so celebrated, and in all its accessories so picturesque and -dramatic, has of course been a frequent subject of artistic treatment, -even as a separate composition. In some of the old mosaics, the story -is very simply, and at the same time vividly, rendered. In the earliest -examples, St. Paul has the nimbus or glory while yet unconverted; he -is prostrate on the ground, grovelling on his hands and knees; rays -of light fall upon him out of heaven, where the figure of Christ, -half-length, is seen emerging from glory; sometimes it is a hand only, -which is the emblem of the Almighty Power; two or four attendants at -most are flying in terror. It is not said in Scripture that St. Paul -journeyed on horseback from Jerusalem to Damascus; but the tradition -is at least as old as the time of Pope Dalmasius (A.D. 384), as it is -then referred to. St. Augustine says he journeyed on foot, because -the Pharisees made a point of religion to go on foot, and it is so -represented in the old Greek mosaics. The expression, ‘It is hard -for thee to kick against the pricks,’ has been oddly enough assigned -as a reason for placing Paul on horseback;[198] at all events, as he -bore a military command, it has been thought proper in later times -so to represent him, and also as surrounded by a numerous cortége of -attendants. This treatment admits, of course, of endless variety, -in the disposition and number of the figures, in the attitudes and -expression; but the moment chosen is generally the same. - -1. The oldest example I can cite, next to the Greek mosaics, is an old -Italian print mentioned by Zani. Paul, habited as a Roman warrior, -kneels with his arms crossed on his breast, and holding a scroll, on -which is inscribed in Latin, ‘Lord, what shall I do?’ Christ stands -opposite to him, also holding a scroll, on which is written, ‘Saul, -Saul, why persecutest thou me?’ There are no attendants. Zani does not -give the date of this quaint and simple version of the story. - -2. Raphael. Paul, habited as a Roman soldier, is lying on the ground, -as thrown from his horse; he looks upward to Christ, who appears in the -clouds, attended by three child-angels: his attendants on foot and on -horseback are represented as rushing to his assistance, unconscious of -the vision, but panic struck by its effect on _him_: one attendant in -the background seizes by the bridle the terrified horse. The original -cartoon of this fine composition (one of the tapestries in the Vatican) -is lost. - -3. Michael Angelo. Paul, a noble figure, though prostrate, appears to -be struck motionless and senseless: Christ seems to be _rushing_ down -from heaven surrounded by a host of angels; those of the attendants -who are near to Paul are flying in all directions, while a long train -of soldiers is seen ascending from the background. This grand dramatic -composition forms the pendant to the Crucifixion of Peter in the -Cappella Paolina. It is so darkened by age and the smoke of tapers, and -so ill lighted, that it is not easily made out; but there is a fine -engraving, which may be consulted. - -4. Another very celebrated composition of this subject is that of -Rubens.[199] Paul, lying in the foreground, expresses in his attitude -the most helpless and grovelling prostration. The attendants appear -very literally frightened out of their senses; and the grey horse -snorting and rearing behind is the finest part of the picture: as is -usual with Rubens, the effects of physical fear and amazement are given -with the utmost spirit and truth; but the scriptural dignity, the -supernatural terrors, of the subject are ill expressed, and the apostle -himself is degraded. To go a step lower, Cuyp has given us a Conversion -of St. Paul apparently for the sole purpose of introducing horses in -different attitudes: the favourite dapple-grey charger is seen bounding -off in terror; no one looks at St. Paul, still less to Christ above—but -the _horses_ are admirable. - -5. In Albert Dürer’s print, a shower of _stones_ is falling from heaven -on St. Paul and his company. - -6. There is a very curious and unusual version of this subject in -a rare print by Lucas van Leyden. It is a composition of numerous -figures. St. Paul is seen, blind and bewildered, led between two men; -another man leads his frightened charger; several warriors and horsemen -follow, and the whole procession seems to be proceeding slowly to the -right. In the far distance is represented the previous moment—Paul -struck down and blinded by the celestial vision. - - * * * * * - -‘Paul, after his conversion, restored to sight by Ananias,’ as a -separate subject, seldom occurs; but it has been treated in the later -schools by Vasari, by Cavallucci, and by P. Cortona. - - * * * * * - -‘The Jews flagellate Paul and Silas.’ I know but one picture of this -subject, that of Niccolò Poussin: the angry Jews are seen driving them -forth with scourges; the Elders, who have condemned them, are seated in -council behind: as we might expect from the character of Poussin, the -dignity of the apostles is maintained,—but it is not one of his best -pictures. - - * * * * * - -‘Paul, after his conversion, escapes from Damascus;’ he is let down -in a basket (Acts ix. 25): the incident forms, of course, one of the -scenes in his life when exhibited in a series, but I remember no -separate picture of this subject, and the situation is so ludicrous and -so derogatory that we can understand how it came to be avoided. - - * * * * * - -‘The ecstatic vision of St. Paul, in which he was caught up to the -third heaven.’ (2 Cor. xii. 2.) Paul, who so frequently and familiarly -speaks of angels, in describing this event makes no mention of them, -but in pictures he is represented as borne upwards by angels. I find -no early composition of this subject. The small picture of Domenichino -is coldly conceived. Poussin has painted the ‘Ravissement de St. Paul’ -twice; in the first, the apostle is borne upon the arms of four angels, -and in the second he is sustained by three angels. In rendering this -ecstatic vision, the angels, always allowable as machinery, have here a -particular propriety; Paul is elevated only a few feet above the roof -of his house, where lie his sword and book. Here the sword serves to -distinguish the personage; and the roof of the house shows us that it -is a vision, and not an apotheosis. Both pictures are in the Louvre. - - * * * * * - -‘Paul preaching to the converts at Ephesus.’ In a beautiful -Raffaelesque composition by Le Sueur, the incident of the magicians -bringing their books of sorcery and burning them at the feet of the -apostle is well introduced. It was long the custom to exhibit this -picture solemnly in Notre Dame every year on the 1st of May. It is now -in the Louvre. - -‘Paul before Felix,’ and ‘Paul before Agrippa.’ Neither of these -subjects has ever been adequately treated. It is to me inconceivable -that the old masters so completely overlooked the opportunity for grand -characteristic delineation afforded by both these scenes, the latter -especially. Perhaps, in estimating its capabilities, we are misled by -the effect produced on the imagination by the splendid eloquence of -the apostle; yet, were another Raphael to arise, I would suggest the -subject as a pendant to the St. Paul at Athens. - -‘Paul performs miracles before the Emperor Nero;’ a blind man, a sick -child, and a possessed woman are brought to him to be healed. This, -though a legendary rather than a scriptural subject, has been treated -by Le Sueur with scriptural dignity and simplicity. - - * * * * * - -‘The martyrdom of St. Paul’ is sometimes a separate subject, but -generally it is the pendant to the martyrdom of St. Peter. According -to the received tradition, the two apostles suffered at the same time, -but in different places; for St. Paul, being by birth a Roman citizen, -escaped the ignominy of the public exposure in the Circus, as well -as the prolonged torture of the cross. He was beheaded by the sword -outside the Ostian gate, about two miles from Rome, at a place called -the Aqua Salvias, now the ‘Tre Fontane.’ The legend of the death of St. -Paul relates that a certain Roman matron named Plautilla, one of the -converts of St. Peter, placed herself on the road by which St. Paul -passed to his martyrdom, in order to behold him for the last time; -and when she saw him, she wept greatly, and besought his blessing. -The apostle then, seeing her faith, turned to her and begged that she -would give him her veil to bind his eyes when he should be beheaded, -promising to return it to her after his death. The attendants mocked -at such a promise, but Plautilla, with a woman’s faith and charity, -taking off her veil, presented it to him. After his martyrdom, St. Paul -appeared to her, and restored the veil stained with his blood. It is -also related, that when he was decapitated the severed head made three -bounds upon the earth, and wherever it touched the ground a fountain -sprang forth. - -In the most ancient representations of the martyrdom of St. Paul, -the legend of Plautilla is seldom omitted. In the picture of Giotto -preserved in the sacristy of St. Peter’s, Plautilla is seen on an -eminence in the background, receiving the veil from the hand of -Paul, who appears in the clouds above; the same representation, but -little varied, is executed in bas-relief on the bronze doors of St. -Peter’s. The three fountains gushing up beneath the severed head are -also frequently represented as a literal fact, though a manifest and -beautiful allegory, figurative of the fountains of Christian faith -which should spring forth from his martyrdom. - -In all the melancholy vicinity of Rome, there is not a more melancholy -spot than the ‘Tre Fontane.’ A splendid monastery, rich with the -offerings of all Christendom, once existed there: the ravages of that -mysterious scourge of the Campagna, the malaria, have rendered it a -desert; three ancient churches and some ruins still exist, and a few -pale monks wander about the swampy dismal confines of the hollow in -which they stand. In winter you approach them through a quagmire; in -summer, you dare not breathe in their pestilential vicinity; and yet -there is a sort of dead beauty about the place, something hallowed as -well as sad, which seizes on the fancy. In the church properly called -‘San Paolo delle Tre Fontane,’ and which is so old that the date of the -foundation is unknown, are three chapels with altars raised over as -many wells or fountains; the altars are modern, and have each the head -of St. Paul carved in relief. The water, which appeared to me exactly -the same in all the three fountains, has a soft insipid taste, neither -refreshing nor agreeable. The ancient frescoes have perished, and the -modern ones are perishing. It is a melancholy spot. - -To return, however, to that event which has rendered it for ages -consecrated and memorable. Among the many representations of the -decollation of St. Paul which exist in sculpture and in painting, I -have not met with one which could take a high place as a work of art, -or which has done justice to the tragic capabilities of the subject. - -After his martyrdom the body of St. Paul was interred on a spot between -the Ostian gate and the Aqua Salvias, and there arose the magnificent -church known as San Paolo-_fuori-le-mura_. I saw this church a few -months before it was consumed by fire in 1823; I saw it again in -1847, when the restoration was far advanced. Its cold magnificence, -compared with the impressions left by the former structure, rich with -inestimable remains of ancient art, and venerable from a thousand -associations, saddened and chilled me. - -The mosaics in the old church, which represented the life and actions -of St. Paul, were executed by the Greek mosaic masters of the eleventh -century. They appear to have comprised the same subjects which still -exist as a series in the church of Monreale near Palermo, and which I -shall now describe. - -1. Saul is sent by the high-priest to Damascus. Two priests are seated -on a raised throne in front of the Temple; Saul stands before them. - -2. The Conversion of Saul, as already described (p. 214). - -3. Saul, being blind, is led by his attendants to the gate of Damascus. - -4. Saul seated. Ananias enters and addresses him. - -5. Paul is baptized: he is standing, or rather sitting, in a font, -which is a large vase, and not much larger in proportion than a -punch-bowl. - -6. St. Paul disputes with the Jews. His attitude is vehement and -expressive: three Jewish doctors stand before him as if confounded and -put to silence by his eloquent reasoning. - -7. St. Paul escapes from Damascus; the basket, in which he is lowered -down from a parapet, is about the size of a hand-basket. - -8. St. Paul delivers a scroll to Timothy and Silas; he consigns to -their direction the deacons that were ordained by the apostles and -elders. (Acts xvi. 4.) - -9. St. Paul and St. Peter meet at Rome, and embrace with brotherly -affection. I believe this subject to represent the reconciliation of -the two apostles after the dispute at Antioch. The inscription is, _Hic -Paulus venit Romam et pacem fecit cum Petro_. (In the Christian Museum -in the Vatican there is a most beautiful small Greek picture in which -Peter and Paul are embracing; it may represent the reconciliation or -the parting: the heads, though minute, are extremely characteristic.) - -10. The decollation of St. Paul at the Aqua Salvias; one fountain only -is introduced. - -This is the earliest instance I can quote of the dramatic treatment -of the life and actions of St. Paul in a series of subjects. The -Greek type of the head of St. Paul is retained throughout, strongly -individualised, and he appears as a man of about thirty-five or forty. -In the later schools of art, which afford some celebrated examples -of the life of St. Paul treated as a series, the Greek type has been -abandoned. - -The series by Raphael, executed for the tapestries of the Sistine -Chapel in the Vatican, consists of five large and seven small -compositions. - -1. The conversion of Saul, already described: the cartoon is lost. 2. -Elymas the sorcerer struck blind: wonderful for dramatic power. 3. -St. Paul and Barnabas at Lystra. 4. Paul preaches at Athens. Of these -three magnificent compositions we have the cartoons at Hampton Court. -5. St. Paul in prison at Philippi. The earthquake through which he was -liberated is here represented allegorically as a Titan in the lower -corner of the picture, with shoulders and arms heaving up the earth. -This, which strikes us as rather pagan in conception, has, however, -a parallel in the earliest Christian Art, where, in the baptism of -Christ, the Jordan is sometimes represented by a classical river-god, -sedge-crowned, and leaning on his urn. - -The seven small subjects, which in the set of tapestries run underneath -as borders to the large compositions, are thus arranged:— - -1. ‘As for Saul, he made havoc of the church, entering into every -house, and haling men and women committed them to prison.’ (Acts viii. -3.) At one end of a long narrow composition Saul is seated in the dress -of a Roman warrior, and attended by a lictor; they bring before him a -Christian youth; farther on are seen soldiers ‘haling men and women’ -by the hair; others flee in terror. This was erroneously supposed to -represent the massacre at Prato, in 1512, by the adherents of the -Medici, and is so inscribed in the set of engravings by Bartoli and -Landon. - -2. John and Mark taking leave of the brethren at Perga in Pamphylia. -(Acts xiii. 3.) - -3. Paul, teaching in the synagogue at Antioch, confounds the Jews. -(Acts xviii. 3.) - -4. Paul at Corinth engaged in tent-making with his host. This is an -uncommon subject, but I remember another instance in a curious old -German print, where, in the lower part of the composition, the apostle -is teaching or preaching; and above there is a kind of gallery or -balcony, in which he is seen working at a loom: ‘You yourselves know -that these hands have ministered to my necessities, labouring night and -day, because we would not be chargeable unto you.’ (Acts xviii. 6.) - -5. Being at Corinth, he is mocked by the Jews. (Acts viii. 12.) - -6. He lays his hand on the Christian converts. - -7. He is brought before the judgment-seat of Gallio.[200] - - * * * * * - -‘Paul, in the island of Melita, shaking the viper from his hand,’ is -not a common subject, and yet it is capable of the finest picturesque -and dramatic effects: the storm and shipwreck in the background, -the angry heavens above, the red firelight, the group of astonished -mariners, and, pre-eminent among them, the calm intellectual figure -of the apostle shaking the venomous beast from his hand,—these are -surely beautiful and available materials for a scenic picture. Even if -treated as an allegory in a devotional sense, a single majestic figure, -throwing the evil thing innocuous from him, which I have not yet -seen, it would be an excellent and a significant subject. The little -picture by Elzheimer is the best example I can cite of the picturesque -treatment. That of Le Sueur has much dignity; those of Perino del Vaga, -Thornhill, West, are all commonplace. - -Thornhill, as everybody knows, painted the eight principal scenes of -the life of the apostle in the cupola of St. Paul’s.[201] Few people, -I should think, have strained their necks to examine them; the eight -original studies, small sketches _en grisaille_, are preserved in the -vestry, and display that heartless, mindless, mannered mediocrity, -which makes all criticism foolishness; I shall, however, give a list of -the subjects. - -1. Paul and Barnabas at Lystra. 2. Paul preaching at Athens. 3. Elymas -struck blind. 4. The converts burn their magical books. 5. Paul before -Festus. 6. A woman seated at his feet; I presume the Conversion of -Lydia of Thyatira. 7. Paul let down in a basket. 8. He shakes the viper -from his hand. - -At the time that Thornhill was covering the cupola at ‘the rate of -2_l._ the square yard,’ Hogarth, his son-in-law, would also try his -hand. He painted ‘St. Paul pleading before Felix’ for Lincoln’s. -Inn Hall; where the subject, at least, is appropriate. The picture -itself is curiously characteristic, not of the scene or of the chief -personage, but of the painter. St. Paul loaded with chains, and his -accuser Tertullus, stand in front; and Felix, with his wife Drusilla, -are seated on a raised tribunal in the background; near Felix is the -high-priest Ananias. The composition is good. The heads are full -of vivid expression—wrath, terror, doubt, fixed attention; but the -conception of character most ignoble and commonplace. Hogarth was -more at home when he took the same subject as a vehicle for a witty -caricature of the Dutch manner of treating sacred subjects—their -ludicrous anachronisms and mean incidents. St. Paul, in allusion to his -low stature, is mounted on a stool; an angel is sawing through one -leg of it; Tertullus is a barrister, in wig, band, and gown; the judge -is like an old doting justice of peace, and his attendants like old -beggars. - -In the Florentine Gallery there is a very curious series of the lives -of St. Peter and St. Paul in eight pictures, in the genuine old German -style; fanciful, animated, full of natural and dramatic expression, -and exquisitely finished,—but dry, hard, grotesque, and abounding in -anachronisms.[202] - - * * * * * - -Among the few separate historical subjects in which St. Peter and St. -Paul are represented together, the most important is the dispute at -Antioch,—a subject avoided by the earliest painters. St. Paul says, -‘When Peter was come to Antioch, I withstood him to the face, because -he was to be blamed.’ Guido’s picture in the _Brera_ at _Milan_ is -celebrated: Peter is seated, looking thoughtful, with downcast eyes, -an open book on his knees; Paul, in an attitude of rebuke, stands over -against him. There is another example by Rosso: here both are standing; -Peter is looking down; Paul, with long hair and beard floating back, -and a keen reproving expression, ‘rebukes him to his face.’ I presume -the same subject to be represented by Lucas van Leyden in a rare and -beautiful little print, in which St. Peter and St. Paul are seated -together in earnest conversation. St. Peter holds a _key_ in his right -hand, and points with the other to a book which lies on his knees. St. -Paul is about to turn the leaf, and his right hand appears to rebuke -St. Peter; his left foot is on the _sword_ which lies at his feet. - - * * * * * - -‘The Parting of St. Peter and St. Paul before they are led to death.’ -The scene is without the gates of Rome; and as the soldiers drag Peter -away, he turns back to Paul with a pathetic expression. This picture, -now in the Louvre, is one of Lanfranco’s best compositions.[203] - -When the crucifixion of St. Peter and the decollation of St. Paul -are represented together in the same picture, such a picture must be -considered as religious and devotional, not historical; it does not -express the action as it really occurred, but, like many pictures -of the crucifixion of our Saviour, it is placed before us as an -excitement to piety, self-sacrifice, and repentance. We have this kind -of treatment in a picture by Niccolò dell’ Abate:[204] St. Paul kneels -before a block, and the headsman stands with sword uplifted in act to -strike; in the background, two other executioners grasp St. Peter, who -is kneeling on his cross and praying fervently: above, in a glory, is -seen the Virgin; in her arms the Infant Christ, who delivers to two -angels palm-branches for the martyred saints. The genius of Niccolò was -not precisely fitted for this class of subjects. But the composition -is full of poetical feeling. The introduction of the Madonna and Child -stamps the character of the picture as devotional, not historical—it -would otherwise be repulsive, and out of keeping with the subject. - -There is a Martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul engraved after -Parmigiano,[205] which I shall notice on account of its careless and -erroneous treatment. They are put to death together; an executioner -prepares to decapitate St. Peter, and another drags St. Paul by the -beard: the incidents are historically false, and, moreover, in a -degraded and secular taste. These are the mistakes that make us turn -disgusted from the technical facility, elegance, and power of the -sixteenth century, to the simplicity and reverential truth of the -fourteenth. - - * * * * * - -There are various traditions concerning the relics of St. Peter and -St. Paul. According to some, the bodies of the two apostles were, in -the reign of Heliogabalus, deposited by the Christian converts in the -catacombs of Rome, and were laid in the same sepulchre. After the lapse -of about two hundred years, the Greek or Oriental Christians attempted -to carry them off; but were opposed by the Roman Christians. The Romans -conquered; and the two bodies were transported to the church of the -Vatican, where they reposed together in a magnificent shrine, beneath -the church. Among the engravings in the work of Ciampini and Bosio are -two rude old pictures commemorating this event. The first represents -the combat of the Orientals and the Romans for the bodies of the -Saints; in the other, the bodies are deposited in the Vatican. In these -two ancient representations, which were placed in the portico of the -old basilica of St. Peter, the traditional types may be recognised—the -broad full features, short curled beard, and bald head of St. Peter, -and the oval face and long beard of St. Paul. - - * * * * * - -Here I must conclude this summary of the lives and characters of the -two greatest apostles, as they have been exhibited in Christian Art; -to do justice to the theme would have required a separate volume. One -observation, however, suggests itself, and cannot be passed over. The -usual type of the head of St. Peter, though often ill rendered and -degraded by coarseness, can in general be recognised as characteristic; -but is there among the thousand representations of the apostle Paul, -_one_ on which the imagination can rest completely satisfied? I know -not one. No doubt the sublimest ideal of embodied eloquence that ever -was expressed in Art is Raphael’s St. Paul preaching at Athens. He -stands there the delegated voice of the true God, the antagonist and -conqueror of the whole heathen world:—‘Whom ye ignorantly worship, -HIM declare I unto you’—is not this what he says? Every feature, nay, -every fold in his drapery, speaks; as in the other St. Paul leaning -on his sword (in the famous St. Cecilia), every feature and every -fold of drapery meditates. The latter is as fine in its tranquil -melancholy grandeur, as the former in its authoritative energy: in the -one the orator, in the other the philosopher, were never more finely -rendered: but is it, in either, the Paul of Tarsus whom we know? It -were certainly both unnecessary and pedantic to adhere so closely -to historic fact as to make St. Paul of diminutive stature, and St. -Peter weak-eyed: but has Raphael done well in wholly rejecting the -traditional portrait which reflected to us the Paul of Scripture, -the man of many toils and many sorrows, wasted with vigils, worn -down with travel, whose high bald forehead, thin flowing hair, and -long pointed beard, spoke so plainly the fervent and indomitable, -yet meditative and delicate, organisation,—and in substituting this -Jupiter Ammon head, with the dark redundant hair, almost hiding the -brow, and the full bushy beard? This is one of the instances in which -Raphael, in yielding to the fashion of his time, has erred, as it -seems to me,—though I say it with all reverence! The St. Paul rending -his garments at Lystra, and rejecting the sacrifice of the misguided -people, is more particularly false as to the character of the man, -though otherwise so grandly expressive, that we are obliged to admire -what our better sense—our _conscience_—cannot wholly approve. - - * * * * * - -I shall now consider the rest of the apostles in their proper order. - - - ST. ANDREW. - -_Lat._ S. Andreas. _Ital._ Sant’ Andrea. _Fr._ St. André. Patron saint - of Scotland and of Russia. Nov. 30 A.D. 70. - -St. Andrew was the brother of Simon Peter, and the first who was called -to the apostleship. Nothing farther is recorded of him in Scripture: -he is afterwards merely included by name in the general account of the -apostles. - -In the traditional and legendary history of St. Andrew we are told, -that after our Lord’s ascension, when the apostles dispersed to -preach the Gospel to all nations, St. Andrew travelled into Scythia, -Cappadocia, and Bithynia, everywhere converting multitudes to the -faith. The Russians believe that he was the first to preach to the -Muscovites in Sarmatia, and thence he has been honoured as titular -saint of the empire of Russia. After many sufferings, he returned to -Jerusalem, and thence travelled into Greece, and came at length to -a city of Achaia, called Patras. Here he made many converts; among -others, Maximilla, the wife of the proconsul Ægeus, whom he persuaded -to make a public profession of Christianity. The proconsul, enraged, -commanded him to be seized and scourged, and then crucified. The cross -on which he suffered was of a peculiar form (_crux decussata_), since -called the St. Andrew’s cross; and it is expressly said that he was not -fastened to his cross with nails, but with cords,—a circumstance always -attended to in the representations of his death. It is, however, to be -remembered, that while all authorities agree that he was crucified, and -that the manner of his crucifixion was peculiar, they are not agreed -as to the form of his cross. St. Peter Chrysologos says that it was -a tree: another author affirms that it was an olive tree. The Abbé -Méry remarks, that it is a mistake to give the transverse cross to -St. Andrew; that it ought not to differ from the cross of our Lord. -His reasons are not absolutely conclusive:—‘Il suffit pour montrer -qu’ils sont là-dessus dans l’erreur, de voir _la croix véritable_ de -St. André, conservée dans l’Église de St. Victor de Marseille; on -trouvera qu’elle est à angles droits,’ &c.[206] Seeing is believing; -nevertheless, the form is fixed by tradition and usage, and ought not -to be departed from, though Michael Angelo has done so in the figure of -St. Andrew in the Last Judgment, and there are several examples in the -Italian masters.[207] The legend goes on to relate, that St. Andrew, on -approaching the cross prepared for his execution, saluted and adored -it on his knees, as being already consecrated by the sufferings of the -Redeemer, and met his death triumphantly. Certain of his relics were -brought from Patras to Scotland in the fourth century, and since that -time St. Andrew has been honoured as the patron saint of Scotland, and -of its chief order of knighthood. He is also the patron saint of the -famous Burgundian Order, the Golden Fleece; and of Russia and its chief -Order, the Cross of St. Andrew. - - * * * * * - -Since the fourteenth century, St. Andrew is generally distinguished in -works of art by the transverse cross; the devotional pictures in which -he figures as one of the series of apostles, or singly as patron saint, -represent him as a very old man with some kind of brotherly resemblance -to St. Peter; his hair and beard silver white, long, loose, and -flowing, and in general the beard is divided; he leans upon his cross, -and holds the Gospel in his right hand. - -[Illustration: 74 St. Andrew (Peter Vischer)] - -The historical subjects from the life of St. Andrew, treated separately -from the rest of the apostles, are very few; his crucifixion is the -only one that I have found treated before the fifteenth century. On -the ancient doors of San Paolo, the instrument of his martyrdom has the -shape of a Y, and resembles a tree split down the middle. The cross in -some later pictures is very lofty, and resembles the rough branches of -a tree laid transversely. - -I know but two other subjects relating to the life of St. Andrew which -have been separately treated in the later schools of art—the Adoration -of the Cross, and the Flagellation. - -‘St. Andrew adoring his cross,’ by Andrea Sacchi, is remarkable for -its simplicity and fine expression; it contains only three figures. -St Andrew, half undraped, and with his silver hair and beard floating -dishevelled, kneels, gazing up to the cross with ecstatic devotion; he -is addressing to it his famous invocation:—‘Salve, Croce preziosa! che -fosti consecrata dal corpo del mio Dio!’—an executioner stands by, and -a fierce soldier, impatient of delay, urges him on to death.[208] - -‘St. Andrew taken down from the cross’ is a fine effective picture by -Ribera.[209] - - * * * * * - -When Guido and Domenichino painted, in emulation of each other, -the frescoes in the chapel of Sant’ Andrea in the church of San -Gregorio, at Rome, Guido chose for his subject the Adoration of the -Cross. The scene is supposed to be outside the walls of Patras in -Achaia; the cross is at a distance in the background; St. Andrew, as -he approaches, falls down in adoration before the instrument of his -martyrdom, consecrated by the death of his Lord; he is attended by one -soldier on horseback, one on foot, and three executioners; a group of -women and alarmed children in the foreground are admirable for grace -and feeling—they are, in fact, the best part of the picture. On the -opposite wall of the chapel Domenichino painted the Flagellation of -St. Andrew, a subject most difficult to treat effectively, and retain -at the same time the dignity of the suffering apostle, while avoiding -all resemblance to a similar scene in the life of Christ. Here he is -bound down on a sort of table; one man lifts a rod, another seems -to taunt the prostrate saint; a lictor drives back the people. The -group of the mother and frightened children, which Domenichino so -often introduces with little variation, is here very beautiful; the -judge and lictors are seen behind, with a temple and a city in the -distance. When Domenichino painted the same subject in the church of -Sant’ Andrea-della-Valle, he chose another moment, and administered -the torture after a different manner: the apostle is bound by his -hands and feet to four short posts set firmly in the ground; one of -the executioners in tightening a cord breaks it and falls back; three -men prepare to scourge him with _thongs_: in the foreground we have -the usual group of the mother and her frightened children. This is -a composition full of dramatic life and movement, but unpleasing. -Domenichino painted in the same church the crucifixion of the saint, -and his apotheosis surmounts the whole. - -All these compositions are of great celebrity in the history of Art for -colour and for expression. Lanzi says, that the personages, ‘if endued -with speech, could not say more to the ear than they do to the eye.’ -But, in power and pathos, none of them equal the picture of Murillo, -of which we have the original study in England.[210] St. Andrew is -suspended on the high cross, formed, not of planks, but of the trunks -of trees laid transversely. He is bound with cords, undraped, except -by a linen cloth; his silver hair and beard loosely streaming in the -air; his aged countenance illuminated by a heavenly transport, as he -looks up to the opening skies, whence two angels of really celestial -beauty, like almost all Murillo’s angels, descend with the crown and -palm. In front, to the right, is a group of shrinking sympathising -women; and a boy turns away, crying with a truly boyish grief; on the -left are guards and soldiers. The subject is here rendered poetical by -mere force of feeling; there is a tragic reality in the whole scene, -far more effective, to my taste, than the more studied compositions -of the Italian painters. The martyrdom of St. Andrew, and the saint -preaching the Gospel, by Juan de Roelas, are also mentioned as splendid -productions of the Seville school. - -I think it possible that St. Andrew may owe his popularity in the -Spanish and Flemish schools of art to his being the patron saint of -the far-famed Burgundian Order of the Golden Fleece. At the time -that Constantinople was taken, and the relics of St. Andrew dispersed -in consequence, a lively enthusiasm for this apostle was excited -throughout all Christendom. He had been previously honoured chiefly as -the brother of St. Peter; he obtained thenceforth a kind of personal -interest and consideration. Philip of Burgundy (A.D. 1433), who had -obtained at great cost a portion of the precious relics, consisting -chiefly of some pieces of his cross, placed under the protection of the -apostle his new order of chivalry, which, according to the preamble, -was intended to revive the honour and the memory of the Argonauts. His -knights wore as their badge the cross of St. Andrew. - - - ST. JAMES THE GREAT. - - _Lat._ Sanctus Jacobus Major. _Ital._ San Giacomo, or Jacopo, - Maggiore. _Fr._ St. Jacques Majeur. _Spa._ San Jago, or Santiago. El - Tutelar. Patron saint of Spain. July 25. A.D. 44. - -St. James the Great, or the Elder, or St. James _Major_, was nearly -related to Christ, and, with his brother John (the evangelist) and -Peter, he seems to have been admitted to particular favour, travelled -with the Lord, and was present at most of the events recorded in the -Gospels. He was one of the three who were permitted to witness the -glorification of Christ on Mount Tabor, and one of those who slept -during the agony in the garden. After our Saviour’s ascension, nothing -is recorded concerning him, except the fact that Herod slew him with -the sword. In the ancient traditions he is described as being of a -zealous and affectionate temper, easily excited to anger: of this we -have a particular instance in his imprecation against the inhospitable -Samaritans, for which Christ rebuked him: ‘Ye know not what manner of -spirit ye are of. The Son of man is not come to destroy men’s lives, -but to save them.’ (Luke, ix. 55.) - -As Scripture makes no farther mention of one so distinguished by his -zeal and by his near relationship to the Saviour, the legends of the -middle ages have supplied this deficiency; and so amply, that St. -James, as St. Jago or SANTIAGO, the military patron of Spain, became -one of the most renowned saints in Christendom, and one of the most -popular subjects of Western Art. Many of these subjects are so -singular, that, in order to render them intelligible, I must give -the legend at full length as it was followed by the artists of the -fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. - -According to the Spanish legend, the apostle James was the son of -Zebedee, an illustrious baron of Galilee, who, being the proprietor -of ships, was accustomed to fish along the shores of a certain lake -called Gennesareth, but solely for his good pleasure and recreation: -for who can suppose that Spain, that nation of Hidalgos and Caballeros, -would ever have chosen for her patron, or accepted as the leader and -captain-general of her armies, a poor ignoble fisherman? It remains, -therefore, indisputable, that this glorious apostle, who was our Lord’s -cousin-german, was of noble lineage, and worthy of his spurs as a -knight and a gentleman;—so in Dante:— - - Ecco _il Barone_ - Per cui laggiù si visita Galizia.‘ - -But it pleased him, in his great humility, to follow, while on earth, -the example of his divine Lord, and reserve his warlike prowess till -called upon to slaughter, by thousands and tens of thousands, those -wicked Moors, the perpetual enemies of Christ and his servants. Now, -as James and his brother John were one day in their father’s ship -with his hired servants, and were employed in mending the nets, the -Lord, who was walking on the shores of the lake, called them; and they -left all and followed him; and became thenceforward his most favoured -disciples, and the witnesses of his miracles while on earth. After -the ascension of Christ, James preached the Gospel in Judea; then he -travelled over the whole world, and came at last to Spain, where he -made very few converts, by reason of the ignorance and darkness of -the people. One day, as he stood with his disciples on the banks of -the Ebro, the blessed Virgin appeared to him seated on the top of a -pillar of jasper, and surrounded by a choir of angels; and the apostle -having thrown himself on his face, she commanded him to build on that -spot a chapel for her worship, assuring him that all this province of -Saragossa, though now in the darkness of paganism, would at a future -time be distinguished by devotion to her. He did as the holy Virgin -had commanded, and this was the origin of a famous church afterwards -known as that of Our Lady of the Pillar (’_Nuestra Señora del -Pillar_‘). Then St. James, having founded the Christian faith in Spain, -returned to Judea, where he preached for many years, and performed many -wonders and miracles in the sight of the people: and it happened that a -certain sorcerer, whose name was Hermogenes,[211] set himself against -the apostle, just as Simon Magus had wickedly and vainly opposed St. -Peter, and with the like result. Hermogenes sent his scholar Philetus -to dispute with James, and to compete with him in wondrous works; but, -as you will easily believe, he had no chance against the apostle, and, -confessing himself vanquished, he returned to his master, to whom he -announced his intention to follow henceforth James and his doctrine. -Then Hermogenes, in a rage, bound Philetus by his diabolical spells, -so that he could not move hand or foot; saying, ‘Let us now see if -thy new master can deliver thee:’ and Philetus sent his servant to -St. James, praying for aid. Then the apostle took off his cloak, and -gave it to the servant to give his master; and no sooner had Philetus -touched it, than he became free, and hastened to throw himself at the -feet of his deliverer. Hermogenes, more furious than ever, called to -the demons who served him, and commanded that they should bring to him -James and Philetus, bound in fetters; but on their way the demons met -with a company of angels, who seized upon them, and punished them for -their wicked intentions, till they cried for mercy. Then St. James said -to them, ‘Go back to him who sent ye, and bring him hither bound.’ -And they did so; and having laid the sorcerer down at the feet of St. -James, they besought him, saying, ‘Now give us power to be avenged -of our enemy and thine!’ But St. James rebuked them, saying, ‘Christ -hath commanded us to do good for evil.’ So he delivered Hermogenes -from their hands; and the magician, being utterly confounded, cast his -books into the sea, and desired of St. James that he would protect him -against the demons, his former servants. Then St. James gave him his -staff, as the most effectual means of defence against the infernal -spirits; and Hermogenes became a faithful disciple and preacher of the -word from that day. - -But the evil-minded Jews, being more and more incensed, took James and -bound him, and brought him before the tribunal of Herod Agrippa; and -one of those who dragged him along, touched by the gentleness of his -demeanour, and by his miracles of mercy, was converted, and supplicated -to die with him; and the apostle gave him the kiss of peace, saying, -‘Pax vobis!’ and the kiss and the words together have remained as a -form of benediction in the Church to this day. Then they were both -beheaded, and so died. - -And the disciples of St. James came and took away his body; and, not -daring to bury it, for fear of the Jews, they carried it to Joppa, and -placed it on board of a ship: some say that the ship was of marble, -but this is not authenticated; however, it is most certain that angels -conducted the ship miraculously to the coast of Spain, where they -arrived in seven days; and, sailing through the straits called the -Pillars of Hercules, they landed at length in Galicia, at a port called -Iria Flavia, now Padron. - -In those days there reigned over the country a certain queen whose -name was Lupa, and she and all her people were plunged in wickedness -and idolatry. Now, having come to shore, they laid the body of the -apostle upon a great stone, which became like wax, and, receiving the -body, closed around it: this was a sign that the saint willed to remain -there; but the wicked queen Lupa was displeased, and she commanded -that they should harness some wild bulls to a car, and place on it the -body, with the self-formed tomb, hoping that they would drag it to -destruction. But in this she was mistaken; for the wild bulls, when -signed by the cross, became as docile as sheep, and they drew the body -of the apostle straight into the court of her palace. When Queen Lupa -beheld this miracle, she was confounded, and she and all her people -became Christians: she built a magnificent church to receive the sacred -remains, and died in the odour of sanctity. - -But then came the darkness and ruin which during the invasion of the -Barbarians overshadowed all Spain; and the body of the apostle was -lost, and no one knew where to find it, till, in the year 800, the -place of sepulture was revealed to a certain holy friar. - -Then they caused the body of the saint to be transported to -Compostella; and, in consequence of the surprising miracles which -graced his shrine, he was honoured not merely in Galicia, but -throughout all Spain. He became the patron saint of the Spaniards, and -Compostella, as a place of pilgrimage, was renowned throughout Europe. -From all countries bands of pilgrims resorted there, so that sometimes -there were no less than a hundred thousand in one year. The military -Order of Saint Jago, enrolled by Don Alphonso for their protection, -became one of the greatest and richest in Spain. - -Now, if I should proceed to recount all the wonderful deeds enacted -by Santiago in behalf of his chosen people, they would fill a volume. -The Spanish historians number thirty-eight visible apparitions, in -which this glorious saint descended from heaven in person, and took the -command of their armies against the Moors. The first of these, and the -most famous of all, I shall now relate. - -In the year of our Lord 939, King Ramirez, having vowed to deliver -Castile from the shameful tribute imposed by the Moors, of one hundred -virgins delivered annually, collected his troops, and defied their king -Abdelraman, to battle: - - The king call’d God to witness, that, came there weal or woe, - Thenceforth no maiden tribute from out Castile should go.— - ‘At least I will do battle on God our Saviour’s foe, - And die beneath my banner before I see it so!’ - -Accordingly he charged the Moorish host on the plain of Alveida -or Clavijo: after a furious conflict, the Christians were, by the -permission of Heaven, defeated, and forced to retire. Night separated -the combatants, and King Ramirez, overpowered with fatigue, and sad at -heart, flung himself upon his couch and slept. In his sleep he beheld -the apostle St. Jago, who promised to be with him next morning in -the field, and assured him of victory. The king, waking up from the -glorious vision, sent for his prelates and officers, to whom he related -it; and the next morning, at the head of his army, he recounted it to -his soldiers, bidding them rely on heavenly aid. He then ordered the -trumpets to sound to battle. The soldiers, inspired with fresh courage, -rushed to the fight. Suddenly St. Jago was seen mounted on a milk-white -charger, and waving aloft a white standard; he led on the Christians, -who gained a decisive victory, leaving 60,000 Moors dead on the -field. This was the famous battle of Clavijo; and ever since that day, -‘SANTIAGO!’ has been the war-cry of the Spanish armies. - - * * * * * - -But it was not only on such great occasions that the invincible patron -of Spain was pleased to exhibit his power: he condescended oftentimes -to interfere for the protection of the poor and oppressed, of which I -will now give a notable instance, as it is related by Pope Calixtus II. - -There was a certain German, who with his wife and son went on a -pilgrimage to St. James of Compostella. Having come as far as Torlosa, -they lodged at an inn there; and the host had a fair daughter, who, -looking on the son of the pilgrim, a handsome and a graceful youth, -became deeply enamoured; but he, being virtuous, and, moreover, on his -way to a holy shrine, refused to listen to her allurements. Then she -thought how she might be avenged for this slight put upon her charms, -and hid in his wallet her father’s silver drinking-cup. The next -morning, no sooner were they departed, than the host, discovering his -loss, pursued them, accused them before the judge, and the cup being -found in the young man’s wallet, he was condemned to be hung, and all -they possessed was confiscated to the host. - -Then the afflicted parents pursued their way lamenting, and made their -prayer and their complaint before the altar of the blessed Saint Jago; -and thirty-six days afterwards as they returned by the spot where -their son hung on the gibbet, they stood beneath it, weeping and -lamenting bitterly. Then the son spoke and said, ‘O my mother! O my -father! do not lament for me, for I have never been in better cheer; -the blessed apostle James is at my side, sustaining me and filling -me with celestial comfort and joy!’ The parents, being astonished, -hastened to the judge, who at that moment was seated at table, and the -mother called out, ‘Our son lives!’ The judge mocked at them: ‘What -sayest thou, good woman? thou art beside thyself! If thy son liveth, -so do those fowls in my dish.’ And lo! scarcely had he uttered the -words, when the fowls (being a cock and a hen) rose up full-feathered -in the dish, and the cock began to crow, to the great admiration of -the judge and his attendants.[212] Then the judge rose up from table -hastily, and called together the priests and the lawyers, and they went -in procession to the gibbet, took down the young man, and restored -him to his parents; and the miraculous cock and hen were placed under -the protection of the Church, where they and their posterity long -flourished in testimony of this stupendous miracle. - -There are many other legends of St. James; the Spanish chroniclers in -prose and verse abound in such; but, in general, they are not merely -incredible, but puerile and unpoetical; and I have here confined myself -to those which I know to have been treated in Art. - -Previous to the twelfth century, St. James is only distinguished among -the apostles by his place, which is the fourth in the series, the -second after St. Peter and St. Paul. In some instances he is portrayed -with a family resemblance to Christ, being his kinsman; the thin -beard, and the hair parted and flowing down on each side. But from the -thirteenth century it became a fashion to characterise St. James as a -pilgrim of Compostella: he bears the peculiar long staff, to which the -wallet or gourd of water is suspended; the cloak with a long cape, the -scallop-shell on his shoulder or on his flapped hat. Where the cape, -hat, and scallop-shells are omitted, the staff, borne as the first of -the apostles who departed to fulfil his Gospel mission, remains his -constant attribute, and by this he may be recognised in the Madonna -pictures, and when grouped with other saints. - -[Illustration: 75 St. James Major (Gio. Santi)] - -The single devotional figures of St. James represent him in two -distinct characters:— - -1. As tutelar saint of Spain, and conqueror of the Moors. In his -pilgrim habit, mounted on a white charger, and waving a white banner, -with white hair and beard streaming like a meteor, or sometimes armed -in complete steel, spurred like a knight, his casque shadowed by white -plumes, he tramples over the prostrate Infidels; so completely was the -humble, gentle-spirited apostle of Christ merged in the spirit of the -religious chivalry of the time. This is a subject frequent in Spanish -schools. The figure over the high altar of Santiago is described as -very grand when seen in the solemn twilight. - -[Illustration: 76 Santiago (Carreño de Miranda)] - -[Illustration: 77 St. James Major (A. del Sarto)] - -2. St. James as patron saint in the general sense. The most beautiful -example I have met with is a picture in the Florence Gallery, painted -by Andrea del Sarto for the Compagnia or Confraternita of Sant’ -Jacopo, and intended to figure as a standard in their processions. The -Madonna di San Sisto of Raphael was painted for a similar purpose: and -such are still commonly used in the religious processions in Italy; -but they have no longer Raphaels and Andrea-del-Sartos to paint them. -In this instance the picture has a particular form, high and narrow, -adapted to its especial purpose: St. James wears a green tunic, and a -rich crimson mantle; and as one of the purposes of the Compagnia was to -educate poor orphans, they are represented by the two boys at his feet. -This picture suffered from the sun and the weather, to which it had -been a hundred times exposed in yearly processions; but it has been -well restored, and is admirable for its vivid colouring as well as the -benign attitude and expression. - -3. St. James seated; he holds a large book bound in vellum (the -Gospels) in his left hand—and with his right points to heaven: by -Guercino, in the gallery of Count Harrach, at Vienna. One of the finest -pictures by Guercino I have seen. - -Pictures from the life of St. James singly, or as a series, are not -common; but among those which remain to us there are several of great -beauty and interest. - -In the series of frescoes painted in a side chapel of the church of St. -Antony of Padua (A.D. 1376), once called the Capella di San Giacomo, -and now San Felice, the old legend of St. James has been exactly -followed; and though ruined in many parts, and in others coarsely -repainted, these works remain as compositions amongst the most curious -monuments of the _Trecentisti_. It appears that, towards the year -1376, Messer Bonifacio de’ Lupi da Parma, Cavaliere e Marchese di -Serana, who boasted of his descent from the Queen Lupa of the legend, -dedicated this chapel to St. James of Spain (San Jacopo di Galizia), -and employed M. Jacopo Avanzi to decorate it, who no doubt bestowed his -best workmanship on his patron saint. The subjects are thus arranged, -beginning with the lunette on the left hand, which is divided into -three compartments: - -1. Hermogenes sends Philetus to dispute with St. James. 2. St. James in -his pulpit converts Philetus. 3. Hermogenes sends his demons to bind -St. James and Philetus. 4. Hermogenes brought bound to St. James. 5. -He burns his books of magic. 6. Hermogenes and Philetus are conversing -in a friendly manner with St. James. 7. St. James is martyred. 8. The -arrival of his body in Spain in a marble ship steered by an angel. 9. -The disciples lay the body on a rock, while Queen Lupa and her sister -and another personage look on from a window in her palace. Then follow -two compartments on the side where the window is broken out, much -ruined; they represented apparently the imprisonment of the disciples. -12. The disciples escape and are pursued, and their pursuers with their -horses are drowned. 13. The wild bulls draw the sarcophagus into the -court of Queen Lupa’s palace. 14. Baptism of Lupa. 15 and 16 (lower -compartments to the left): St. Jago appears to King Ramirez, and the -defeat of the Moors at Clavijo. - - * * * * * - -There is a rare and curious print by Martin Schoen, in which the -apparition of St. James at Clavijo is represented not in the Spanish -but the German style. It is an animated composition of many figures. -The saint appears on horseback in the midst, wearing his pilgrim’s -dress, with the cockle-shell in his hat: the Infidels are trampled -down, or fly before him. - -[Illustration: 78 The miracle of the Fowls (Lo Spagna)] - -On the road from Spoleto to Foligno, about four miles from Spoleto, -there is a small chapel dedicated to St. James of Galizia. The frescoes -representing the miracles of the saint were painted by Lo Spagna (A.D. -1526), the friend and fellow pupil of Raphael. In the vault of the -apsis is the Coronation of the Virgin; she kneels, attired in white -drapery flowered with gold, and the whole group, though inferior in -power, appeared to me in delicacy and taste far superior to the fresco -of Fra Filippo Lippi at Spoleto, from which Passavant thinks it is -borrowed.[213] Immediately under the Coronation, in the centre, is a -figure of St. James as patron saint, standing with his pilgrim’s staff -in one hand, and the Gospel in the other; his dress is a yellow tunic -with a blue mantle thrown over it. In the compartment on the left, the -youth is seen suspended on the gibbet, while St. James with his hands -under his feet sustains him; the father and mother look up at him with -astonishment. In the compartment to the right, we see the judge seated -at dinner, attended by his servants, one of whom is bringing in a dish: -the two pilgrims appear to have just told their story, and the cock and -hen have risen up in the dish (78). These frescoes are painted with -great elegance and animation, and the story is told with much naïveté. -I found the same legend painted on one of the lower windows of the -church of St. Ouen, and on a window of the right-hand aisle in St. -Vincent’s at Rouen. - - -Of ST. JOHN, who is the fifth in the series, I have spoken at large -under the head of the Evangelists. - - - ST. PHILIP. - - _Ital._ San Filippo Apostolo. _Fr._ Saint Philippe. Patron of Brabant - and Luxembourg. May 1. - -Of St. Philip there are few notices in the Gospel. He was born at -Bethsaida, and he was one of the first of those whom our Lord summoned -to follow him. After the ascension, he travelled into Scythia, and -remained there preaching the Gospel for twenty years; he then preached -at Hieropolis in Phrygia, where he found the people addicted to the -worship of a monstrous serpent or dragon, or of the god Mars under that -form. Taking compassion on their blindness, the apostle commanded the -serpent, in the name of the cross he held in his hand, to disappear, -and immediately the reptile glided out from beneath the altar, at the -same time emitting such a hideous stench, that many people died, and -among them the king’s son fell dead in the arms of his attendants: but -the apostle, by Divine power, restored him to life. Then the priests of -the dragon were incensed against him, and they took him, and crucified -him, and being bound on the cross they stoned him; thus he yielded up -his spirit to God, praying, like his Divine Master, for his enemies and -tormentors. - -According to the Scripture, St. Philip had four daughters, who were -prophetesses, and made many converts to the faith of Christ (Acts, xxi. -9). In the Greek calendar, St. Mariamne, his sister, and St. Hermione, -his daughter, are commemorated as martyrs. - -[Illustration: 79 St. Philip (A. Dürer)] - -When St. Philip is represented alone, or as one of the series of -apostles, he is generally a man in the prime of life, with little -beard, and with a benign countenance, being described as of a -remarkably cheerful and affectionate nature. He bears, as his -attribute, a cross, which varies in form; sometimes it is a small -cross, which he carries in his hand; sometimes a high cross in the form -of a T, or a tall staff with a small Latin cross at the top of it (79). -The cross of St. Philip may have a treble signification: it may allude -to his martyrdom; or to his conquest over the idols through the power -of the cross; or, when placed on the top of the pilgrim’s staff, it may -allude to his mission among the barbarians as preacher of the cross of -salvation. Single figures of St. Philip as patron are not common: there -is a fine statue of him on the façade of San Michele at Florence; and a -noble figure by Beccafumi, reading;[214] another, seated and reading, -by Ulrich Mair.[215] - - * * * * * - -Subjects from the life of St. Philip, whether as single pictures or -in a series, are also rarely met with. As he was the first called by -our Saviour to leave all and follow him, and his vocation therefore a -festival in the Church, it must, I think, have been treated apart; but -I have not met with it. I know but of three historical subjects taken -from his life:— - -1. Bonifazio. St. Philip stands before the Saviour: the attitude of the -latter is extremely dignified, that of Philip supplicatory; the other -apostles are seen in the background: the colouring and expression -of the whole like Titian. The subject of this splendid picture is -expressed by the inscription underneath (John, xiv. 14): ‘Domine, -ostende nobis Patrem, et sufficit nobis.’ ‘Philippe, qui videt me, -videt et Patrem meum: ego et Pater unum sumus.‘[216] - -2. St. Philip exorcises the serpent. The scene is the interior of a -temple, an altar with the statue of the god Mars: a serpent, creeping -from beneath the altar, slays the attendants with his poisonous and -fiery breath. The ancient fresco in his chapel at Padua, described -by Lord Lindsay, is extremely animated, but far inferior to the same -subject in the Santa Croce at Florence by Fra Filippo Lippi, where -the dignified attitude of the apostle, and the group of the king’s -son dying in the arms of the attendants, are admirably effective and -dramatic. St. Philip, it must be observed, was the patron saint of the -painter. - -3. The Crucifixion of St. Philip. According to the old Greek -traditions, he was crucified with his head downwards, and he is so -represented on the gates of San Paolo; also in an old picture over the -tomb of Cardinal Philippe d’Alençon, where his patron, St. Philip, -is attached to the cross with cords, and head downwards, like St. -Peter;[217] but in the old fresco by Giusto da Padova, in the Capella -di San Filippo, he is crucified in the usual manner, arrayed in a long -red garment which descends to his feet. - - * * * * * - -It is necessary to avoid confounding St. Philip the apostle with -St. Philip the deacon. It was Philip the deacon who baptized the -chamberlain of Queen Candace, though the action has sometimes been -attributed to Philip the apostle. The incident of the baptism of the -Ethiopian, taking place in the road, by running water, ‘on the way that -goeth down from Jerusalem to Gaza,’ has been introduced into several -beautiful landscapes with much picturesque effect. Claude has thus -treated it; Salvator Rosa; Jan Both, in a most beautiful picture in the -Queen’s Gallery; Rembrandt, Cuyp, and others. - - - ST. BARTHOLOMEW. - - _Lat._ S. Bartholomeus. _Ital._ San Bartolomeo. _Fr._ St. Barthélemi. - Aug. 24. - -As St. Bartholomew is nowhere mentioned in the canonical books, except -by name in enumerating the apostles, there has been large scope for -legendary story, but in works of art he is not a popular saint. -According to one tradition, he was the son of a husbandman; according -to another, he was the son of a prince Ptolomeus. After the ascension -of Christ he travelled into India, even to the confines of the -habitable world, carrying with him the Gospel of St. Matthew; returning -thence, he preached in Armenia and Cilicia; and coming to the city of -Albanopolis, he was condemned to death as a Christian: he was first -flayed and then crucified. - -[Illustration: 80 St. Bartholomew (Giotto)] - -In single figures and devotional pictures, St. Bartholomew sometimes -carries in one hand a book, the Gospel of St. Matthew; but his peculiar -attribute is a large knife, the instrument of his martyrdom. The -legends describe him as having a quantity of strong black hair and a -bushy grizzled beard; and this portrait being followed very literally -by the old German and Flemish painters, gives him, with his large -knife, the look of a butcher. In the Italian pictures, though of a -milder and more dignified appearance, he has frequently black hair; and -sometimes dark and resolute features; yet the same legend describes -him as of a cheerful countenance, wearing a purple robe and attended -by angels. Sometimes St. Bartholomew has his own skin hanging over -his arm, as among the saints in Michael Angelo’s Last Judgment, where -he is holding forth his skin in one hand, and grasping his knife in -the other: and in the statue by Marco Agrati in the Milan Cathedral, -famous for its anatomical precision and its boastful inscription, _Non -me Praxiteles sed Marcus pinxit Agratis_. I found in the church of -Nôtre Dame at Paris a picture of St. Bartholomew healing the Princess -of Armenia. With this exception, I know not any historical subject -where this apostle is the principal figure, except his revolting and -cruel martyrdom. In the early Greek representation on the gates of San -Paolo, he is affixed to a cross, or rather to a post, with a small -transverse bar at top, to which his hands are fastened above his head; -an executioner, with a knife in his hand, stoops at his feet. This is -very different from the representations in the modern schools. The -best, that is to say, the least disgusting, representation I have -met with, is a small picture by Agostino Caracci, in the Sutherland -Gallery, which once belonged to King Charles I.: it is easy to see -that the painter had the antique Marsyas in his mind. That dark -ferocious spirit, Ribera, found in it a theme congenial with his own -temperament;[218] he has not only painted it several times with a -horrible truth and power, but etched it elaborately with his own hand: -a small picture, copied from the etching, is at Hampton Court. - - - ST. THOMAS. - - _Ital._ San Tomaso. _Sp._ San Tomé. Dec. 21. Patron Saint of Portugal - and Parma. - -St. Thomas, called _Didymus_ (the twin), takes, as apostle, the seventh -place. He was a Galilean and a fisherman, and we find him distinguished -among the apostles on two occasions recorded in the Gospel. When -Jesus was going up to Bethany, being then in danger from the Jews, -Thomas said, ‘Let us also go, that we may die with him.’ (John, xi. -16, xx. 25.) After the resurrection, he showed himself unwilling to -believe in the reappearance of the crucified Saviour without ocular -demonstration: this incident is styled the Incredulity of Thomas. From -these two incidents we may form some idea of his character: courageous -and affectionate, but not inclined to take things for granted; or, as -a French writer expresses it, ‘brusque et résolu, mais d’un esprit -exigeant.’ After the ascension, St. Thomas travelled into the East, -preaching the Gospel in far distant countries towards the rising sun. -It is a tradition received in the Church, that he penetrated as far -as India; that there meeting with the three Wise Men of the East, -he baptized them; that he founded a church in India, and suffered -martyrdom there. It is related, that the Portuguese found at Meliapore -an ancient inscription, purporting that St. Thomas had been pierced -with a lance at the foot of a cross which he had erected in that city, -and that in 1523 his body was found there and transported to Goa. - -In Correggio’s fresco of St. Thomas as protector of Parma he is -surrounded by angels bearing exotic fruits, as expressing his ministry -in India. - -There are a number of extravagant and poetical legends relating to -St. Thomas. I shall here limit myself to those which were adopted in -ecclesiastical decoration, and treated by the artists of the middle -ages. - -When St. Thomas figures as apostle, alone or with others, in all the -devotional representations which are not prior to the thirteenth -century he carries as his attribute the builder’s rule, of this form— - -[Illustration] - -Now, as he was a fisherman, and neither a carpenter nor a mason, the -origin of this attribute must be sought in one of the most popular -legends of which he is the subject. - -[Illustration: 81 St. Thomas the Apostle] - -‘When St. Thomas was at Cesarea, our Lord appeared to him and said, -“The king of the Indies, Gondoforus, hath sent his provost Abanes -to seek for workmen well versed in the science of architecture, who -shall build for him a palace finer than that of the Emperor of Rome. -Behold, now, I will send thee to him.” And Thomas went, and Gondoforus -commanded him to build for him a magnificent palace, and gave him much -gold and silver for the purpose. The king went into a distant country, -and was absent for two years; and St. Thomas meanwhile, instead of -building a palace, distributed all the treasures entrusted to him among -the poor and sick; and when the king returned, he was full of wrath, -and he commanded that St. Thomas should be seized and cast into prison, -and he meditated for him a horrible death. Meantime the brother of the -king died; and the king resolved to erect for him a most magnificent -tomb; but the dead man, after that he had been dead four days, suddenly -arose and sat upright, and said to the king, “The man whom thou wouldst -torture is a servant of God: behold I have been in Paradise, and the -angels showed to me a wondrous palace of gold and silver and precious -stones,” and they said, “This is the palace that Thomas the architect -hath built for thy brother King Gondoforus.” And when the king heard -these words, he ran to the prison, and delivered the apostle; and -Thomas said to him, “Knowest thou not that those who would possess -heavenly things, have little care for the things of this earth? There -are in heaven rich palaces without number, which were prepared from the -beginning of the world for those who purchase the possession through -faith and charity. Thy riches, O king, may prepare the way for thee to -such a palace, but they cannot follow thee thither.”’[219] - -The builder’s rule in the hand of St. Thomas characterises him as the -spiritual architect of King Gondoforus, and for the same reason he has -been chosen among the saints as patron of architects and builders. - -There is in this legend or allegory, fanciful as it is, an obvious -beauty and significance, which I need not point out. It appears to me -to be one of those many legends which originally were not assumed to -be facts, but were related as parables, religious fictions invented -for the instruction of the people, like our Saviour’s stories of the -‘Good Samaritan,’ the ‘Prodigal Son,’ &c., and were rendered more -striking and impressive by the introduction of a celebrated and exalted -personage—our Saviour, the Virgin, or one of the apostles—as hero of -the tale. This beautiful legend of St. Thomas and King Gondoforus -is painted on one of the windows of the cathedral at Bourges,—an -appropriate offering from the company of builders in that ancient -city. It is also the subject of one of the finest of the ancient -French _mysteries_, which was acted with great applause at Paris in the -fourteenth century. - -But, in the historical subjects from the life of St. Thomas, the first -place must be given to the one scriptural incident in which he figures -as a principal person. ‘The Incredulity of St. Thomas’ occurs in all -the early series of the life of Christ, as one of the events of his -mission, and one of the proofs of his resurrection. On the ancient -gates of San Paolo it is treated with great simplicity as a sacred -mystery, St. Thomas being the principal personage in the action, as -the one whose conviction was to bring conviction to the universe. -Christ stands on a pedestal surmounted by a cross; the apostles are -ranged on each side, and St. Thomas, approaching, stretches forth his -hand. The incident, as a separate subject, is of frequent occurrence -in the later schools of Italy, and in the Flemish schools. The general -treatment, when given in this dramatic style, admits of two variations: -either St. Thomas is placing his hand, with an expression of doubt and -fear, on the wounds of the Saviour; or, his doubts being removed, he -is gazing upwards in adoration and wonder. Of the first, one of the -finest examples is a well-known picture by Rubens,[220] one of his -most beautiful works, and extraordinary for the truth of the expression -in the countenance of the apostle, whose hand is on the side of Christ; -St. John and St. Peter are behind. In Vandyck’s picture at Petersburg, -St. Thomas stoops to examine the Saviour’s hand. In a design ascribed -to Raphael, we have the second version: the look of astonished -conviction in St. Thomas.[221] Niccolò Poussin has painted it finely, -introducing twelve figures.[222] Guercino’s picture is celebrated, but -he has committed the fault of representing the two principal figures -both in profile.[223] - - * * * * * - -The legendary subject styled ‘La Madonna della Cintola’ belongs -properly to the legends of the Virgin, but as St. Thomas is always a -principal personage I shall mention it here. The legend relates that -when the Madonna ascended into heaven, in the sight of the apostles, -Thomas was absent; but after three days he returned, and, _doubting_ -the truth of her glorious translation, he desired that her tomb should -be opened; which was done, and lo! it was found empty. Then the -Virgin, taking pity on his weakness and want of faith, threw down to -him her girdle, that this tangible proof remaining in his hands might -remove all doubts for ever from his mind: hence in many pictures of -the Assumption and Coronation of the Virgin, St. Thomas is seen below -holding the sacred girdle in his hand. For instance, in Raphael’s -beautiful ‘Coronation’ in the Vatican; and in Correggio’s ‘Assumption’ -at Parma, where St. Thomas holds the girdle, and another apostle kisses -it. - -[Illustration: _The Madonna of the Girdle_] - -The belief that the girdle is preserved in the Cathedral at Pistoia has -rendered this legend a popular subject with the Florentine painters; -and we find it treated, not merely as an incident in the scene of -the Assumption, but in a manner purely mystic and devotional. Thus, -in a charming bas-relief by Luca della Robbia,[224] the Virgin, -surrounded by a choir of angels, presents her girdle to the apostle. -In a beautiful picture by Granacci,[225] the Virgin is seated in the -clouds; beneath is her empty sepulchre: on one side kneels St. Thomas, -who receives with reverence the sacred girdle; on the other kneels the -Archangel Michael. In simplicity of arrangement, beauty of expression, -and tender harmony of colour, this picture has seldom been exceeded. -Granacci has again treated this subject, and St. Thomas receives the -girdle in the presence of St. John the Baptist, St. James Major, St. -Laurence, and St. Bartholomew.[226] We have the same subject by Paolino -da Pistoia; by Sogliani; and by Mainardi, a large and very fine fresco -in the church of Santa Croce at Florence. - -A poetical and truly mystical version of this subject is that wherein -the Infant Saviour, seated or standing on his mother’s knee, looses -her girdle and presents it to St. Thomas. Of this I have seen several -examples; one in the Duomo at Viterbo.[227] - -In the Martyrdom of St. Thomas, several idolaters pierce him through -with lances and javelins. It was so represented on the doors of San -Paolo, with four figures only. Rubens, in his large picture, has -followed the legend very exactly; St. Thomas embraces the cross, at -the foot of which he is about to fall, transfixed by spears. A large -picture in the gallery of Count Harrach at Vienna, called there the -Martyrdom of St. Jude, I believe to represent the Martyrdom of St. -Thomas. Two of the idolatrous priests pierce him with lances. Albert -Dürer, in his beautiful print of St. Thomas, represents him holding the -lance, the instrument of his martyrdom: but this is very unusual. - - -The eighth in the order of the Apostles is the Evangelist ST. MATTHEW, -of whom I have spoken at length. - - - ST. JAMES MINOR. - - _Lat._ S. Jacobus Frater Domini. _Gr._ Adelphotheos. _Ital._ San - Jacopo or Giacomo Minore. _Fr._ St. Jacques Mineur. (May 1.) - -The ninth is St. James Minor, or the Less, called also the Just: he -was a near relative of Christ, being the son of Mary, the wife of -Cleophas, who was the sister of the Virgin Mary; hence he is styled -‘the Lord’s brother.’ Nothing particular is related of him till after -the ascension. He is regarded as first Christian bishop of Jerusalem, -and venerated for his self-denial, his piety, his wisdom, and his -charity. These characteristics are conspicuous in the beautiful Epistle -which bears his name. Having excited, by the fervour of his teaching, -the fury of the Scribes and Pharisees, and particularly the enmity of -the high-priest Ananus, they flung him down from a terrace or parapet -of the Temple, and one of the infuriated populace below beat out his -brains with a _fuller’s club_. - -In single figures and devotional pictures, St. James is generally -leaning on this club, the instrument of his martyrdom. According to -an early tradition, he so nearly resembled our Lord in person, in -features, and deportment, that it was difficult to distinguish them. -‘The Holy Virgin herself,’ says the legend, ‘had she been _capable_ -of error, might have mistaken one for the other:’ and this exact -resemblance rendered necessary the kiss of the traitor Judas, in order -to point out his victim to the soldiers. - -This characteristic resemblance is attended to in the earliest and -best representations of St. James, and by this he may usually be -distinguished when he does not bear his club, which is often a thick -stick or staff. With the exception of those Scripture scenes in which -the apostles are present, I have met with few pictures in which St. -James Minor is introduced: he does not appear to have been popular as -a patron saint. The event of his martyrdom occurs very seldom, and -is very literally rendered: the scene is a court of the Temple, with -terraces and balconies; he is falling, or has fallen, to the ground, -and one of the crowd lifts up the club to smite him. - -Ignorant artists have in some instances confounded St. James Major and -St. James Minor. The Cappella dei Belludi at Padua, already mentioned, -dedicated to St. Philip and St. James, contains a series of frescoes -from the life of St. James Minor, in which are some of the miraculous -incidents attributed in the Legenda Aurea to St. James Major. - -[Illustration: 82 St. James Minor] - -1. The Council of the Apostles held at Jerusalem, in which St. James -was nominated chief or bishop of the infant Church. 2. Our Saviour -after his resurrection appears to St. James, who had vowed not to eat -till he should see Christ.[228] 3. St. James thrown down from the -pulpit in the court of the Temple. 4. He is slain by the fuller. 5. -A certain merchant is stript of all his goods by a tyrant, and cast -into prison. He implores the protection of St. James, who, leading -him to the summit of the tower, commands the tower to bow itself to -the ground, and the merchant steps from it and escapes; or, according -to the version followed in the fresco, the apostle lifts the tower on -one side from its foundation, and the prisoner escapes from under it, -like a mouse out of a trap. 6. A poor pilgrim, having neither money nor -food, fell asleep by the way-side, and, on waking, found that St. James -had placed beside him a loaf of bread, which miraculously supplied his -wants to the end of his journey. These two last stories are told also -of St. James of Galicia, but I have never met with any pictures of his -life in which they are included. Here they undoubtedly refer to St. -James Minor, the chapel being consecrated to his honour. - - - ST. SIMON ZELOTES (or THE ZEALOT). ST. JUDE (THADDEUS, or LEBBEUS). - - _Ital._ San Simone; San Taddeo. _Fr._ St. Simon le Zélé. St. Thaddée. - _Ger._ Judas Thaddäus. (Oct. 28.) - -The uncertainty, contradiction, and confusion which I find in all -the ecclesiastical biographies relative to these apostles, make it -impossible to give any clear account of them; and as subjects of Art -they are so unimportant, and so uninteresting, that it is the less -necessary. According to one tradition, they were the same mentioned by -Matthew as our Lord’s brethren or kinsmen. But, according to another -tradition, they were not the same, but two brothers who were among -the shepherds to whom the angel and the heavenly host revealed the -birth of the Saviour. Those painters who followed the first tradition -represent Simon and Jude as young, or at least in the prime of life. -Those who adopt the second represent them as very old, taking it for -granted that at the birth of Christ they must have been full-grown men; -and this, I think, is the legend usually followed. It seems, however, -generally agreed, that they preached the Gospel together in Syria and -Mesopotamia, and together suffered martyrdom in Persia: in what manner -they suffered is unknown; but it is supposed that St. Simon was sawn -asunder, and St. Thaddeus killed with a halberd. - -In a series of apostles, St. Simon bears the saw, and St. Thaddeus a -halberd. In Greek Art, Jude and Thaddeus are two different persons. -Jude is represented young, Thaddeus old. St. Simon in extreme old age, -with a bald head, and long white beard. In the Greek representation -of his martyrdom, he is affixed to a cross exactly like that of our -Saviour, so that, but for the superscription Ο CΙΜΩΝ, he might be -mistaken for Christ. I do not know of any separate picture of these -apostles. - -There is, however, one manner of treating them, with reference to -their supposed relationship to our Saviour, which is peculiarly -beautiful. Assuming that the three last-named apostles, James, the -son of Mary Cleophas; Simon and Jude; Joseph or Joses the Just, also -named by Matthew among the brethren of Christ; together with James -and John, the sons of Mary Salome,—were all nearly related to the -Saviour; it was surely a charming idea to group as children around -him in his infancy those who were afterwards called to be the chosen -ministers of his Word. Christianity, which has glorified womanhood and -childhood, never suggested to the Christian artist a more beautiful -subject, nor one which it would be more easy, by an unworthy or too -picturesque treatment, to render merely pretty and commonplace. This -version, however, of the _Sacra Famiglia_ is rarely met with. There is -an example in the Louvre, signed ‘Laurentius’ (Lorenzo di Pavia, A.D. -1513), which is remarkable as a religious representation; but the most -beautiful instance of this treatment is a _chef-d’œuvre_ of Perugino, -in the Musée at Marseilles. In the centre is the Virgin, seated on a -throne; she holds the Infant Christ in her arms. Behind her is St. -Anna, her two hands resting affectionately on the shoulders of the -Virgin. In front, at the foot of the throne, are two lovely children, -undraped, with glories round their heads, on which are inscribed their -names, Simon and Thaddeus. To the right is Mary Salome, a beautiful -young woman, holding a child in her arms—St. John, afterwards the -evangelist. Near her is Joachim, the father of the Virgin. At his feet -another child, James Major. To the left of the Virgin, Mary the wife of -Cleophas, standing, holds by the hand James Minor: behind her, Joseph, -the husband of the Virgin, and at his feet another child, Joseph (or -Joses) Justus. I have also seen this subject in illuminated MSS., and, -however treated, it is surely very poetical and suggestive.[229] - - - ST. MATTHIAS. - - _Ital._ San Mattia. _Fr._ St. Mathias. (Feb. 24.) - -St. Matthias, who was chosen by lot to fill the place of the traitor -Judas, is the last of the apostles. (Acts i.) He preached the Gospel -in Judea, and suffered martyrdom at the hands of the Jews, either by -the lance or by the axe. In the Italian series of the apostles, he -bears as his attribute the lance; in the German sets, more commonly the -axe.[230] The ceremony of choosing St. Matthias by lot is the subject -of a mediocre picture by Boschi. St. Denis says that the apostles were -directed in their choice by a beam of divine splendour, for it were -impious to suppose that such an election was made by chance. In this -picture of Boschi, a ray of light falls from heaven on the head of St. -Matthias. - -[Illustration: 83 St. Matthias (Raphael)] - -There is a figure of this apostle by Cosimo Roselli, holding a sword -_by the point_: what might be the intention of that capricious painter -it is now impossible to guess.[231] Separate pictures of St. Matthias -are very rare, and he is seldom included in sets of the apostles. - - JUDAS ISCARIOT. - - _Ital._ Giuda Scariota. _Fr._ Judas Iscariote. - -The very name of Judas Iscariot has become a by-word; his person and -character an eternal type of impiety, treachery, and ingratitude. We -shudder at the associations called up by his memory; his crime, without -a name, so distances all possible human turpitude, that he cannot even -be held forth as a terror to evil doers; we set him aside as one cut -off; we never think of him but in reference to the sole and unequalled -crime recorded of him. Not so our ancestors; one should have lived in -the middle ages, to conceive the profound, the ever-present, horror -with which Judas Iscariot was then regarded. The devil himself did not -inspire the same passionate hatred and indignation. Being the devil, -what _could_ he be but devilish? His wickedness was according to his -infernal nature: but the crime of Judas remains the perpetual shame -and reproach of our humanity. The devil betrayed mankind, but Judas -betrayed his God. - - * * * * * - -The Gospels are silent as to the life of Judas before he became an -apostle, but our progenitors of the middle ages, who could not conceive -it possible that any being, however perverse, would rush at once into -such an abyss of guilt, have filled up the omissions of Scripture -after their own fancy. They picture Judas as a wretch foredoomed from -the beginning of the world, and prepared by a long course of vice and -crime for that crowning guilt which filled the measure full. According -to this legend, he was of the tribe of Reuben. Before his mother -brought him forth, she dreamed that the son who lay in her womb would -be accursed, that he would murder his father, commit incest with his -mother, and sell his God. Terrified at her dream, she took counsel -with her husband, and they agreed to avert the threatened calamity by -exposing the child. As in the story of Œdipus, from which, indeed, -this strange wild legend seems partly borrowed, the means taken to -avert the threatened curse caused its fulfilment. Judas, at his birth, -is enclosed in a chest, and flung into the sea; the sea casts him up, -and, being found on the shore, he is fostered by a certain king and -queen as their own son; they have, however, another son, whom Judas, -malignant from his birth, beats and oppresses, and at length kills in a -quarrel over a game at chess. He then flies to Judea, where he enters -the service of Pontius Pilate as page. In due time he commits the -other monstrous crimes to which he was predestined; and when he learns -from his mother the secret of his birth, he is filled with a sudden -contrition and terror; he hears of the prophet who has power on earth -to forgive sins; and seeking out Christ throws himself at his feet. -Our Saviour, not deceived, but seeing in him the destined betrayer, -and that all things may be accomplished, accepts him as his apostle: -he becomes the seneschal or steward of Christ, bears the purse, and -provides for the common wants. In this position, avarice, the only -vice to which he was not yet addicted, takes possession of his soul, -and makes the corruption complete. Through avarice, he grudges every -penny given to the poor, and when Mary Magdalene anoints the feet of -our Lord he is full of wrath at what he considers the waste of the -precious perfume: ‘Why was not this ointment sold for three hundred -pence, and given to the poor? This he said, not that he cared for the -poor, but because he was a thief.’ Through avarice, he yields to the -bribe offered by the Jews. Then follow the scenes of the betrayal of -Christ, and the late repentance and terrible suicide of the traitor, -as recorded in Scripture. But in the old Mystery of the ‘Passion of -Christ’ the repentance and fate of Judas are very dramatically worked -out, and with all possible circumstances of horror. When he beholds the -mild Saviour before the judgment-seat of Herod, he repents: Remorse, -who figures as a real personage, seizes on the fated wretch, and -torments him till in his agony he invokes Despair. Despair appears, -almost in the guise of the ‘accursed wight’ in Spenser, and, with like -arguments, urges him to make away with his life:— - - And brings unto him swords, rope, poison, fire, - And all that might him to perdition draw, - And bids him choose what death he would desire. - -Or in the more homely language of the old French mystery,— - - Il faut que tu passes le pas! - Voici dagues et coutelas, - Forcettes, poinçons, allumettes,— - Avise, choisis les plus belles, - Et celles de meilleure forge, - Pour te couper à coup la gorge; - Ou si tu aimes mieux te pendre, - Voici lacs et cordes à vendre. - -The offer here of the bodkins and the allumettes reminds us of the -speech of Falconbridge:— - - If thou would’st drown thyself, - Put but a little water in a spoon, - And it shall be as all the ocean, - Enough to stifle such a villain up. - -Judas chooses the rope, and hangs himself forthwith; ‘and falling -headlong, he burst asunder in the midst, and all his bowels gushed -out:’ which account is explained by an early tradition, that being -found and cut down, his body was thrown over the parapet of the Temple -into the ravine below, and, in the fall, was riven and dashed to pieces. - -There required but one more touch of horror to complete the picture; -and this is furnished by a sonnet of Giani, which I remember to have -read in my youth. When Judas falls from the fatal tree, his evil genius -seizes the broken rope, and drags him down to the seething abyss below: -at his approach, hell sends forth a shout of rejoicing; Lucifer smooths -his brow, corrugated with fire and pain, and rises from his burning -throne to welcome a greater sinner than himself:— - - Poi fra le braccia incatenò quel tristo, - E colla bocca sfavillante e nera - Gli rese il bacio ch’ avea dato a Christo! - -The retribution imaged in the last two lines borders, I am afraid, on a -_concetto_; but it makes one shiver, notwithstanding. - -Separate representations of the figure or of the life of Judas Iscariot -are not, of course, to be looked for; they would have been regarded as -profane, as ominous,—worse than the evil-eye. In those Scripture scenes -in which he finds a place, it was the aim of the early artists to give -him a countenance as hateful, as expressive of treachery, meanness, -malignity, as their skill could compass,—the Italians having depended -more on expression, the German and Spanish painters on form. We have a -conviction, that if the man had really worn such a look, such features, -he would have been cast out from the company of the apostles; the -legend already referred to says expressly that Judas was of a comely -appearance, and was recommended to the service of Pontius Pilate by -his beauty of person; but the painters, speaking to the people in the -language of form, were right to admit of no equivocation. The same -feeling which induced them to concentrate on the image of the Demon -all they could conceive of hideous and repulsive, made them picture -the exterior of Judas as deformed and hateful as the soul within; and, -by an exaggeration of the Jewish cast of features combined with red -hair and beard, they flattered themselves that they had attained the -desired object. But as if this were not enough, the ancient painters, -particularly in the old illuminations, and in Byzantine Art, represent -Judas as directly and literally possessed by the Devil: sometimes it is -a little black demon seated on his shoulder, and whispering in his ear; -sometimes entering his mouth: thus, in their simplicity, rendering the -words of the Gospel, ‘Then entered Satan into Judas.’ - -The colour proper to the dress of Judas is a dirty dingy yellow; and -in Spain this colour is so intimately associated with the image of the -arch-traitor, as to be held in universal dislike: both in Spain and in -Italy, malefactors and galley-slaves are clothed in yellow.[232] At -Venice the Jews were obliged to wear yellow hats. - -In some of the scriptural scenes in which Judas is mentioned or -supposed to be present, it is worth while to remark whether the painter -has passed him over as spoiling the harmony of the sacred composition -by his intrusive ugliness and wickedness, or has rendered him -conspicuous by a distinct and characteristic treatment. In a picture -by Niccolò Frumenti[233] of the Magdalene at the feet of our Saviour, -Judas stands in the foreground, looking on with a most diabolical -expression of grudging malice mingled with scorn; he seems to grind -his teeth as he says, ‘To what purpose is this waste?’ In Perugino’s -beautiful picture of the washing the feet of the disciples,[234] Judas -is at once distinguished, looking askance with a wicked sneer on his -face, which is not otherwise ugly. In Raphael’s composition of the -Magdalene anointing the feet of Christ, Judas leans across the table -with an angry look of expostulation. - -Those subjects in which Judas Iscariot appears as a principal personage -follow here. - -1. Angelico da Fiesole.[235] He is bribed by the Jews. The high-priest -pays into the hand of Judas the thirty pieces of silver. They are -standing before a doorway on some steps; Judas is seen in profile, and -has the nimbus as one of the apostles: three persons are behind, one -of whom expresses disapprobation and anxiety. In this subject, and in -others wherein Judas is introduced, Angelico has not given him ugly and -deformed features; but in the scowling eye and bent brow there is a -vicious expression. - -In Duccio’s series of the ‘Passion of our Saviour,’ in the Duomo at -Siena, he has, in this and in other scenes, represented Judas with -regular and not ugly features; but he has a villanous, and at the same -time anxious, expression;—he has a bad conscience. - -The scene between Judas and the high-priest is also given by Schalken -as a candle-light effect, and in the genuine Dutch style. - -2. ‘Judas betrays his Master with a kiss.’ This subject will be noticed -at large in the Life of Christ. The early Italians, in giving this -scene with much dramatic power, never forgot the scriptural dignity -required; while the early Germans, in their endeavour to render Judas -as odious in physiognomy as in heart, have, in this as in many other -instances, rendered the awful and the pathetic merely grotesque. We -must infer from Scripture, that Judas, with all his perversity, had a -conscience: he would not else have hanged himself. In the physiognomy -given to him by the old Germans, there is no trace of this; he is an -ugly malignant brute, and nothing more. - -3. Rembrandt. ‘Judas throws down the thirty pieces of silver in the -Temple, and departs.’[236] - -4. ‘The remorse of Judas.’ He is seated and in the act of putting -the rope about his neck; beside him is seen the purse and the money, -scattered about the ground. The design is by Bloemart, and, from the -Latin inscription underneath, appears to be intended as a warning to -all unrighteous dealers. - -5. ‘Judas hanging on a tree’ is sometimes introduced into the -background, in ancient pictures of the Deposition and the Entombment: -there is one in the Frankfort Museum. - -6. ‘Demons toss the soul of Judas from hand to hand in the manner of a -ball:’ in an old French miniature.[237] This is sufficiently grotesque -in representation; yet, in the idea, there is a restless, giddy horror -which thrills us. At all events, it is better than placing Judas -between the jaws of Satan with his legs in the air, as Dante has done, -and as Orcagna in his Dantesque fresco has very literally rendered the -description of the poet.[238] - -[Illustration: _Lionardo da Vinci_] - -[Illustration: _Giotto_] - -[Illustration: _Raphael_] - - - THE LAST SUPPER. - - _Ital._ Il Cenacolo. La Cena. _Fr._ La Cène. _Ger._ Das Abendmal - Christi. - -I have already mentioned the principal scenes in which the Twelve -always appear together; there is, however, one event belonging properly -to the life of Christ, so important in itself, presenting the Apostles -under an aspect so peculiar, and throwing so much interest around them -collectively and individually, that I must bring it under notice here. - - * * * * * - -Next to the Crucifixion, there is no subject taken from the history -of our redemption so consecrated in Art as the Last Supper. The awful -signification lent to it by Protestants as well as Catholics has given -it a deep religious import, and caused its frequent representation in -churches; it has been, more particularly, the appropriate decoration of -the refectories of convents, hospitals, and other institutions having -a sacred character. In our Protestant churches, it is generally the -subject of the altar-piece, where we have one. - -Besides being one of the most important and interesting, it is one of -the most difficult among the sacred subjects treated in Art. While the -fixed number of personages introduced, the divine and paramount dignity -of One among them, the well-known character of all, have limited the -invention of the artist, they have tasked to the utmost his power of -expression. The occasion, that of a repast eaten by twelve persons, is, -under its material aspect, so commonplace, and, taken in the spiritual -sense, so awful, that to elevate himself to the height of his theme, -while keeping the ideal conscientiously bounded within its frame of -circumstance, demanded in the artist aspirations of the grandest order, -tempered by the utmost sobriety of reflection; and the deepest insight -into the springs of character, combined with the most perfect knowledge -of the indications of character as manifested through form. On the -other hand, if it has been difficult to succeed, it has been equally -difficult to fail signally and completely; because the spectator is not -here, as in the crucifixion, in danger of being perpetually shocked by -the intrusion of anomalous incidents, and is always ready to supply -the dignity and meaning of a scene so familiar in itself out of his -own mind and heart. It has followed, that mediocrity has been more -prevalent and more endurable in this than in any other of the more -serious subjects of Art. But where excellence has been in some few -instances attained, it has been attained in such a supreme degree, that -these examples have become a perpetual source of contemplation and of -emulation, and rank among the most renowned productions of human genius. - -But, before I come to consider these analytically, it is necessary to -premise one or two observations, which will assist us to discrimination -in the general treatment. - -Pictures and works of art, which represent the Last Supper of our -Lord, admit of the same classification which I have adhered to -generally throughout this work. Those which represent it as a religious -mystery must be considered as _devotional_; those which represent it -merely as a scene in the passion of our Saviour are _historical_. -In the first, we have the spiritual origin of the Eucharist; in -the second, the highly dramatic detection of Judas. It is evident -that the predominating _motif_ in each must be widely different. In -paintings which are intended for the altar, or for the chapels of the -Holy Sacrament, we have the first, the mystical version;—it is the -distribution of the spiritual food. In the second form, as the Last -Supper eaten by Christ with his disciples, as leading the mind to an -humble and grateful sense of his sacrifice, as repressing all sinful -indulgence in food, it has been the subject chosen to decorate the -refectory or common dining-room of convents. - -It is curious that on the Christian sarcophagi the Last Supper does -not occur. There is, in the Vatican, a rude painting taken from the -catacombs representing twelve persons in a semicircle, with something -like plates and dishes before them. I could not determine whether -this was our Saviour and his apostles, or merely one of those feasts -or suppers instituted by the early Christians called _Agapæ_ or -love-feasts; but I should think the latter. - -On the Dalmatica (deacon’s robe) preserved in the sacristy of the -Vatican, there is, if the date be exact (A.D. 795), the most ancient -representation I have seen of the institution of the Sacrament. The -embroidery, which is wonderfully beautiful, is a copy from Byzantine -Art. On one side, our Saviour stands by a table or altar, and presents -the cup to his apostles, one of whom approaches in a reverential -attitude, and with his hands folded in his robe; on the other side, -Christ presents the wafer or host: so that we have the two separate -moments in separate groups. - -There exists in the Duomo of Lodi the most ancient sculptural example -of this subject I have met with; it is a bas-relief of the twelfth -century, dated 1163, and fixed in the wall to the left of the entrance. -Christ and the apostles are in a straight row, all very much alike; six -of the apostles lay their hands on their breast,—‘Lord, is it I?’ and -Christ presents the sop to Judas, who sits in front, and is as ugly as -possible. - -Although all the Byzantine pictures of the twelfth and thirteenth -centuries which have come under my notice represent Christ breaking the -bread or holding the cup, that is, the institution of the Sacrament, -the Greek formula published by Didron distinguishes between this scene -and that of the repast in which Judas is denounced as a traitor. -The earliest representation to which I can refer in Western Art, as -taking the historical form, is the Cenacolo of Giotto, the oldest and -the most important that has been preserved to us; it was painted by -him in the refectory of the convent of Santa Croce at Florence. This -refectory, when I visited it in 1847, was a carpet manufactory, and -it was difficult to get a good view of the fresco by reason of the -intervention of the carpet-looms. It has been often restored, and is -now in a bad state; still, enough remains to understand the original -intention of the artist, and that arrangement which has since been the -groundwork of similar compositions. - -A long table extends across the picture from side to side: in the -middle, and fronting the spectator, sits the Redeemer; to the right, -St. John, his head reclining on the lap of Christ; next to him, Peter; -after Peter, St. James Major; thus placing together the three favourite -disciples. Next to St. James, St. Matthew, St. Bartholomew, and a young -beardless apostle, probably St. Philip. - -On the left hand of our Saviour is St. Andrew; and next to him, St. -James Minor (the two St. Jameses bearing the traditional resemblance -to Christ); then St. Simon and St. Jude; and lastly, a young apostle, -probably St. Thomas. (The reader will have the goodness to recollect -that I give this explanation of the names and position of the eleven -apostles as my own, and with due deference to the opinion of those who -on a further study of the fresco may differ from me.) Opposite to the -Saviour, and on the near side of the table, sits Judas, apart from the -rest, and in the act of dipping his hand into the dish. It is evident -that the moment chosen by the artist is, ‘He that dippeth with me in -the dish, the same shall betray me.’ - -Although the excuse may be found in the literal adoption of the words -of the Gospel,[239] it appears to me a fault to make St. John leaning, -as one half asleep, on the lap of our Saviour, after such words have -been uttered as must have roused, or at least ought to have roused, the -young and beloved apostle from his supine attitude; therefore, we may -suppose that Christ is about to speak the words, but has not yet spoken -them. The position of Judas is caused by the necessity of placing him -sufficiently near to Christ to dip his hand in the same dish; while -to have placed him on the same side of the table, so as to give him -the precedence over the more favoured disciples, would have appeared -to the early artists nothing less than profane. Giotto has paid great -attention to the heads, which are individually characterised, but there -is little dramatic expression; the attention is not yet directed to -Judas, who is seen in profile, looking up, not ugly in feature, but -with a mean vicious countenance, and bent shoulders. - -The arrangement of the table and figures, so peculiarly fitted for -a refectory, has been generally adopted since the time of Giotto in -pictures painted for this especial purpose. The subject is placed on -the upper wall of the chamber; the table extending from side to side: -the tables of the monks are placed, as in the dining-rooms of our -colleges, length-ways; thus all can behold the divine assembly, and -Christ appears to preside over and sanctify the meal. - -In another Cenacolo by Giotto,[240] which forms one of the scenes in -the history of Christ, he has given us a totally different version of -the subject; and, not being intended for a refectory, but as an action -or event, it is more dramatic. It is evident that our Saviour has just -uttered the words, ‘He that dippeth with me in the dish, the same shall -betray me.’ Judas, who has mean, ugly, irregular features, looks up -alarmed, and seems in the act of rising to escape. One apostle (Philip, -I think) points at him, and the attention of all is more or less -directed to him. This would be a fault if the subject were intended -for a refectory, or to represent the celebration of the Eucharist. But -here, where the subject is historical, it is a propriety. - -The composition of Duccio of Siena, in the Duomo at Siena, must have -been nearly contemporary with, if it did not precede, those of Giotto -(A.D. 1308); it is quite different, quite original in _motif_ and -arrangement. Seven apostles sit on the same side with Christ, and five -opposite to him, turning their backs on the spectator; the faces are -seen in profile. The attitude of St. John, leaning against our Saviour -with downcast eyes, is much more graceful than in the composition of -Giotto. St. Peter is on the right of Christ; next to him St. James -Minor: two young apostles sit at the extreme ends of the table, whom -I suppose to be St. Philip and St. Thomas: the other apostles I am -unable to discriminate, with the exception of Judas, who, with regular -features, has a characteristic scowl on his brow. Christ holds out a -piece of bread in his hand: two of the apostles likewise hold bread, -and two others hold a cup; the rest look attentive or pensive, but the -general character of the heads is deficient in elevation. The moment -chosen may be the distribution of the bread and wine; but, to me, -it rather expresses the commencement of the meal, and our Saviour’s -address: ‘With desire have I desired to eat this passover with you -before I suffer’ (Luke xxii. 15). The next compartment of the same -series, which represents the apostles seated in a group before Christ, -and listening with upturned faces and the most profound attention to -his last words, has much more of character, solemnity, and beauty, than -the Last Supper. Judas is here omitted; ‘for he, having received the -sop, went immediately out.’ - -Angelico da Fiesole, in his life of Christ, has been careful to -distinguish between the detection of Judas and the institution of the -Eucharist.[241] He has given us both scenes. In the first compartment, -John is leaning down with his face to the Saviour; the back of his head -only is seen, and he appears too unmindful of what is going forward. -The other apostles are well discriminated, the usual type strictly -followed in Peter, Andrew, James Major and James Minor. To the right of -Christ are Peter, Andrew, Bartholomew; to the left, James Minor. Four -turn their backs, and two young apostles stand on each side,—I presume -Thomas and Philip; they seem to be waiting on the rest: Judas dips -his hand in the dish. I suppose the moment to be the same as in the -composition of Duccio. - -But in the next compartment the _motif_ is different. All have risen. -from table; it is no longer a repast, it is a sacred mystery; Christ is -in the act of administering the bread to St. John; all kneel; and Judas -is seen kneeling behind Christ, near an open door, and apart from the -rest, as if he were watching for the opportunity to escape. To dispose -of Judas in this holy ceremony is always a difficulty. To represent him -as receiving with the rest the sacred rite is an offence to the pious. -The expression used by St. John (xii. 30), ‘After he had received the -sop he went out,’ implies that Judas was not present at the Lord’s -Supper, which succeeded the celebration of the paschal supper. St. Luke -and St. Mark, neither of whom were present, leave us to suppose that -Judas partook, with the other disciples, of the mystic bread and wine; -yet we can hardly believe that, after having been pointed out as the -betrayer, the conscience-stricken Judas should remain to receive the -Eucharist. Sometimes he is omitted altogether; sometimes he is stealing -out at the door. In the composition of Luca Signorelli, which I saw at -Cortona, all the twelve apostles are kneeling; Christ is distributing -the wafer; and Judas, turning away with a malignant look, puts _his_ -wafer into his satchel. In the composition of Palmezzano, in the Duomo -at Forlì, our Saviour stands, holding a plate, and is in the act of -presenting the wafer to Peter, who kneels: St. John stands by the side -of Christ, holding the cup: Judas is in the background; he kneels by -the door, and seems to be watching for the opportunity to steal away. - -The fine composition, fine also in sentiment and character, of -Ghirlandajo, was painted for the small refectory in the San Marco -at Florence. The arrangement is ingenious: the table is of what we -call the horse-shoe form, which allows all the figures to face the -spectator; and at the same time takes up less room than where the -table runs across the picture from side to side. Judas sits in front, -alone; Christ has just designated him. ‘He it is to whom I shall give -the sop when I have dipped it.’ (John xiii. 26.) Judas holds the sop -in his hand, with an alarmed conscious look. Behind sits an ill-omened -cat, probably intended for the fiend. John, to the left of Christ, -appears to have swooned away. The other apostles express, in various -ways, amazement and horror. - -It has been a question among critics, whether the purse ought to be -placed in the hand of Judas when present at the Last Supper, because it -is usually understood as containing the thirty pieces of silver: but -this is a mistake; and it leads to the mistake of representing him as -hiding the purse, as if it contained the price of his treachery. Judas -carries the purse openly, for he was the steward, or purse-bearer, of -the party ‘he had the bag, and bare what was put therein’ (John xii. 6, -xiii. 29): and as the money-bag is also the attribute of St. Matthew -the tax-gatherer, we must take care not to confound him with the -traitor and thief. This brings me to the consideration of the subject -as treated by Albert Dürer. - -In the series of large woodcuts from the Passion of our Saviour -(styled ‘_La grande Passion_’), the Cenacolo is an event, and not a -mystery. John, as a beautiful youth, is leaning against our Saviour -with downcast eyes; he does not look as if he had thrown himself down -half asleep, but as if Christ had put his arm around him, and drawn -and pressed him fondly towards him. On the right is Peter: the other -apostles are not easily discriminated, but they have all that sort of -_grandiose_ ugliness which is so full of character, and so particularly -the characteristic of the artist: the apostle seated in front in a -cowering attitude, holding the purse which he seems anxious to conceal, -and looking up apprehensively, I suppose to be Judas. - -In the smaller set of woodcuts (‘_La petite Passion_’) I believe the -apostle with the purse in the foreground to be St. Matthew; while the -ugly, lank-haired personage behind Christ, who looks as if about to -steal away, is probably intended for Judas: one of the apostles has -laid hold of him, and seems to say, ‘Thou art the man!’ - -There is a third Cenacolo, by Albert Dürer, which plainly represents -the Eucharist. The cup only is on the table, and Judas is omitted. - -In a Cenacolo by another old German, Judas is in the act of receiving -the sop which Christ is putting into his mouth; and at the same time he -is _hiding_ the purse:—a mistake, as I have already observed. - - * * * * * - -These examples must suffice to give some idea of the manner in which -this subject was generally treated by the early German and Italian -artists. But, whether presented before us as a dramatic scene -expressing individual character, or as an historical event memorable -in the life of Christ, or as a religious rite of awful and mysterious -import—all the examples I have mentioned are in some respects -deficient. We have the feeling, that, whatever may be the merit in -sentiment, in intention, in detail, what has been attempted has _not_ -been achieved. - - * * * * * - -When Leonardo da Vinci, the greatest thinker as well as the greatest -painter of his age, brought all the resources of his wonderful mind -to bear on the subject, then sprang forth a creation so consummate, -that since that time it has been at once the wonder and the despair of -those who have followed in the same path. True, the work of his hand is -perishing—will soon have perished utterly. I remember well, standing -before this wreck of a glorious presence, so touched by its pale, -shadowy, and yet divine significance, and by its hopelessly impending -ruin, that the tears sprang involuntarily. Fortunately for us, -multiplied copies have preserved at least the intention of the artist -in his work. We can judge of what it _has_ been, and take that for our -text and for our theme. - -The purpose being the decoration of a refectory in a rich convent, the -chamber lofty and spacious, Leonardo has adopted the usual arrangement: -the table runs across from side to side, filling up the whole extent -of the wall, and the figures, being above the eye, and to be viewed -from a distance, are colossal; they would otherwise have appeared -smaller than the real personages seated at the tables below. The moment -selected is the utterance of the words, ‘Verily, verily, I say unto -you, that one of you shall betray me:’ or rather the words have just -been uttered, and the picture expresses their effect on the different -auditors. It is of these auditors, his apostles, that I have to speak, -and not of Christ himself; for the full consideration of the subject, -as it regards _Him_, must be deferred; the intellectual elevation, -the fineness of nature, the benign God-like dignity, suffused with -the profoundest sorrow, in this divine head, surpassed all I could -have conceived as possible in Art; and, faded as it is, the character -there, being stamped on it by the soul, not the hand, of the artist, -will remain while a line or hue remains visible. It is a divine shadow, -and, until it fades into nothing, and disappears utterly, will have -the lineaments of divinity. Next to Christ is St. John; he has just -been addressed by Peter, who beckons to him that he should ask ‘of -whom the Lord spake:’—his disconsolate attitude, as he has raised -himself to reply, and leans his clasped hands on the table, the almost -feminine sweetness of his countenance, express the character of this -gentle and amiable apostle. Peter, leaning from behind, is all fire -and energy; Judas, who knows full well of whom the Saviour spake, -starts back amazed, oversetting the salt; his fingers clutch the bag, -of which he has the charge, with that action which Dante describes as -characteristic of the avaricious:— - - Questi risurgeranno dal sepolcro - Col pugno chiuso. - - These from the tomb with clenchèd grasp shall rise. - -His face is seen in profile, and cast into shadow: without being -vulgar, or even ugly, it is hateful. St. Andrew, with his long grey -beard, lifts up his hands, expressing the wonder of a simple-hearted -old man. St. James Minor, resembling the Saviour in his mild features, -and the form of his beard and hair, lays his hand on the shoulder of -St. Peter—the expression is, ‘_Can_ it be possible? Have we heard -aright?’ Bartholomew, at the extreme end of the table, has risen -perturbed from his seat; he leans forward with a look of eager -attention, the lips parted; he is impatient to hear more. (The fine -copy of Uggione, in the Royal Academy, does not give this anxious -look—he is attentive only.) On the left of our Saviour is St. James -Major, who has also a family resemblance to Christ; his arms are -outstretched, he shrinks back, he repels the thought with horror. -The vivacity of the action and expression are wonderfully true -and characteristic. (Morghen, the engraver, erroneously supposed -this to represent St. Thomas, and placed on the border of his robe -an inscription fixing the identity; which inscription, as Bossi -asserts, never did exist in the original picture.) St. Thomas is -behind St. James, rather young, with a short beard; he holds up his -hand, threatening—‘If there be indeed such a wretch, let him look -to it.’ Philip, young and with a beautiful head, lays his hand on -his heart: he protests his love, his truth. Matthew, also beardless, -has more elegance, as one who belonged to a more educated class than -the rest; he turns to Jude and points to our Saviour, as if about -to repeat his words, ‘Do you hear what he says?’ Simon and Jude sit -together (Leonardo has followed the tradition which makes them old -and brothers); Jude expresses consternation; Simon, with his hands -stretched out, a painful anxiety. - - * * * * * - -To understand the wonderful skill with which this composition has been -arranged, it ought to be studied long and minutely; and, to appreciate -its relative excellence, it ought to be compared with other productions -of the same period. Leonardo has contrived to break the formality of -the line of heads without any apparent artifice, and without disturbing -the grand simplicity of the usual order; and he has vanquished the -difficulties in regard to the position of Judas, without making him too -prominent. He has imparted to a solemn scene sufficient movement and -variety of action, without detracting from its dignity and pathos; he -has kept the expression of each head true to the traditional character, -without exaggeration, without effort. To have done this, to have been -the first to do this, required the far-reaching philosophic mind, not -less than the excelling hand, of this ‘miracle of nature,’ as Mr. -Hallam styles Leonardo, with reference to his scientific as well as his -artistic powers. - - * * * * * - -And now to turn to another miracle of nature, Raphael. He has given us -three compositions for the Last Supper. The fresco lately discovered in -the refectory of Sant’ Onofrio, at Florence, is an early work painted -in his twenty-third year (A.D. 1505). The authenticity of this picture -has been vehemently disputed; for myself—as far as my opinion is worth -anything—I never, after the first five minutes, had a doubt on the -subject. As to its being the work of Neri de’ Bicci, I do not believe -it possible; and as for the written documents brought forward to prove -this, I turn from them ‘to the handwriting on the wall,’ and there I -see, in characters of light, RAPHAEL—and _him_ only. It is, however, a -youthful work, full of sentiment and grace, but deficient, it appears -to me, in that depth and discrimination of character displayed in his -later works. It is evident that he had studied Giotto’s fresco in the -neighbouring Santa Croce. The arrangement is nearly the same. - -Christ is in the centre; his right hand is raised, and he is about to -speak; the left hand is laid, with extreme tenderness in the attitude -and expression, on the shoulder of John, who reclines upon him. To -the right of Christ is St. Peter, the head of the usual character; -next to him St. Andrew, with the flowing grey hair and long divided -beard; St. James Minor, the head declined resembling Christ: he holds -a cup. St. Philip is seen in profile with a white beard: (this is -contrary to the received tradition, which makes him young; and I doubt -the correctness of this appellation). St. James Major, at the extreme -end of the table, looks out of the picture; Raphael has apparently -represented himself in this apostle. On the left of Christ, after St. -John, is St. Bartholomew; he holds a knife, and has the black beard -and dark complexion usually given to him. Then Matthew, something like -Peter, but milder and more refined. Thomas, young and handsome, pours -wine into a cup; last, on the right, are Simon and Jude: Raphael has -followed the tradition which supposes them young, and the kinsmen of -our Saviour. Judas sits on a stool on the near side of the table, -opposite to Christ, and while he dips his hand into the dish he looks -round to the spectators; he has the Jewish features, red hair and -beard, and a bad expression. All have glories; but the glory round the -head of Judas is much smaller than the others.[242] - - * * * * * - -In the second composition, one of the series of the life of Christ, -in the Loggie of the Vatican, Raphael has placed the apostles round a -table, four on each of the three sides; our Saviour presiding in the -centre. John and Peter, who are, as usual, nearest to Christ, look to -him with an animated appealing expression. Judas is in front, looking -away from the rest, and as if about to rise. The other heads are -not well discriminated, nor is the moment well expressed: there is, -indeed, something confused and inharmonious, unlike Raphael, in the -whole composition. I pass it over, therefore, without further remark, -to come to the third example—a masterpiece of his later years, worthy -as a composition of being compared with Leonardo’s; but, never having -been painted, we can only pronounce it perfect as far as it goes. The -original drawing enriches the collection of the Queen of England: the -admirable engraving of Marc Antonio, said to have been touched by -Raphael, is before me while I write. From the disposition of the unshod -feet as seen under the table, it is styled by collectors ‘_il pezzo dei -piedi_:’ from the arrangement of the table and figures it was probably -designed for a refectory. - -In the centre is Christ, with both hands resting on the table; in the -head, a melancholy resignation. Peter is on the right, his hand on -his breast. John, on the left, places both hands on his breast, with -a most animated expression,—‘You cannot believe it is I?’ Andrew has -laid his hand on the shoulder of Peter, and leans forward with a sad -interrogative expression. The head of Judas has features akin to those -of the antique satyr, with the look askance of a detected villain: -he has heard the words, but he dares not meet the eye, of his Divine -Master: he has no purse. James Minor, next to John, with his hands -extended, seems to speak sadly to Philip: ‘And they began to inquire -among themselves, which of them should do this thing?’ The whole -composition is less dramatic, has less variety of action and attitude, -than that of Leonardo, but is full of deep melancholy feeling. - - * * * * * - -The Cenacolo of Andrea del Sarto, in the Convent of the Salvi near -Florence, takes, I believe, the third rank after those of Leonardo -and Raphael. He has chosen the self-same moment, ‘One of you shall -betray me.’ The figures are, as usual, ranged on one side of a long -table. Christ, in the centre, holds a piece of bread in his hand; on -his left is St. John, and on his right St. James Major, both seen in -profile. The face of St. John expresses interrogation; that of St. -James, interrogation and a start of amazement. Next to St. James are -Peter, Thomas, Andrew; then Philip, who has a small cross upon his -breast. After St. John come James Minor, Simon, Jude, Judas Iscariot, -and Bartholomew. Judas, with his hands folded together, leans forward, -and looks down, with a round mean face, in which there is no power of -any kind, not even of malignity. In passing almost immediately from the -Cenacolo in the St. Onofrio to that in the Salvi, we feel strongly all -the difference between the mental and moral superiority of Raphael at -the age of twenty, and the artistic greatness of Andrea in the maturity -of his age and talent. This fresco deserves its high celebrity. It is -impossible to look on it without admiration, considered as a work of -art. The variety of the attitudes, the disposition of the limbs beneath -the table, the ample, tasteful draperies, deserve the highest praise; -but the heads are deficient in character and elevation, and the whole -composition wants that solemnity of feeling proper to the subject. - - * * * * * - -The Cenacolo of Titian, painted for Philip II. for the altar of his -chapel in the Escurial, is also a notable example of the want of proper -reverential feeling: two servants are in attendance; Judas is in front, -averting his head, which is in deep shadow; a dog is under the table, -and the Holy Ghost is descending from above. - -Niccolò Poussin has three times painted the Cenacolo. In the two series -of the Seven Sacraments, he has, of course, represented the institution -of the Eucharist, as proper to his subject; in both instances, in that -pure and classical taste proper to himself. In the best and largest -composition, the apostles are reclining on couches round the table. -Christ holds a plate full of bread, and appears as saying, ‘Take, eat.’ -Four are putting the morsel into their mouths. Judas is seen behind, -with an abject look, stealing out of the room. - - * * * * * - -The faults which I have observed in pictures of this subject are -chiefly met with in the Venetian, Flemish, and later Bolognese schools. -When the _motif_ selected is the institution of the Eucharist, it is a -fault to sacrifice the solemnity and religious import of the scene in -order to render it more dramatic: it ought not to be dramatic; but the -pervading sentiment should be _one_, a deep and awful reverence. When -Christ is distributing the bread and wine, the apostles should not be -conversing with each other; nor should the figures exceed twelve in -number, for it appears to me that the introduction of Judas disturbs -the sacred harmony and tranquillity of the scene. When the _motif_ is -the celebration of the Passover, or the detection of Judas, a more -dramatic and varied arrangement is necessary; but here, to make the -apostles intent on eating and drinking, as in some old German pictures, -is a fault. Even Albano has represented one of the apostles as peeping -into an empty wine-pitcher with a disappointed look. - - * * * * * - -It appears to me, also, a gross fault to introduce dogs and cats, and -other animals; although I have heard it observed, that a dog gnawing a -bone is introduced with propriety, to show that the supper is over, the -Paschal Lamb eaten, before the moment represented. - -Vulgar heads, taken from vulgar models, or selected without any regard -either to the ancient types, or the traditional character of the -different apostles, are defects of frequent occurrence, especially in -the older German schools; and in Titian, Paul Veronese, and Rubens, -even where the heads are otherwise fine and expressive, the scriptural -truth of character is in general sacrificed. - -It is a fault, as I have already observed, to represent Judas anxiously -concealing the purse. - - * * * * * - -Holbein, in his famous Last Supper at Basle, and in the small one in -the Louvre, has adopted the usual arrangement: the heads all want -elevation; but here the attention fixes at once upon Judas Iscariot—the -very ideal of scoundrelism—I can use no other word to express the -unmitigated ugliness, vulgarity, and brutality of the face. Lavater -has referred to it as an example of the physiognomy proper to cruelty -and avarice; but the dissimulation is wanting. This base, eager, -hungry-looking villain stands betrayed by his own looks: he is too -prominent; he is in fact the principal figure;—a fault in taste, -feeling, and propriety. - - * * * * * - -The introduction of a great number of figures, as spectators or -attendants, is a fault; excusable, perhaps, where the subject is -decorative and intended for the wall of a refectory, but not otherwise. -In the composition of Paul Veronese, there are twenty-three figures; -in that of Zucchero, forty-five; in that of Baroccio, twenty-one. These -supernumerary persons detract from the dignity and solemnity of the -scene. - - * * * * * - -Tintoretto has introduced several spectators, and among them an old -woman spinning in a corner, who, while she turns her spindle, looks on -with an observant eye. This alludes to an early tradition, that the -Last Supper was eaten in the house of Mary, the mother of Mark the -evangelist. But it is nowhere said that she was present, and therefore -it is an impropriety to introduce her. Magnificent architecture, as in -the picture by B. Peruzzi (who, by the way, was an architect), seems -objectionable: but equally unsuitable is the poor dismantled garret in -this picture of Tintoretto; for the chamber in which the scene took -place was ‘the guest chamber,’ a large upper room, ready prepared; and -as it was afterwards the scene of the Pentecost, it must have held more -than a hundred persons. - - * * * * * - -It is a fault, as I have already observed, to represent John as -_asleep_ on the breast or the shoulder of our Saviour. - - * * * * * - -Though countenanced by the highest authorities in Art, I believe it -must be considered as a fault, or at least a mistake, to represent our -Saviour and his apostles as seated, instead of reclining round the -table. It is a fault, not merely because the use of the _triclinium_ -or couch at all social meals was general in the antique times,—for the -custom of sitting upright was not so entirely extinct among the Jews -but that it might on any other occasion have been admissible,—but, from -peculiar circumstances, it became in this instance an impropriety. We -know that when the Passover was first instituted the Jews were enjoined -to eat it standing, as men in haste, with girded loins and sandalled -feet: but afterwards it was made imperative that they should eat it -in an attitude of repose, lying upon couches, and as men at ease; and -the reason for this was, that all the circumstances of the meal, and -particularly the attitude in which it was eaten, should indicate the -condition of security and freedom which the Israelites enjoyed after -their deliverance from the Egyptian bondage. In the then imperfect -state of Biblical criticism, this fact seems to have been unknown to -the earlier artists, or disregarded by those who employed and directed -them. Among modern artists, Poussin and Le Sueur have scrupulously -attended to it, even when the moment chosen is the mystical -distribution of the bread and wine which succeeded the Paschal Supper. -Commentators have remarked, that if Christ and his disciples _reclined_ -at table, then, supposing Christ to have the central place of honour, -the head of John would have been near to the bosom of Christ: but under -these circumstances, if Judas were sufficiently near to receive the -sop from the hand of Christ, then he must have reclined next to him -on the other side, and have taken precedence of Peter. This supposed -a propinquity which the early Christian artists deemed offensive and -inadmissible. - - * * * * * - -In the composition by Stradano the arrangement of the table and figures -is particularly well managed: all recline on couches; in the centre -of the table is a dish, to which Christ extends his hand, and Judas, -who is here rather handsome than otherwise, at the same time stretches -forth his; the moment is evidently, ‘He that dippeth with me in the -dish, the same shall betray me.’ Two circumstances spoil this picture, -and bring it down to the level of the vulgar and the commonplace. In -the background is seen a kitchen and the cooking of the supper. Under -Judas crouches a hideous demon, with horns, hoof, and tail, visible -only to the spectator. - - * * * * * - -When the Cenacolo represents the Eucharist, it is, perhaps, allowable -to introduce angels, because it was, and I believe is, an established -belief, that, visible or invisible, they are always present at the -Sacrament. The Holy Ghost descending from above is unsanctioned by -Scripture, but may serve to mark the mystical and peculiar solemnity -of the moment chosen for representation. It may signify, ‘He that -receiveth me, receiveth _Him_ that sent me.’ But where angels attend, -or where the Spiritual Comforter comes floating down from above, then -the presence of Judas, or of any superfluous figures as spectators or -servitors, or of dogs or other animals, becomes a manifest impropriety. - -The introduction of the Devil in person as tempting Judas is rendered -pardonable by the naïveté of the early painters: in the later schools -of art it is offensive and ridiculous. - -The Cenacolo of Baroccio, painted by order of Clement VIII. (1594), for -his family chapel in the Santa Maria-sopra-Minerva, is remarkable for -an anecdote relating to it. Baroccio, who was not eminent for a correct -taste, had in his first sketch reverted to the ancient fashion of -placing Satan close behind Judas, whispering in his ear, and tempting -him to betray his Master. The Pope expressed his dissatisfaction,—‘_che -non gli piaceva il demonio si dimesticasse tanto con Gesù Cristo_,’—and -ordered him to remove the offensive figure. This is not the last -example of the ancient manner of treatment. In the Cenacolo of -Franceschini, painted nearly a century later, two angels are attending -on the sacred repast, while Judas is in the act of leaving the room, -conducted by Satan in person. - - * * * * * - -It is surely a fault, in a scene of such solemn and sacred import, -to make the head of Judas a vehicle for public or private satire, by -giving him the features of some obnoxious personage of the time.[243] -This, according to tradition, has been done in some instances. Perhaps -the most remarkable example that could be cited is the story of Andrea -del Castagno, who, after having betrayed and assassinated his friend -Domenico Veneziano, painted himself in the character of Judas: a -curious instance of remorse of conscience. - - * * * * * - -Volumes might be written on the subject of the Last Supper. It extends -before me, as I think and write, into endless suggestive associations, -which, for the present, I dare not follow out: but I shall have -occasion to return to it hereafter.[244] - - - ST. BARNABAS. - - _Ital._ San Parnabà. _Fr._ Saint Barnabé. (June 11.) - -St. Barnabas is usually entitled the _Apostle_ Barnabas, because he was -associated with the Apostles in their high calling; ‘and,’ according -to Lardner, ‘though without that large measure of inspiration and -high authority which was peculiar to the TWELVE APOSTLES, properly so -called, yet he is to be considered as _Apostolical_, and next to them -in sanctity.’ For this reason I place him here. - -St. Barnabas was a Levite, born in the island of Cyprus, and the -cousin-german of Mark the evangelist. The notices of his life and -character scattered through the Acts invest him with great personal -interest. He it was who, after the conversion of Paul, was the first -to believe in his sincerity, and took courage to present him to the -other apostles, ‘who were afraid of him, and would not believe that -he was a disciple.’ (Acts xv. 39.) Barnabas afterwards became the -fellow-labourer of Paul, and attended him to Antioch. We are told -that ‘he was a good man, full of the Holy Ghost and of faith;’ and to -this the legendary traditions add, that he was a man of a most comely -countenance, of a noble presence, grave and commanding in his step -and deportment; and thence, when he and Paul were at Lystra together, -‘they called Barnabas Jupiter, and Paul Mercurius.’ Subsequently, -however, Paul and Barnabas fell into a dispute concerning Mark, and -separated. The tradition relates that Barnabas and Mark remained for -some time together, being united by the ties of friendship, as well -as by those of kindred. Barnabas preached the Gospel in Asia Minor, -Greece, and Italy; and there is an old legendary tradition that he was -the first bishop of Milan. The legend also relates that everywhere he -carried with him the Gospel of St. Matthew, written by the hand of -the evangelist, preaching what was written therein; and when any were -sick, or possessed, he laid the sacred writing upon their bosom, and -they were healed; (a beautiful allegory this!) and it happened that as -he preached in a synagogue of Judea against the Jews, they were seized -with fury and took him, and put him to a cruel death. But Mark and the -other Christians buried him with many tears. - -The body of St. Barnabas remained in its place of sepulture till -the days of the Emperor Zeno, when, according to Nicephorus, it was -revealed in a dream to Antemius, that the apostle rested in a certain -spot, and would be found there, with the Gospel of St. Matthew lying -on his bosom. And so it happened: the remains were found; the Gospel -was carried to the emperor at Constantinople; and a church was built, -dedicated to St. Barnabas. - - * * * * * - -It is, I presume, in consequence of his being the kinsman of St. Mark, -that Barnabas is more popular at Venice than elsewhere, and that -devotional figures of him are rarely found except in Venetian pictures. -He is represented as a man of majestic presence, holding in his hand -the Gospel of St. Matthew, as in a fine picture by Bonifazio; in his -church at Venice he is represented over the high altar, throned as -bishop, while St. Peter stands below. - - * * * * * - -He often occurs in subjects taken from the Acts and the life of St. -Paul. In the scene in which he presents Paul to the other apostles, he -is the principal personage; but in the scene at Paphos, where Elymas -is struck blind, and at Lystra, he is always secondary to his great -companion. - -[Illustration: 84 Angel (Albert Dürer) _v._ p. 79.] - - - - - The Doctors of the Church. - - - I. THE FOUR LATIN FATHERS. - -The Evangelists and the Apostles represented in Art the Spiritual -Church, and took their place among the heavenly influences. The great -Fathers or Doctors were the representatives of the Church Militant -on earth: as teachers and pastors, as logicians and advocates, they -wrote, argued, contended, suffered, and at length, after a long and -fierce struggle against opposing doctrines, they fixed the articles of -faith thereafter received in Christendom. For ages, and down to the -present time, the prevailing creed has been that which was founded on -the interpretations of these venerable personages. They have become, -in consequence, frequent and important subjects of Art, particularly -from the tenth century—the period when, in their personal character, -they began to be regarded not merely as gifted and venerable, but as -divinely inspired; their writings appealed to as infallible, their -arguments accepted as demonstration. We distinguish them as the Latin -and the Greek Fathers. In Western Art, we find the Latin Fathers -perpetually grouped together, or in a series: the Greek Fathers seldom -occur except in their individual character, as saints rather than as -teachers. - -The four Latin Doctors are St. Jerome, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, -and St. Gregory. When represented together, they are generally -distinguished from each other, and from the sacred personages who may -be grouped in the same picture, by their conventional attributes. -Thus St. Jerome is sometimes habited in the red hat and crimson robes -of a cardinal, with a church in his hand; or he is a half-naked, -bald-headed, long-bearded, emaciated old man, with eager wasted -features, holding a book and pen, and attended by a lion. St. Ambrose -wears the episcopal robes as bishop of Milan, with mitre and crosier, -and holds his book; sometimes, also, he carries a knotted scourge, and -a bee-hive is near him. St. Augustine is also habited as a bishop, and -carries a book; he has often books at his feet, and sometimes a flaming -heart transpierced by an arrow. The origin and signification of these -symbols I shall explain presently. - -[Illustration: _The Four Latin Fathers._] - - * * * * * - -In the most ancient churches the Four Doctors are placed after the -Evangelists. In the later churches they are seen combined or grouped -with the evangelists, occasionally also with the sibyls; but this -seems a mistake. The appropriate place of the sibyls is neither with -the evangelists nor the fathers, but among the prophets, where Michael -Angelo has placed them. - - * * * * * - -Where the principal subject is the glory of Christ, or the coronation -or assumption of the Virgin, the Four Fathers attend with their books -as witnesses and interpreters. - -1. A conspicuous instance of this treatment is the dome of San Giovanni -at Parma. In the centre is the ascension of Christ, around are the -twelve apostles gazing upwards; below them, in the spandrils of the -arches, as if bearing record, are the Four Evangelists, each with a -Doctor of the Church seated by him as interpreter: St. Matthew is -attended by St. Jerome; St. Mark, by St. Gregory; St. Luke, by St. -Augustine; and St. John, by St. Ambrose. - -2. A picture in the Louvre by Pier-Francesco Sacchi (A.D. 1640) -represents the Four Doctors, attended, or rather inspired, by the -mystic symbols of the Four Evangelists. They are seated at a table, -under a canopy sustained by slender pillars, and appear in deep -consultation: near St. Augustine is the eagle; St. Gregory has the ox; -St. Jerome, the angel; and St. Ambrose, the lion. - -3. In a well-known woodcut after Titian, ‘The Triumph of Christ,’ the -Redeemer is seated in a car drawn by the Four Evangelists; while the -Four Latin Doctors, one at each wheel, put forth all their strength -to urge it on. The patriarchs and prophets precede, the martyrs and -confessors of the faith follow, in grand procession. - -4. In a Coronation of the Virgin, very singularly treated, we have -Christ and the Virgin on a high platform or throne, sustained by -columns; in the space underneath, between these columns, is a group -of unwinged angels, holding the instruments of the Passion. (Or, as I -have sometimes thought, this beautiful group may be the souls of the -Innocents, their proper place being under the throne of Christ.) On -each side a vast company of prophets, apostles, saints, and martyrs, -ranged tier above tier. Immediately in front, and on the steps of the -throne, are the Four Evangelists, seated each with his symbol and book: -behind them the Four Fathers, also seated. This picture, which as a -painting is singularly beautiful, the execution finished, and the heads -most characteristic and expressive, may be said to comprise a complete -system of the theology of the middle ages.[245] - -5. We have the same idea carried out in the lower part of Raphael’s -‘Disputa’ in the Vatican. The Four Doctors are in the centre of what -may be called the _sublunary_ part of the picture: they are the only -seated figures in the vast assembly of holy, wise, and learned men -around; St. Gregory and St. Jerome on the right of the altar, St. -Ambrose and St. Augustine on the left. As the two latter wear the same -paraphernalia, they are distinguished by having books scattered at -their feet, on which are inscribed the titles of their respective works. - - * * * * * - -The Madonna and Child enthroned, with the Doctors of the Church -standing on each side, is a subject which has been often, and sometimes -beautifully, treated; and here the contrast between all we can -conceive of virginal and infantine loveliness and innocence enshrined -in heavenly peace and glory—and these solemn, bearded, grand-looking -old Fathers, attending in humble reverence, as types of earthly -wisdom—ought to produce a magnificent effect, when conceived in the -right spirit. I can remember, however, but few instances in which the -treatment is complete and satisfactory. - -1. One of these is a picture by A. Vivarini (A.D. 1446), now in the -Academy at Venice. Here, the Virgin sits upon a throne under a rich -canopy sustained by four little angels. She looks out of the picture -with a most dignified, tranquil, goddess-like expression; she wears, -as usual, the crimson tunic and blue mantle, the latter being of a -most brilliant azure; on her brow, a magnificent jewelled crown; the -Divine Child stands on her knee, and raises his little hand to bless -the worshipper. To the right of the Virgin, and on the platform of her -throne, stands St. Jerome, robed as cardinal, and bearing his church; -with St. Gregory, habited as pope. To the left stands St. Ambrose, -holding his crosier and knotted scourge, and St. Augustine with his -book. This is a wonderful picture, and, as a specimen of the early -Venetian school, unequalled. The accuracy of imitation, the dazzling -colour, the splendid dresses and accessories, the grave beauty of the -Madonna, the divine benignity of the Infant Redeemer, and the sternly -thoughtful heads of the old Doctors, are not only positively fine, but -have a relative interest and value as being stamped with that very -peculiar character which belonged to the Vivarini and their immediate -followers. It was painted for the Scuola della Carità.[246] - -2. A different and a singular treatment of the Four Fathers occurs -in another Venetian picture.[247] Christ is represented seated on a -throne, and disputing with the Jewish doctors, who are eagerly arguing -or searching their books. In front of the composition stand St. Jerome, -St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and St. Gregory; who, with looks fixed on -the youthful Saviour, appear to be reverentially listening to, and -recording, his words. This wholly poetical and ideal treatment of a -familiar passage in the life of Christ, I have never seen but in this -one instance. - -3. A third example is a picture by Moretto, of extraordinary -beauty.[248] The Virgin sits on a lofty throne, to which there is an -ascent of several steps; the Child stands on her right; she presses -him to her with maternal tenderness, and his arms are round her neck. -At the foot of the throne stand St. Ambrose, with his scourge, and -St. Augustine; St. Gregory, wearing the papal tiara, and without a -beard, is seated on a step of the throne, holding an open book; and -St. Jerome, kneeling on one knee, points to a passage in it; he wears -the cardinal’s dress complete. This picture is worthy of Titian in the -richness of the effect, with a more sober grandeur in the colour. The -Virgin is too much like a portrait; this is the only fault.[249] - - * * * * * - -In the Chapel of San Lorenzo, in the Vatican, Angelico has painted -eight Doctors of the Church, single majestic figures standing under -Gothic canopies. According to the names _now_ to be seen inscribed -on the pedestals beneath, these figures represent St. Jerome,[250] -St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, St. Gregory, St. Athanasius, St. Leo, -St. John Chrysostom, and St. Thomas Aquinas. St. John Chrysostom and -St. Athanasius represent the Greek doctors. St. Leo, who saved Rome -from Attila, is with peculiar propriety placed in the Vatican; and -St. Thomas Aquinas, the angelic doctor, naturally finds a place in a -chapel painted by a Dominican for a pope who particularly favoured the -Dominicans,—Nicholas V. - - * * * * * - -The Four Fathers communing on the mystery of the Trinity, or the -Immaculate Conception, were favourite subjects in the beginning of the -seventeenth century, when church pictures, instead of being religious -and devotional, became more and more theological. There is an admirable -picture of this subject by Dosso Dossi.[251] Above is seen the Messiah, -as Creator, in a glory; he lays his hand on the head of the Virgin, -who kneels in deep humility before him; St. Gregory sits in profound -thought, a pen in one hand, a tablet in the other; St. Ambrose and -St. Augustine are similarly engaged; St. Jerome, to whom alone the -celestial vision appears to be visible, is looking up with awe and -wonder. Guido, in a celebrated picture,[252] has represented the -Doctors of the Church communing on the Immaculate Conception of the -Virgin. The figures are admirable for thoughtful depth of character in -the expression, and for the noble arrangement of the draperies; above -is seen the Virgin, floating amid clouds, in snow-white drapery, and -sustained by angels; visible, however, to St. Jerome and St. Ambrose -only. - - * * * * * - -Rubens has treated the Fathers several times: the colossal picture in -the Grosvenor Gallery is well known, where they appear before us as -moving along in a grand procession: St. Jerome comes last; (he should -be first; but on these points Rubens was not particular:) he seems in -deep contemplation, enveloped in the rich scarlet robes of a cardinal -of the seventeenth century, and turning the leaves of his great -book. In another picture we have the Four Fathers seated, discussing -the mystery of the Eucharist; St. Jerome points to a passage in the -Scriptures; St. Gregory is turning the page; they appear to be engaged -in argument; the other two are listening earnestly. There is another -picture by Rubens in which the usual attributes of the Fathers are -borne aloft by angels, while they sit communing below. - - * * * * * - -These examples will suffice to give a general idea of the manner -in which the four great Doctors of the Western Church are grouped -in devotional pictures. We will now consider them separately, each -according to his individual character and history. - - - ST. JEROME. - -_Lat._ Sanctus Hieronymus. _Ital._ San Geronimo or Girolamo. _Fr._ St. -Jérome, Hiérome, or Géroisme. _Ger._ Der Heilige Hieronimus. Patron of - scholars and students, and more particularly of students in theology. - (Sept. 30, A.D. 420.) - -Of the four Latin Doctors, St. Jerome, as a subject of painting, is -by far the most popular. The reasons for this are not merely the -exceedingly interesting and striking character of the man, and the -picturesque incidents of his life, but also his great importance and -dignity as founder of Monachism in the West, and as author of the -universally received translation of the Old and New Testament into the -Latin language (called ‘The Vulgate’). There is scarcely a collection -of pictures in which we do not find a St. Jerome, either doing penance -in the desert, or writing his famous translation, or meditating on the -mystery of the Incarnation. - - * * * * * - -Jerome was born about A.D. 342, at Stridonium, in Dalmatia. His father, -Eusebius, was rich; and as he showed the happiest disposition for -learning, he was sent to Rome to finish his studies. There, through -his own passions, and the evil example of his companions, he fell into -temptation, and for a time abandoned himself to worldly pleasures. But -the love of virtue, as well as the love of learning, was still strong -within him: he took up the profession of law, and became celebrated -for his eloquence in pleading before the tribunals. When more than -thirty, he travelled into Gaul, and visited the schools of learning -there. It was about this time that he was baptized, and vowed himself -to perpetual celibacy. In 373, he travelled into the East, to animate -his piety by dwelling for a time among the scenes hallowed by the -presence of the Saviour; and, on his way thither, he visited some of -the famous Oriental hermits and ascetics, of whom he has given us such -a graphic account, and whose example inspired him with a passion for -solitude and a monastic life. Shortly after his arrival in Syria, he -retired to a desert in Chalcis, on the confines of Arabia, and there -he spent four years in study and seclusion, supporting himself by the -labour of his hands. He has left us a most vivid picture of his life of -penance in the wilderness; of his trials and temptations, his fastings, -his sickness of soul and body: and we must dwell for a moment on his -own description, in order to show with what literal and circumstantial -truth the painters have rendered it. He says, in one of his epistles, -‘Oh how often, in the desert, in that vast solitude which, parched by -the sultry sun, affords a dwelling to the monks, did I fancy myself -in the midst of the luxuries of Rome! I sate alone, for I was full of -bitterness. My misshapen limbs were rough with sackcloth, and my skin -so squalid that I might have been mistaken for an Ethiopian. Tears -and groans were my occupation every day and all day long. If sleep -surprised me unawares, my naked bones, which scarcely held together, -rattled on the earth.’ His companions, he says, ‘were scorpions and -wild beasts;’ his home, ‘a recess among rocks and precipices.’ Yet, -in the midst of this horrible self-torture and self-abasement, he -describes himself as frequently beset by temptations to sin and sensual -indulgence, and haunted by demons: at other times, as consoled by -voices and visions from heaven. Besides these trials of the flesh and -the spirit, he had others of the intellect. His love of learning, his -admiration of the great writers of classical antiquity,—of Plato and -Cicero,—made him impatient of the rude simplicity of the Christian -historians. He describes himself as fasting before he opened Cicero; -and, as a further penance, he forced himself to study Hebrew, which -at first filled him with disgust, and this disgust appeared to him a -capital sin. In one of his distempered visions, he fancied he heard -the last trumpet sounded in his ear by an angel, and summoning him -before the judgment-seat of God. ‘Who art thou?’ demanded the awful -voice. ‘A Christian,’ replied the trembling Jerome. ‘‘Tis false!’ -replied the voice, ‘thou art no Christian: thou art a Ciceronian. -Where the treasure is, there will the heart be also.’ He persevered, -and conquered the difficulties of Hebrew; and then, wearied by the -religious controversies in the East, after ten years’ residence there, -he returned to Rome. - -But neither the opposition he had met with, nor his four years of -solitude and penance in the desert, had subdued the fiery enthusiasm of -temperament which characterised this celebrated man. At Rome he boldly -combated the luxurious self-indulgence of the clergy, and preached -religious abstinence and mortification. He was particularly remarkable -for the influence he obtained over the Roman women; we find them, -subdued or excited by his eloquent exhortations, devoting themselves -to perpetual chastity, distributing their possessions among the poor, -or spending their days in attendance on the sick, and ready to follow -their teacher to the Holy Land—to the desert—even to death. His most -celebrated female convert was Paula, a noble Roman matron, a descendant -of the Scipios and the Gracchi. Marcella, another of these Roman -ladies, was the first who, in the East, collected together a number -of pious women to dwell together in community: hence she is, by some -authors, considered as the first nun; but others contend that Martha, -the sister of Mary Magdalene, was the first who founded a religious -community of women. - -After three years’ sojourn at Rome, St. Jerome returned to Palestine, -and took up his residence in a monastery he had founded at Bethlehem. -When, in extreme old age, he became sensible of the approach of death, -he raised with effort his emaciated limbs, and, commanding himself to -be carried into the chapel of the monastery, he received the Sacrament -for the last time from the hands of the priest, and soon after expired. -He died in 420, leaving, besides his famous translation of the -Scriptures, numerous controversial writings, epistles, and commentaries. - - * * * * * - -We read in the legendary history of St. Jerome, that one evening, as -he sat within the gates of his monastery at Bethlehem, a lion entered, -limping, as in pain; and all the brethren, when they saw the lion, fled -in terror: but Jerome arose, and went forward to meet him, as though he -had been a guest. And the lion lifted up his paw, and St. Jerome, on -examining it, found that it was wounded by a thorn, which he extracted; -and he tended the lion till he was healed. The grateful beast remained -with his benefactor, and Jerome confided to him the task of guarding -an ass which was employed in bringing firewood from the forest. On one -occasion, the lion having gone to sleep while the ass was at pasture, -some merchants passing by carried away the latter; and the lion, after -searching for him in vain, returned to the monastery with drooping -head, as one ashamed. St. Jerome, believing that he had devoured his -companion, commanded that the daily task of the ass should be laid upon -the lion, and that the faggots should be bound on his back, to which -he magnanimously submitted, until the ass was recovered; which was in -this wise. One day, the lion, having finished his task, ran hither and -thither, still seeking his companion; and he saw a caravan of merchants -approaching, and a string of camels, which, according to the Arabian -custom, were led by an ass; and when the lion recognised his friend, he -drove the camels into the convent, and so terrified the merchants, that -they confessed the theft, and received pardon from St. Jerome. - -The introduction of the lion into pictures of St. Jerome is supposed -to refer to this legend; but in this instance, as in many others, the -reverse was really the case. The lion was in very ancient times adopted -as the symbol befitting St. Jerome, from his fervid, fiery nature, and -his life in the wilderness; and in later times, the legend invented to -explain the symbol was gradually expanded into the story as given above. - - * * * * * - -Representations of St. Jerome, in pictures, prints, and sculpture, -are so numerous that it were in vain to attempt to give any detailed -account of them, even of the most remarkable. All, however, may be -included under the following classification, and, according to the -descriptions given, may be easily recognised. - -The devotional subjects and single figures represent St. Jerome in -one of his three great characters. 1. As Patron Saint and Doctor of -the Church. 2. As Translator and Commentator of the Scriptures. 3. As -Penitent. As Doctor of the Church, and teacher, he enters into every -scheme of decoration, and finds a place in all sacred buildings. As -Saint and Penitent, he is chiefly to be found in the convents and -churches of the Jeronymites, who claim him as their Patriarch. - -When placed before us as the patron saint and father of divinity, he is -usually standing full length, either habited in the cardinal’s robes, -or with the cardinal’s hat lying at his feet. It may be necessary to -observe, that there is no historical authority for making St. Jerome -a cardinal. Cardinal-priests were not ordained till three centuries -later; but as the other fathers were all of high ecclesiastical rank, -and as St. Jerome obstinately refused all such distinction, it has -been thought necessary, for the sake of his dignity, to make him a -cardinal: another reason may be, that he performed, in the court of -Pope Dalmasius, those offices since discharged by the cardinal-deacon. -In some of the old Venetian pictures, instead of the official robes of -a cardinal, he is habited in loose ample red drapery, part of which is -thrown over his head. When represented with his head uncovered, his -forehead is lofty and bald, his beard is very long, flowing even to his -girdle; his features fine and sharp, his nose aquiline. In his hand -he holds a book or a scroll, and frequently the emblematical church, -of which he was the great support and luminary: and, to make the -application stronger and clearer, rays of light are seen issuing from -the door of the church. - -1. A signal instance of the treatment of Jerome as patron saint occurs -in a fine picture by Wohlgemuth, the master of Albert Dürer.[253] It -is an altar-piece representing the glorification of the saint, and -consists of three compartments. In the centre, St. Jerome _stands_ on -a magnificent throne, and lays his left hand on the head of a lion, -raised up on his hind legs: the donors of the picture, a man and a -woman, kneel in front; on each side are windows opening on a landscape, -wherein various incidents of the life of St. Jerome are represented; -on the right, his Penance in the Wilderness and his Landing at Cyprus; -and on the left, the merchants who had carried off the ass bring -propitiatory gifts, which the saint rejects, and other men are seen -felling wood and loading the lion. On the inner shutters or wings of -the central picture, are represented, on the right, the three other -doctors,—St. Augustine, with the flaming heart; St. Ambrose, with -the bee-hive; both habited as bishops; and St. Gregory, wearing his -tiara, and holding a large book (his famous Homilies) in his hand. On -the left, three apostles with their proper attributes, St. Andrew, St. -Thomas, and St. Bartholomew; on the other side are represented, to the -right, St. Henry II. holding a church (the cathedral of Bamberg), and -a sword, his proper attributes; and his wife St. Cunegunda.[254] On -the left St. Elizabeth of Hungary and St. Martin. There are besides, -to close in the whole, two outer doors: on the inner side, to the -right, St. Joseph and St. Kilian;[255] on the left, St. Catherine and -St. Ursula; and on the exterior of the whole the mass of St. Gregory, -with various personages and objects connected with the Passion of -Christ. The whole is about six feet high, dated 1511, and may bear -a comparison, for elaborate and multifarious detail and exquisite -painting, with the famous Van Eyck altar-piece in St. John’s Church at -Ghent.[256] - -2. In his character of patron, St. Jerome is a frequent subject of -sculpture. There is a Gothic figure of him in Henry the Seventh’s -Chapel, habited in the cardinal’s robes, the lion fawning upon him. - -When St. Jerome is represented in his second great character, as the -translator of the Scriptures, he is usually seated in a cave or in a -cell, busied in reading or in writing; he wears a loose robe thrown -over his wasted form; and either he looks down intent on his book, or -he looks up as if awaiting heavenly inspiration: sometimes an angel is -dictating to him. - - * * * * * - -1. In an old Italian print, which I have seen, he is seated on the -ground reading, in _spectacles_;—an anachronism frequent in the old -painters. Sometimes he is seated under the shade of a tree; or within -a cavern, writing at a rude table formed of a stump of a tree, or a -board laid across two fragments of rock; as in a beautiful picture by -Ghirlandajo, remarkable for its solemn and tranquil feeling.[257] - -2. Very celebrated is an engraving of this subject by Albert Dürer. The -scene is the interior of a cell, at Bethlehem; two windows on the left -pour across the picture a stream of sunshine, which is represented with -wonderful effect. St. Jerome is seen in the background, seated at a -desk, most intently writing his translation of the Scriptures; in front -the lion is crouching, and a fox is seen asleep. These two animals -are here emblems;—the one, of the courage and vigilance, the other of -the wisdom or acuteness, of the saint. The execution of this print is -a miracle of Art, and it is very rare. There is an exquisite little -picture by Elzheimer copied from it, and of the same size, at Hampton -Court. I need hardly observe, that here the rosary and the pot of holy -water are anachronisms, as well as the cardinal’s hat. By Albert Dürer -we have also St. Jerome writing in a cavern; and St. Jerome reading in -his cell: both woodcuts. - -3. Even more beautiful is a print by Lucas v. Leyden, in which St. -Jerome is reclining in his cell and reading intently; the lion licks -his foot. - -4. In a picture by Lucas Cranach, Albert of Brandenburg, elector of -Mayence (1527), is represented in the character of St. Jerome, seated -in the wilderness, and writing at a table formed of a plank laid across -two stumps of trees: he is in the cardinal-robes; and in the foreground -a lion, a hare, a beaver, a partridge, and a hind, beautifully -painted, express the solitude of his life. In the background the -caravan of merchants is seen entering the gate of the monastery, -conducted by the faithful lion. - -5. The little picture by Domenichino, in our National Gallery, -represents St. Jerome looking up from his book, and listening to the -accents of the angel. 6. In a picture by Tiarini,[258] it is St. John -the Evangelist, and not an angel, who dictates while he writes. 7. In -a picture by Titian, St. Jerome, seated, holds a book, and gazes up at -a crucifix suspended in the skies; the lion is drinking at a fountain. -Out of twenty prints of St. Jerome after Titian, there are at least -eight which represent him at study or writing. - - * * * * * - -It is in the double character of Doctor of the Church, and translator -of the Scriptures, that we find St. Jerome so frequently introduced -into pictures of the Madonna, and grouped with other saints. Two of -the most celebrated pictures in the world suggest themselves here as -examples:—1. ‘The Madonna della Pesce’ of Raphael; where the Virgin, -seated on a raised throne, holds the Infant Christ in her arms; on -her right hand, the archangel Raphael presents the young Tobias, who -holds the fish, the emblem of Christianity or Baptism. On the other -side kneels St. Jerome, holding an open book, his beard sweeping to his -girdle; the lion at his feet; the Infant Christ, while he bends forward -to greet Tobias, has one hand upon St. Jerome’s book: the whole is a -beautiful and expressive allegory.[259] 2. Correggio’s picture, called -‘The St. Jerome of Parma,’ represents the Infant Christ on the knees of -his mother: Mary Magdalene bends to kiss his feet: St. Jerome stands in -front, presenting his translation of the Scriptures. - -[Illustration: 85 St. Jerome doing Penance (Titian)] - -The penitent St. Jerome seems to have been adopted throughout the -Christian Church as the approved symbol of Christian penitence, -self-denial, and self-abasement. No devotional subject, if we except -the ‘Madonna and Child’ and the ‘Magdalene,’ is of such perpetual -recurrence. In the treatment it has been infinitely varied. The scene -is generally a wild rocky solitude: St. Jerome, half naked, emaciated, -with matted hair and beard, is seen on his knees before a crucifix, -beating his breast with a stone. The lion is almost always introduced, -sometimes asleep, or crouching at his feet; sometimes keeping guard, -sometimes drinking at a stream. The most magnificent example of this -treatment is by Titian:[260] St. Jerome, kneeling on one knee, half -supported by a craggy rock, and holding the stone, looks up with eager -devotion to a cross, artlessly fixed into a cleft in the rock; two -books lie on a cliff behind; at his feet are a skull and hour-glass; -and the lion reposes in front. The feeling of deep solitude, and a kind -of sacred horror breathed over this picture, are inconceivably fine and -impressive. Another by Titian, but inferior, is in the Louvre; and -there are at least twelve engravings of St. Jerome doing penance, after -the same painter: among them a superb landscape, in which are seen -a lion and a lioness prowling in the wilderness, while the saint is -doing penance in the foreground. By Agostino Caracci there is a famous -engraving of ‘St. Jerome doing penance in a cave,’ called from its size -the _great_ St. Jerome. But to particularise further would be endless: -I know scarcely any Italian painter since the fifteenth century who has -not treated this subject at least once. - -The Spanish painters have rendered it with a gloomy power, and -revelled in its mystic significance. In the Spanish gallery of the -Louvre I counted at least twenty St. Jeromes: the old German painters -and engravers also delighted in it, on account of its picturesque -capabilities. - -Albert Dürer represents St. Jerome kneeling before a crucifix, which he -has suspended against the trunk of a massy tree; an open book is near -it; he holds in his right hand a flint-stone, with which he is about -to strike his breast, all wounded and bleeding from the blows already -inflicted; the lion crouches behind him, and in the distance is a stag. - -The penitent St. Jerome is not a good subject for sculpture; the -undraped, meagre form, and the abasement of suffering, are disagreeable -in this treatment: yet such representations are constantly met with in -churches. The famous colossal statue by Torrigiano, now in the Museum -at Seville, represents St. Jerome kneeling on a rock, a stone in one -hand, a crucifix in the other. At Venice, in the Frari, there is a -statue of St. Jerome, standing, with the stone in his hand and the lion -at his feet; too majestic for the Penitent. There are several other -statues of St. Jerome at Venice, from the Liberi and Lombardi schools, -all fine as statues; but the penitent saint is idealised into the -patron-saint of penitents. - -When figures of St. Jerome as penitent are introduced in Madonna -pictures, or in the Passion of Christ, then such figures are -devotional, and symbolical, in a general sense, of Christian repentance. - -There is an early picture of the Crucifixion, by Raphael,[261] in -which he has placed St. Jerome at the foot of the cross, beating his -breast with a stone(86). - -[Illustration: 86 St. Jerome, as Penitent, in a Crucifixion (Raphael)] - -The pictures from the life of St. Jerome comprise a variety of -subjects:—1. ‘He receives the cardinal’s hat from the Virgin:’ -sometimes it is the Infant Christ, seated in the lap of the Virgin, -who presents it to him. 2. ‘He disputes with the Jewish doctors on -the truth of the Christian religion;’ in a curious picture by Juan -de Valdes.[262] He stands on one side of a table in an attitude of -authority: the rabbis, each of whom has a demon looking over his -shoulder, are searching their books for arguments against him. 3. ‘St. -Jerome, while studying Hebrew in the solitude of Chalcida, hears in a -vision the sound of the last trumpet, calling men to judgment.’ This is -a common subject, and styled ‘The Vision of St. Jerome.’ I have met -with no example earlier than the fifteenth century. In general he is -lying on the ground, and an angel sounds the trumpet from above. In a -composition by Ribera he holds a pen in one hand and a penknife in the -other: he seems to have been arrested in the very act of mending his -pen by the blast of the trumpet: the figure of the saint, wasted even -to skin and bone, and his look of petrified amazement, are very fine, -notwithstanding the commonplace action. In a picture by Subleyras, in -the Louvre, St. Jerome is gazing upwards, with an astonished look; -three archangels sound their trumpets from above. In a picture by -Antonio Pereda, at Madrid, St. Jerome not only hears in his vision -the sound of the last trump, he _sees_ the dead arise from their -graves around him. Lastly, by way of climax, I may mention a picture -in the Louvre, by a modern French painter, Sigalon: St. Jerome is in -a convulsive fit, and the three angels, blowing their trumpets in his -ears, are like furies sent to torment and madden the sinner, rather -than to rouse the saint. - - * * * * * - -While doing penance in the desert, St. Jerome was sometimes haunted by -temptations, as well as amazed by terrors. - -4. Domenichino, in one of the frescoes in St. Onofrio, represents the -particular kind of temptation by which the saint was in imagination -assailed: while he is fervently praying and beating his breast, a -circle of beautiful nymphs, seen in the background, weave a graceful -dance. Vasari has had the bad taste to give us a penitent St. Jerome -with Venus and Cupids in the background: one arch little Cupid takes -aim at him;—an offensive instance of the extent to which, in the -sixteenth century, classical ideas had mingled with and depraved -Christian Art.[263] - -5. Guido. ‘St. Jerome translating the Scriptures while an angel -dictates:’ life size and very fine (except the angel, who is weak, and -reminds one of a water-nymph[264]); in his pale manner. - - * * * * * - -6. Domenichino. ‘St. Jerome is flagellated by an angel for preferring -Cicero to the Hebrew writings:’ also in the St. Onofrio. The Cicero, -torn from his hand, lies at his feet. Here the saint is a young man, -and the whole scene is represented as a vision. - -7. But St. Jerome was comforted by visions of glory, as well as haunted -by terrors and temptations. In the picture by Parmigiano, in our -National Gallery, St. Jerome is sleeping in the background, while St. -John the Baptist points upwards to a celestial vision of the Virgin -and Child, seen in the opening heavens above: the upper part of this -picture is beautiful, and full of dignity; but the saint is lying -stretched on the earth in an attitude so uneasy and distorted, that it -would seem as if he were condemned to do penance even in his sleep; and -the St. John has always appeared to me mannered and theatrical. - -[Illustration: 87 St. Jerome and the Lion (Coll’ Antonio da Fiore) -Naples] - -8. The story of the lion is often represented. St. Jerome is seated in -his cell, attired in the monk’s habit and cowl; the lion approaches, -and lays his paw upon his knee; a cardinal’s hat and books are lying -near him; and, to express the self-denial of the saint, a mouse is -peeping into an empty cup (87).[265] - -In another example, by Vittore Carpaccio, the lion enters the cell, and -three monks, attendants on St. Jerome, flee in terror. - - * * * * * - -9. The Last Communion of St. Jerome is the subject of one of the most -celebrated pictures in the world,—the St. Jerome of Domenichino, which -has been thought worthy of being placed opposite to the Transfiguration -of Raphael, in the Vatican. The aged saint—feeble, emaciated, dying—is -borne in the arms of his disciples to the chapel of his monastery, -and placed within the porch. A young priest sustains him; St. Paula, -kneeling, kisses one of his thin bony hands; the saint fixes his eager -eyes on the countenance of the priest, who is about to administer the -sacrament,—a noble dignified figure in a rich ecclesiastical dress; -a deacon holds the cup, and an attendant priest the book and taper; -the lion droops his head with an expression of grief; the eyes and -attention of all are on the dying saint, while four angels, hovering -above, look down upon the scene. - -Agostino Caracci, in a grand picture now in the Bologna Gallery, had -previously treated the same subject with much feeling and dramatic -power: but here the saint is not so wasted and so feeble; St. Paula is -not present, and the lion is tenderly licking his feet. - -Older than either, and very beautiful and solemn, is a picture by -Vittore Carpaccio, in which the saint is kneeling in the porch of a -church, surrounded by his disciples, and the lion is seen outside. - -10. ‘The Death of St. Jerome.’ In the picture by Starnina he is giving -his last instructions to his disciples, and the expression of solemn -grief in the old heads around is very fine. In a Spanish picture he is -extended on a couch, made of hurdles, and expires in the arms of his -monks. - -In a very fine anonymous print, dated 1614, St. Jerome is dying alone -in his cell (this version of the subject is contrary to all authority -and precedent): he presses to his bosom the Gospel and the crucifix; -the lion looks up in his face roaring, and angels bear away his soul to -heaven. - -11. ‘The Obsequies of St. Jerome.’ In the picture by Vittore Carpaccio, -the saint is extended on the ground before the high altar, and the -priests around are kneeling in various attitudes of grief or devotion. -The lion is seen on one side.[266] - - * * * * * - -I will mention here some other pictures in which St. Jerome figures as -the principal personage. - -St. Jerome introducing Charles V. into Paradise is the subject of a -large fresco, by Luca Giordano, on the staircase of the Escurial. - -St. Jerome conversing with two nuns, probably intended for St. Paula -and St. Marcella.[267] - -The sleep of St. Jerome. He is watched by two angels, one of whom, with -his finger on his lip, commands silence.[268] - - * * * * * - -It is worth remarking, that in the old Venetian pictures St. Jerome -does not wear the proper habit and hat of a cardinal, but an ample -scarlet robe, part of which is thrown over his head as a hood (88). - -[Illustration: 88 Venetian St. Jerome] - - * * * * * - -The history of St. Jerome, in a series, is often found in the churches -and convents of the Jeronymites, and generally consists of the -following subjects, of which the fourth and sixth are often omitted:— - -1. He is baptized. 2. He receives the cardinal’s hat from the Virgin. -3. He does penance in the desert, beating his breast with a stone. -4. He meets St. Augustine. 5. He is studying or writing in a cell. -6. He builds the convent at Bethlehem. 7. He heals the wounded lion. -8. He receives the Last Sacrament. 9. He dies in the presence of his -disciples. 10. He is buried. - - * * * * * - -Considering that St. Jerome has ever been venerated as one of the great -lights of the Church, it is singular that so few churches are dedicated -to him. There is one at Rome, erected, according to tradition, on the -very spot where stood the house of Santa Paula, where she entertained -St. Jerome during his sojourn at Rome in 382. For the high altar of -this church, Domenichino painted his masterpiece of the Communion of -St. Jerome already described. The embarkation of Saint Paula, to follow -her spiritual teacher St. Jerome to the Holy Land, is the subject of -one of Claude’s most beautiful sea pieces, now in the collection of the -Duke of Wellington; another picture of this subject, the figures as -large as life, is in the Brera, by a clever Cremonese painter, Giuseppe -Bottoni. - - * * * * * - -St. Jerome has detained its long; the other Fathers are, as subjects of -Art, much less interesting. - - - ST. AMBROSE. - - _Lat._ S. Ambrosius. _Ital._ Sant’ Ambrogio. _Fr._ St. Ambroise. - _Ger._ Der Heilige Ambrosius. Patron Saint of Milan. (April 4, A.D. - 397.) - -We can hardly imagine a greater contrast than between the stern, -enthusiastic, dreaming, ascetic Jerome, and the statesman-like, -practical, somewhat despotic AMBROSE. This extraordinary man, in -whose person the priestly character assumed an importance and dignity -till then unknown, was the son of a prefect of Gaul, bearing the same -name, and was born at Treves in the year 340. It is said that, when an -infant in the cradle, a swarm of bees alighted on his mouth, without -injuring him. The same story was told of Plato and of Archilochus, and -considered prophetic of future eloquence. It is from this circumstance -that St. Ambrose is represented with the bee-hive near him. - -Young Ambrose, after pursuing his studies at Rome with success, was -appointed prefect of Æmilia and Liguria (Piedmont and Genoa), and took -up his residence at Milan. Shortly afterwards the Bishop of Milan -died, and the succession was hotly disputed between the Catholics and -the Arians. Ambrose appeared in his character of prefect, to allay -the tumult; he harangued the people with such persuasive eloquence -that they were hushed into respectful silence; and in the midst a -child’s voice was heard to exclaim, ‘Ambrose shall be bishop!’ The -multitude took up the cry as though it had been a voice from heaven, -and compelled him to assume the sacred office. He attempted to avoid -the honour thus laid upon him by flight, by entreaties,—pleading that, -though a professed Christian, he had never been baptized: in vain! the -command of the emperor enforced the wishes of the people; and Ambrose, -being baptized, was, within eight days afterwards, consecrated bishop -of Milan. He has since been regarded as the patron saint of that city. - -He began by distributing all his worldly goods to the poor; he then -set himself to study the sacred writings, and to render himself in all -respects worthy of his high dignity. ‘The Old and the New Testament,’ -says Mr. Milman, ‘met in the person of Ambrose: the implacable -hostility to idolatry, the abhorrence of every deviation from the -established formulary of belief;—the wise and courageous benevolence, -the generous and unselfish devotion to the great interests of humanity.’ - -He was memorable for the grandeur and magnificence with which he -invested the ceremonies of worship; they had never been so imposing. He -particularly cultivated music, and introduced from the East the manner -of chanting the service since called the Ambrosian chant. - - * * * * * - -Two things were especially remarkable in the life and character of -St. Ambrose. The first was the enthusiasm with which he advocated -celibacy in both sexes: on this topic, as we are assured, he was so -persuasive, that mothers shut up their daughters lest they should be -_seduced_ by their eloquent bishop into vows of chastity. The other -was his determination to set the ecclesiastical above the sovereign -or civil power: this principle, so abused in later times, was in the -days of Ambrose the assertion of the might of Christianity, of mercy, -of justice, of freedom, over heathenism, tyranny, cruelty, slavery. -The dignity with which he refused to hold any communication with the -Emperor Maximus, because he was stained with the blood of Gratian, and -his resolute opposition to the Empress Justina, who interfered with -his sacerdotal privileges, were two instances of this spirit. But the -most celebrated incident of his life is his conduct with regard to -the Emperor Theodosius, the last great emperor of Rome;—a man of an -iron will, a despot, and a warrior. That _he_ should bend in trembling -submission at the feet of an unarmed priest, and shrink before his -rebuke, filled the whole world with an awful idea of the supremacy of -the Church, and prepared the way for the Hildebrands, the Perettis, the -Caraffas of later times. With regard to St. Ambrose, this assumption -of moral power, this high prerogative of the priesthood, had hitherto -been without precedent, and in this its first application it certainly -commands our respect, our admiration, and our sympathy. - -Theodosius, with all his great qualities, was subject to fits of -violent passion. A sedition, or rather a popular affray, had taken -place in Thessalonica; one of his officers was ill-treated, and some -lives lost. Theodosius, in the first moment of indignation, ordered an -indiscriminate massacre of the inhabitants, and seven thousand human -beings—men, women, and children—were sacrificed. The conduct of Ambrose -on this occasion was worthy of a Christian prelate: he retired from -the presence of the emperor, and wrote to him a letter, in which, in -the name of Christ, of his Church, and of all the bishops over whom he -had any influence, he denounced this inhuman act with the strongest -expressions of abhorrence, and refused to allow the sovereign, thus -stained with innocent blood, to participate in the sacraments of the -Church;—in fact, excommunicated him. In vain the emperor threatened, -supplicated; in vain he appeared with all his imperial state before the -doors of the cathedral of Milan, and commanded and entreated entrance. -The doors were closed; and even on Christmas-day, when he again as -a suppliant presented himself, Ambrose appeared at the porch, and -absolutely forbade his entrance, unless he should choose to pass into -the sanctuary over the dead body of the intrepid bishop. At length, -after eight months of interdict, Ambrose consented to relent, on two -conditions: the first, that the emperor should publish an edict by -which no capital punishment could be executed till thirty days after -conviction of a crime; the second, that he should perform a public -penance. The emperor submitted; and, clothed in sackcloth, grovelling -on the earth, with dust and ashes on his head, lay the master of the -world before the altar of Christ, because of innocent blood hastily -and wrongfully shed. This was a great triumph, and one of incalculable -results—some evil, some good. - -Another incident in the life of St. Ambrose should be recorded to his -honour. In his time, ‘the first blood was judicially shed for religious -opinion’—and the first man who suffered for heresy was Priscilian, -a noble Spaniard: on this occasion, St. Ambrose and St. Martin of -Tours raised their protest in the name of Christianity against this -dreadful precedent; but the animosity of the Spanish bishops prevailed, -and Priscilian was put to death; so early were bigotry and cruelty -the characteristics of the Spanish hierarchy! Ambrose refused to -communicate with the few bishops who had countenanced this transaction: -the general voice of the Church was against it. - -The man who had thus raised himself above all worldly power was endued -by popular enthusiasm with supernatural privileges: he performed cures; -he saw visions. At the time of the consecration of the new cathedral -at Milan, a miraculous dream revealed to him the martyrdom of two holy -men, Gervasius and Protasius, and the place where their bodies reposed. -The remains were disinterred, conveyed in solemn procession to the -cathedral, and deposited beneath the high altar; and St. Gervasius and -St. Protasius became, on the faith of a dream, distinguished saints in -the Roman calendar. Ambrose died at Milan, in 397, in the attitude and -the act of prayer. - - * * * * * - -There were many poetical legends and apologues relating to St. Ambrose -current in the middle ages. - -It is related that an obstinate heretic who went to hear him preach, -only to confute and mock him, beheld an angel visible at his side, and -prompting the words he uttered; on seeing which, the scoffer was of -course converted; a subject represented in his church at Milan. - -One day, Ambrose went to the prefect Macedonius, to entreat favour for -a poor condemned wretch; but the doors were shut against him, and he -was refused access. Then he said, ‘Thou, even thou, shalt fly to the -church for refuge, and shalt not enter!’ and a short time afterwards, -Macedonius, being pursued by his enemies, fled for sanctuary to the -church; but, though the doors were wide open, he could not find the -entrance, but wandered around in blind perplexity till he was slain. Of -this incident I have seen no picture. - -On another occasion, St. Ambrose, coming to the house of a nobleman of -Tuscany, was hospitably received; and he inquired concerning the state -of his host: the nobleman replied, ‘I have never known adversity; every -day hath seen me increasing in fortune, in honours, in possessions. I -have a numerous family of sons and daughters, who have never cost me a -pang of sorrow; I have a multitude of slaves, to whom my word is law; -and I have never suffered either sickness or pain.’ Then Ambrose rose -hastily from table, and said to his companions, ‘Arise! fly from this -roof, ere it fall upon us; for the Lord is not here!’ and scarcely had -he left the house, when an earthquake shook the ground, and swallowed -up the palace with all its inhabitants. I have seen this story in a -miniature, but cannot at this moment refer to it. - -St. Ambrose falls asleep, or into a trance, while celebrating mass, and -sees in the spirit the obsequies of St. Martin of Tours: the sacristan -strikes him on the shoulder to wake him. This is the subject of a very -old mosaic in his church at Milan. - -When St. Ambrose was on his death-bed, Christ visited him and comforted -him; Honorat, bishop of Vercelli, was then in attendance on him, and -having gone to sleep, an angel waked him, saying, ‘Arise, for he -departs in this hour;’ and Honorat was just in time to administer the -sacrament and see him expire. Others who were present beheld him ascend -to heaven, borne in the arms of angels. - - * * * * * - -Devotional pictures of St. Ambrose alone as patron saint do not often -occur. In general he wears the episcopal pallium with the mitre and -crosier as bishop: the bee-hive is sometimes placed at his feet; but a -more frequent attribute is the knotted scourge with three thongs. The -scourge is a received emblem of the castigation of sin: in the hand -of St. Ambrose it may signify the penance inflicted on the Emperor -Theodosius; or, as others interpret it, the expulsion of the Arians -from Italy, and the triumph of the Trinitarians. It has always this -meaning, we may presume, when the scourge has three knots, or three -thongs. I have seen figures of St. Ambrose holding two human bones in -his hand. When this attribute occurs (as in a picture by _Vivarini_, -_Venice Acad._), it alludes to the discovery of the relics of Gervasius -and Protasius. - -Among the few representations of St. Ambrose as patron saint, the -finest beyond all comparison is that which adorns his chapel in the -Frari at Venice, painted conjointly by B. Vivarini and Basaiti (A.D. -1498). He is seated on a throne, raised on several steps, attired in -his episcopal robes and mitre, and bearing the triple scourge in his -hand. He has a short grey beard, and looks straight out of the picture -with an expression of stern power;—nothing here of the benignity and -humility of the Christian teacher! Around his throne stands a glorious -company of saints: on the right, St. George in complete armour; St. -John the Baptist; a young saint, bearing a sword and palm, with long -hair, and the most beautiful expression of mild serene faith, whom I -suppose to be St. Theodore; St. Sebastian; and another figure behind, -part of the head only seen. On the left, St. Maurice, armed; the three -Doctors, St. Gregory, St. Augustine, St. Jerome, and two other saints -partly seen behind, whose personality is doubtful. All these wait round -St. Ambrose, as guards and counsellors round a sovereign; two lovely -little angels sit on the lower step of the throne hymning his praise. -The whole picture is wonderful for colour, depth, and expression, and -shows to what a pitch of excellence the Vivarini family had attained in -these characteristics of the Venetian school, long before it had become -a school. - -Most of the single figures of St. Ambrose represent him in his most -popular character, that of the stern adversary of the Arians. I -remember (in the Frari at Venice) a picture in which St. Ambrose in -his episcopal robes is mounted on a white charger, and flourishing on -high his triple scourge. The Arians are trampled under his feet, or fly -before him. I have seen an old print, in which he is represented with -a short grey beard, stern countenance, and wearing the bishop’s mitre: -underneath is the inscription ‘_Antiquis ejus imaginibus Mediolani olim -depictis ad vivum expressa_;’ but it seems certain that no authentic -portrait of him exists. - -His church at Milan, the Basilica of Sant’ Ambrogio Maggiore, one of -the oldest and most interesting churches in Christendom, was founded -by him in 387, and dedicated to all the Saints. Though rebuilt in -the ninth century and restored in the seventeenth, it still retains -the form of the primitive Christian churches (like some of those at -Rome and Ravenna), and the doors of cypress wood are traditionally -regarded as the very doors which St. Ambrose closed against the -Emperor Theodosius, brought hither from the ancient cathedral. Within -this venerable and solemn old church may be seen one of the most -extraordinary and best-preserved specimens of Mediæval Art: it is the -golden shrine or covering of the high altar, much older than the famous -_pala d’ oro_ at Venice; and the work, or at least the design, of one -man:[269] whereas the _pala_ is the work of several different artists -at different periods. On the front of the altar, which is all of plates -of gold, enamelled and set with precious stones, are represented in -relief scenes from the life of our Saviour: on the sides, which are of -silver-gilt, angels, archangels, and medallions of Milanese saints. On -the back, also of silver-gilt, we have the whole life of St. Ambrose, -in a series of small compartments, most curious and important as a -record of costume and manners, as well as an example of the state of -Art at that time. I have never seen any engraving of this monument, but -I examined it carefully. In the centre stand the Archangels Michael and -Gabriel, in the Byzantine style; and below them, St. Ambrose blesses -the donor, Bishop Angelbertus, and the goldsmith Wolvinus. Around, in -twelve compartments, we have the principal incidents of the life of St. -Ambrose, the figures being, as nearly as I can recollect, about six -inches high. - -1. Bees swarm round his head as he lies in his cradle. 2. He is -appointed prefect of the Ligurian provinces. 3. He is elected Bishop -of Milan in 375. 4. He is baptized. 5. He is ordained. 6. and 7. He -sleeps, and beholds in a vision the obsequies of St. Martin of Tours. -8. He preaches in the cathedral, inspired by angels. 9. He heals the -sick and lame. 10. He is visited by Christ. 11. An angel wakes the -bishop of Vercelli, and sends him to St. Ambrose. 12. Ambrose dies, and -angels bear away his soul to heaven. - -I was surprised not to find in his church what we consider as the -principal event of his life—his magnanimous resistance to the Emperor -Theodosius. In fact, the grand scene between Ambrose and Theodosius -has never been so popular as it deserves to be: considered merely as a -subject of painting, it is full of splendid picturesque capabilities; -for grouping, colour, contrast, background, all that could be desired. -In the great picture by Rubens,[270] the scene is the porch of the -church. On the left the emperor, surrounded by his guards, stands -irresolute, and in a supplicatory attitude, on the steps; on the right -and above, St. Ambrose is seen, attended by the ministering priests, -and stretches out his hand to repel the intruder. There is a print, -after Andrea del Sarto, representing Theodosius on his knees before the -relenting prelate. In the Louvre is a small picture, by Subleyras, of -the reconciliation of Ambrose and Theodosius. In our National Gallery -is a small and beautiful copy, by Vandyck, of the great picture by -Rubens. - -As joint patrons of Milan, St. Ambrose and St. Carlo Borromeo are -sometimes represented together, but only in late pictures. - -There is a statue of St. Ambrose, by Falconet,[271] in the act of -repelling Theodosius, which is mentioned by Diderot, with a commentary -so characteristic of the French anti-religious feeling of that time,—a -feeling as narrow and one-sided in its way as the most bigoted -puritanism,—that I am tempted to extract it; only premising, that if, -after the slaughter at Ismaël, Catherine of Russia had been placed -under the ban of Christendom, the world would not have been the worse -for such an exertion of the priestly power. - - C’est ce fougneux évêque qui osa fermer les portes de l’église a - Théodose, et à qui un certain souverain de par le monde [Frederic of - Prussia] qui dans la guerre passée avoit une si bonne envie de faire - un tour dans la rue des prêtres, et une certaine souveraine [Catherine - of Russia] qui vient de débarrasser son clergé de toute cette richesse - inutile qui l’empêchoit d’être respectable, auroient fait couper la - barbe et les oreilles, en lui disant: ‘Apprenez, monsieur l’abbé, que - le temple de votre Dieu est sur mon domain, et que si mon prédécesseur - vous a accordé par grâce les trois arpens de terrain qu’il occupe, - je puis les reprendre et vous envoyer porter vos autels et votre - fanatisme ailleurs. Ce lieu-ci est la maison du Père commun des - hommes, bons ou méchans, et je veux entrer quand il me plaira. Je ne - m’accuse point à vous; quand je daignerois vous consulter, vous n’en - savez pas assez pour me conseiller sur ma conduite, et de quel front - vous immiscez-veus d’en juger?’ Mais le plat empereur ne parla pas - ainsi, et l’évêque savoit bien à qui il avoit à faire. Le statuaire - nous l’a montré dans le moment de son insolent apostrophe.’ - -In Diderot’s criticisms on Art, which are often quoted even now, -there is in general a far better taste than prevailed in his time, -and much good sense; but a low tone of sentiment when he had to deal -with imaginative or religious Art, and an intolerable coarseness—‘most -mischievous foul sin in chiding sin.’ - - - ST. AUGUSTINE. - - St. Austin. _Lat._ Sanctus Augustinus. _Ital._ Sant’ Agostino. _Fr._ - St. Augustin. (Aug. 28, A.D. 430.) - -St. Augustine, the third of the Doctors of the Church, was born -at Tagaste, in Numidia, in 354. His father was a heathen; his -mother, Monica, a Christian. Endowed with splendid talents, a vivid -imagination, and strong passions, Augustine passed his restless youth -in dissipated pleasures, in desultory studies, changing from one faith -to another, dissatisfied with himself and unsettled in mind. His -mother, Monica, wept and prayed for him, and, in the extremity of her -anguish, repaired to the bishop of Carthage. After listening to her -sorrows, he dismissed her with these words: ‘Go in peace; the son of so -many tears will not perish!’ Augustine soon afterwards went to Rome, -where he gained fame and riches by his eloquence at the bar; but he -was still unhappy and restless, nowhere finding peace either in labour -or in pleasure. From Rome he went to Milan; there, after listening for -some time to the preaching of Ambrose, he was, after many struggles, -converted to the faith, and was baptized by the bishop of Milan, in -presence of his mother, Monica. On this occasion was composed the -hymn called the ‘Te Deum,’ still in use in our Church; St. Ambrose -and St. Augustine reciting the verses alternately as they advanced to -the altar. Augustine, after some time spent in study, was ordained -priest, and then bishop of Hippo, a small town and territory not far -from Carthage. Once installed in his bishopric, he ever afterwards -refused to leave the flock intrusted to his care, or to accept of -any higher dignity. His life was passed in the practice of every -virtue: all that he possessed was spent in hospitality and charity, -and his time was devoted to the instruction of his flock, either by -preaching or writing. In 430, after he had presided over his diocese -for thirty-five years, the city of Hippo was besieged by the Vandals; -in the midst of the horrors that ensued, Augustine refused to leave -his people, and died during the siege, being then in his seventy-sixth -year. It is said that his remains were afterwards removed from Africa -to Pavia, by Luitprand, king of the Lombards. His writings in defence -of Christianity are numerous and celebrated; and he is regarded as the -patron saint of theologians and learned men. - -Of his glorious tomb, in the Cathedral of Pavia, I can only say that -its beauty as a work of art astonished me. I had not been prepared for -anything so rich, so elegant in taste, and so elaborate in invention. -It is of the finest florid Gothic, worked in white marble, scarcely -discoloured by time. Augustine lies upon a bier, and angels of -exquisite grace are folding his shroud around him. The basso-relievos -represent the events of his life; the statues of the evangelists, -apostles, and other saints connected with the history of the Church, -are full of dignity and character. It comprises in all 290 figures. -This magnificent shrine is attributed by Cicognara to the Jacobelli -of Venice, and by Vasari to the two brothers Agostino and Agnolo of -Siena; but he does not speak with certainty, and the date 1362 seems to -justify the supposition of Cicognara, the Sienese brothers being then -eighty or ninety years old. - -Single figures of St. Augustine are not common; and when grouped -with others in devotional pictures, it is not easy to distinguish -him from other bishops; for his proper attribute, the heart flaming -or transpierced, to express the ardour of his piety or the poignancy -of his repentance, is very seldom introduced: but when a bishop -is standing with a book in his hand, or a pen, accompanied by St. -Jerome, and with no particular attribute, we may suppose it to be -St. Augustine; and when the title of one of his famous writings is -inscribed on the book, it of course fixes the identity beyond a doubt. - -1. B. Vivarini. St. Augustine seated on a throne, as patron saint, -mitred and robed; alone, stern, and majestic.[272] - -2. Dosso Dossi. St. Augustine throned as patron, attended by two -angels; he looks like a jovial patriarch.[273] - -3. F. Filippo Lippi. St. Augustine writing in his chamber; no emblem, -no mitre; yet the _personalité_ so marked, that one could not mistake -him either for Ambrose or Jerome.[274] - -4. Andrea del Sarto. St. Augustine as doctor; before him stand St. -Dominic and St. Peter Martyr; beside him St. Laurence, listening; in -front kneel St. Sebastian and Mary Magdalen.[275] - -5. V. Carpaccio. St. Augustine standing; a fine, stern, majestic -figure; he holds his book and scourge.[276] - -6. Paris Bordone. The Virgin and Child enthroned; the Virgin places -on the head of St. Augustine, who kneels before her, the jewelled -mitre.[277] - -7. Florigerio. St. Augustine, as bishop, and St. Monica, veiled, stand -on each side of the Madonna.[278] - - * * * * * - -As a _series_ of subjects, the history of St. Augustine is not -commonly met with; yet certain events in his life are of very frequent -occurrence. - -I shall begin with the earliest. - -1. Monica brings her son to school; the master receives him; the -scholars are sitting in a row conning their hornbooks. The names of -Monica and Augustine are inscribed in the glories round their heads. -This is a very curious little oval picture of the early part of the -fourteenth century.[279] - -Benozzo Gozzoli has painted the same subject in a large fresco in -the church of San Geminiano at Volterra (A.D. 1460). Monica presents -her son to the schoolmaster, who caresses him; in the background a -little boy is being whipped, precisely in the same attitude in which -correction is administered to this day in some of our schools. - -2. St. Augustine under the fig-tree meditating, with the inscription, -‘Dolores animæ salutem parturientes;’ and the same subject varied, -with the inscription, _Tolle, lege_. He tells us in his Confessions, -that while still unconverted and in deep communion with his friend -Alypius on the subject of the Scriptures, the contest within his mind -was such that he rushed from the presence of his friend and threw -himself down beneath a fig-tree, pouring forth torrents of repentant -tears; and he heard a voice, as it were the voice of a child, repeating -several times, ‘_Tolle, lege_,’ ‘Take and read;’ and returning to the -place where he had left his friend, and taking up the sacred volume, -he opened it at the verse of St. Paul’s Epistle to the Romans, ‘Not -in rioting and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in -strife and envying; but put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make not -provision for the flesh.’ Considering that this was the voice of God, -he took up the religious profession, to the great joy of his mother and -his friend. - -3. C. Procaccino. The Baptism of St. Augustine in the presence of St. -Monica. This is a common subject in chapels dedicated to St. Augustine -or St. Monica.[280] - -4. As the supposed founder of one of the four great religious -communities, St. Augustine is sometimes represented as giving the rules -to his Order: or in the act of writing them, while his monks stand -around, as in a picture by Carletto Cagliari:[281] both are common -subjects in the houses of the Augustine friars. The habit is black.[282] - -5. St. Augustine dispensing alms, generally in a black habit, and with -a bishop’s mitre on his head. - -6. St. Augustine, washing the feet of the pilgrims, sees Christ descend -from above to have his feet washed with the rest; a large picture in -the Bologna Academy by Desubleo, a painter whose works, with this one -exception, are unknown to me. The saint wears the black habit of an -Augustine friar, and is attended by a monk with a napkin in his hand. -I found the same subject in the Louvre, in a Spanish picture of the -seventeenth century; above is seen a church (like the Pantheon) in -a glory, and Christ is supposed to utter the words, ‘_Tibi commendo -Ecclesiam meam_.’[283] - -7. St. Augustine, borne aloft by angels in an ecstatic vision, beholds -Christ in the opening heavens above, St. Monica kneeling below. This -fine picture, by Vandyck, is or was in the gallery of Lord Methuen -at Corsham: and at Madrid there is another example, by Murillo: St. -Augustine kneeling in an ecstasy sees a celestial vision; on one hand -the Saviour crucified, on the other the Virgin and angels. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: 89 The Vision of St. Augustine (Murillo)] - -This, however, is not the famous subject called, in general, 8. -‘The Vision of St. Augustine,’ which represents a dream or vision -related by himself. He tells us that while busied in writing his -Discourse on the Trinity, he wandered along the sea-shore lost in -meditation. Suddenly he beheld a child, who, having dug a hole in -the sand, appeared to be bringing water from the sea to fill it. -Augustine inquired what was the object of his task? He replied, that he -intended to empty into this cavity all the waters of the great deep. -‘Impossible!’ exclaimed Augustine. ‘Not more impossible,’ replied the -child, ‘than for thee, O Augustine! to explain the mystery on which -thou art now meditating.’ - -No subject from the history of St. Augustine has been so often treated, -yet I do not remember any very early example. It was adopted as a -favourite theme when Art became rather theological than religious, and -more intent on illustrating the dogmas of churchmen than the teaching -of Christ. During the 16th and 17th centuries we find it everywhere, -and treated in every variety of style; but the _motif_ does not vary, -and the same fault prevails too generally, of giving us a material -fact, rather than a spiritual vision or revelation. Augustine, arrayed -in his black habit or his episcopal robes, stands on the sea-shore, -gazing with an astonished air on the Infant Christ, who pauses, and -looks up from his task, holding a bowl, a cup, a ladle, or a shell -in his hand. Thus we have it in Murillo’s picture—the most beautiful -example I have seen: the child is heavenly, but not visionary, -‘palpable to feeling as to sense.’ - -In Garofalo’s picture of this subject, now in our National Gallery, -Augustine is seated on a rock by the margin of the sea, habited in -his episcopal robes, and with his books and writing implements near -him; and while he gazes on the mysterious child, the Virgin appears -amid a choir of angels above: behind Augustine stands St. Catherine, -the patron saint of theologians and scholars: the little red figure -in the background represents St. Stephen, whose life and actions are -eloquently set forth in the homilies of St. Augustine: the introduction -of St. Catherine, St. Stephen, and the whole court of heaven, gives -the picture a visionary character. Rubens has painted this subject -with all his powerful reality: here Augustine wears the black habit -of his Order. Vandyck in his large grand picture has introduced St. -Monica kneeling, thus giving at once the devotional or visionary -character.[284] Albert Dürer has designed and engraved the same -subject. The most singular treatment is the classical composition of -Raphael, in one of the small chiaro-scuro pictures placed significantly -under the ‘Dispute of the Sacrament.’ St. Augustine is in a Roman -dress, bare-beaded, and on horseback; his horse starts and rears at the -sight of the miraculous child. - -There is something at once picturesque and mystical in this subject, -which has rendered it a favourite with artists and theologians; yet -there is always, at least in every instance I can recollect, something -prosaic and literal in the treatment which spoils the poetry of the -conception. - -9. ‘St. Augustine and St. Stephen bury ‘Count Orgaz’—the masterpiece -of Domenico el Greco, once in the Cathedral of Toledo, now in the -Madrid Gallery. This Conde de Orgaz, as Mr. Ford tells us in his -Handbook, lived in 1312, and had repaired a church in his lifetime, -and _therefore_ St. Stephen and St. Augustine came down from heaven to -lay him in his tomb, in presence of Christ, the Virgin, and all the -court of heaven. ‘The black and gold armour of the dead Count is equal -to Titian; the red brocades and copes of the saints are admirable; -less good are the Virgin and celestial groups. I have before mentioned -the reason why St. Augustine and St. Stephen are often represented in -companionship. - -St. Monica is often introduced into pictures of her son, where she has, -of course, the secondary place; her dress is usually a black robe, and -a veil or coif, white or grey, resembling that of a nun or a widow. -I have met with but one picture where she is supreme; it is in the -Carmine at Florence. St. Monica is seated on a throne and attended by -twelve holy women or female saints, six on each side. The very dark -situation of this picture prevented me from distinguishing individually -the saints around her, but Monica herself as well as the other figures -have that _grandiose_ air which belongs to the painter—Filippo Lippi. - -I saw in the atelier of the painter Ary Scheffer, in 1845, an admirable -picture of St. Augustine and his mother Monica. The two figures, not -quite full length, are seated; she holds his hand in both hers, looking -up to heaven with an expression of enthusiastic undoubting faith;— -‘the son of so many tears cannot be cast away!’ He also is looking up -with an ardent, eager, but anxious, doubtful expression, which seems -to say, ‘Help thou my unbelief!’ For profound and truthful feeling and -significance, I know few things in the compass of modern Art that can -be compared to this picture.[285] - - - ST. GREGORY. - - _Lat._ Sanctus Gregorius Magnus. _Ital._ San Gregorio Magno or Papa. - _Fr._ St. Grégoire. _Ger._ Der Heilige Gregor. (March 12, A.D. 604.) - -The fourth Doctor of the Latin Church, St. Gregory, styled, and not -without reason, Gregory the Great, was one of those extraordinary men -whose influence is not only felt in their own time, but through long -succeeding ages. The events of his troubled and splendid pontificate -belong to history; and I shall merely throw together here such -particulars of his life and character as may serve to render the -multiplied representations of him both intelligible and interesting. -He was born at Rome in the year 540. His father, Gordian, was of -senatorial rank: his mother, Sylvia, who, in the history of St. -Gregory, is almost as important as St. Monica in the story of St. -Augustine, was a woman of rare endowments, and, during his childish -years, the watchful instructress of her son. It is recorded that when -he was still an infant she was favoured by a vision of St. Antony, in -which he promised to her son the supreme dignity of the tiara. Gregory, -however, commenced his career in life as a lawyer, and exercised during -twelve years the office of prætor or chief magistrate of his native -city; yet, while apparently engrossed by secular affairs, he became -deeply imbued with the religious enthusiasm which was characteristic -of his time and hereditary in his family. Immediately on the death -of his father he devoted all the wealth he had inherited to pious -and charitable purposes, converted his paternal home on the Celian -Hill into a monastery and hospital for the poor, which he dedicated -to St. Andrew: then, retiring to a little cell within it, he took -the habit of the Benedictine Order, and gave up all his time to study -and preparation for the duties to which he had devoted himself. On -the occasion of a terrific plague which almost depopulated Rome, he -fearlessly undertook the care of the poor and sick. Pope Pelagius -having died at this time, the people with one voice called upon Gregory -to succeed him: but he shrank from the high office, and wrote to the -Emperor Maurice, entreating him not to ratify the choice of the people. -The emperor sent an edict confirming his election, and thereupon -Gregory fled from Rome, and bid himself in a cave. Those who went -in search of him were directed to the place of his concealment by a -celestial light, and the fugitive was discovered and brought back to -Rome. - -No sooner had he assumed the tiara, thus forced upon him against his -will, than he showed himself in all respects worthy of his elevation. -While he asserted the dignity of his station, he was distinguished -by his personal humility: he was the first pope who took the title -of ‘Servant of the Servants of God;’ he abolished slavery throughout -Christendom on religious grounds; though enthusiastic in making -converts, he set himself against persecution; and when the Jews of -Sardinia appealed to him, he commanded that the synagogues which had -been taken from them, and converted into churches, should be restored. -He was the first who sent missionaries to preach the Gospel in England, -roused to pity by the sight of some British captives exposed for sale -in the market at Rome. Shocked at the idea of an eternity of vengeance -and torment, if he did not originate the belief in purgatory, he was -at least the first who preached it publicly, and made it an article of -faith. In his hatred of war, of persecution, of slavery, he stepped -not only in advance of his own time, but of ours. He instituted the -celibacy of the clergy, one of the boldest strokes of ecclesiastical -power; he reformed the services of the Church; defined the model of -the Roman liturgy, such as it has ever since remained—the offices -of the priests, the variety and change of the sacerdotal garments; -he arranged the music of the chants, and he himself trained the -choristers. ‘Experience,’ says Gibbon, ‘had shown him the efficacy of -these solemn and pompous rites to soothe the distress, to confirm the -faith, to mitigate the fierceness, and to dispel the dark enthusiasm of -the vulgar; and he readily forgave their tendency to promote the reign -of priesthood and superstition.’ If, at a period when credulity and -ignorance were universal, he showed himself in some instances credulous -and ignorant, it seems hardly a reproach to one in other respects so -good and so great. - -His charity was boundless, and his vigilance indefatigable: he -considered himself responsible for every sheep of the flock intrusted -to him; and when a beggar died of hunger in the streets of Rome, -he laid himself under a sentence of penance and excommunication, -and interdicted himself for several days from the exercise of his -sacerdotal functions. - -Such was St. Gregory the Great, the last pope who was canonised: -celestial honours and worldly titles have often been worse—seldom so -well—bestowed. - - * * * * * - -During the last two years of his life, his health, early impaired by -fasts and vigils, failed entirely, and he was unable to rise from his -couch. He died in 604, in the fourteenth year of his pontificate. They -still preserve, in the church of the Lateran at Rome, his bed, and the -little scourge with which he was wont to keep the choristers in order. - -The monastery of St. Andrew, which he founded on the Celian Hill, is -now the church of San Gregorio. To stand on the summit of the majestic -flight of steps which leads to the portal, and look across to the -ruined palace of the Cæsars, makes the mind giddy with the rush of -thoughts. _There_, before us, the Palatine Hill—pagan Rome in dust: -_here_, the little cell, a few feet square, where slept in sackcloth -the man who gave the last blow to the power of the Cæsars, and first -set his foot as sovereign on the cradle and capital of their greatness. - -St. Gregory was in person tall and corpulent, and of a dark complexion, -with black hair, and very little beard. He speaks in one of his -epistles of his large size, contrasted with his weakness and painful -infirmities. He presented to the monastery of St. Andrew his own -portrait, and those of his father, and his mother St. Sylvia: they -were still in existence 300 years after his death, and the portrait of -Gregory probably furnished that particular type of physiognomy which we -trace in all the best representations of him, in which he appears of a -tall, large, and dignified person, with a broad full face, black hair -and eyebrows, and little or no beard. - -As he was, next to St. Jerome, the most popular of the Four Doctors, -single figures of him abound. They are variously treated: in general, -he bears the tiara as pope, and the crosier with the double cross, -in common with other papal saints; but his peculiar attribute is the -dove, which in the old pictures is always close to his ear. He is -often seated on a throne in the pontifical robes, wearing the tiara: -one hand raised in benediction; in the other a book, which represents -his homilies, and other famous works attributed to him: the dove -either rests on his shoulder, or is hovering over his head. He is -thus represented in the fine statue, designed, as it is said, by M. -Angelo, and executed by Cordieri, in the chapel of St. Barbara, in -San Gregorio, Rome; and in the picture over the altar-piece of his -chapel, to the right of the high altar. In the Salviati Chapel, on the -left, is the ‘St. Gregory in prayer,’ by Annibal Caracci. He is seen -in front bareheaded, but arrayed in the pontifical habit, kneeling on -a cushion, his hands outspread and uplifted; the dove descends from -on high; the tiara is at his feet, and eight angels hover around:—a -grand, finely-coloured, but, in sentiment, rather cold and mannered -picture.[286] - -By Guercino, St. Gregory seated on a throne, looking upwards, his hand -on an open book, in act to turn the leaves; the dove hovers at his -shoulder: to the left stands St. Francis Xavier; on the right, and more -in front, St. Ignatius Loyola. Behind St. Gregory is an angel playing -on the viol, in allusion to his love and patronage of sacred music; -in front an infant angel holds the tiara. The type usually adopted in -figures of St. Gregory is here exaggerated into coarseness, and the -picture altogether appears to me more remarkable for Guercino’s faults -than for his beauties.[287] - - * * * * * - -Several of the legends connected with the history of St. Gregory are of -singular interest and beauty, and have afforded a number of picturesque -themes for Art: they appear to have arisen out of his exceeding -popularity. They are all expressive of the veneration in which he was -held by the people; of the deep impression left on their minds by his -eloquence, his sanctity, his charity; and of the authority imputed to -his numerous writings, which commonly said to have been dictated by -the Holy Spirit. - - * * * * * - -1. John the deacon, his secretary, who has left a full account of his -life, declares that he beheld the Holy Ghost in the form of a dove -perched upon his shoulder while he was writing or dictating his famous -homilies. This vision, or rather figure of speech, has been interpreted -as a fact by the early painters. Thus, in a quaint old picture in the -Bologna Gallery, we have St. Gregory seated on a throne writing, the -celestial dove at his ear. A little behind is seen John the deacon, -drawing aside a curtain, and looking into the room at his patron with -an expression of the most naïve astonishment. - -2. The Archangel Michael, on the cessation of the pestilence, sheathes -his sword on the summit of the Mole of Hadrian. I have never seen even -a tolerable picture of this magnificent subject. There is a picture in -the Vatican, in which Gregory and a procession of priests are singing -litanies, and in the distance a little _Mola di Adriano_, with a little -angel on the summit;—curious, but without merit of any kind. - -3. The Supper of St. Gregory. It is related that when Gregory was only -a monk, in the Monastery of St. Andrew, a beggar presented himself at -the gate, and requested alms: being relieved, he came again and again, -and at length nothing was left for the charitable saint to bestow, -but the silver porringer in which his mother, Sylvia, had sent him a -_potage_; and he commanded that this should be given to the mendicant. -It was his custom, when he became pope, to entertain every evening at -his own table twelve poor men, in remembrance of the number of our -Lord’s apostles. One night, as he sat at supper with his guests, he -saw, to his surprise, not twelve, but thirteen seated at his table. -And he called to his steward, and said to him, ‘Did I not command thee -to invite twelve? and behold, there are thirteen!’ And the steward -told them over, and replied, ‘Holy Father, there are surely twelve -only!’ and Gregory held his peace; and after the meal, he called forth -the unbidden guest, and asked him, ‘Who art thou?’ And he replied, -‘I am the poor man whom thou didst formerly relieve; but my name is -the Wonderful, and through me thou shalt obtain whatever thou shalt -ask of God.’ Then Gregory knew that he had entertained an angel (or, -according to another version of the story, our Lord himself). This -legend has been a frequent subject in painting, under the title of -‘The Supper of St. Gregory.’ In the fresco in his church at Rome, it -is a winged angel who appears at the supper-table. In the fresco of -Paul Veronese, one of his famous banquet-scenes, the stranger seated -at the table is the Saviour habited as a pilgrim.[288] In the picture -painted by Vasari, his masterpiece, now in the Bologna Gallery, he has -introduced a great number of figures and portraits of distinguished -personages of his own time, St. Gregory being represented under the -likeness of Clement VII. The unbidden guest, or angel, bears the -features of the Saviour. - -This is one of many beautiful mythic legends, founded on the words of -St. Paul in which he so strongly recommends hospitality as one of the -virtues: ‘Be not forgetful to entertain strangers: for thereby some -have entertained angels unawares.’ (Heb. xiii. 2.) Or, as Massinger has -rendered the apostolic precept,— - - Learn all, - By this example, to look on the poor - With gentle eyes, for in such habits often - Angels desire an alms. - -4. The Mass of St. Gregory. On a certain occasion, when St. Gregory -was officiating at the mass, one who was near him doubted the real -presence; thereupon, at the prayer of the saint, a vision is suddenly -revealed of the crucified Saviour himself, who descends upon the -altar, surrounded by the instruments of his passion. This legend has -been a popular subject of painting from the beginning of the fifteenth -century, and is called ‘The Mass of St. Gregory.’ I have met with it -in every variety of treatment and grouping; but, however treated, it -is not a pleasing subject. St. Gregory is seen officiating at the -altar, surrounded by his attendant clergy. Sometimes several saints are -introduced in a poetical manner, as witnesses of the miracle: as in -an old picture I saw in the gallery of Lord Northwick;—the crucified -Saviour descends from the cross, and stands on the altar, or is -upborne in the air by angels; while all the incidental circumstances -and instruments of the Passion,—not merely the crown of thorns, the -spear, the nails, but the kiss of Judas, the soldiers’ dice, the cock -that crew to Peter,—are seen floating in the air. As a specimen of the -utmost naïveté in this representation may be mentioned Albert Dürer’s -woodcut. - -The least offensive and most elegant in treatment is the marble -bas-relief in front of the altar in the Chapel of St. Gregory at Rome. - - * * * * * - -5. The miracle of the Brandeum. The Empress Constantia sent to St. -Gregory requesting some of the relics of St. Peter and St. Paul. He -excused himself, saying that he dared not disturb their sacred remains -for such a purpose, but he sent her part of a consecrated cloth -(_Brandeum_) which had enfolded the body of St. John the Evangelist. -The empress rejected this gift with contempt: whereupon Gregory, to -show that such things are hallowed not so much in themselves as by -the faith of believers, laid the Brandeum on the altar, and after -praying he took up a knife and pierced it, and blood flowed as from a -living body. This incident, called the ‘miracle _dei Brandei_,’ has -also been painted. Andrea Sacchi has represented it in a grand picture -now in the Vatican; the mosaic copy is over the altar of St. Gregory -in St. Peter’s. Gregory holds up to view the bleeding cloth, and the -expression of astonishment and conviction in the countenances of the -assistants is very fine. - -6. St. Gregory releases the soul of the Emperor Trajan. In a little -picture in the Bologna Academy, he is seen praying before a tomb, on -which is inscribed TRAJANO IMPERADOR; beneath are two angels raising -the soul of Trajan out of the flames. Such is the usual treatment of -this curious and poetical legend, which is thus related in the Legenda -Aurea:—‘It happened on a time, as Trajan was hastening to battle at -the head of his legions, that a poor widow flung herself in his path, -and cried aloud for justice, and the emperor stayed to listen to her; -and she demanded vengeance for the innocent blood of her son, killed -by the son of the emperor. Trajan promised to do her justice when he -returned from his expedition. “But, Sire,” answered the widow, “should -you be killed in battle, who then will do me justice?” “My successor,” -replied Trajan. And she said, “What will it signify to you, great -emperor, that any other than yourself should do me justice? Is it not -better that you should do this good action yourself than leave another -to do it?” And Trajan alighted, and having examined into the affair, he -gave up his own son to her in place of him she had lost, and bestowed -on her likewise a rich dowry. Now, it came to pass that as Gregory was -one day meditating in his daily walk, this action of the Emperor Trajan -came into his mind, and he wept bitterly to think that a man so just -should be condemned as a heathen to eternal punishment. And entering -into a church he prayed most fervently that the soul of the good -emperor might be released from torment. And a voice said to him, “I -have granted thy prayer, and I have spared the soul of Trajan for thy -sake; but because thou hast supplicated for one whom the justice of God -had already condemned, thou shalt choose one of two things: either thou -shalt endure for two days the fires of purgatory, or thou shalt be sick -and infirm for the remainder of thy life.” Gregory chose the latter, -which sufficiently accounts for the grievous pains and infirmities to -which this great and good man was subjected, even to the day of his -death.’ - -This story of Trajan was extremely popular in the middle ages: it -is illustrative of the character of Gregory, and the feeling which -gave rise to his doctrine of purgatory. Dante twice alludes to it; -he describes it as one of the subjects sculptured on the walls of -Purgatory, and takes occasion to relate the whole story:— - - ... There was storied on the rock - Th’ exalted glory of the Roman prince, - Whose mighty worth moved Gregory to earn - His mighty conquest—Trajan the Emperor. - A widow at his bridle stood attired - In tears and mourning. Round about them troop’d - Full throng of knights: and overhead in gold - The eagles floated, struggling with the wind. - The wretch appear’d amid all these to say: - ‘Grant vengeance, Sire! for, woe beshrew this heart, - My son is murder’d!’ He, replying, seem’d: - ‘Wait now till I return.’ And she, as one - Made hasty by her grief: ‘O Sire, if thou - Dost not return?’—‘Where I am, who then is, - May right thee.’—‘What to thee is others’ good, - If thou neglect thy own?’—‘Now comfort thee,’ - At length he answers. ‘It beseemeth well - My duty be perform’d, ere I move hence. - So justice wills; and pity bids me stay.’ - Cary’s DANTE, _Purg._ x. - -It was through the efficacy of St. Gregory’s intercession that Dante -afterwards finds Trajan in Paradise, seated between King David and King -Hezekiah. (_Par._ xx.) - -As a subject of painting, the story of Trajan was sometimes selected as -an appropriate ornament for a hall of justice. We find it sculptured -on one of the capitals of the pillars of the Ducal Palace at Venice: -there is the figure of the widow kneeling, somewhat stiff, but very -simple and expressive, and over it in rude ancient letters—‘_Trajano -Imperador, che die justizia a la Vedova_.’ In the Town Hall of Ceneda, -near Belluna, are the three Judgments (_i tre Giudizi_), painted by -Pompeo Amalteo: the Judgment of Solomon, the Judgment of Daniel, and -the Judgment of Trajan. It is painted in the Town Hall of Brescia by -Giulio Campi, one of a series of eight righteous judgments. - -I found the same subject in the church of St. Thomas of Canterbury at -Verona. ‘The son of the Emperor Trajan trampling over the son of the -widow’ is a most curious composition by Hans Schaufelein.[289] - - * * * * * - -7. There was a monk, who, in defiance of his vow of poverty, -secreted in his cell three pieces of gold. Gregory, on learning -this, excommunicated him, and shortly afterwards the monk died. When -Gregory heard that the monk had perished in his sin, without receiving -absolution, he was filled with grief and horror; and he wrote upon a -parchment a prayer and a form of absolution, and gave it to one of -his deacons, desiring him to go to the grave of the deceased and read -it there: on the following night the monk appeared in a vision, and -revealed to him his release from torment. - -This story is represented in the beautiful bas-relief in white marble -in front of the altar of his chapel; it is the last compartment on the -right. The obvious intention of this wild legend is to give effect to -the doctrine of purgatory, and the efficacy of prayers for the dead. - -St. Gregory’s merciful doctrine of purgatory also suggested those -pictures so often found in chapels dedicated to the service of the -dead, in which he is represented in the attitude of supplication, while -on one side, or in the background, angels are raising the tormented -souls out of the flames. - -In ecclesiastical decoration I have seen the two popes, St. Gelasius, -who reformed the calendar in 494, and St. Celestinus, who arranged the -discipline of the monastic orders, added to the series of beatified -Doctors of the Church. - - - II. THE FOUR GREEK FATHERS. - -The Four Greek Fathers are St. John Chrysostom, St. Basil the Great, -St. Athanasius, and St. Gregory Nazianzen. To these, in Greek pictures, -a fifth is generally added, St. Cyril of Alexandria. - -From the time of the schism between the Eastern and Western Churches, -these venerable personages, who once exercised such an influence over -all Christendom, who preceded the Latin Fathers, and were in fact their -teachers, have been almost banished from the religious representations -of the west of Europe. When they are introduced collectively as a part -of the decoration of an ecclesiastical edifice, we may conclude in -general, that the work is Byzantine and executed under the influence of -Greek artists. - -A signal example is the central dome of the baptistery of St. Mark’s at -Venice, executed by Greek artists of the 12th and 13th centuries. In -the four spandrils of the vault are the Greek Fathers seated, writing -(if I well remember), and in the purest Byzantine style of art. They -occupy the same places here that we find usually occupied by the Latin -Doctors in church decoration: each has his name inscribed in Greek -characters. We have exactly the same representation in the Cathedral -of Monreale at Palermo. The Greek Fathers have no attributes to -distinguish them, and the general custom in Byzantine Art of inscribing -the names over each figure renders this unnecessary: in general, each -holds a book, or, in some instances, a scroll, which represents his -writings; while the right hand is raised in benediction, in the Greek -manner, the first and second finger extended, and the thumb and third -finger forming a cross. According to the formula published by M. -Didron, each of the Greek Fathers bears on a scroll the first words -of some remarkable passage from his works: thus, St. John Chrysostom -has ‘God, our God, who hath given us for food the bread of life,’ &c.: -St. Basil, ‘None of those who are in the bondage of fleshly desires are -worthy,’ &c.: St. Athanasius, ‘Often, and anew, do we flee to thee, O -God,’ &c.: St. Gregory Nazianzen, ‘God, the holy among the holies, the -thrice holy,’ &c.: and St. Cyril, ‘Above all, a Virgin without sin or -blemish,’ &c. - -[Illustration: _The five Greek Fathers._] - -The Greek bishops do not wear mitres; consequently, when in the Italian -or German pictures St. Basil or any of his companions wear the mitre, -it is a mistake arising from the ignorance of the artist. - -The Fathers of the Greek Church have been represented by Domenichino -at Grotta Ferrata, placed over the cornice and under the evangelists, -their proper place: they are majestic figures, with fine heads, and -correctly draped according to the Greek ecclesiastical costume. They -are placed here with peculiar propriety, because the convent originally -belonged to the Greek order of St. Basil, and the founder, St. Nilus, -was a Greek.[290] - -The etched outline, from a beautiful ancient Greek miniature, will give -an accurate idea of the characteristic figures and habits of the Greek -Fathers. - - * * * * * - -As separate devotional and historical representations of these Fathers -do sometimes, though rarely, occur, I shall say a few words of them -individually. - - - ST. JOHN CHRYSOSTOM. - - _Lat._ Sanctus Johannes Chrysostom. _Ital._ San Giovanni Crisostomo, - San Giovanni Bocca d’ Oro. _Fr._ St. Jean Chrysostome. Died Sept. 14, - A.D. 407. His festival is celebrated by the Greeks on the 13th of - November, and by the Latin Church on the 27th of January. - -St. John, called CHRYSOSTOM, or OF THE GOLDEN MOUTH, because of his -extraordinary eloquence, was born at Antioch in 344. His parents were -illustrious, and the career opened to him was of arts and arms; but -from his infancy the bent of his mind was peculiar. He lost his father -when young; his mother Arthusia, still in the prime of her life, -remained a widow for his sake, and superintended his education with -care and intelligence. The remark of Sir James Mackintosh that ‘all -distinguished men have had able mothers,’ appears especially true of -the great churchmen and poets. The mother of St. John Chrysostom ranks -with the Monicas and Sylvias, already described. - -John, at the age of twenty, was already a renowned pleader at the bar. -At the age of twenty-six, the disposition to self-abnegation and the -passion for solitude, which had distinguished him from boyhood, became -so strong, that he wished to retire altogether from the world; his -legal studies, his legal honours, had become hateful to him: he would -turn hermit. For a time his mother’s tears and prayers restrained him. -He has himself recorded the pathetic remonstrance in which she reminded -him of all she had done and suffered in her state of widowhood for his -sake, and besought him not to leave her. For the present he yielded: -but two years later he fled from society, and passed five or six years -in the wilderness near Antioch, devoting himself solely to the study of -the Scriptures, to penance and prayer; feeding on the wild vegetables, -and leading a life of such rigorous abstinence that his health sank -under it, and he was obliged to return to Antioch. - -All this time he was not even an ordained priest; but shortly after -he had emerged from the desert, Flavian, bishop of Antioch, ordained -him, and appointed him preacher. At the moment of his consecration, -according to the tradition, a white dove descended on his head, which -was regarded as the sign of immediate inspiration. He then entered on -his true vocation as a Christian orator, the greatest next to Paul. -On one occasion, when the people of Antioch had offended the Emperor -Theodosius, and were threatened with a punishment like that which had -fallen on Thessalonica, the eloquence of St. John Chrysostom saved -them: he was so adored by the people, that when he was appointed -patriarch of Constantinople, it was necessary to kidnap him, and carry -him off from Antioch by a force of armed soldiers, before the citizens -had time to interfere. - -From the moment he entered on his high office at Constantinople, -he became the model of a Christian bishop. Humble, self-denying, -sleeping on a bare plank, content with a little bread and pulse, he -entertained with hospitality the poor and strangers: indefatigable as -a preacher, he used his great gift of eloquence to convert his hearers -to what he believed to be the truth: he united the enthusiasm and the -imagination of the poet, the elegant taste of the scholar, the logic -of the pleader, with the inspired earnestness of one who had authority -from above. He was, like St. Jerome, remarkable for his influence -over women; and his correspondence with one of his female converts -and friends, Olympias, is considered one of the finest of his works -remaining to us: but, inexorable in his denunciations of vice, without -regard to sex or station, he thundered against the irregularities -of the monks, the luxury and profligacy of the Empress Eudosia, and -the servility of her flatterers, and brought down upon himself the -vengeance of that haughty woman, with whom the rest of his life was -one long contest. He was banished: the voice of the people obliged -the emperor to recall him. Persisting in the resolute defence of his -church privileges, and his animadversions on the court and the clergy, -he was again banished; and, on his way to his distant place of exile, -sank under fatigue and the cruel treatment of his guards, who exposed -him, bareheaded and bare-footed, to the burning sun of noon: and thus -he perished, in the tenth year of his bishopric, and the sixty-third -of his age. Gibbon adds, that, at the pious solicitation of the clergy -and people of Constantinople, his relics, thirty years after his death, -were transported from their obscure sepulchre to the royal city. The -Emperor Theodosius advanced to receive them as far as Chalcedon, and, -falling prostrate on the coffin, implored, in the name of his guilty -parents, Arcadius and Eudosia, the forgiveness of the injured saint.‘ - - * * * * * - -It is owing, I suppose, to the intercourse of Venice with the East, -that one of her beautiful churches is dedicated to San Gian Grisostomo, -as they call him there, in accents as soft and sonorous as his own -Greek. Over the high altar is the grandest devotional picture in -which I have seen this saint figure as a chief personage. It is the -masterpiece of Sebastian del Piombo,[291] and represents St. John -Chrysostom throned and in the act of writing in a great book; behind -him, St. Paul. In front, to the right, stands St. John the Baptist, and -behind him St. George as patron of Venice; to the left Mary Magdalene, -with a beautiful Venetian face; behind her, St. Catherine, patroness of -Venice: close to St. J. Chrysostom stands St. Lucia holding her lamp; -she is here the type of celestial light or wisdom.[292] This picture -was for a long time attributed to Giorgione. There was also a very -fine majestic figure of this saint by Rubens, in the collection of M. -Schamp: he is in the habit of a Greek bishop; in one hand he holds the -sacramental cup, and the left hand rests on the Gospel: the celestial -dove hovers near him, and two angels are in attendance. - - * * * * * - -I cannot quit the history of St. John Chrysostom without alluding -to a subject well known to collectors and amateurs, and popularly -called ‘_La Pénitence de St. Jean Chrysostome_.’ It represents a woman -undraped, seated in a cave, or wilderness, with an infant in her arms; -or lying on the ground with a new-born infant beside her; in the -distance is seen a man with a glory round his head, meagre, naked, -bearded, crawling on his hands and knees in the most abject attitude; -beneath, or at the top, is inscribed S. JOHANNES CRISOSTOMUS. - -For a long time this subject perplexed me exceedingly, as I was quite -unable to trace it in any of the biographies of Chrysostom, ancient or -modern: the kindness of a friend, learned in all the _byways_ as well -as the _highways_ of Italian literature, at length assisted me to an -explanation. - -[Illustration: 90 The Penance of St. Chrysostom (Albert Dürer)] - -The bitter enmity excited against St. John Chrysostom in his lifetime, -and the furious vituperations of his adversary, Theophilus of -Alexandria, who denounced him as one stained by every vice, ‘_hostem -humanitatis, sacrilegorum principem, immundum dæmonem_,’ as a wretch -who had absolutely delivered up his soul to Satan, were apparently -disseminated by the monks. Jerome translated the abusive attack of -Theophilus into Latin; and long after the slanders against Chrysostom -had been silenced in the East, they survived in the West. To this -may be added the slaughter of the Egyptian monks by the friends of -Chrysostom in the streets of Constantinople; which, I suppose, was also -retained in the traditions, and mixed up with the monkish fictions. It -seems to have been forgotten who John Chrysostom really was; his name -only survived in the popular ballads and legends as an epitome of every -horrible crime; and to account for his being, notwithstanding all this, -a _saint_, was a difficulty which in the old legend is surmounted after -a very original, and, I must needs add, a very audacious fashion. ‘I -have,’ writes my friend, ‘three editions of this legend in Italian, -with the title _La Historia di San Giovanni Boccadoro_. It is in -_ottava rima_, thirty-six stanzas in all, occupying two leaves of -letter-press. It was originally composed in the fifteenth century, -and reprinted again and again, like the ballads and tales hawked by -itinerant ballad-mongers, from that day to this, and as well known to -the lower orders as “Jack the Giant-killer” here. I will give you the -story as succinctly and as properly as I can. A gentleman of the high -roads, named Schitano, confesses his robberies and murders to a certain -Frate, who absolves him, upon a solemn promise not to do three things— - - Che tu non facci falso sacramento, - Nè homicidio, nè adulterare. - -Schitano thereupon takes possession of a cave, and turns _Romito_ -(Hermit) in the wilderness. A neighbouring king takes his daughter -out hunting with him; a white deer starts across their path; the king -dashes away in pursuit ten miles or more, forgetting his daughter; -night comes on; the princess, left alone in the forest, wanders till -she sees a light, and knocks for admittance at the cave of Schitano. -He fancies at first that it must be the “Demonio,” but at length he -admits her after long hesitation, and turns her horse out to graze. -Her beauty tempts him to break one of his vows; the fear of discovery -induces him to violate another by murdering her, and throwing her body -into a cistern. The horse, however, is seen by one of the cavaliers of -the court, who knocks and inquires if he has seen a certain “donzella” -that way? The hermit swears that he has not beheld a Christian face -for three years, thus breaking his third vow; but, reflecting on this -three-fold sin with horror, he imposes on himself a most severe -penance (“un’ aspra penitenza”), to wit— - - Di stare sette anni nell’ aspro diserto. - Pane non mangerò nè berò vino, - Nè mai risguarderò il ciel scoperto, - Non parlerò Hebraico nè Latino, - Per fin che quel ch’ io dico non è certo, - Che un fantin di sei di porga favella, - “Perdonato t’ ha Dio; va alla tua cella.” - -That is, he swears that for seven years he will neither eat bread nor -drink wine, nor look up in the face of heaven, nor speak either Hebrew -or Latin, until it shall come to pass that an infant of seven days old -shall open its mouth and say, “Heaven hath pardoned thee—go in peace.” -So, stripping off his clothes, he crawls on hands and knees like the -beasts of the field, eating grass and drinking water. - -‘Nor did his resolution fail him—he persists in this “aspra penitenza” -for seven years— - - Sette anni e sette giorni nel diserto; - Come le bestie andava lui carpone, - E mai non risguardò il ciel scoperto, - Peloso egli era a modo d’ un montone; - Spine e fango il suo letto era per certo, - Del suo peccato havea contrizione; - E ogni cosa facea con gran fervore, - Per purgar il suo fallo e grand’ errore. - -In the meantime it came into the king’s head to draw the covers where -the hermit was leading this life. The dogs of course _found_, but -neither they nor the king could make anything of this new species -of animal, “_che pareva un orso_.” So they took him home in a chain -and deposited him in their zoological collection, where he refused -meat and bread, and persisted in grazing. On new year’s day the queen -gives birth to a son, who, on the seventh day after he is born, says -distinctly to the hermit,— - - Torna alla tua cella, - Che Dio t’ ha perdonato il tuo peccato, - Levati su, Romito! ova favella! - -But the hermit does not _speak_ as commanded; he makes signs that he -will write. The king orders the inkstand to be brought, but there -is no ink in it: so Schitano at once earns his surname of Boccadoro -(Chrysostom) by a simple expedient: he puts the pen to his mouth, wets -it with his saliva, and writes in letters of gold— - - Onde la penna in bocca si metteva, - E a scrivere cominciò senza dimoro, - Col sputo, lettere che parevan d’ oro! - -‘After seven years and seven days, he opens his golden mouth in speech, -and confesses his foul crimes to the king; cavaliers are despatched in -search of the body of the princess; as they approach the cavern they -hear celestial music, and in the end they bring the donzella out of -the cistern alive and well, and very sorry to leave the blessed Virgin -and the angels, with whom she had been passing her time most agreeably: -she is restored to her parents with universal _festa e allegrezza_, and -she announces to the hermit that he is pardoned and may return to his -cell, which he does forthwith, and ends in leading the life of a saint, -and being beatified. The “_discreti auditori_” are invited to take -example— - - Da questo Santo pien di leggiadria - Che Iddio sempre perdona a’ peccatori, - -and are finally informed that they may purchase this edifying history -on easy terms, to wit, a halfpenny— - - Due quattrini dia senza far più parole. - -The price, however, rose; for in the next century the line is altered -thus:— - - Pero ciascun che comperarne vuole, - Tre quattrini mi dia senza più parole.’ - -The woodcuts prefixed to the ballad represent this saintly -Nebuchadnezzar on all fours, surprised by the king with his huntsmen -and dogs; but no female figure, as in the German prints, in which -the German version of the legend has evidently been in the mind of -the artists. It differs in some respects from the Italian ballad. I -shall therefore give as much of it here as will explain the artistic -treatment of the story. - - ‘When John Chrysostom was baptized, the Pope[293] stood godfather. At - seven years old he went to school, but he was so dull and backward, - that he became the laughing-stock of his schoolfellows. Unable to - endure their mockery, he took refuge in a neighbouring church, - and prayed to the Virgin; and a voice whispered, “Kiss me on the - mouth, and thou shalt be endowed with all learning.” He did so, and, - returning to the school, he surpassed all his companions, so that - they remained in astonishment: as they looked, they saw a golden - ring or streak round his mouth, and asked him how it came there? - and when he told them, they wondered yet more. Thence he obtained - the name of Chrysostom. John was much beloved by his godfather the - Pope, who ordained him priest at a very early age; but the first time - he offered the sacrifice of the mass, he was struck to the heart by - his unworthiness, and resolved to seek his salvation in solitude; - therefore, throwing off his priestly garments, he fled from the city, - and made his dwelling in a cavern of the rock, and lived there a long - while in prayer and meditation. - - ‘Now not far from the wilderness in which Chrysostom dwelt, was the - capital of a great king; and it happened that one day, as the princess - his daughter, who was young and very fair, was walking with her - companions, there came a sudden and violent gust of wind, which lifted - her up and carried her away, and set her down in the forest, far - off; and she wandered about till she came to the cave of Chrysostom, - and knocked at the door. He, fearing some temptation of the devil, - would not let her in; but she entreated, and said, “I am no demon, - but a Christian woman; and if thou leavest me here, the wild beasts - will devour me!” So he yielded perforce, and arose and let her in. - And he drew a line down the middle of his cell, and said, “That is - your part, this is mine; and neither shall pass this line.” But this - precaution was in vain, for passion and temptation overpowered his - virtue; he over-stepped the line, and sinned. Both repented sorely; - and Chrysostom, thinking that if the damsel remained longer in his - cave it would only occasion further sin, carried her to a neighbouring - precipice, and flung her down. When he had done this deed, he was - seized with horror and remorse; and he departed and went to Rome to - his godfather the Pope, and confessed all, and entreated absolution. - But his godfather knew him not; and, being seized with horror, he - drove him forth, and refused to absolve him. So the unhappy sinner - fled to the wilderness, and made a solemn vow that he would never rise - from the earth nor look up, but crawl on his hands and knees, until he - had expiated his great sin and was absolved by Heaven. - - ‘When he had thus crawled on the earth for fifteen years, the queen - brought forth a son; and when the Pope came to baptize the child, the - infant opened its mouth and said, “I will not be baptized by thee, - but by St. John;” and he repeated this three times: and none could - understand this miracle; but the Pope was afraid to proceed. In the - meantime, the king’s huntsmen had gone to the forest to bring home - game for the christening feast: there, as they rode, they beheld a - strange beast creeping on the ground; and not knowing what it might - be, they threw a mantle over it and bound it in a chain and brought it - to the palace. Many came to look on this strange beast, and with them - came the nurse with the king’s son in her arms; and immediately the - child opened its mouth and spake, “John, come thou and baptize me!” He - answered, “If it be God’s will, speak again!” And the child spoke the - same words a second and a third time. Then John stood up; and the hair - and the moss fell from his body, and they brought him garments; and he - took the child, and baptized him with great devotion. - - ‘When the king heard his confession, he thought, “Perhaps this was my - daughter, who was lost and never found;” and he sent messengers into - the forest to seek for the remains of his daughter, that her bones at - least might rest in consecrated ground. When they came to the foot - of the precipice, there they found a beautiful woman seated, naked, - and holding a child in her arms; and John said to her, “Why sittest - thou here alone in the wilderness?” And she said, “Dost thou not know - me? I am the woman who came to thy cave by night, and whom thou didst - hurl down this rock!” Then they brought her home with great joy to her - parents.‘[294] - -This extravagant legend becomes interesting for two reasons: it -shows the existence of the popular feeling and belief with regard to -Chrysostom, long subsequent to those events which aroused the hatred of -the early monks; and it has been, from its popular notoriety, embodied -in some rare and valuable works of art, which all go under the name of -‘the Penance or Penitence of Johannes Chrysostom or Crisostomos.’ - -1. A rare print by Lucas Cranach, composed and engraved by himself. -In the centre is an undraped woman reclining on the ground against a -rock, and contemplating her sleeping infant, which is lying on her lap; -a stag, a hind crouching, a pheasant feeding near her, express the -solitude of her life; in the background is ‘the savage man’ on all -fours, and browsing: here, he has no glory round his head. The whole -composition is exceedingly picturesque. - -2. A rare and beautiful print by B. Beham, and repeated by Hans Sebald -Beham, represents a woman lying on the ground with her back turned to -the spectator; a child is near her; Chrysostom is seen crawling in the -background, with the glory round his head. - -3. A small print by Albert Dürer, also exquisitely engraved (from which -I give a sketch). Here the woman is sitting at the entrance of a rocky -cave, feeding her child from her bosom: in the background the ‘savage -man’ crawling on all fours, and a glory round his head. This subject -has been called St. Geneviève of Brabant; but it is evidently the same -as in the two last-named compositions. - -All these prints, being nearly contemporaneous, show that the legend -must have been particularly popular about this time (1509-1520). There -is also an old French version of the story which I have not seen. - - - ST. BASIL THE GREAT. - - _Lat._ St. Basilius Magnus. _Ital._ San Basilio Magno. _Fr._ St. - Basile. (June 14, A.D. 380.) - -St. Basil, called the Great, was born at Cesarea in Cappadocia, in -the year 328. He was one of a family of saints. His father St. Basil, -his mother St. Emmelie, his two brothers St. Gregory of Nyssa and St. -Peter of Sebaste, and his sister St. Macrina, were all distinguished -for their sanctity, and renowned in the Greek calendar. The St. -Basil who takes rank as the second luminary of the Eastern Church, -and whose dogmatical and theological works influenced the faith of -his own age, and consequently of ours, was the greatest of all. But, -notwithstanding his importance in the Greek Church, he figures so -seldom in the productions of Western Art, that I shall content myself -with relating just so much of his life and actions as may render the -few representations of him interesting and intelligible. - -He owed his first education to his grandmother St. Macrina the elder, a -woman of singular capacity and attainments, to whom he has in various -parts of his works acknowledged his obligations. For several years -he pursued his studies in profane learning, philosophy, law, and -eloquence, at Constantinople, and afterwards at Athens, where he had -two companions and fellow-students of very opposite character: Gregory -of Nazianzen, afterwards the _Saint_; and Julian, afterwards the -_Apostate_. - -The success of the youthful Basil in all his studies, and the -reputation he had obtained as an eloquent pleader, for a time swelled -his heart with vanity, and would have endangered his salvation but -for the influence of his sister, St. Macrina, who in this emergency -preserved him from himself, and elevated his mind to far higher aims -than those of mere worldly science and worldly distinction. From that -period, and he was then not more than twenty-eight, Basil turned -his thoughts solely to the edification of the Christian Church; but -first he spent some years in retreat among the hermits of the desert, -as was the fashion of that day, living, as they did, in abstinence, -poverty, and abstracted study; acknowledging neither country, family, -home, nor friends, nor fortune, nor worldly interests of any kind, -but with his thoughts fixed solely on eternal life in another world. -In these austerities he, as was also usual, consumed and ruined his -bodily health; and remained to the end of his life a feeble wretched -invalid,—a circumstance which was supposed to contribute greatly to -his sanctity. He was ordained priest in 362, and bishop of Cesarea in -370; his ordination on the 14th of June being kept as one of the great -feasts of the Eastern Church. - -On the episcopal throne he led the same life of abstinence and humility -as in a cavern of the desert; and contended for the doctrine of the -Trinity against the Arians, but with less of vehemence, and more of -charity, than the other Doctors engaged in the same controversy. The -principal event of his life was his opposition to the Emperor Valens, -who professed Arianism, and required that, in the Church of Cesarea, -Basil should perform the rites according to the custom of the Arians. -The bishop refused: he was threatened with exile, confiscation, death: -he persisted. The emperor, fearing a tumult, resolved to appear in -the church on the day of the Epiphany, but not to communicate. He -came, hoping to overawe the impracticable bishop, surrounded by all -his state, his courtiers, his guards. He found Basil so intent on his -sacred office as to take not the slightest notice of him; those of -the clergy around him continued to chant the service, keeping their -eyes fixed in the profoundest awe and respect on the countenance of -their bishop. Valens, in a situation new to him, became agitated: he -had brought his oblation; he advanced with it; but the ministers at -the altar, not knowing whether Basil would accept it, dared not take -it from his hands. Valens stood there for a moment in sight of all -the people, rejected before the altar,—he lost his presence of mind, -trembled, swooned, and would have fallen to the earth, if one of the -attendants had not received him in his arms. A conference afterwards -took place between Basil and the emperor; but the latter remained -unconverted, and some concessions to the Catholics was all that the -bishop obtained. - -St. Basil died in 379, worn out by disease, and leaving behind him many -theological writings. His epistles, above all, are celebrated, not only -as models of orthodoxy, but of style. - -Of St. Basil, as of St. Gregory and St. John Chrysostom, we have -the story of the Holy Ghost, in visible form as a dove of wonderful -whiteness, perched on his shoulder, and inspiring his words when he -preached. St. Basil is also celebrated as the founder of Monachism in -the East. He was the first who enjoined the vows of poverty, chastity, -and obedience; and his Rule became the model of all other monastic -Orders. There is, in fact, no other Order in the Greek Church, and when -either monks or nuns appear in a Greek or a Russian picture they must -be Basilicans, and no other: the habit is a plain black tunic with -a cowl, the tunic fastened round the waist with a girdle of cord or -leather. Such is the dress of the Greek caloyer, and it never varies. - - * * * * * - -The devotional figures of St. Basil represent him, or ought to -represent him, in the Greek pontificals, bareheaded, and with a thin -worn countenance, as he appears in the etching of the Greek Fathers. - - * * * * * - -‘The Emperor Valens in the church at Cesarea,’ an admirably picturesque -subject, has received as little justice as the scene between Ambrose -and Theodosius. When the French painter Subleyras was at Rome in -1745, he raised himself to name and fame by his portrait of Benedict -XIV.,[295] and received, through the interest of his friend Cardinal -Valenti, the commission to paint a picture for one of the mosaics in -St. Peter’s. The subject selected was the Emperor Valens fainting in -presence of St. Basil. We have all the pomp of the scene:—the altar, -the incense, the richly attired priests on one side; on the other, -the Imperial court. It is not easy to find fault, for the picture is -well drawn, well composed, in the mannered taste of that time; well -coloured, rather tenderly than forcibly; and Lanzi is enthusiastic -in his praise of the draperies; yet, as a whole, it leaves the mind -unimpressed. As usual, the original sketch for this picture far excels -the large composition.[296] - -The prayers of St. Basil were supposed by the Armenian Christians, -partly from his sanctity, and partly from his intellectual endowments, -to have a peculiar, almost resistless, power; so that he not only -redeemed souls from purgatory, but even lost angels from the abyss of -hell. ‘On the sixth day of the creation, when the rebellious angels -fell from heaven through that opening in the firmament which the -Armenians call Arocea, and we the Galaxy, one unlucky angel, who had -no participation in their sin, but seems to have been entangled in -the crowd, fell with them.’ (A moral, I presume, on the consequences -of keeping bad company.) ‘And this unfortunate angel was not restored -till he had obtained, it is not said how, the prayers of St. Basil. His -condition meantime, from the sixth day of the creation to the fourth -century of the Christian era, must have been even more uncomfortable -than that of Klopstock’s repentant demon in “The Messiah.”’ - - * * * * * - -There are many other beautiful legendary stories of St. Basil, but, -as I have never met with them in any form of Art, I pass them over -here. One of the most striking has been versified by Southey in his -ballad-poem, ‘All for Love.’ It would afford a great variety of -picturesque subjects. - - - ST. ATHANASIUS. - - _Lat._ S. Athanasius, Pater Orthodoxiæ. _Ital._ Sant’ Atanasio. _Fr._ - St. Athanase. (May 2, A.D. 373.) - -St. Athanasius, whose famous Creed remains a stumbling-block in -Christendom, was born at Alexandria, about the year 298; he was -consequently the eldest of the Greek Fathers, though he does not in -that Church take the first rank. He, like the others, began his career -by the study of profane literature, science, and eloquence; but, seized -by the religious spirit of the age, he, too, fled to the desert, -and became, for a time, the pupil of St. Anthony. He returned to -Alexandria, and was ordained deacon. His first appearance as a public -character was at the celebrated council of Nice (A.D. 325), where he -opposed Arius and his partisans with so much zeal and eloquence, that -he was thenceforth regarded as the great pillar of orthodoxy. He became -Bishop of Alexandria the following year; and the rest of his life was a -perpetual contest with the Arians. The great schism of the early Church -blazed at this time in the East and in the West, and Athanasius, by his -invincible perseverance and intrepidity, procured the victory for the -Catholic party. He died in 372, after having been Bishop of Alexandria -forty-six years, of which twenty years had been spent in exile and -tribulation. - - * * * * * - -It is curious that, notwithstanding his fame and his importance in the -Church, St. Athanasius should be, as a patron and a subject of Art, -of all saints the most unpopular. He figures, of course, as one of -the series of Greek Doctors; but I have never met with any separate -representation of him, and I know not any church dedicated to him, nor -any picture representing the vicissitudes of his unquiet life, fraught -as it was with strange reverses and picturesque incidents. Such _may_ -exist, but in Western Art, at least, they have never been prominent. -According to the Greek formula, he ought to be represented old, -bald-headed, and with a long white beard, as in the etching. - - - ST. GREGORY NAZIANZEN. - - _Gr._ St. Gregory Theologos. _Lat._ S. Gregorius Nazianzenus. _Ital._ - San Gregorio Nazianzeno. _Fr._ St. Grégoire de Naziance. _Ger._ St. - Gregor von Nazianz. (May 9, A.D. 390.) - -This Doctor, like St. Basil, was one of a family of saints; his father, -St. Gregory, having been bishop of Nazianzus before him; his mother, -St. Nonna, famous for her piety; and two of his sisters, St. Gorgonia -and St. Cesarea, also canonized. Gregory was born about the year 328; -and his mother, who fondly believed that he had been granted to her -prayers, watched over his early education, and guided his first steps -in piety and literature. When a boy, he had a singular dream, which he -has related himself. He beheld in his sleep two virgins of celestial -beauty; they were clothed in white garments, and their faces shone -upon him like two stars out of heaven: they took him in their arms and -kissed him as if he had been their child. He, charmed by their virgin -beauty and their caresses, asked who they were, and whence they came? -One of them replied, ‘I am called Chastity, and my sister here is -Temperance; we come to thee from Paradise, where we stand continually -before the throne of Christ, and taste ineffable delights: come to us, -my son, and dwell with us for ever;’ and having spoken thus, they left -him and flew upwards to heaven. He followed them with longing eyes till -they disappeared, and as he stretched his arms towards them he awoke. - -This dream—how natural in a boy educated between a tender mother, who -had shielded him, as only mothers can, against all sinful temptations, -and a lovely and saintly sister!—he regarded as a direct revelation -from heaven: it decided his future life, and he made a vow of perpetual -continence and temperance. Like the other Greek doctors, he began -by the study of profane literature and rhetoric. He went to Athens, -where he formed an enduring friendship with St. Basil, and pursued -his studies with Julian, afterwards Cæsar and Apostate. After leaving -Athens, in his thirtieth year, he was baptized; and, devoting himself -solemnly to the service of God and the study of the Scriptures, like -his friend Basil, he destroyed his health by his austerities and -mortifications: he confesses that they were wholly repugnant to his -nature —a nature sensitive, imaginative, poetical; but this of course -only added to their merit and efficacy. His aged father withdrew -him from his solitude, and ordained him as his coadjutor: in 362 he -succeeded to the bishopric of Nazianzus: but great part of his time -was still spent at Constantinople, whither he was invited to preach -against the Arians. It was a strange spectacle to see, in the capital -of the world, a man, from a distant province and an obscure town, of -small shrunken stature, bald-headed, wrinkled, haggard with vigils and -fasting, poor, ill-clothed, and in his address unpolished and abrupt, -stand up to oppose himself to a luxurious court and prevalent sect. -The people began by stoning him; but at length his earnestness and -eloquence overcame all opposition. - -Religious disputes were the fashion at that time in Constantinople, -not merely among the priesthood, but among the laity, the lawyers, and -above all the women, who were heard, in assemblies and at feasts, at -home and abroad, declaiming and arguing on the most abstruse mysteries -of the evangelical doctrine, till they lost temper and modesty:—so -true it is, that there is nothing new under the sun. This was in 378, -and St. Gregory found more difficulty in silencing their squabbles -than in healing the schisms of the Church. He was ordained Bishop of -Constantinople by the favour of Theodosius; but, unable to endure the -odious cabals and uncharitable contests which at that time distracted -and disgraced Christianity, he resigned his sacred office, and retired -to a small paternal estate, where he lived, with his usual self-denial -and austerity, till his death. He composed in his retreat a number of -beautiful poems in his native Greek: he was, in fact, the earliest -Christian poet on record. These poems are not hymns only, but lyrics, -in which he poured forth his soul, his aspirations, his temptations, -his joys, his sufferings, his plaintive supplications to Christ, to -aid him in his perpetual combats against a too vivid imagination, and -feelings and passions which not even age and penance had subdued. - - * * * * * - -St. Gregory Nazianzen ought to be represented as an old man wasted -by fasting and vigils, with a bald head, a long beard of a reddish -colour, and eyebrows the same. He is always the last in a series of -the Four Greek Fathers, and, though often occurring in Greek Art, -the popularity of St. Gregory the GREAT has completely banished St. -Gregory the POET from Western Art. - -There remains, however, a very valuable and singular monument to the -honour of St. Gregory Nazianzen, in the Greek MS. of his sermons -preserved in the Imperial Library at Paris, and adorned with Byzantine -miniatures, which must once have been beautiful and brilliant: ruined -as they are, they present some of the most ancient examples which -remain to us of the treatment of many sacred subjects from the Old and -the New Testament, and give a high idea of the classic taste and the -skill of the Byzantine limners of the ninth century. Besides the sacred -subjects, we have numerous scenes interspersed from the life of Gregory -himself, his friend St. Basil, and the Emperor Theodosius. As these are -subjects which are exceptional, I need not describe them. Of the style -of the miniatures I have already spoken, and given one example (_v._ p. -75). - - - ST. CYRIL. - - _Lat._ S. Cyrillus. _Ital._ San Cirillo. _Fr._ St. Cyrille. (Jan. 28, - A.D. 444.) - -St. Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria from the year 412 to 444, was famous -in his time as deeply engaged in all the contests which disturbed the -early Christian Church. He has left a great number of theological -writings, which are regarded as authority in matters of faith. He, -appears to have been violent against the so-called heresies of that -day, and opposed Nestorius with the same determined zeal and inexorable -firmness with which Athanasius had opposed Arius. The ascendency of -Cyril was disgraced by the death of the famous female mathematician and -philosopher Hypatia, murdered with horrible cruelty, and within the -walls of a church, by the fanatic followers of the Patriarch, if he -did not himself connive at it. He is much more venerated in the Greek -than in the Latin Church. In the Greek representations he is the only -bishop who has his head covered; he wears a veil or hood, coming over -his head, falling down on his shoulders, and the front embroidered with -a cross, as in the illustration. - -With the Greek Fathers I conclude the list of those saints who are -generally represented in their collective character, grouped, or in a -series. - - - - - St. Mary Magdalene, St. Martha, St. Lazarus, St. Marímín, St. - Marcella, St. Mary of Egypt, and the Beatified Penitents. - - - ST. MARY MAGDALENE. - - _Lat._ Sancta Maria Magdalena. _Ital._ Santa Maria Maddalena. _Fr._ - La Madeleine. La Sainte Demoiselle pécheresse. (July 22, A.D. 68.) - Patroness of Provence, of Marseilles, and of frail and penitent women. - -Of all the personages who figure in history, in poetry, in art, Mary -Magdalene is at once the most unreal and the most real:—the most -_unreal_, if we attempt to fix her identity, which has been a subject -of dispute for ages; the most _real_, if we consider her as having -been, for ages, recognised and accepted in every Christian heart as the -impersonation of the penitent sinner absolved through faith and love. -In this, her mythic character, she has been surrounded by associations -which have become fixed in the imagination, and which no reasoning, -no array of facts, can dispel. This is not the place to enter into -disputed points of biblical criticism; they are quite beside our -present purpose. Whether Mary Magdalene, ‘out of whom Jesus cast seven -devils,’ Mary of Bethany, and the ‘woman who was a sinner,’ be, as -some authorities assert, three distinct persons, or, as others affirm, -one and the same individual under different designations, remains a -question open to dispute, nothing having been demonstrated on either -side, from Scripture or from tradition; and I cannot presume even to -give an opinion where doctors—and doctors of the Church, too—disagree; -Origen and St. Chrysostom taking one side of the question, St. Clement -and St. Gregory the other. Fleury, after citing the opinions of both -sides, thus beautifully sums up the whole question:—‘Il importe de ne -pas croire témérairement ce que l’Évangile ne dit point, et de ne pas -mettre la religion à suivre aveuglement toutes les opinions populaires: -_la foi est trop précieuse pour la prodiguer ainsi_; mais la charité -l’est encore plus; et ce qui est le plus important, c’est d’éviter -les disputes qui peuvent l’altérer tant soit peu.’ And this is most -true;—in his time the fast hold which the Magdalene had taken of the -affections of the people was not to be shaken by theological researches -and doubts. Here critical accuracy was nothing less than profanation -and scepticism, and to have attacked the sanctity of the Blessed Mary -Magdalene would have embittered and alienated many kindly and many -believing spirits. It is difficult to treat of Mary Magdalene; and -this difficulty would be increased infinitely if it were absolutely -necessary to enter on the much-vexed question of her scriptural -character and identity: one thing only appeals certain,—that such a -person, whatever might have been her veritable appellation, did exist. -The woman who, under the name of Mary Magdalene,—whether that name be -rightfully or wrongfully bestowed,—stands before us, sanctified in the -imagination and in the faith of the people in her combined character -of Sinner and of Saint, as the first-fruits of Christian penitence,—is -a reality, and not a fiction. Even if we would, we cannot do away with -the associations inseparably connected with her name and her image. Of -all those to whom much has been forgiven, she was the first: of all -the tears since ruefully shed at the foot of the cross of suffering, -hers were the first: of all the hopes which the Resurrection has -since diffused through nations and generations of men, hers were the -first. To her sorrowful image how many have looked up through tears, -and blessed the pardoning grace of which she was the symbol—or rather -the impersonation! Of the female saints, some were the chosen patrons -of certain virtues—others of certain vocations; but the accepted and -glorified penitent threw her mantle over all, and more especially over -those of her own sex, who, having gone astray, were recalled from error -and from shame, and laid down their wrongs, their sorrows, and their -sins in trembling humility at the feet of the Redeemer. - -Nor is it only the popularity of Mary Magdalene as the representative -and the patroness of repentant sinners which has multiplied her image -through all Christendom. As a subject for painting, - - Whether the fair one sinner it or saint it, - -it is rich in picturesque capabilities. It combines all that can -inspire, with all that can chasten the fancy; yet, when we review -what has been done, how inadequate the result! In no class of subjects -have the mistakes of the painters, even the most distinguished, been -so conspicuous as in the representation of the penitent Magdalene; -and it must be allowed that, with all its advantages and attractions, -it is a subject full of perils and difficulties. Where the penitent -prevails, the saint appears degraded; where the wasted, unclad form -is seen attenuated by vigils and exposed in haggard unseemliness, -it is a violation of that first great rule of Art which forbids the -repulsive and the painful. And herein lies the fault of the earlier -schools, and particularly of the old Greek and German painters;—their -matter-of-fact ugliness would be intolerable, if not redeemed by the -intention and sentiment. On the other hand, where sensual beauty has -obviously been the paramount idea in the artist’s work, defeating its -holiest purpose and perverting its high significance, the violation of -the moral sentiment is yet more revolting. This is especially the fault -of the later painters, more particularly of the schools of Venice and -Bologna: while the French painters are yet worse, adding affectation to -licentiousness of sentiment; the Abbé Mèry exclaims with reasonable and -pious indignation against that ‘_air de galanterie_’ which in his time -was regarded as characteristic of Mary Magdalene. The ‘larmoyantes’ -penitents of Greuze—Magdalenes _à la Pompadour_—are more objectionable -to my taste than those of Rubens. - - * * * * * - -I shall give the legend of the Magdalene here as it was accepted by the -people, and embodied by the arts, of the middle ages, setting aside -those Eastern traditions which represent the Mary of Bethany and the -Magdalene as distinct personages, and place the death and burial-place -of Mary Magdalene at Ephesus. Our business is with the Western legend, -which has been the authority for Western Art. This legend, besides -attributing to one individual, and blending into one narrative, the -very few scattered notices in the Gospels, has added some other -incidents, inconceivably wild and incredible, leaving her, however, -the invariable attributes of the frail loving woman, the sorrowing -penitent, and the devout enthusiastic saint. - -Mary Magdalene was of the district of Magdala, on the shores of the -sea of Galilee, where stood her castle, called Magdalon; she was -the sister of Lazarus and of Martha, and they were the children of -parents reputed noble, or, as some say, of royal race. On the death -of their father, Syrus, they inherited vast riches and possessions -in land, which were equally divided between them. Lazarus betook -himself to the military life; Martha ruled her possessions with great -discretion, and was a model of virtue and propriety,— perhaps a little -too much addicted to worldly cares: Mary, on the contrary, abandoned -herself to luxurious pleasures, and became at length so notorious -for her dissolute life, that she was known through all the country -round only as ‘THE SINNER.’ Her discreet sister, Martha, frequently -rebuked her for these disorders, and at length persuaded her to listen -to the exhortations of Jesus, through which her heart was touched -and converted. The seven demons which possessed her, and which were -expelled by the power of the Lord, were the seven deadly sins to which -she was given over before her conversion. On one occasion Martha -entertained the Saviour in her house, and, being anxious to feast him -worthily, she was ‘cumbered with much serving.’ Mary, meanwhile, sat -at the feet of Jesus, and heard his words, which completed the good -work of her conversion; and when, some time afterwards, he supped -in the house of Simon the Pharisee, she followed him thither, ‘and -she brought an alabaster box of ointment, and began to wash his feet -with tears, and did wipe them with the hair of her head, and kissed -his feet, and anointed them with ointment; and He said unto her, Thy -sins are forgiven.’ She became afterwards one of the most devoted of -his followers; ‘ministered to him of her substance;’ attended him to -Calvary, and stood weeping at the foot of the cross. She, with the -other Mary, watched by his tomb, and was the first to whom he appeared -after the resurrection; her unfaltering faith, mingled as it was with -the intensest grief and love, obtained for her this peculiar mark of -favour. It is assumed by several commentators that our Saviour appeared -first to Mary Magdalene because she, of all those whom he had left on -earth, had most need of consolation:—‘_The disciples went away to their -own home; but Mary stood without the sepulchre, weeping._’ - - * * * * * - -Thus far the notices in the Gospel and the suggestions of -commentators: the old Provençal legend then continues the story. After -the ascension, Lazarus with his two sisters, Martha and Mary; with -Maximin, one of the seventy-two disciples, from whom they had received -baptism; Cedon, the blind man whom our Saviour had restored to sight; -and Marcella, the handmaiden who attended on the two sisters, were by -the heathens set adrift in a vessel without sails, oars, or rudder; -but, guided by Providence, they were safely borne over the sea till -they landed in a certain harbour which proved to be Marseilles, in the -country now called France. The people of the land were pagans, and -refused to give the holy pilgrims food or shelter; so they were fain to -take refuge under the porch of a temple; and Mary Magdalene preached to -the people, reproaching them for their senseless worship of dumb idols; -and though at first they would not listen, yet being after a time -convinced by her eloquence, and by the miracles performed by her and by -her sister, they were converted and baptized. And Lazarus became, after -the death of the good Maximin, the first bishop of Marseilles. - -These things being accomplished, Mary Magdalene retired to a desert -not far from the city. It was a frightful barren wilderness, in the -midst of horrid rocks and caves: and here for thirty years she devoted -herself to solitary penance for the sins of her past life, which she -had never ceased to bewail bitterly. During this long seclusion, she -was never seen or heard of, and it was supposed that she was dead. -She fasted so rigorously, that but for the occasional visits of the -angels, and the comfort bestowed by celestial visions, she must have -perished. Every day during the last years of her penance, the angels -came down from heaven and carried her up in their arms into regions -where she was ravished by the sounds of unearthly harmony, and beheld -the glory and the joy prepared for the sinner that repenteth. One day -a certain hermit, who dwelt in a cell on one of those wild mountains, -having wandered farther than usual from his home, beheld this wondrous -vision—the Magdalene in the arms of ascending angels, who were singing -songs of triumph as they bore her upwards; and the hermit, when he -had a little recovered from his amazement, returned to the city of -Marseilles, and reported what he had seen. According to some of the -legends, Mary Magdalene died within the walls of the Christian church, -after receiving the sacrament from the hand of St. Maximin; but the -more popular accounts represent her as dying in her solitude, while -angels watched over and ministered to her. - - * * * * * - -The middle of the thirteenth century was an era of religious excitement -all over the south of Europe. A sudden fit of penitence—‘una subita -compunzione,’ as an Italian author calls it—seized all hearts; relics -and pilgrimages, and penances and monastic ordinances, filled all -minds. About this period, certain remains, supposed to be those of Mary -Magdalene and Lazarus, were discovered at a place since called St. -Maximin, about twenty miles north of Toulon. The discovery strongly -excited the devotion and enthusiasm of the people; and a church was -founded on the spot by Charles, Count of Provence (the brother of -St. Louis), as early as 1279. A few years afterwards, this prince -was vanquished and taken prisoner by the king of Aragon, and when at -length set free after a long captivity, he ascribed his deliverance -particularly to the intercession of his chosen patroness, Mary -Magdalene. This incident greatly extended her fame as a saint of power; -and from this time we may date her popularity, and those sculptural -and pictorial representations of her, under various aspects, which, -from the fourteenth century to the present time, have so multiplied, -that scarcely any Catholic place of worship is to be found without her -image. In fact, it is difficult for us, in these days, to conceive, -far more difficult to sympathise with, the passionate admiration and -devotion with which she was regarded by her votaries in the middle -ages. The imputed sinfulness of her life only brought her nearer to -them. Those who did not dare to lift up their eyes to the more saintly -models of purity and holiness,—to the martyrs who had suffered in -the cause of chastity,—took courage to invoke her intercession. The -extravagant titles bestowed upon her in the middle ages—‘_l’amante -de Jésus-Christ_,’ ‘_la bien-aimée du Sauveur_,’ ‘_la très-saincte -demoiselle pécheresse_,’—and others which I should hardly dare to -transcribe, show the spirit in which she was worshipped, particularly -in the south of France, and the kind of chivalrous sentiment which -mingled with the devotion of her adorers. I found in an old French -sermon a eulogium of Mary Magdalene, which for its eloquence and -ingenuity seems to me without a parallel. The preacher, while -acknowledging the excesses which brought her a penitent to the feet of -Christ, is perfectly scandalised that she should be put on a par with -common sinners of the same class, and that on the faith of a passage in -St. Luke, ‘on a osé flétrir une des plus belles âmes qui soient jamais -sorties des mains du Créateur!’ He rather glorifies her as a kind of -Aspasia, to whom, indeed, he in a manner compares her.[297] - -The traditional scene of the penance of the Magdalene, a wild spot -between Toulon and Marseilles, is the site of a famous convent called -La Sainte Beaume (which in the Provençal tongue signifies _Holy Cave_), -formerly a much frequented place of pilgrimage. It is built on the -verge of a formidable precipice; near it is the grotto in which the -saint resided; and to Mount Pilon, a rocky point about six hundred feet -above the grotto, the angels bore her seven times a day to pray. This -convent was destroyed and pillaged at the commencement of the French -Revolution. It was filled with relics and works of art, referring to -the life and the worship of the Magdalene. - -But the most sumptuous fane ever erected to her special honour is that -which, of late years, has arisen in the city of Paris. The church, or -rather the temple, of La Madeleine stands an excelling monument, if not -of modern piety, at least of modern Art. It is built on the model of -the temple of Jupiter at Athens:— - - That noble type is realised again - In perfect form; and dedicate—to whom? - To a poor Syrian girl of lowliest name— - A hapless creature, pitiful and frail - As ever wore her life in sin and shame! - R. M. MILNES. - -The saint, whether she were ‘the lowly Syrian girl’ or the ‘Princess of -Magdala,’ would be equally astonished to behold herself thus honoured -with a sort of pagan magnificence in the midst of a luxurious capital, -and by a people more remarkable for scoffing than for praying. Even in -the successive vicissitudes of this splendid edifice there is something -strange. That which is now the temple of the lowly penitent was, a few -years ago, _Le Temple de la Gloire_. - -Let us now turn to those characteristic representations with which -painting and sculpture have made us familiar, and for which both -Scripture and legendary tradition have furnished the authority and the -groundwork. These are so numerous and so infinitely varied that I find -it necessary here, as in the case of St. Jerome, to arrange them under -several heads. - -The devotional representations may be divided into two classes. 1. -Those which represent the Magdalene as patron saint. 2. Those which -represent her penitence in the desert. - -The historical subjects may also be divided into two classes. 1. Those -scenes from Gospel story in which Mary Magdalene figures as a chief or -conspicuous personage. 2. The scenes taken from her legendary life. - -In all these subjects the accompanying attribute is the alabaster box -of ointment; which has a double significance: it may be the perfume -which she poured over the feet of the Saviour, or the balm and spices -which she had prepared to anoint his body. Sometimes she carries it in -her hand, sometimes it stands at her feet, or near her; frequently, in -later pictures, it is borne by an attendant angel. The shape varies -with the fancy of the artist; it is a small vase, a casket, a box, a -cup with a cover; more or less ornamented, more or less graceful in -form; but always there—the symbol at once of her conversion and her -love, and so peculiar that it can leave no doubt of her identity. - -Her drapery in the ancient pictures is usually red, to express the -fervour of her love; in modern representations, and where she figures -as penitent, it is either blue or violet; violet, the colour of -mourning and penitence—blue, the colour of constancy. To express both -the love and the sorrow, she sometimes wears a violet-coloured tunic -and a red mantle. The luxuriant hair ought to be fair or golden. -Dark-haired Magdalenes, as far as I can remember, belong exclusively to -the Spanish school. - -1. When exhibited to us as the patron saint of repentant sinners, Mary -Magdalene is sometimes a thin wasted figure with long dishevelled hair, -of a pale golden hue, falling over her shoulders almost to the ground; -sometimes a skin or a piece of linen is tied round her loins, but not -seldom her sole drapery is her long redundant hair. The most ancient -single figure of this character to which I can refer is an old picture -in the Byzantine manner, as old perhaps as the thirteenth century, and -now in the Academy at Florence. She is standing as patroness, covered -only by her long hair, which falls in dark brown masses to her feet: -the colour, I imagine, was originally much lighter. She is a meagre, -haggard, grim-looking figure, and holds in her hand a scroll, on which -is inscribed in ancient Gothic letters— - - Ne despectetis - Vos qui peccare soletis - Exemplo meo - Vos reparate Deo.[298] - -Rude and unattractive as is this specimen of ancient Art, I could not -look at it without thinking how often it must have spoken hope and -peace to the soul of the trembling sinner, in days when it hung, not in -a picture-gallery to be criticised, but in a shrine to be worshipped. -Around this figure, in the manner of the old altar-pieces, are six -small square compartments containing scenes from her life. - -[Illustration: 91 Mary Magdalene (Donatello)] - -The famous statue carved in wood by Donatello, in point of character -may be referred to this class of subjects: she stands over her altar -in the Baptistery at Florence, with clasped hands, the head raised -in prayer; the form is very expressive of wasting grief and penance, -but too meagre for beauty. ‘_Egli, la volle specchio alle penitenti, -non incitamento alla cupidizia degli sguardi, come avenne ad altri -artisti_,’ says Cicognara; and, allowing that beauty has been -sacrificed to expression, he adds, ‘but if Donatello had done all, -what would have remained for Canova?’ That which remained for Canova -to do, he has done; he has made her as lovely as possible, and he has -dramatised the sentiment: she is more the penitent than the patron -saint. The display of the beautiful limbs is chastened by the humility -of the attitude—half kneeling, half prostrate; by the expression of the -drooping head—‘all sorrow’s softness charmed from its despair.’ Her -eyes are fixed on the cross which lies extended on her knees; and she -weeps—not so much her own past sins, as the sacrifice it has cost to -redeem them. This is the prevailing sentiment, or, as the Germans would -call it, the _motive_ of the representation, to which I should feel -inclined to object as deficient in dignity and severity, and bordering -too much on the _genre_ and dramatic style: but the execution is almost -faultless. Very beautiful is another modern statue of the penitent -Magdalene, executed in marble for the Count d’Espagnac, by M. Henri de -Triqueti. She is half seated, half reclining on a fragment of rock, and -pressing to her bosom a crown of thorns, at once the mourner and the -penitent: the sorrow is not for herself alone. - -[Illustration: 92 Mary Magdalene (Lucas v. Leyden)] - -But, in her character of patron saint, Mary Magdalene was not always -represented with the squalid or pathetic attributes of humiliation and -penance. She became idealised as a noble dignified creature bearing no -traces of sin or of sorrow on her beautiful face; her luxuriant hair -bound in tresses round her head; her drapery rich and ample; the vase -of ointment in her hand or at her feet, or borne by an angel near her. -Not unfrequently she is attired with the utmost magnificence, either -in reference to her former state of worldly prosperity, or rather, -perhaps, that with the older painters, particularly those of the -German school, it was a common custom to clothe all the ideal figures -of female saints in rich habits. In the fourteenth and fifteenth -centuries such representations of the Magdalene are usual both in -Italian and German Art. A beautiful instance may be seen in a picture -by Signorelli, in the Cathedral of Orvieto, where she is standing -in a landscape, her head uncovered, and the rich golden hair partly -braided, partly flowing over her shoulders; she wears a magnificent -tunic embroidered with gold, over it a flowing mantle descending to her -feet; she holds the vase with her left hand, and points to it with her -right. If it were not for the saintly aureole encircling her head, this -figure, and others similar to it, might be mistaken for Pandora. See, -for example, the famous print by Lucas v. Leyden, where she stands on -clouds with an embroidered coif and flowing mantle, holding the vase in -her left hand, and lifting the cover with her right (in the sketch it -is reversed): and in the half-length by Leonardo, or one of his school. -The want of a religious sentiment gives such figures a very heathen -and _Pandora_ look, so that the aureole alone fixes the identity. This -is not the case with a noble Magdalene by Dennis Calvert, in the -Manfrini Palace at Venice. She is standing in a fine bold landscape; -one hand sustains her ample crimson drapery, the other holds her vase; -her fair hair falls in masses over her shoulders, and she looks down -on her worshippers with a serious dignified compassion. This is one of -the finest pictures of the later Bologna school, finer and truer in -sentiment than any of the Caracci and Guido Magdalenes. - -In this her wholly divine and ideal character of saint and intercessor, -Mary Magdalene is often most beautifully introduced as standing near -the throne of the Virgin, or as grouped with other saints. In two of -the most famous pictures in the world she is thus represented. In the -St. Cecilia of Raphael, she stands on the left, St. Paul being on -the right of the principal figure; they are here significant of the -conversion of the man through _power_, of the woman through _love_, -from a state of reprobation to a state of reconcilement and grace. St. -Paul leans in deep meditation on his sword. Mary Magdalene is habited -in ample drapery of blue and violet, which she sustains with one hand, -and bears the vase in the other. She looks out of the picture with -a benign countenance and a particularly graceful turn of the head. -Raphael’s original design for this picture (engraved by Marc Antonio) -is, however, preferable in the sentiment given to the Magdalene: she -does not look _out_ of the picture, but she looks _up_: _she_ also -hears the divine music which has ravished St. Cecilia. In the picture -she is either unconscious or inattentive. - -In the not less celebrated St. Jerome of Correggio she is on the -left of the Madonna, bending down with an expression of the deepest -adoration to kiss the feet of the infant Christ, while an angel behind -holds up the vase of ointment: thus recalling to our minds, and -shadowing forth in the most poetical manner, that memorable act of -love and homage rendered at the feet of the Saviour. Parmigiano has -represented her, in a Madonna picture, as standing on one side, and -the prophet Isaiah on the other. Lord Ashburton has a fine picture by -Correggio, in which we have the same ideal representation: she is here -grouped with St. Peter, St. Margaret, and St. Leonardo. - -There are two classes of subjects in which Mary Magdalene is richly -habited, and which must be carefully distinguished; those above -described, in which she figures as patron saint, and those which -represent her _before_ her conversion, as the votary of luxury and -pleasure. In the same manner we must be careful to distinguish those -figures of the penitent Magdalene which are wholly devotional in -character and intention, and which have been described in the first -class, from those which represent her in the act of doing penance, and -which are rather dramatic and sentimental than devotional. - - * * * * * - -2. The penance of the Magdalene is a subject which has become, like the -penance of St. Jerome, a symbol of Christian penitence, but still more -endeared to the popular imagination by more affecting and attractive -associations, and even more eminently picturesque,—so tempting to the -artists, that by their own predilection for it they have assisted in -making it universal. In the display of luxuriant female forms, shadowed -(not hidden) by redundant fair hair, and flung in all the _abandon_ -of solitude, amid the depth of leafy recesses, or relieved by the -dark umbrageous rocks; in the association of love and beauty with the -symbols of death and sorrow and utter humiliation; the painters had -ample scope, ample material, for the exercise of their imagination, and -the display of their skill: and what has been the result? They have -abused these capabilities even to licence; they have exhausted the -resources of Art in the attempt to vary the delineation; and yet how -seldom has the ideal of this most exquisite subject been—I will not say -realised—but even approached? We have Magdalenes who look as if they -never could have sinned, and others who look as if they never could -have repented; we have Venetian Magdalenes with the air of courtesans, -and Florentine Magdalenes with the air of Ariadnes; and Bolognese -Magdalenes like sentimental Niobes; and French Magdalenes, _moitié -galantes_, _moitié dévotes_; and Dutch Magdalenes, who wring their -hands like repentant washerwomen. The Magdalenes of Rubens remind us of -nothing so much as of the ‘unfortunate Miss Bailey;’ and the Magdalenes -of Van Dyck are fine ladies who have turned Methodists. But Mary -Magdalene, such as we have conceived her, mournful yet hopeful,—tender -yet dignified,—worn with grief and fasting, yet radiant with the glow -of love and faith, and clothed with the beauty of holiness,—is an ideal -which painting has not yet realised. Is it beyond the reach of Art? We -might have answered this question, had Raphael attempted it;—but he has -not. His Magdalene at the feet of Christ is yet unforgiven—the forlorn -castaway, not the devout penitent. - -The Magdalene doing penance in her rocky desert first became a popular -subject in the sixteenth century; in the seventeenth it was at the -height of favour. There are two distinct versions of the subject, -infinitely varied as to detail and sentiment: either she is represented -as bewailing her sins, or as reconciled to Heaven. - -In the former treatment she lies prostrate on the earth, or she is -standing or kneeling at the entrance of the cave (in some of the old -illuminated missals the upper part of her body is seen emerging from a -cave, or rather a hole in the ground), the hands clasped, or extended -towards heaven; the eyes streaming with tears; the long yellow hair -floating over the shoulders. The crucifix, the skull, and sometimes the -scourge, are introduced as emblems of faith, mortality, and penance; -weeping angels present a crown of thorns. - -In the latter treatment she is reading or meditating; the expression -is serene or hopeful; a book lies beside the skull; angels present the -palm, or scatter flowers; a vision of glory is seen in the skies. - -The alabaster box is in all cases the indispensable attribute. The eyes -are usually raised, if not in grief, in supplication or in aspiration. -The ‘uplifted eye’ as well as the ‘loose hair’ became a characteristic; -but there are some exceptions. The conception of character and -situation, which was at first simple, became more and more picturesque, -and at length theatrical—a mere vehicle for sentiment and attitude. - -1. The earliest example I can remember of the Penitent Magdalene, -_dramatically_ treated, remains as yet unsurpassed,—the reading -Magdalene of Correggio, in the Dresden Gallery. This lovely creation -has only one fault the virginal beauty is that of a Psyche or a -Seraph. In Oelenschläger’s drama of ‘Correggio,’ there is a beautiful -description of this far-famed picture; he calls it ‘Die Gottinn des -Waldes Frömmigkeit,’—the goddess of the religious solitude. And in -truth, if we could imagine Diana reading instead of hunting, she might -have looked thus. Oelenschläger has made poetical use of the tradition -that Correggio painted this Magdalene for a poor monk who was his -confessor or physician; and thus he makes Silvestro comment on the -work:— - - What a fair picture!— - This dark o’erhanging shade, the long fair hair, - The delicate white skin, the azure robe, - The full luxuriant life, the grim death’s head, - The tender womanhood, and the great book:— - These various contrasts have you cunningly - Brought into sweetest harmony. - -But truer, at least nobler in sentiment, is the Magdalene by the -same painter (in the Manfrini Palace, Venice), of the same size and -similarly draped in dark blue; but here _standing_ at the entrance of -her cave. She leans her elbow on the book which lies on the rock, and -appears to be meditating on its contents. The head, seen in front, is -grand and earnest, with a mass of fair hair, a large wide brow, and -deep, deep eyes full of mystery. The expression of power in this head -pleases me especially, because true to the character, as I conceive it. - - Doch ist es schön von einem Weibe, mein’ ich, - Einmal gefallen wieder sich zu heben; - Es gibt sehr wen’ge Männer, die das können! - - Yes! it is good to see a hapless woman, - That once has fallen, redeem herself! In truth, - There be few men, methinks, could do as much. - _Correggio_, Act i. Scene 1. - -I do not know why this lovely Manfrini picture should be so much -less celebrated than the Dresden Magdalene: while the latter has -been multiplied by copies and engravings, I do not remember a single -print after the Manfrini Magdalene. There is a bad feeble copy in the -Louvre;[299] I know no other. - -2. There is a celebrated picture by Timoteo della Vite, in the Bologna -Gallery. She is standing before the entrance of her cavern, arrayed -in a crimson mantle; her long hair is seen beneath descending to her -feet; the hands joined in prayer, the head declined on one side, and -the whole expression that of girlish innocence and simplicity, with -a touch of the pathetic. A mendicant, not a Magdalene, is the idea -suggested; and, for myself, I confess that at the first glance I was -reminded of the little Red-Riding-Hood, and could think of no sin -that could have been attributed to such a face and figure, beyond the -breaking of a pot of butter: yet the picture is very beautiful. - -[Illustration: 93 Mary Magdalene (Timoteo della Vite)] - -3. The Magdalene of Titian was so celebrated in his own time, that -he painted at least five or six repetitions of it, and copies and -engravings have since been multiplied. The eyes, swimming in tears, -are raised to heaven; the long dishevelled hair floats over her -shoulders; one hand is pressed on her bosom, the other rests on -the skull; the forms are full and round, the colouring rich; a book -and a box of ointment lie before her on a fragment of rock. She is -sufficiently woeful, but seems rather to regret her past life than -to repent of it, nor is there anything in the expression which can -secure us against a relapse. Titian painted the original for Charles V. -His idea of the _pose_ was borrowed, as we are told, from an antique -statue, and his model was a young girl, who being fatigued with long -standing, the tears ran down her face, and Titian attained the desired -expression.’(!) His idea therefore of St. Mary Magdalene was the -fusion of an antique statue and a girl taken out of the streets; and -with all its beauties as a work of art—and very beautiful it is—this -_chef-d’œuvre_ of Titian is, to my taste, most unsatisfactory. - -4. Cigoli’s Magdalene is seated on a rock, veiled _only_ by her long -hair, which falls over the whole figure; the eyes, still wet with -tears, are raised to heaven; one arm is round a skull, the right hand -rests on a book which is on her knees. - -5. The Magdalene of Carlo Cignani, veiled in her dishevelled hair, and -wringing her hands, is also most affecting for the fervent expression -of sorrow; both these are in the Florence Gallery.[300] - -6. Guido, regarded as the painter of Magdalenes _par excellence_, has -carried this mistake yet farther; he had ever the classical Niobe -in his mind, and his saintly penitents, with all their exceeding -loveliness, appear to me utterly devoid of that beauty which has been -called ‘the beauty of holiness;’ the reproachful grandeur of the Niobe -is diluted into voluptuous feebleness; the tearful face, with the loose -golden hair and uplifted eyes, of which he has given us at least ten -repetitions, however charming as art—as painting, are unsatisfactory -as religious representations. I cannot except even the beautiful study -in our National Gallery, nor the admired full-length in the Sciarra -Palace, at Rome; the latter, when I saw it last, appeared to me poor -and mannered, and the pale colouring not merely delicate, but vapid. -A head of Mary Magdalene reading, apparently a study from life, is, -however, in a grand style.[301] - -[Illustration: 94 Mary Magdalene (Murillo)] - -7. Murillo’s Magdalene, in the Louvre, kneeling, with hands crossed -on her bosom, eyes upraised, and parted lips, has eager devout hope -as well as sorrow in the countenance. 8. But turn to the Magdalene of -Alonzo Cano, which hangs near: drooping, negligent of self; the very -hands are nerveless, languid, dead.[302] Nothing but woe, guilt, and -misery are in the face and attitude: _she_ has not yet looked into the -face of Christ, nor sat at his feet, nor heard from his lips, ‘Woman, -thy sins be forgiven thee,’ nor dared to hope; it is the penitent only: -the whole head is faint, and the whole heart sick. 9. But the beautiful -Magdalene of Annibal Caracci has heard the words of mercy; _she_ has -memories which are not of sin only; angelic visions have already come -to her in that wild solitude: she is seated at the foot of a tree; -she leans her cheek on her right hand, the other rests on a skull; -she is in deep contemplation; but her thoughts are not of death: the -upward ardent look is full of hope, and faith, and love. The fault of -this beautiful little picture lies in the sacrifice of the truth of -the situation to the artistic feeling of beauty—the common fault of -the school; the forms are large, round, full, untouched by grief and -penance. - -[Illustration: 95 Mary Magdalene (Annibal Caracci)] - -10. Vandyck’s Magdalenes have the same fault as his Madonnas; they are -not feeble nor voluptuous, but they are too elegant and ladylike. I -remember, for example, a Deposition by Vandyck, and one of his finest -pictures, in which Mary Magdalene kisses the hand of the Saviour -quite with the air of a princess. The most beautiful of his penitent -Magdalenes is the half-length figure with the face in profile, -bending with clasped hands over the crucifix; the skull and knotted -scourge lie on a shelf of rock behind; underneath is the inscription, -‘_Fallit gratia, et vana est pulchritudo; mulier timens Dominum ipsa -laudabitur_.’ (Prov. xxxi. 30.) 11. Rubens has given us thirteen -Magdalenes, more or less coarse; in one picture[303] she is tearing her -hair like a disappointed virago; in another, the expression of grief -is overpowering, but it is that of a woman in the house of correction. -From this sweeping condemnation I must make one exception; it is the -picture known as ‘The Four Penitents.’[304] In front the Magdalene -bows down her head on her clasped hands with such an expression of -profound humility as Rubens only, when painting out of nature and -his own heart, could give. Christ, with an air of tender yet sublime -compassion, looks down upon her:—‘Thy sins be forgiven thee!’ Behind -Christ and the Magdalene stand Peter, David, and Didymus, the penitent -thief; the faces of these three, thrown into shadow to relieve the -two principal figures, have a self-abased, mournful expression. I -have never seen anything from the hand of Rubens at once so pure and -pathetic in sentiment as this picture, while the force and truth of the -painting are, as usual, wonderful. No one should judge Rubens who has -not studied him in the Munich Gallery. - - * * * * * - -The HISTORICAL SUBJECTS from the life of Mary Magdalene are either -scriptural or legendary; and the character of the Magdalene, as -conceived by the greatest painters, is more distinctly expressed in -those scriptural scenes in which she is an important figure, than in -the single and ideal representations. The illuminated Gospels of the -ninth century furnish the oldest type of Mary, the penitent and the -sister of Lazarus, but it differs from the modern conception of the -Magdalene. She is in such subjects a secondary scriptural personage, -one of the accessories in the history of Christ, and nothing more: no -attempt was made to give her importance, either by beauty, or dignity, -or prominence of place, till the end of the thirteenth century. - -The sacred subjects in which she is introduced are the following:— - -1. Jesus at supper with Simon the Pharisee.—‘And she began to wash -his feet with tears, and did wipe them with the hair of her head, and -kissed his feet, and anointed them with ointment.’ (Luke vii. 30.) - -2. Christ is in the house of Martha and Mary.—‘And she sat at Jesus’ -feet, and heard his words; but Martha was cumbered with much serving.’ -(Luke x. 39, 40.) - -3. The Raising of Lazarus.—‘Lord, if thou hadst been here, my brother -had not died.’ (John xi. 32.) - -4. The Crucifixion.—‘Now there stood by the cross Mary Magdalene.’ -(John xix. 25; Matt. xxvii. 56.) - -5. The Deposition from the Cross.—‘And Mary Magdalene, and the mother -of Jesus, beheld where he was laid.’ (Mark xv. 47.) - -6. The Maries at the Sepulchre.—‘And there was Mary Magdalene and the -other Mary, sitting over against the sepulchre.’ (Matt. xxvii. 61.) - -7. Christ appears to Mary Magdalene in the Garden, called the _Noli me -tangere_.—‘Touch me not, for I am not yet ascended to my Father.’ (John -xx. 17.) - -In the first, second, and last of these subjects, the Magdalene is -one of the two principal figures, and necessary to the action; in the -others she is generally introduced, but in some instances omitted; and -as all belong properly to the life of Christ, I shall confine myself -now to a few remarks on the characteristic treatment of the Magdalene -in each. - -1. The supper with Simon has been represented in every variety of -style. The earliest and simplest I can call to mind is the fresco of -Taddeo Gaddi in the Rinuccini Chapel at Florence. The Magdalene bends -down prostrate on the feet of the Saviour; she is in a red dress, and -her long yellow hair flows down her back; the seven devils by which -she was possessed are seen above, flying out of the roof of the house -in the shape of little black monsters. Raphael, when treating the same -subject, thought only of the religious significance of the action, and -how to express it with the utmost force and the utmost simplicity. -There are few figures—our Saviour, the Pharisee, four apostles, and two -attendants: Mary Magdalene, in front, bends over the feet of Christ, -while her long hair half conceals her face and almost sweeps the -ground; nothing can exceed the tenderness and humility of the attitude -and the benign dignity of Christ. As an example of the most opposite -treatment, let us turn to the gorgeous composition of Paul Veronese; we -have a stately banquet-room, rich architecture, a crowd of about thirty -figures; and the Magdalene is merely a beautiful female with loose -robes, dishevelled tresses, and the bosom displayed: this gross fault -of sentiment is more conspicuous in the large picture in the Durazzo -Palace at Genoa than in the beautiful finished sketch in the collection -of Mr. Rogers.[305] A fine sketch by the same painter, but quite -different, is at Alton Towers. The composition of Rubens, of which a -very fine sketch is in the Windsor collection, is exceedingly dramatic: -the dignity of Christ and the veneration and humility of the Magdalene -are admirably expressed; but the disdainful surprise of some of the -assistants, and the open mockery of others,—the old man in spectacles -peering over to convince himself of the truth,—disturb the solemnity of -the feeling: and this fault is even more apparent in the composition -of Philippe de Champagne, where a young man puts up his finger with -no equivocal expression. In these two examples the moment chosen is -not ‘_Thy sins are forgiven thee_,’ but the scepticism of the Pharisee -becomes the leading idea: ‘_This man, if he were a prophet, would have -known who and what manner of woman this is._’ - -2. Christ in the house of Martha and Mary. Of this beautiful subject -I have never seen a satisfactory version; in the fresco by Taddeo -Gaddi in the Rinuccini Chapel the subject becomes legendary rather -than scriptural. Mary Magdalene is seated at the feet of Christ in -an attitude of attention; Martha seems to expostulate; three of -the disciples are behind; a little out of the principal group, St. -Marcella, also with a glory round her head, is seen cooking. At Hampton -Court there is a curious picture of this subject by Hans Vries, which -is an elaborate study of architecture: the rich decoration of the -interior has been criticised; but, according to the legend, Martha -and Mary lived in great splendour; and there is no impropriety in -representing their dwelling as a palace, but a very great impropriety -in rendering the decorations of the palace more important than the -personages of the scene. In a picture by Old Bassano, Christ is seen -entering the house; Mary Magdalene goes forward to meet him; Martha -points to the table where Lazarus sits composedly cutting a slice of -sausage, and in the corner St. Marcella is cooking at a fire. In a -picture by Rubens, the treatment is similar. The holy sisters are like -two Flemish farm servants, and Christ—but I dare not proceed:—in both -these instances, the colouring, the expression, the painting of the -accessories—the vegetables and fruit, the materials and implements for -cooking a feast—are as animated and true to nature as the conception of -the whole scene is trivial, vulgar, and, to a just taste, intolerably -profane. - -One of the most modern compositions of this scene which has attracted -attention is that of Overbeck, very simple and poetical, but deficient -in individual expression. - -3. The raising of Lazarus was selected by the early Christians as an -emblem, both of the general resurrection, and the resurrection of our -Saviour, at a time that the resurrection of the Saviour in person -was considered a subject much too solemn and mysterious to be dealt -with by the imitative arts. In its primitive signification, as the -received emblem of the resurrection of the dead, we find this subject -abounding in the catacombs, and on the sarcophagi of the third and -fourth centuries. The usual manner of representation shows the dead man -swathed like a mummy, under the porch of a temple resembling a tomb, -to which there is an ascent by a flight of steps. Christ stands before -him, and touches him with a wand. Sometimes there are two figures only, -but in general Mary Magdalene is kneeling by. There is one instance -only in which Christ stands surrounded by the apostles, and the two -sisters are kneeling at his feet:—‘Lord, hadst thou been here, my -brother had not died.’[306] - -In more modern Art this subject loses its mystic signification, and -becomes simply a scriptural incident. It is treated like a scene in a -drama, and the painters have done their utmost to vary the treatment. -But, however varied as regards the style of conception and the number -of personages, Martha and Mary are always present, and, in general, -Mary is at the feet of our Saviour. The incident is of course one of -the most important in the life of Christ, and is never omitted in the -series, nor yet in the miracles of our Saviour. But, from the beginning -of the fourteenth century, it forms one of the scenes of the story of -Mary Magdalene. The fresco of Giovanni da Milano at Assisi contains -thirteen figures, and the two sisters kneeling at the feet of Christ -have a grand and solemn simplicity; but Mary is not here in any respect -distinguished from Martha, and both are attired in red. - -In the picture in our National Gallery, the kneeling figure of Mary -looking up in the face of Jesus, with her grand severe beauty and -earnest expression, is magnificent: but here, again, Mary of Bethany -is not Mary Magdalene, nor the woman ‘who was a sinner;’ and I doubt -whether Michael Angelo intended to represent her as such. On the -other hand, the Caracci, Rubens, and the later painters are careful -to point out the supposed identity, by the long fair hair, exposed -and dishevelled, the superior beauty and the superior prominence and -importance of the figure, while Martha stands by, veiled, and as a -secondary personage. - - * * * * * - -4. In the Crucifixion, where more than the three figures (the Redeemer, -the Virgin, and St. John) are introduced, the Magdalene is almost -always at the foot of the cross, and it is said that Giotto gave the -first example. Sometimes she is embracing the cross, and looking up -with all the abandonment of despairing grief, which is more picturesque -than true in sentiment; finer in feeling is the expression of serene -hope tempering the grief. In Rubens’ famous ‘Crucifixion’ at Antwerp, -she has her arms round the cross, and is gazing at the executioner with -a look of horror: this is very dramatic and striking, but the attention -of the penitent ought to be fixed on the dying Saviour, to the -exclusion of every other thought or object. In Vandyck’s ‘Crucifixion,’ -the face of the Magdalene seen in front is exquisite for its pathetic -beauty. Sometimes the Virgin is fainting in her arms. The box of -ointment is frequently placed near, to distinguish her from the other -Maries present. - - * * * * * - -5. In the Descent or Deposition from the Cross, and in the Entombment, -Mary Magdalene is generally conspicuous. She is often supporting -the feet or one of the hands of the Saviour; or she stands by -weeping; or she sustains the Virgin; or (which is very usual in the -earlier pictures) she is seen lamenting aloud, with her long tresses -disordered, and her arms outspread in an ecstasy of grief and passion; -or she bends down to embrace the feet of the Saviour, or to kiss his -hand; or contemplates with a mournful look one of the nails, or the -crown of thorns, which she holds in her hand. - -In the Pietà, of Fra Bartolomeo, in the Pitti Palace, the prostrate -abandonment in the figure of the Magdalene, pressing the feet of Christ -to her bosom, is full of pathetic expression; in the same gallery is -the Pietà by Andrea del Sarto, where the Magdalene, kneeling, wrings -her hands in mute sorrow. But in this, as in other instances, Raphael -has shown himself supreme: there is a wonderful little drawing by him, -in which Nicodemus and others sustain the body of the Saviour, while -Mary Magdalene lies prostrate bending her head over his feet, which she -embraces; the face is wholly concealed by the flowing hair, but never -was the expression of overwhelming love and sorrow conveyed with such -artless truth. - -6. The Maries at the Sepulchre. The women who carry the spices -and perfumes to the tomb of Jesus are called, in Greek Art, the -_Myrrhophores_, or myrrh-bearers: with us there are usually three, -Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James and John, and Mary Salome. In -Matthew, two women are mentioned; in Mark, three; in Luke, the number -is indefinite; and in John, only one is mentioned, Mary Magdalene. -There is scarcely a more beautiful subject in the whole circle of -Scripture story than this of the three desolate affectionate women -standing before the tomb in the grey dawn, while the majestic angels -are seen guarding the hallowed spot. I give, as one of the earliest -examples, a sketch from the composition of Duccio: the rules of -perspective were then unknown,—but what a beautiful simplicity in the -group of women! how fine the seated angel!—‘The angel of the Lord -descended from heaven, and came and rolled back the stone from the door -and sat upon it.’ I have seen one instance, and only one, in which the -angel is in the act of descending; in general, the version according -to St. John is followed, and the ‘two men in shining garments’ are -seated within the tomb. There is a famous engraving, after a design by -Michael Angelo, called ‘The three Maries going to the Sepulchre:’ it -represents three old women veiled, and with their backs turned—very -awful; but they might as well be called the three Fates, or the three -Witches, as the three Maries. The subject has never been more happily -treated than by Philip Veit, a modern German artist, in a print which -has become popular; he has followed the version of Matthew: ‘As it -began to dawn, came Mary Magdalene and the other Mary to see the -sepulchre.’ The attitude of motionless sorrow; the anxious expectant -looks, fixed on the tomb; the deep shadowy stillness; the morning light -just breaking in the distance, are very truly and feelingly expressed. - -7. The ‘Noli me tangere’ is the subject of many pictures; they do not -vary in the simplicity of the _motif_, which is fixed by tradition, and -admits but of two persons. The composition of Duccio, as one of the -series of the Passion of Christ, is extremely grand; and the figure -of Mary, leaning forward as she kneels, with outstretched hands, -full of expression. The old fresco of Taddeo Gaddi, in the Rinuccini -Chapel,[307] is also exquisite. Two of the finest in conception and -treatment are, notwithstanding, in striking contrast to each other. -One is the Titian in the collection of Mr. Rogers:[308] the Magdalene, -kneeling, bends forward with eager expression, and one hand extended to -touch him: the Saviour, drawing his linen garment round him, shrinks -back from her touch—yet with the softest expression of pity. Besides -the beauty and truth of the expression, this picture is transcendent -as a piece of colour and effect; while the rich landscape and the -approach of morning over the blue distance are conceived with a sublime -simplicity. Not less a miracle of Art, not less poetical, but in a -far different style, is the Rembrandt in the Queen’s Gallery: at the -entrance of the sepulchre the Saviour is seen in the habiliments of -a gardener, and Mary Magdalene at his feet, adoring. This picture -exhibits, in a striking degree, all the wild originality and peculiar -feeling of Rembrandt: the forms and characters are common; but the -deep shadow of the cavern tomb, the dimly-seen supernatural beings -within it, the breaking of the dawn over the distant city, are awfully -sublime, and worthy of the mysterious scene. Barroccio’s great -altar-piece, which came to England with the Duke of Lucca’s pictures, -once so famous, and well known from the fine engraving of Raphael -Morghen, is poor compared with any of these: Christ is effeminate and -commonplace,—Mary Magdalene all in a flutter. - -I now leave these scriptural incidents, to be more fully considered -hereafter, and proceed to the fourth class of subjects pertaining to -the life of the Magdalene—those which are taken from the wild Provençal -legends of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. - -1. ‘La Danse de la Madeleine’ is the title given to a very rare and -beautiful print by Lucas v. Leyden. It represents Mary Magdalene -abandoned to the pleasures of the world. The scene is a smiling and -varied landscape; in the centre Mary Magdalene, with the anticipative -glory round her head, is seen dancing along to the sound of a flute -and tabor, while a man in a rich dress leads her by the hand: several -groups of men and women are diverting themselves in the foreground; in -the background, Mary Magdalene, with a number of gay companions, is -chasing the stag; she is mounted on horseback, and has again the glory -round her head: far in the distance she is seen borne upwards by the -angels. This singular and suggestive composition is dated 1519. There -is a fine impression in the British Museum. - -2. ‘Mary Magdalene rebuked by her sister Martha for her vanity and -luxury.’ I believe I am the first to suggest that the famous picture -in the Sciarra Palace, by Leonardo da Vinci, known as ‘Modesty and -Vanity,’ is a version of this subject. When I saw it, this idea was -suggested, and no other filled my mind. The subject is one often -treated, and here treated in Leonardo’s peculiar manner. The attitude -of the veiled figure is distinctly that of remonstrance and rebuke; the -other, decked and smiling, looks out of the picture holding flowers in -her hand, as yet unconvinced, unconverted: the vase of ointment stands -near her. In other pictures there is no doubt as to the significance of -the subject; it has been gracefully treated in a picture by Giovanni -Lopicino, now in the gallery of the Belvedere at Vienna. She is seated -at her toilette; her maid is binding her luxuriant hair; Martha, -standing by, appears to be remonstrating with great fervour. There is -a pretty picture by Elisabetta Sirani of the same scene, similarly -treated. - -3. ‘Mary Magdalene conducted by her sister Martha to the feet of -Jesus.’ Of this most beautiful subject, I know but one composition of -distinguished merit. It is by Raphael, and exists only in the drawing, -and the rare engraving by Marc Antonio. Christ sits within the porch -of the Temple, teaching four of his disciples who stand near him. -Martha and Mary are seen ascending the steps which lead to the portico: -Martha, who is veiled, seems to encourage her sister, who looks down. -I observe that Passavant and others are uncertain as to the subject of -this charming design: it has been styled ‘The Virgin Mary presenting -the Magdalene to Christ;’ but with any one who has carefully considered -the legend, there can be no doubt as to the intention of the artist. -‘Mary Magdalene listening to the preaching of our Saviour, with Martha -seated by her side,’ is one of the subjects in the series by Gaudenzio -Ferrari at Vercelli: it is partly destroyed. We have the same subject -by F. Zucchero; Mary, in a rich dress, is kneeling at the feet of the -Saviour, who is seated under a portico; Martha, veiled, stands near -her, and there are numerous spectators and accessories. - -4. ‘The Magdalene renouncing the Vanities of the World’ is also a very -attractive subject. In a picture by Guido she has partly divested -herself of her rich ornaments, and is taking some pearls from her hair, -while she looks up to heaven with tearful eyes. In a sketch by Rubens, -in the Dulwich Gallery, she is seated in a forest solitude, still -arrayed in her worldly finery, blue satin, pearls, &c., and wringing -her hands with an expression of the bitterest grief. The treatment, -as usual with him, is coarse, but effective. In his large picture at -Vienna, with the figures life-size, Mary is spurning with her feet a -casket of jewels, and throwing herself back with her hands clasped in -an agony of penitence: while Martha sits behind, gazing on her with an -expression so demurely triumphant as to be almost comic. There is an -exquisite little picture by Gerard Douw in the Berlin Gallery, in which -the Magdalene, in a magnificent robe of crimson and sables, is looking -up to heaven with an expression of sorrow and penitence; the table -before her is covered with gold and jewels. ‘Mary Magdalene renouncing -the World,’ by Le Brun, is a famous picture, now in the Louvre. She -looks up to heaven with tearful eyes, and is in the act of tearing -off a rich mantle; a casket of jewels lies overturned at her feet. -This picture is said to be the portrait of Madame de la Vallière, by -whose order it was painted for the church of the Carmelites at Paris, -where she had taken refuge from the court and from the world. It has -that sort of theatrical grace and grandeur, that mannered mediocrity, -characteristic of the painter and the time.[309] There is a Magdalene -in the Gallery at Munich by Le Brun, which is to me far preferable; -and this, and not the Paris one, I presume to be the portrait of the -Duchesse de la Vallière. In a picture by Franceschini she has flung off -her worldly ornaments, which lie scattered on the ground, and holds a -scourge in her hand, with which she appears to have castigated herself: -she sinks in the arms of one of her attendant maidens, while Martha, -standing by, seems to speak of peace, and points towards heaven: the -figures are life-size.[310] None of these pictures, with the exception -of the precious Leonardo in the Sciarra Palace, have any remarkable -merit as pictures. The scenes between Mary and Martha are capable of -the most dramatic and effective illustration, but have never yet been -worthily treated. - -5. ‘The embarkation of the Magdalene in Palestine, with Martha, -Lazarus, and the others, cast forth by their enemies in a vessel -without sails or rudder, but miraculously conducted by an angel,’ is -another subject of which I have seen no adequate representation. There -is a mediocre picture by Curradi in the Florence Gallery. Among the -beautiful frescoes of Gaudenzio Ferrari in the Church of St. Cristoforo -at Vercelli, is the voyage of the Magdalene and her companions, and -their disembarkation at Marseilles.[311] - -6. ‘Mary Magdalene preaching to the inhabitants of Marseilles’ has been -several times represented in the sculpture and stained glass of the old -cathedrals in the south of France. In the Hôtel de Cluny there is a -curious old picture in distemper attributed to King René of Provence, -the father of our Margaret of Anjou, and famous for his skill as a -limner. Mary Magdalene is standing on some steps, arrayed in loose -white drapery, and a veil over her head. She is addressing earnestly a -crowd of listeners, and among them we see King René and his wife Jeanne -de Laval on thrones with crown and sceptre:—a trifling anachronism of -about 1400 years, but it may be taken in a poetical and allegorical -sense. The port of Marseilles is seen in the background. The same -subject has been classically treated in a series of bas-reliefs in -the porch of the Certosa at Pavia: there is a mistake, however, in -exhibiting her as half naked, clothed only in a skin, and her long -hair flowing down over her person: for she was at this time the -missionary saint, and not yet the penitent of the desert. - -[Illustration: 96 The Assumption of the Magdalene (Albert Dürer)] - -7. ‘Mary Magdalene borne by angels above the summit of Mount Pilon,’ -called also ‘The Assumption of the Magdalene,’ is a charming subject -when treated in the right spirit. Unfortunately, we are oftener -reminded of a Pandora, sustained by a group of Cupids, or a Venus -rising out of the sea, than of the ecstatic trance of the reconciled -penitent. It was very early a popular theme. In the treatment we find -little variety. She is seen carried upwards very slightly draped, -and often with no other veil than her redundant hair, flowing over -her whole person. She is in the arms of four, five, or six angels. -Sometimes one of the angels bears the alabaster box of ointment; far -below is a wild mountainous landscape, with a hermit looking up at the -vision, as it is related in the legend. The illustration is from a fine -woodcut of Albert Dürer (96). - -In a hymn to the Magdalene, by an old Provençal poet (Balthazar de la -Burle) there is a passage describing her ascent in the arms of angels, -which, from its vivid graphic naïveté, is worthy of being placed under -this print of Albert Dürer:— - - Ravengat lou jour los anges la portavan - Ben plus hault que lou roc. - Jamais per mauvais temps que fessa ne freddura, - Autre abit non avia que la sien cabellura, - Que como un mantel d’or tant eram bels e blonds - La couvria de la testa fin al bas des talons. - -The fresco by Giulio Romano, in which she is reclining amid clouds, and -sustained by six angels, while her head is raised and her arms extended -with the most ecstatic expression, was cut from the walls of a chapel -in the Trinità di Monte, at Rome, and is now in our National Gallery. - -One of the finest pictures ever painted by Ribera is the Assumption -of the Magdalene in the Louvre, both for beauty of expression and -colour. She is here draped, and her drapery well managed. The Spanish -painters never fell into the mistake of the Italians; they give us no -Magdalenes which recall the idea of a Venus Meretrix. The rules of the -Inquisition were here absolute, and held the painters in wholesome -check, rendering such irreligious innovations inadmissible and unknown. -In the Turin Gallery there is an Assumption of the Magdalene by -Dennis Calvert, admirably painted, in which she is carried up by four -Apollo-like angels, who, with their outstretched arms, form a sort of -throne on which she is seated: she is herself most lovely, draped in -the thin undress of a Venus; and the whole composition, at first view, -brought to my fancy the idea of a Venus rising from the sea, throned in -her shell and sustained by nymphs and cupids. - -In general, the early painters, Albert Dürer, Vivarini, Lorenzo di -Credi, Benedetto Montagna, represent her in an upright position, with -hands folded in prayer, or crossed over her bosom, and thus soaring -upwards, without effort of will or apparent consciousness; while the -painters of the seventeenth century (with whom this was a favourite -subject) strained their imagination to render the form and attitude -voluptuously graceful, and to vary the action of the attendant angels, -until, in one or two instances, the representation became at once -absurdly prosaic and offensively theatrical. F. Zucchero, Cambiasi, -Lanfranco, Carlo Maratti, have all given us versions of this subject in -a florid, mannered style. - -Over the high altar of the Madeleine, at Paris, is the same subject in -a marble group, by Marochetti, rather above life-size. Two angels bear -her up, while on each side an archangel kneels in adoration. - - * * * * * - -8. The Last Communion of the Magdalene is represented in two different -ways, according to the two different versions of the story: in the -first, she expires in her cave, and angels administer the last -sacraments; one holds a taper, another presents the cup, a third the -wafer. This has been painted by Domenichino. In the other version, -she receives the sacrament from the hand of St. Maximin, who wears -the episcopal robes, and the Magdalene kneels before him, half-naked, -emaciated, and sustained by angels: the scene is the porch of a church. - -9. The Magdalene dying in the Wilderness, extended on the bare earth, -and pressing the crucifix to her bosom, is a frequent subject in the -seventeenth century. One of the finest examples is the picture of -Rustichino in the Florence Gallery. The well-known ‘Dying Magdalene’ of -Canova has the same merits and defects as his Penitent Magdalene. - -I saw a picture at Bologna by Tiarini, of which the conception appeared -to me very striking and poetical. The Virgin, ‘La Madre Addolorata,’ -is seated, and holds in her hand the crown of thorns, which she -contemplates with a mournful expression; at a little distance kneels -Mary Magdalene with long dishevelled hair, in all the abandonment of -grief. St. John stands behind, with his hands clasped, and his eyes -raised to heaven. - -When the Magdalene is introduced into pictures of the ‘Incredulity of -Thomas,’ it is in allusion to a famous parallel in one of the Fathers, -in which it is insisted, ‘that the faith of Mary Magdalene, and the -doubts of Thomas, were equally serviceable to the cause of Christ.’ - - * * * * * - -Among the many miracles imputed to the Magdalene, one only has -become popular as a subject of Art. Besides being extremely naïve -and poetical, it is extremely curious as illustrating the manners of -the time. It was probably fabricated in the fourteenth century, and -intended as a kind of parable, to show that those who trusted in Mary -Magdalene, and invoked her aid, might in all cases reckon upon her -powerful intercession. It is thus related:— - -‘Soon after Mary Magdalene landed in Provence, a certain prince of -that country arrived in the city of Marseilles with his wife, for the -purpose of sacrificing to the gods; but they were dissuaded from doing -so by the preaching of Mary Magdalene: and the prince one day said to -the saint, “We greatly desire to have a son. Canst thou obtain for -us that grace from the God whom thou preachest?” And the Magdalene -replied, “If thy prayer be granted, wilt thou then believe?” And he -answered, “Yes, I will believe.” But shortly afterwards, as he still -doubted, he resolved to sail to Jerusalem to visit St. Peter, and to -find out whether his preaching agreed with that of Mary Magdalene. His -wife resolved to accompany him: but the husband said, “How shall that -be possible, seeing that thou art with child, and the dangers of the -sea are very great?” But she insisted, and, throwing herself at his -feet, she obtained her desire. Then, having laden a vessel with all -that was necessary, they set sail; and when a day and a night were -come and gone, there arose a terrible storm. The poor woman was seized -prematurely with the pains of childbirth; in the midst of the tempest -she brought forth her first-born son, and then died. The miserable -father, seeing his wife dead, and his child deprived of its natural -solace, and crying for food, wrung his hands in despair, and knew not -what to do. And the sailors said, “Let us throw this dead body into the -sea, for as long as it remains on board the tempest will not abate.” -But the prince, by his entreaties, and by giving them money, restrained -them for a while. Just then, for so it pleased God, they arrived at a -rocky island, and the prince laid the body of his wife on the shore, -and, taking the infant in his arms, he wept greatly, and said, “O Mary -Magdalene! to my grief and sorrow didst thou come to Marseilles! Why -didst thou ask thy God to give me a son only that I might lose both -son and wife together? O Mary Magdalene! have pity on my grief, and, -if thy prayers may avail, save at least the life of my child!” Then he -laid down the infant on the bosom of the mother, and covered them both -with his cloak, and went on his way, weeping. And when the prince and -his attendants had arrived at Jerusalem, St. Peter showed him all the -places where our Saviour had performed his miracles, and the hill on -which he had been crucified, and the spot from whence he had ascended -into heaven. Having been instructed in the faith by St. Peter, at the -end of two years the prince embarked to return to his own country, and -passing near to the island in which he had left his wife, he landed in -order to weep upon her grave. - -‘Now, wonderful to relate!—his infant child had been preserved alive -by the prayers of the blessed Mary Magdalene; and he was accustomed -to run about on the sands of the sea-shore, to gather up pebbles and -shells; and when the child, who had never beheld a man, perceived the -strangers, he was afraid, and ran and hid himself under the cloak which -covered his dead mother; and the father, and all who were with him, -were filled with astonishment; but their surprise was still greater -when the woman opened her eyes, and stretched out her arms to her -husband. Then they offered up thanks, and all returned together to -Marseilles, where they fell at the feet of Mary Magdalene, and received -baptism. From that time forth, all the people of Marseilles and the -surrounding country became Christians.’ - -The picturesque capabilities of this extravagant but beautiful legend -will immediately suggest themselves to the fancy;—the wild sea-shore -—the lovely naked infant wandering on the beach—the mother, slumbering -the sleep of death, covered with the mysterious drapery—the arrival -of the mariners—what opportunity for scenery and grouping, colour -and expression! It was popular in the Giotto school, which arose and -flourished just about the period when the enthusiasm for Mary Magdalene -was at its height; but later painters have avoided it, or, rather, it -was not sufficiently accredited for a Church legend; and I have met -with no example later than the end of the fourteenth century. - -The old fresco of Taddeo Gaddi in the S. Croce at Florence will give -some idea of the manner in which the subject was usually treated. -In the foreground is a space representing an island; water flowing -round it, the water being indicated by many strange fishes. On the -island a woman lies extended with her hands crossed upon her bosom; -an infant lifts up the mantle, and seems to show her to a man bending -over her; the father on his knees, with hands joined, looks devoutly -up to heaven; four others stand behind expressing astonishment or -fixed attention. In the distance is a ship, in which sits a man with a -long white beard, in red drapery; beside him another in dark drapery: -beyond is a view of a port with a lighthouse, intended, I presume, -for Marseilles. The story is here told in a sort of Chinese manner as -regards the drawing, composition, and perspective; but the figures and -heads are expressive and significant. - -In the Chapel of the Magdalene at Assisi, the same subject is given -with some variation. The bark containing the pilgrims is guided by -an angel, and the infant is seated by the head of the mother, as if -watching her. - - * * * * * - -The life of Mary Magdalene in a series of subjects, mingling the -scriptural and legendary incidents, may often be found in the old -French and Italian churches, more especially in the chapels dedicated -to her: and I should think that among the remains of ancient painting -now in course of discovery in our own sacred edifices they cannot fail -to occur.[312] In the mural frescoes, in the altar-pieces, the stained -glass, and the sculpture of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, -such a series perpetually presents itself; and, well or ill executed, -will in general be found to comprise the following scenes:— - -1. Her conversion at the feet of the Saviour. 2. Christ entertained -in the house of Martha: Mary sits at his feet to hear his words. 3. -The raising of Lazarus. 4. Mary Magdalene and her companions embark -in a vessel without sails, oars, or rudder. 6. Steered by an angel, -they land at Marseilles. 6. Mary Magdalene preaches to the people. 7. -The miracle of the mother and child. 8. The penance of the Magdalene -in a desert cave. 9. She is carried up in the arms of angels. 10. She -receives the sacraments from the hands of an angel or from St. Maximin. -11. She dies, and angels bear her spirit to heaven.[313] - -The subjects vary of course in number and in treatment, but, with some -attention to the foregoing legend, they will easily be understood -and discriminated. Such a series was painted by Giotto in the Chapel -of the Bargello at Florence (where the portrait of Dante was lately -discovered), but they are nearly obliterated; the miracle of the -mother and child is, however, to be distinguished on the left near the -entrance. The treatment of the whole has been imitated by Taddeo Gaddi -in the Rinuccini Chapel at Florence, and by Giovanni da Milano and -Giottino in the Chapel of the Magdalene at Assisi; on the windows of -the Cathedrals of Chartres and Bourges; and in a series of bas-reliefs -round the porch of the Certosa of Pavia, executed in the classical -style of the sixteenth century. - - * * * * * - -On reviewing generally the infinite variety which has been given to -these favourite subjects, the life and penance of the Magdalene, I -must end where I began; in how few instances has the result been -satisfactory to mind or heart, or soul or sense! Many have well -represented the particular situation, the appropriate sentiment, the -sorrow, the hope, the devotion: but who has given us the _character_? -A noble creature, with strong sympathies, and a strong will, with -powerful faculties of every kind, working for good or evil such a woman -Mary Magdalene must have been, even in her humiliation; and the feeble, -girlish, commonplace, and even vulgar women who appear to have been -usually selected as models by the artists, turned into Magdalenes by -throwing up their eyes and letting down their hair, ill represent the -enthusiastic convert or the majestic patroness. - - * * * * * - -I must not quit the subject of the Magdalene without some allusion to -those wild legends which suppose a tender attachment (but of course -wholly pure and Platonic) to have existed between her and St. John the -Evangelist.[314] In the enthusiasm which Mary Magdalene excited in -the thirteenth century, no supposition that tended to exalt her was -deemed too extravagant: some of her panegyrists go so far as to insist -that the marriage at Cana, which our Saviour and his mother honoured -by their presence, was the marriage of St. John with the Magdalene; -and that Christ repaired to the wedding-feast on purpose to prevent -the accomplishment of the marriage, having destined both to a state of -greater perfection. This fable was never accepted by the Church; and -among the works of art consecrated to religious purposes I have never -met with any which placed St. John and the Magdalene in particular -relation to each other, except when they are seen together at the -foot of the cross, or lamenting with the Virgin over the body of -the Saviour: but such was the popularity of these extraordinary -legends towards the end of the thirteenth and in the beginning of the -fourteenth century, that I think it possible such may exist, and, for -want of this key, may appear hopelessly enigmatical. - -[Illustration: _Martha presents her sister Mary to our Lord._] - -In a series of eight subjects which exhibit the life of St. John -prefixed to a copy of the Revelation,[315] there is one which I -think admits of this interpretation. The scene is the interior of -a splendid building sustained by pillars. St. John is baptizing a -beautiful woman, who is sitting in a tub; she has long golden hair. -On the outside of the building seven men are endeavouring to see what -is going forward: one peeps through the key-hole; one has thrown -himself flat on the ground, and has his eye to an aperture; a third, -mounted on the shoulders of another, is trying to look in at a window; -a fifth, who cannot get near enough, tears his hair in an agony of -impatience; and another is bawling into the ear of a deaf and blind -comrade a description of what he has seen. The execution is French, of -the fourteenth century; the taste, it will be said, is also _French_; -the figures are drawn with a pen and slightly tinted: the design is -incorrect; but the vivacity of gesture and expression, though verging -on caricature, is so true, and so comically dramatic, and the whole -composition so absurd, that it is impossible to look at it without a -smile. - - - ST. MARTHA. - - _Ital._ Santa Marta, Vergine, Albergatrice di Cristo. _Fr._ Sainte - Marthe, la Travailleuse. Patroness of cooks and housewives. (June 29, - A.D. 84.) - -Martha has shared in the veneration paid to her sister. The important -part assigned to her in the history of Mary has already been adverted -to; she is always represented as the instrument through whom Mary was -converted, the one who led her first to the feet of the Saviour. ‘Which -thing,’ says the story, should not be accounted as the least of her -merits, seeing that Martha was a chaste and prudent virgin, and the -other publicly contemned for her evil life; notwithstanding which, -Martha did not despise her, nor reject her as a sister, but wept for -her shame and admonished her gently and with persuasive words; and -reminded her of her noble birth, to which she was a disgrace, and that -Lazarus, their brother, being a soldier, would certainly get into -trouble on her account. So she prevailed, and conducted her sister to -the presence of Christ, and afterwards, as it is well known, she lodged -and entertained the Saviour in her own house.‘[316] - -According to the Provençal legend, while Mary Magdalene converted the -people of Marseilles, Martha preached to the people of Aix and its -vicinity. In those days the country was ravaged by a fearful dragon, -called the _Tarasque_, which during the day lay concealed in the river -Rhone. Martha overcame this monster by sprinkling him with holy water, -and having bound him with her girdle (or, as others say, her garter), -the people speedily put an end to him. The scene of this legend is now -the city of _Tarascon_, where there is, or was, a magnificent church, -dedicated to St. Martha, and richly endowed by Louis XI. - -The same legends assure us that St. Martha was the first who founded a -monastery for women; the first, after the blessed Mother of Christ, who -vowed her virginity to God; and that when she had passed many years in -prayer and good works, feeling that her end was near, she desired to -be carried to a spot where she could see the glorious sun in heaven, -and that they should read to her the history of the passion of Christ; -and when they came to the words, ‘Father, into thy hands I commend my -spirit,’ she died. - -As Mary Magdalene is the patroness of repentant frailty, so Martha is -the especial patroness of female discretion and good housekeeping. In -this character, she is often represented with a skimmer or ladle in her -hand, or a large bunch of keys is attached to her girdle. For example, -in a beautiful old German altar-piece attributed to Albert Dürer,[317] -she is standing in a magnificent dress, a jewelled turban, and holding -a well-known implement of cookery in her hand. In a missal of Henry -VIII.,[318] she is represented with the same utensil, and her name -is inscribed beneath. In general, however, her dress is not rich but -homely, and her usual attributes as patron saint are the pot of holy -water, the asperge in her hand, and a dragon bound at her feet. In the -chapels dedicated to the Magdalene, she finds her appropriate place -as pendant to her sister, generally distinguished by her close coif -and by being draped in blue or dark brown or grey; while the Magdalene -is usually habited in red. When attended by her dragon, St. Martha is -sometimes confounded with St. Margaret, who is also accompanied by a -dragon: but it must be remembered that St. Margaret bears a crucifix or -palm, and St. Martha the pot of holy water; and in general the early -painters have been careful to distinguish these attributes. - -St. Martha, besides being a model of female discretion, sobriety, and -chastity, and the patroness of good housewives, was, according to -the old legends, the same woman who was healed by Christ, and who in -gratitude erected to his honour a bronze statue, which statue is said -to have existed in the time of Eusebius, and to have been thrown down -by Julian the Apostate.[319] - -When Martha and Mary stand together as patronesses, one represents the -_active_, the other the _contemplative_, Christian life. - -Martha is generally introduced among the holy women who attend the -crucifixion and entombment of our Lord. In a most beautiful Entombment -by Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Martha kisses the hand of the Saviour, while -Mary Magdalene is seen behind with outspread arms: Lazarus and Maximin -stand at the head of the Saviour. - - * * * * * - -Lazarus, the brother of Martha and Mary, is revered as the first -bishop and patron saint of Marseilles, and is generally represented -with the mitre and stole. There are at least fifty saints who wear -the same attire; but when a figure in episcopal robes is introduced -into the same picture, or the same series, with Martha and Mary, it -may be presumed, if not otherwise distinguished, to be St. Lazarus: -sometimes, but rarely, the introduction of a bier, or his resurrection, -in the background, serves to fix the identity. Grouped with these -three saints, we occasionally find St. Marcella (or Martilla), who -accompanied them from the East, but who is not distinguished by any -attribute; nor is anything particular related of her, except that she -wrote the life of Martha, and preached the Gospel in Sclavonia. - - * * * * * - -There are beautiful full-length figures of Mary, Martha, Lazarus, and -Marcella, in the Brera at Milan, painted by one of the Luini school, -and treated in a very classical and noble style; draped, and standing -in niches to represent statues. At Munich are the separate figures of -Mary, Martha, and Lazarus, by Grünewald: Lazarus is seen standing by -his bier; Mary, in the rich costume of a German lady of rank, presents -her vase; and Martha is habited like a German _hausfrau_, with her -dragon at her feet. They are much larger than life, admirably painted, -and full of character, though somewhat grotesque in treatment. - -Over the altar of the church ‘La Major’ at Marseilles, stands Lazarus -as bishop; Mary on the right, and Martha on the left: underneath these -three statues runs a series of bas-reliefs containing the history of -Lazarus. 1. He is recalled to life. 2. Seated on the edge of his tomb, -he addresses the spectators. 3. He entertains Christ. 4. The arrival at -Marseilles. 5. He preaches to the people. 6. He is consecrated bishop. -7. He suffers martyrdom. - -In a tabernacle or triptica by Nicolò Frumenti (A.D. 1461),[320] the -central compartment represents the raising of Lazarus, who has the -truest and most horrid expression of death and dawning life I ever -beheld. On the volet to the right is the supper in the house of Levi, -and the Magdalene anointing the feet of the Saviour; on the left volet, -Martha meets him on his arrival at Bethany: ‘Lord, if thou hadst been -here, my brother had not died.’ - -In the chapel of Mary Magdalene at Assisi, we find, besides the history -of her life, full-length figures of Mary, Martha, Lazarus, and Maximin. -Mary, a beautiful dignified figure, as usual in rich red drapery, -stands to the right of the altar, holding out her hand to a kneeling -Franciscan: on the left Martha stands in grey drapery with a close -hood: Lazarus and Maximin as bishops. - - * * * * * - -This will give an idea of the manner in which these personages are -either grouped together or placed in connection with each other. - - - ST. MARY OF EGYPT. - - _Ital._ Santa Maria Egiziaca Penitente. _Fr._ Sainte Marie - l’Égyptienne, La Gipesienne, La Jussienne. (April 2, A.D. 433.) - -I place the story of St. Mary of Egypt here, for though she had no real -connection with the Magdalene, in works of art they are perpetually -associated as _les bienheureuses pécheresses_, and in their personal -and pictorial attributes not unfrequently confounded. The legend of -Mary _Egyptiaca_ is long anterior to that of Mary Magdalene. It was -current in a written form so early as the sixth century, being then -received as a true history; but it appears to have been originally one -of those instructive parables or religious romances which, in the early -ages of the Church, were composed and circulated for the edification -of the pious. In considering the manners of that time, we may easily -believe that it may have had some foundation in fact. That a female -anchoret of the name of Mary lived and died in a desert of Palestine -near the river Jordan—that she there bewailed her sins in solitude -for a long course of years, and was accidentally discovered—is a very -ancient tradition, supported by contemporary evidence. The picturesque, -miraculous, and romantic incidents with which the story has been -adorned, appear to have been added to enhance the interest; and, in its -present form, the legend is attributed to St. Jerome. - -‘Towards the year of our Lord 365, there dwelt in Alexandria a woman -whose name was Mary, and who in the infamy of her life far exceeded -Mary Magdalene. After passing seventeen years in every species of vice, -it happened that one day, while roving along the sea-shore, she beheld -a ship ready to sail, and a large company preparing to embark. She -inquired whither they were going? They replied that they were going -up to Jerusalem, to celebrate the feast of the true cross. She was -seized with a sudden desire to accompany them; but having no money, -she paid the price of her passage by selling herself to the sailors -and pilgrims, whom she allured to sin by every means in her power. -On their arrival at Jerusalem, she joined the crowds of worshippers -who had assembled to enter the church; but all her attempts to pass -the threshold were in vain; whenever she thought to enter the porch, -a supernatural power drove her back in shame, in terror, in despair. -Struck by the remembrance of her sins, and filled with repentance, she -humbled herself and prayed for help; the interdiction was removed, and -she entered the church of God, crawling on her knees. Thenceforward she -renounced her wicked and shameful life, and, buying at a baker’s three -small loaves, she wandered forth into solitude, and never stopped or -reposed till she had penetrated into the deserts beyond the Jordan, -where she remained in severest penance, living on roots and fruits, -and drinking water only; her garments dropped away in rags piecemeal, -leaving her unclothed; and she prayed fervently not to be left thus -exposed: suddenly her hair grew so long as to form a covering for -her whole person (or, according to another version, an angel brought -her a garment, from heaven). Thus she dwelt in the wilderness, in -prayer and penance, supported only by her three small loaves, which, -like the widow’s meal, failed her not, until, after the lapse of -forty-seven years, she was discovered by a priest named Zosimus. Of -him she requested silence, and that he would return at the end of a -year, and bring with him the elements of the holy sacrament, that she -might confess and communicate, before she was released from earth. And -Zosimus obeyed her, and returned after a year; but not being able to -pass the Jordan, the penitent, supernaturally assisted, passed over -the water to him; and, having received the sacrament with tears, she -desired the priest to leave her once more to her solitude, and to -return in a year from that time. And when he returned he found her -dead, her hands crossed on her bosom. And he wept greatly; and, looking -round, he saw written in the sand these words:—“O Father Zosimus, bury -the body of the poor sinner, Mary of Egypt! Give earth to earth, and -dust to dust, for Christ’s sake!” He endeavoured to obey this last -command, but being full of years, and troubled and weak, his strength -failed him, and a lion came out of the wood and aided him, digging with -his paws till the grave was sufficiently large to receive the body of -the saint, which being committed to the earth, the lion retired gently, -and the old man returned home, praising God, who had shown mercy to the -penitent.’ - - * * * * * - -In single figures and devotional pictures, Mary of Egypt is portrayed -as a meagre, wasted, aged woman, with long hair, and holding in her -hand three small loaves. Sometimes she is united with Mary Magdalene, -as joint emblems of female penitence; and not in painting only, but in -poetry,— - - Like redeemed Magdalene, - Or that Egyptian penitent, whose tears - Fretted the rock, and moisten’d round her cave - The thirsty desert. - -Thus they stand together in a little rare print by Marc’ Antonio, -the one distinguished by her vase, the other by her three loaves. -Sometimes, when they stand together, Mary Magdalene is young, -beautiful, richly dressed; and Mary of Egypt, a squalid, meagre, old -woman, covered with rags: as in a rare and curious print by Israel von -Mecken.[321] - - * * * * * - -Pictures from her life are not common. The earliest I have met with -is the series painted on the walls of the Chapel of the Bargello, at -Florence, above the life of Mary Magdalene: they had been whitewashed -over. In seeking for the portrait of Dante, this whitewash has been in -part removed; and it is only just possible for those acquainted with -the legend to trace in several compartments the history of Mary of -Egypt. - -1. Detached subjects are sometimes met with. In the church of San -Pietro-in-Pò, at Cremona, they preserve relics said to be those of Mary -of Egypt: and over the altar there is a large picture by Malosso, -representing the saint at the door of the Temple at Jerusalem, -and repulsed by a miraculous power. She is richly dressed, with a -broad-brimmed hat, and stands on the step, as one endeavouring to -enter, while several persons look on,—some amazed, others mocking. - -2. Mary of Egypt doing penance in the desert is easily confounded with -the penitent Magdalene. Where there is no skull, no vase of ointment, -no crucifix near her, where the penitent is aged, or at least not young -and beautiful, with little or no drapery, and black or grey hair, -the picture may be presumed to represent Mary of Egypt, and not the -Magdalene, however like in situation and sentiment. There is a large -fine picture of this subject at Alton Towers. - -3. The first meeting of Mary and the hermit Zosimus has been painted by -Ribera: in this picture her hair is grey and short, her skin dark and -sunburnt, and she is clothed in rags. - -4. In another picture by the same painter she is passing over the -Jordan by the help of angels; she is seen floating in the air with her -hands clasped, and Zosimus is kneeling by. This subject might easily -be confounded with the Assumption of the Magdalene, but the sentiment -ought to distinguish them; for, instead of the ecstatic trance of the -Magdalene, we have merely a miraculous incident: the figure is but -little raised above the waters, and the hermit is kneeling on the -shore.[322] - -5. St. Mary receives the last communion from the hands of Zosimus. I -have known this subject to be confounded with the last communion of the -Magdalene. The circumstances of the scene, as well as the character, -should be attended to. Mary of Egypt receives the sacrament in the -desert; a river is generally in the background: Zosimus is an aged -monk. Where the Magdalene receives the sacrament from the hands of -Maximin, the scene is a portico or chapel with rich architecture, and -Maximin wears the habit of a bishop. - -6. The death of Mary of Egypt. Zosimus is kneeling beside her, and the -lion is licking her feet or digging her grave. The presence of the lion -distinguishes this subject from the death of Mary Magdalene. - -[Illustration: 97 The Death of Mary of Egypt] - -St. Mary of Egypt was early a popular saint in France, and particularly -venerated by the Parisians, till eclipsed by the increasing celebrity -of the Magdalene. She was styled, familiarly, La Gipesienne (the -Gipsy), softened by time into La Jussienne. The street in which stood -a convent of reformed women, dedicated to her, is still _la Rue -Jussienne_. - -We find her whole story in one of the richly painted windows of the -cathedral of Chartres; and again in the ‘Vitraux de Bourges,’ where the -inscription underneath is written ‘Segiptiaca.’ - -Among the best modern frescoes which I saw at Paris, was the decoration -of a chapel in the church of St. Merry, dedicated to Ste. Marie -l’Égyptienne: the religious sentiment and manner of middle-age Art are -as usual imitated, but with a certain unexpected originality in the -conception of some of the subjects which pleased me. 1. On the wall, -to the right, she stands leaning on the pedestal of the statue of the -Madonna in a meditative attitude, and having the dress and the dark -complexion of an Egyptian dancing-girl; a crowd of people are seen -behind entering the gates of the Temple, at which she alone has been -repulsed. 2. She receives the communion from the hand of Zosimus, and -is buried by a lion. - -On the left-hand wall. 3. Her apotheosis. She is borne aloft by many -angels, two of whom swing censers, and below is seen the empty grave -watched by a lion. 4. Underneath is a group of hermits, to whom the -aged Zosimus is relating the story of the penitence and death of St. -Mary of Egypt. - -I do not in general accept modern representations as authorities, nor -quote them as examples; but this resuscitation of Mary of Egypt in a -city where she was so long a favourite saint, appears to me a curious -fact. Her real existence is doubted even by the writers of that Church -which, for fourteen centuries, has celebrated her conversion and -glorified her name. Yet the poetical, the moral significance of her -story remains; and, as I have reason to know, can still impress the -fancy, and, through the fancy, waken the conscience and touch the heart. - -There were several other legends current in the early ages of -Christianity, promulgated, it should seem, with the distinct purpose of -calling the frail and shining woman to repentance. If these were not -pure inventions, if the names of these beatified penitents retained in -the offices of the Church must be taken as evidence that they _did_ -exist, it is not less certain that the prototype in all these cases -was the reclaimed woman of the Scriptures, and that it was the pitying -charity of Christ which first taught men and angels to rejoice over the -sinner that repenteth. - - * * * * * - -The legend of MARY, the niece of the hermit Abraham[323] must not be -confounded with that of Mary of Egypt. The scene of this story is -placed in the deserts of Syria. The anchoret Abraham had a brother, -who lived in the world and possessed great riches, and when he died, -leaving an only daughter, she was brought to her uncle Abraham, -apparently because of his great reputation for holiness, to be brought -up as he should think fit. The ideas of this holy man, with regard -to education, seem to have been those entertained by many wise and -religious people since his time; but there was this difference, that -he did not show her the steep and thorny way to heaven, and choose for -himself ‘the primrose path of dalliance.’ Instead of applying to his -charge a code of morality as distinct as possible from his own, he, -more just, only brought up his niece in the same ascetic principles -which he deemed necessary for the salvation of all men. - -Mary, therefore, being brought to her uncle when she was only seven -years old, he built a cell close to his own, in which he shut her -up; and, through a little window, which opened between their cells, -he taught her to say her prayers, to recite the Psalter, to sing -hymns, and dedicated her to a life of holiness and solitude, praying -continually that she might be delivered from the snares of the -arch-enemy, and keeping her far, as he thought, from all possibility of -temptation; while he daily instructed her to despise and hate all the -pleasures and vanities of the world. - -Thus Mary grew up in her cell till she was twenty years old: then it -happened that a certain youth, who had turned hermit and dwelt in that -desert, came to visit Abraham to receive his instructions; and he -beheld through the window the face of the maiden as she prayed in her -cell, and heard her voice as she sang the morning and the evening hymn; -and he was inflamed with desire of her beauty, till his whole heart -became as a furnace for the love of her; and forgetting his religious -vocation, and moved thereto by the devil, he tempted Mary, and she -fell. When she came to herself, her heart was troubled; she beat her -breast and wept bitterly, thinking of what she had been, what she had -now become; and she despaired, and said in her heart, ‘For me there is -no hope, no return; shame is my portion evermore!’ So she fled, not -daring to meet the face of her uncle, and went to a distant place, and -lived a life of sin and shame for two years. - -Now, on the same night that she fled from her cell, Abraham had a -dream; and he saw in his dream a monstrous dragon, who came to his -cell, and finding there a beautiful white dove, devoured it, and -returned to his den. When the hermit awoke from his dream he was -perplexed, and knew not what it might portend; but again he dreamt, and -he saw the same dragon, and he put his foot on its head, and crushed -it, and took from its maw the beautiful dove, and put it in his bosom, -and it came to life again, and spread its wings and flew towards heaven. - -Then the old man knew that this must relate to his niece Mary; so -he took up his staff, and went forth through the world seeking her -everywhere. At length he found her, and seeing her overpowered with -shame and despair, he exhorted her to take courage, and comforted her, -and promised to take her sin and her penance on himself. She wept and -embraced his knees, and said, ‘O my father! if thou thinkest there is -hope for me, I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest, and kiss -thy footsteps which lead me out of this gulf of sin and death!’ So he -prayed with her, and reminded her that God did not desire the death of -a sinner, but rather that he should turn from his wickedness and live; -and she was comforted. And the next morning Abraham rose up and took -his niece by the hand, leaving behind them her gay attire and jewels -and ill-gotten wealth. And they returned together to the cell in the -wilderness. - -From this time did Mary lead a life of penitence and of great humility, -ministering to her aged uncle, who died glorifying God: after his -death, she lived on many years, praising God, and doing good in -humbleness and singleness of heart, and having favour with the people; -so that from all the country round they brought the sick, and those who -were possessed, and she healed them,—such virtue was in her prayers, -although she had been a sinner! Nay, it is written, that even the touch -of her garment restored health to the afflicted. At length she died, -and the angels carried her spirit out of the shadow and the cloud of -sin, into the glory and the joy of heaven. - -Although the legend of Mary the Penitent is accepted by the Church, -which celebrates her conversion on the 29th of October, effigies of -her must be rare; I have never met with any devotional representation -of her. A print attributed to Albert Dürer represents the hermit -Abraham bringing back his penitent niece to his cell.[324] - -In the Louvre are two large landscapes by Philippe de Champagne, which -in poetry and grandeur of conception come near to those of Niccolò -Poussin; both represent scenes from the life of Mary the Penitent. In -the first, amid a wild and rocky landscape, is the cell of Abraham, and -Mary, sitting within it, is visited by the young hermit who tempted -her to sin: in the second, we have the same wilderness, under another -aspect; Mary, in a rude secluded hut, embowered in trees, is visited -by pilgrims and votaries, who bring to her on their shoulders and on -litters, the sick and the afflicted, to be healed by her prayers. The -daughter of Champagne, whom he tenderly loved, was a nun at Port-Royal, -and I think it probable that these pictures (like others of his works) -were painted for that celebrated convent. - - * * * * * - -St. Thais, a renowned Greek saint, is another of these ‘_bienheureuses -pécheresses_,’ not the same who sat at Alexander’s feast, and fired -Persepolis, but a firebrand in her own way. St. Pelagia, called -_Pelagia Meretrix_ and _Pelagia Mima_ (for she was also an actress), is -another. These I pass over without further notice, because I have never -seen nor read of any representation of them in Western Art. - -St. Afra, who sealed her conversion with her blood, will be found among -the Martyrs. - -Poets have sung, and moralists and sages have taught, that for the -frail woman there was nothing left but to die; or if more remained -for her to suffer, there was at least nothing left for her to be or -do: no choice between sackcloth and ashes and the livery of sin. The -beatified penitents of the early Christian Church spoke another lesson; -spoke divinely of hope for the fallen, hope without self-abasement or -defiance. We, in these days, acknowledge no such saints: we have even -done our best to dethrone Mary Magdalene; but we have martyrs,—‘by the -pang without the palm,’—and _one_ at least among these who has not -died without lifting up a voice of eloquent and solemn warning; who -has borne her palm on earth, and whose starry crown may be seen on high -even now, amid the constellations of Genius. - - -[Illustration] - - - LONDON: PRINTED BY - SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE - AND PARLIAMENT STREET - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Milman, Hist. of Christianity, iii. 540. - -[2] Venice; SS. Giovanni e Paolo. - -[3] Siena; San Domenico. - -[4] Rome; Vatican. - -[5] Dresden Gal. - -[6] The Saints who do not appear in these volumes will be found in the -‘Legends of the Monastic Orders.’ - -[7] ‘Avant le 5me siècle le nimbe chrétien ne se voit pas sur les -monuments _authentiques_.’ (Didron, Iconographie, p. 101.) - -[8] A metal circle, like a round plate, was fastened on the head of -those statues placed in the open air, to defend them from the rain or -dust. Some of the ancient glories are very like those plates, but I do -not think they are derived from them. - -[9] I believe these coloured glories to be symbolical, but am not -sure of the application of the colours. Among the miniatures of the -_Hortus Deliciarum_, painted in 1180, is a representation of the -celestial paradise, in which the virgins, the apostles, the martyrs, -and confessors wear the golden nimbus; the prophets and the patriarchs, -the white or silver nimbus; the saints who strove with temptation, the -red nimbus; those who were married have the nimbus green, while the -beatified penitents have theirs of a yellowish white, somewhat shaded. -(Didron, Iconographie Chrétienne, p. 168.) - -[10] In the example of St. Jerome, a lion may have originally typified -any hinderance in the way of study or of duty; in allusion to the text, -‘The slothful man saith, There is a lion by the way.’ Prov. xxvi. 13. - -[11] _Vide_ ‘Legends of the Madonna.’ - -[12] In the Spanish schools the colour of our Saviour’s mantle is -generally a deep rich violet. - -[13] Bologna Gal. - -[14] 2 Sam. xiv. 17. - -[15] Gen. xxxii. 1, 2; Ps. ciii. 21; 1 Kings xxii. 19; Job i. 6. - -[16] Gen. xxii. 11; Exod. xiv. 19; Num. xx. 16; Gen. xxi. 17; Judg. -xiii. 3; 2 Kings i. 3; Ps. xxxiv. 7; Judith xiii. 20. - -[17] 2 Sam. xxiv. 16; 2 Kings xix. 35; Gen: xviii. 8; Num. xxii. 31; 1 -Chron. xxi. 16; Gen. xix. 13. - -[18] Calmet. - -[19] Matt. xxvi. 53; Heb. xii. 22; Matt. xxii. 30; Luke xx. 36; Matt. -xix. 24; Luke i. 11; Acts v. 19, _et passim_; Luke xv. 10; 1 Peter i. -12; Luke xvi. 22; Heb. i. 14; 1 Cor. xi. 10; Matt. i. 20, xvi. 27, xxv. -31. - -[20] Rom. viii. 38; Col. i. 16; Ephes. i. 21. - -[21] I know not whether it be necessary to observe here, that in -early Art the souls of the blessed are not represented as angels, nor -regarded as belonging to this order of spiritual beings, though I -believe it is a very common notion that we are to rise from the dead -with the angelic attributes as well as the angelic nature. For this -belief there is no warrant in Scripture, unless Mark xii. 25 be so -interpreted. - -[22] Now in the Collection of Prince Wallerstein at Kensington Palace. - -[23] Vasari, p. 648. Fl. edit. - -[24] I saw in the palace of the Bishop of Norwich an elegant little -bas-relief in alabaster, exhibiting the nine choirs, each represented -by a single angel. The first (the Seraphim) hold the sacramental cup; -the Cherubim, a book; the Thrones, a throne; the Principalities, a -bunch of lilies; the Archangels are armed. The other attributes are not -clearly made out. - -The figures have been ornamented with painting and gilding, now -partially worn off, and the style is of the early part of the fifteenth -century. It appeared to me to have formed one of the compartments of an -altar-piece. - -[25] As in the picture in our National Gallery, No. 10. - -[26] Vatican: Raphael’s fresco. - -[27] _v._ Purg. c. viii.; Par. c. xxxi.; Purg. c. xxiv. - -[28] The Cherubim in the upper lights of the painted windows at -St. Michael’s, Coventry, and at Cirencester, are represented each -standing on a white wheel with eight spokes. They have six wings, of -peacocks’ feathers, of a rich yellow colour. A white cross surmounts -the forehead, and both arms and legs are covered with short plumage. -The extremities are human and bare. At Cirencester the Cherubim hold a -book; at Coventry a scroll. - -[29] In the sacristy of the Vatican. - -[30] In the Louvre. - -[31] In the Cathedral at Orvieto. - -[32] In the _Frari_ at Venice. - -[33] Gen. xviii., xlviii. 16. - -[34] Purg. c. viii. - -[35] 1 Kings vi. 23. - -[36] MS. 10th century. Paris, Bibl. Nationale. - -[37] MS. 13th century, Breviaire de St. Louis. - -[38] Paris. Bibl. Nat., No. 510. G. MS. - -[39] As in the legend of Prometheus. (Plato, Protag. p. 320.) - -[40] Sutherland Gallery. - -[41] As in Raphael’s fresco in the Vatican. - -[42] As in the picture by Allston, painted for Lord Egremont, and now -at Petworth. - -[43] As in a picture by F. Bol. - -[44] See ‘Legends of the Madonna,’ p. 180. - -[45] For several curious and interesting particulars relative to these -subjects, see the ‘Legends of the Madonna,’ pp. 247, 256. - -[46] The picture is, I suspect, not by Poussin, but by Stella. There is -another, similar, by Guido; Louvre, 1057. - -[47] Ciampini, p. 131, A.D. 394. - -[48] Greek MS. A.D. 867. - -[49] Paris, Bib. Nat., No. 510. - -[50] In the Academy at Florence: they must have formed the side wings -to an enthroned Madonna and Child. - -[51] Gallery of the Vatican. - -[52] S. Maria del Popolo, Rome. - -[53] The mosaics in the dome of the Chigi chapel are so ill lighted -that it is difficult to observe them in detail, but they have lately -been rendered cheaply accessible in the fine set of engravings by -Gruner, an artist who in our day has revived the pure and correct -design and elegant execution of Marc Antonio. - -[54] As in the fresco in the Vatican. - -[55] See the engraving under this title by Marc Antonio; it is properly -St. Cecilia, and not St. Félicité. - -[56] It is now in the Lanti chapel in the church of the Lateran. - -[57] Mr. Ruskin remarks very truly, that in early Christian art there -is a certain confidence, in the way in which angels trust to their -wings, very characteristic of a period of bold and simple conception. -Modern science has taught us that a wing cannot be anatomically joined -to a shoulder; and in proportion as painters approach more and more to -the scientific as distinguished from the contemplative state of mind, -they put the wings of their angels on more timidly, and dwell with -greater emphasis on the human form with less upon the wings, until -these last become a species of decorative appendage, a mere _sign_ of -an angel. But in Giotto’s time an angel was a complete creature, as -much believed in as a bird, and the way in which it would or might -cast itself into the air and lean hither and thither on its plumes, -was as naturally apprehended as the manner of flight of a chough or a -starling. Hence Dante’s simple and most exquisite synonym for angel, -“Bird of God;” and hence also a variety and picturesqueness in the -expression of the movements of the heavenly hierarchies by the earlier -painters, ill replaced by the powers of foreshortening and throwing -naked limbs into fantastic positions, which appear in the cherubic -groups of later times.’ The angels from the Campo Santo at Pisa, -numbered 12, 21, and 32, are instances of this bird-like form. They are -_Uccelli di Dio_. Those numbered 27, 28, and 37 are examples of the -later treatment. - -[58] A.D. 1352. Florence, S. Maria Novella. - -[59] Greek mosaic, A.D. 1174. - -[60] MS. of the Book of Revelation, fourteenth century. Trinity -College, Dublin. - -[61] Coll. of the Duke of Sutherland. - -[62] Hôtel de Cluny, 399. - -[63] _v._ Il perfetto Legendario. 1659. - -[64] The Gnostics taught that the universe was created by the Seven -Great Angels, who ranked next to the _Eons_, or direct emanations from -God: ‘and when a distribution was afterwards made of things, the chief -of the creating angels had the people of the Jews particularly to his -share; a doctrine which in the main was received by many ancients.’—See -Lardner’s ‘History of the Early Heresies.’ I have alluded to the angel -pictured as the agent in creation (p. 39), but the Seven creating -Angels I have not met with in art. This was one of the Gnostic fancies -condemned by the early Church. - -[65] Le Livre des Angeles de Dieu, MS. Paris Bibl. Nat. - -[66] Dr. Arnold has some characteristic remarks on the half-human -effigies of Satan; he objects to the Miltonic representation:—‘By -giving a human likeness, and representing him as a bad man, you -necessarily get some image of what is good, as well as of what is bad, -for no man is entirely evil.’—‘The hoofs, the horns, the tail, were -all useful in this way, as giving you an image of something altogether -disgusting; and so Mephistophiles, and the utterly contemptible and -hateful character of the Little Master in Sintram, are far more true -than the Paradise Lost.’—_Life_, vol. ii. - -[67] Vatican MSS., No. 1613, A.D. 989. - -[68] A.D. 1365. Eremitani. Padua. - -[69] Greek Apocalypse MS. Paris Bibl. Nat. - -[70] Siena Acad. - -[71] By Marco di Ravenna. Bartsch, xiv. 106. - -[72] Brescia. S. Maria delle Grazie. - -[73] Milan, Brera. - -[74] Boisserée Gallery. - -[75] A.D. 1400. Engraved in Lusinio’s ‘Early Florentine Masters.’ - -[76] Milan. Brera. - -[77] Psalter of St. Louis. Bib. de l’Arsenal, Paris. - -[78] See ante, p. 111, for the figure of St. Michael. - -[79] St. Ephrem, Bib. Orient. tom. i. p. 78. De Beausobre, vol. ii. p. -17. - -[80] Didron, Manuel grec., p. 101. - -[81] Judges vi. 11. - -[82] 2 Sam. xxiv. 16. - -[83] Calmet. - -[84] De Oratione, cap. xii. - -[85] Bottari, Tab. xxii. On the early Christian sarcophagi, as I have -already observed, there are no winged angels. In the oft-repeated -subject of the ‘Three Children in the burning fiery furnace,’ the -fourth figure, when introduced, may represent _a_ son of God,—i.e. an -angel; or _the_ Son of God, i.e. Christ, as it has been interpreted in -both senses. - -[86] Bel and the Dragon, 26. - -[87] Bottari, 15, 49, 84. - -[88] See ‘Legends of the Madonna.’ - -[89] ‘The stone on which stood the angel Gabriel when he announced to -the most Blessed Virgin the great mystery of the Incarnation,’ is among -the relies enumerated as existing in the church of the Santa Croce at -Rome. - -[90] In Paradise he sings for ever the famous salutation:— - - Cantando _Ave Maria gratia plena_ - Dinanzi a lei le sue ali distese. - - DANTE, _Par._ 32. - - -[91] See the Ursuline Manual. ‘When an angel anciently appeared to -the patriarchs or prophets, he was received with due honour as being -exalted above them, both by nature and grace; but when an archangel -visited Mary, he was struck with her superior dignity and pre-eminence, -and, approaching, saluted her with admiration and respect. Though -accustomed to the lustre of the highest heavenly spirits, yet he was -dazzled and amazed at the dignity and spiritual glory of her whom he -came to salute Mother of God, while the attention of the whole heavenly -court was with rapture fixed upon her.’ - -[92] The Annunciation and the Death of the Virgin, and the office and -character of the announcing angel in both subjects, are fully treated -and illustrated in the ‘Legends of the Madonna,’ pp. 179, 334. - -[93] As in a very curious print by ‘Le Graveur de 1466;’ and there are -other instances. - -[94] Chants Royaux. Paris Bibl. Nat. MS. No. 6,989. - -[95] Mr. Stirling entitles this picture ‘An Angel appearing to a Bishop -at his prayers.’ - -[96] In the church of S. Marziale, Venice. - -[97] Passavant’s Rafael, vol. ii. pp. 6, 150. - -[98] Madrid Gallery. - -[99] Louvre, No. 358. - -[100] In our National Gallery. - -[101] Rupertus, Commentar. in Apocal. c. 4. Mark xvi. 16. - -[102] Fl. Acad. - -[103] There is a small and beautiful picture by Giulio Romano in the -Belvedere at Vienna, representing the emblems of the Four Evangelists -grouped in a picturesque manner, which was probably suggested by -Raphael’s celebrated picture, which is in the Pitti palace at Florence. - -[104] Grosvenor Gallery. - -[105] Dresden Gallery. No. 828. - -[106] Paris, Bib. du Roi, No. 510. - -[107] A.D. 1377. Eng. in Rossini, pl. 24. - -[108] Designed by Titian, and executed by F. Zuccati. - -[109] It is so like Giorgione in sentiment and colour that it has -been attributed to him. For this expressive votive group, see the -frontispiece to vol. ii., and the legends of the four patron saints -above mentioned. - -[110] Beneath the monument of Nicolò Orsini, in the SS. -Giovanni-e-Paolo at Venice. A very remarkable and beautiful picture -of this class is in the Berlin Gallery (No. 316). St. Mark, enthroned -and holding his gospel open on his knees, is instructing three of the -_Procuradori di San Marco_, who kneel before him in their rich crimson -dresses, and listen reverently. - -[111] Venice Ducal Palace. - -[112] Fl. Gal. - -[113] Venice Acad. - -[114] Brera, Milan. - -[115] Brera, Milan. - -[116] A.D. 1500. Scuola di S. Marco, Venice. - -[117] Fl. Gal. - -[118] The _Procuradori_ had the charge of the church and the treasury -of St. Mark. - -[119] Sanuto, Vite de’ Duci Veneti. - -[120] Acad. Venice. - -[121] Acad. Venice. - -[122] Ibid. - -[123] Venice, Ducal Palace. - -[124] The little black Virgin of the Monte della Guardia, near Bologna, -I saw carried in grand procession through the streets of that city, -in May 1847. The following inscription is engraved on a tablet in -the church of San Domenico and San Sisto at Rome: ‘Here at the high -altar is preserved that image of the most blessed Mary, which, being -delineated by St. Luke the Evangelist, received its colours and -form divinely. This is that image with which St. Gregory the Great -(according to St. Antonine), as a suppliant, purified Rome; and -the pestilence being dispelled, the angel messenger of peace, from -the summit of the castle of Adrian, commanding the Queen of Heaven -to rejoice, restored health to the city.’ A Virgin in the Ara Cœli -pretends to the same honour: both these are black and ugly, while that -in the S. Maria in Cosmedino is of uncommon dignity and beauty. See -‘Legends of the Madonna,’ Introduction, p. xli. - -[125] MS. A.D. 1500. Paris, Bib. Imp. - -[126] F. Rizi. A.D. 1660. - -[127] As in the Missal of Henry VIII. Bodleian, Oxford. - -[128] Both among the fine lithographs of the Boisserée Gallery. (_v._ -Nos. 5, 15, 25.) - -[129] Acad. Bologna. - -[130] Musée, Marseilles. - -[131] Leigh Court, Gal. of Mr. Miles. - -[132] Petersburg, Gal. of Prince Narishken. Eng. by Müller. - -[133] Munich Gal. - -[134] Westmin. Abbey. - -[135] Rome, S. Maria-sopra-Minerva. - -[136] _v._ ‘Legends of the Madonna.’ - -[137] Brera, Milan. - -[138] We find among the relics exhibited on great occasions in the -church of the S. Croce at Rome ‘the cup in which St. John, the apostle -and evangelist, by command of Domitian the emperor, drank poison -without receiving any injury; which afterwards being tasted by his -attendants, on the instant they fell dead.’ - -[139] Vatican MSS., tenth century. - -[140] MSS., ninth century. Paris Nat. Library. - -[141] Vatican, Christian Museum. - -[142] Johannis Brompton Cronicon, 955. - -[143] Dart’s Hist. of Westminster. - -[144] _v._ Legend of St. Edward the Confessor in the ‘Legends of the -Monastic Orders,’ p. 99. - -[145] Rome. S. M. in Trastevere. S. Prassede. S. Clemente. S. Cecilia. - -[146] Bottari, Tab. xxviii. - -[147] The churches in the eastern provinces of France, particularly in -Champagne, exhibit marked traces of the influence of Greek Art in the -eleventh and twelfth centuries. - -[148] A.D. 451. Ciampini, Vet. Mon. p. 1, c. iv. - -[149] Matt. xix. 28; and Luke xxii. 30. - -[150] I must refer the reader to Mr. Cockerell’s illustrations and -restorations of the rich and multifarious and significant sculpture of -Wells Cathedral. - -[151] Luke xxii. 30. - -[152] Venice Acad., fourteenth century. - -[153] Rosini, vol. iii. p. 75. - -[154] Convent of Chilandari, Mount Athos. - -[155] Vatican, Sala del Pozzo. - -[156] Vatican. - -[157] Greek MS., ninth century. Paris, Bibl. du Roi, No. 510. - -[158] A set of martyrdoms is in the Frankfort Museum; another is -mentioned in Bartsch, viii. 22. - -[159] Eusebius says that _all_ the Apostles suffered martyrdom; but -this is not borne out by any ancient testimony.—_Lardner’s Cred. of -Gospel Hist._ vol. viii. p. 81. - -[160] They were fortunately engraved for D’Agincourt’s _Histoire de -l’Art_, before they were destroyed by fire. - -[161] St. Guthlac’s Book. Ethelwold’s Benedictional. - -[162] As in the mosaic on the tomb of Otho II. (Lateran Mus.). - -[163] Bottari, Tab. xxv. - -[164] One of the finest I have ever seen is the ‘Saint Pierre au -Donateur,’ by Gaudenzio Ferrari; holding his keys (both of gold), he -presents a kneeling votary, a man of middle age, who probably bore -his name. The head of St. Peter is very characteristic, and has an -energetic pleading expression, almost _demanding_ what he requires for -his votary. The whole picture is extremely fine. (_Turin Gallery_, No. -19.) - -[165] Milan, Brera (No. 189). - -[166] What St. Clement says is to this purpose: that St. Peter’s -hearers at Rome were desirous of having his sermons writ down for their -use; that they made their request to Mark to leave them a written -memorial of the doctrine they had received by word of mouth; that they -did not desist from their entreaties till they had prevailed upon him; -and St. Peter confirmed that writing by his authority, that it might be -read in the churches.’—LARDNER, _Cred._, vol. i. p. 250. - -[167] Fl. Gal. - -[168] Brera, Milan. - -[169] Gian Bellini: Venice. S. M. de’ Frari. - -[170] Vienna Gal. - -[171] Bartsch, vi. 92. - -[172] ‘Le Christ à la Colonne.’ _Louvre_, No. 550. - -[173] Tab. xxi. - -[174] Hampton Court. - -[175] Madrid Gal., No. 114. - -[176] Bridgewater Gal. - -[177] Cathedral at Malines. - -[178] Gal. of the Hague. - -[179] This picture, formerly in the Brera, is now in England, in the -gallery of Lord Ward. It is the finest and most characteristic specimen -of the master I have ever seen. - -[180] It is signed MẼDULAÉ, and attributed to Giulio della Mendula; a -painter (except through this picture) unknown to me. - -[181] Brancacci Chapel, Florence. - -[182] Berlin Gal., No. 313. - -[183] Louvre, No. 685. - -[184] As in the Greek mosaics in the Cathedral of Monreale, near -Palermo. - -[185] Several such pictures are in the royal collections at Windsor and -Hampton Court. - -[186] Moore makes a characteristic remark on this fresco; he is -_amazed_ at the self-denial of the painter who could cross this fine -group with the black iron bars which represent the prison. - -[187] Some Protestant writers have set aside St. Peter’s ministry at -Rome, as altogether apocryphal; but Gieseler, an author by no means -credulous, considers that the historical evidence is in favour of the -tradition (_v._ Text-book of Eccles. Hist. p. 53). This is the more -satisfactory because, even to Protestants, it is not agreeable to be at -Rome and to be obliged to reject certain associations which add to the -poetical, as well as to the religious, interest of the place. - -[188] He represented her as a resuscitation of the famous Helen of -Troy, which is said to have suggested to Goethe the resuscitation of -Helena in the second part of ‘Faust.’ - -[189] MS., Vatican, No. 6409. 10th century. - -[190] In the sacristy of the Vatican. - -[191] In the Brancacci Chapel at Florence. - -[192] In the Gallery of the Vatican. - -[193] Vatican. Capella Paolina. - -[194] _v._ Il perfetto Legendario. - -[195] There was an oratory in the church of the Franciscans at -Varallo, in which they celebrated a yearly festival in honour of St. -Petronilla. While Gaudenzio Ferrari was painting there the series -of frescoes in the chapel of the crucifixion on the Sacro Monte, he -promised to paint for the festival an effigy of the saint. The eve of -the day arrived, and still it was not begun: the people murmured, and -reproached him, which he affected to treat jestingly; but he arose in -the night, and with no other light than the beams of the full moon, -executed a charming figure of St. Petronilla, which still exists. She -stands holding a book, a white veil over her head, and a yellow mantle -falling in rich folds: she has no distinctive emblem. ‘Gaudenzio, che -in una bella notte d’estate dipinse fra ruvide muraglie una Santa -tutta grazia e pudore mentre un pallido raggio di luna sbucato dalla -frondosa chioma d’albero dolcemente gl’irradia la fronte calva e la -barba rossiccia, presenta un non so che di ideale e di romanzesco che -veramente rapisce.’—Opere di Gaudenzio Ferrari, No. 21. (Maggi, Turin. -It is to be regretted that in this valuable work neither the pages nor -the plates are numbered.) - -[196] Second or third century. Bosio, p. 519. - -[197] _v._ Münter’s Sinnbilder, p. 35. - -[198] _v._ Zani. Enc. delle Belle Arti. - -[199] In the gallery of Mr. Miles, at Leigh Court. - -[200] Those who consult the engravings by Santi Bartoli and Landon -must bear in mind that almost all the references are erroneous. See -Passavant’s ‘Rafael,’ ii. 245. - -[201] The clergy who permitted Sir James Thornhill to paint the cupola -of St. Paul’s with Scripture scenes, refused to admit any other -paintings into the church. Perhaps they were justified; but not by the -plea of Bishop Terrick—the fear of idolatry. - -[202] This series, the most important work of the painter, Hans -Schaufelein, is not mentioned in Kugler’s Handbook. It is engraved in -outline in the ‘New Florence Gallery,’ published in 1837. - -[203] ‘St. Paul prevents his jailor from killing himself’ (Acts xvi.) -has been lately painted by Claude Hallé, and is now in the Louvre. -(École française, No. 283.) - -[204] In the Dresden Gal., No. 821. - -[205] Bartsch, vii. 79. - -[206] Théologie des Peintres. - -[207] In several ancient pictures and bas-reliefs the cross has the -usual form, but he is not nailed—always bound with cords, as in the -ancient bas-relief over the portal of his church at Vercelli. - -[208] Gallery of the Vatican. - -[209] Munich, 363. - -[210] In the collection of Mr. Miles at Leigh Court. - -[211] Hermogenes was the name of a famous Gnostic teacher and -philosopher; thence, I suppose, adopted into this legend. - -[212] _v._ Southey, ‘Pilgrim of Compostella.’ - -[213] Passavant’s Rafael, I. 508. - -[214] Duomo, Siena. - -[215] Belvedere, Vienna. - -[216] Venice Acad. - -[217] Rome, S. Maria-in-Trastevere. A.D. 1397. - -[218] Stirling’s ‘Artists of Spain,’ ii. p. 753. - -[219] Legenda Aurea. - -[220] Gallery of Antwerp. - -[221] Passavant’s Rafael, II. 116. - -[222] Eng. by Audran. - -[223] Gal. Vatican. - -[224] Fl. Acad. - -[225] Fl. Gal. - -[226] Florence, Casa Ruccellai. - -[227] The romantic Legend of the _sacratissima cintola_, ‘the most -sacred girdle of the Virgin,’ is given at length in the ‘Legends of the -Madonna,’ p. 344. - -[228] ‘Very soon after the Lord was risen, he went to James, and showed -himself to him. For James had solemnly sworn that he would eat no bread -from the time that he had drunk the cup of the Lord till he should see -him risen from among them that sleep. “Bring,” saith the Lord, “a table -and bread.” He took bread, and blessed and brake it, and then gave it -to James the Just, and said to him, “My brother, eat thy bread; for the -Son of man is risen from among them that sleep.”’—St. Jerome, as quoted -in Lardner, _Lives of the Apostles_, chap. xvi. - -[229] Matt. xiii. 55; Mark xv. 40. - -[230] Fl. Gal. - -[231] Fl. Acad. - -[232] See Ford’s ‘Handbook of Spain;’ also Goethe’s ‘Theory of -Colours,’ translated by Sir C. Eastlake. ‘When a yellow colour is -communicated to dull and coarse surfaces, such as common cloth, -felt, or the like, on which it does not appear with full energy, the -disagreeable effect alluded to is apparent. By a slight and scarcely -perceptible change, the beautiful impression of fire and gold is -transformed into one not undeserving the epithet foul, and the colour -of honour and joy reversed to that of ignominy and aversion. To this -impression, the yellow hats of bankrupts, and the yellow circles on the -mantles of Jews, may have owed their origin.’ (P. 308.) - -[233] Fl. Gal. - -[234] Manfrini P., Venice. - -[235] Fl. Acad. - -[236] In the gallery of Lord Charlemont, Dublin. - -[237] MS., No. 7206. Bib. du Roi. - -[238] Florence, S. Maria Novella. It is clear that the extravagant -legends which refer to Judas Iscariot were the inventions of the -middle ages, and are as little countenanced by the writings of the -early fathers as by the Gospels. Eusebius says, that ‘Christ gave like -gifts to Judas with the other apostles; that once our Saviour had good -hopes of him on account of the power of the free will, for Judas was -not of such a nature as rendered his salvation impossible; like the -other apostles, he might have been instructed by the Son of God, and -might have been a sincere and good disciple.’ (Quoted in Lardner, vol. -viii. p. 77.) The Mahometans believe that Christ did not die, that -he ascended alive into heaven, and that Judas was crucified in his -likeness. (Curzon, p. 185.) - -[239] The Greek expression, ‘leaning on his bosom, or on his lap,’ -is not, I believe, to be taken literally, being used to signify an -intimate and affectionate intercourse. - -[240] Florence Acad. - -[241] In the series of compositions from the life of Christ, now in the -Academy at Florence; beautifully and faithfully engraved by P. Nocchi. - -[242] This is also observable in the Last Supper by Nicolò Petri in the -San Francesco at Pisa. - -[243] For a signal example, see Stirling’s ‘Artists of Spain,’ p. 493. - -[244] For some remarks on the subject of the Pentecost, _v._ ‘Legends -of the Madonna,’ p. 325. - -[245] Acad. Venice. Giovanni ed Antonio da Murano. 1440. - -[246] As I have frequent occasion to refer to pictures painted for -the _Scuole_ of Venice, it may be as well to observe that the word -_scuola_, which we translate _school_, is not a place of education, but -a confraternity for charitable purposes,—visiting the sick, providing -hospitals, adopting orphans, redeeming prisoners and captives, &c. -In the days of the republic these schools were richly supported and -endowed, and the halls, churches, and chapels attached to them were -often galleries of art: such were the schools of St. Mark, St. Ursula, -St. Roch, the Carità and others. Unhappily, they exist no longer; the -French seized on their funds, and Austria does not like confraternities -of any kind. The Scuola della Carità is now the Academy of Arts. - -[247] Acad. Venice. Gio. da Udine. - -[248] Frankfort Museum. - -[249] We missed the opportunity, now never more to be recalled, of -obtaining this admirable picture when it was sold out of the Fesch -collection. - -[250] I believe the figure called St. Bonaventura, to represent St. -Jerome, because, in accordance with the usual scheme of ecclesiastical -decoration, the greatest of the four Latin Fathers would take the first -place, and the cardinal’s hat and the long flowing beard are his proper -attribute; whereas there is no example of a St. Bonaventura with a -beard, or wearing the monastic habit without the Franciscan cord. The -Arundel Society have engraved this fine figure under the name of St. -Bonaventura. - -[251] Dresden Gal. - -[252] Imp. Gal., St. Petersburg. - -[253] Vienna Gal. - -[254] In the catalogue, St. Cunegunda is styled _St. Elizabeth Queen of -Hungary_, and St. Elizabeth of Hungary is styled _St. Elizabeth Queen -of Portugal_. - -[255] Irish Bishop of Würtzburg, and Patron, A.D. 689. - -[256] ‘In this picture we recognise the master to whom Albert Dürer was -indebted for his education; indeed, Wohlgemuth here surpasses his great -scholar in the expression of gentleness and simplicity, particularly in -the heads of some of the female saints.’—_Handbook of Painting: German, -Flemish, and Dutch Schools_, p. 111. - -[257] Florence, Ogni Santi. - -[258] Bologna, S. Maria Maggiore. - -[259] The picture, originally at Naples, was purchased or appropriated -by Philip IV. for the Church of the Escurial, which belonged to the -Jeronymites. - -[260] Milan, Brera. - -[261] Collection of Lord Ward. - -[262] Louvre, Sp. Gal. - -[263] P. Pitti, Florence. - -[264] Lichtenstein Gal. - -[265] Kugler pronounces this to be a Flemish picture (_v._ ‘Handbook,’ -p. 190). - -[266] The three frescoes by Carpaccio are in the Church of San Giorgio -de’ Schiavoni at Venice. - -[267] It was in the Standish Gal. in the Louvre. - -[268] Engraved by Loli. - -[269] Wolvinus, A.D. 832. ‘His name seems to indicate that he was of -Teutonic race—a circumstance which has excited much controversy amongst -the modern Italian antiquaries.’—_Murray’s Handbook._ - -[270] Belvedere Gal., Vienna. - -[271] Paris, Invalides. - -[272] SS. Giovan e Paolo, Venice. - -[273] Brera, Milan. - -[274] Fl. Gal. - -[275] Pitti Pal. This fine picture was painted for the Agostini. - -[276] Brera, Milan. - -[277] Berlin Gal. - -[278] Acad., Venice. - -[279] Vatican, Christian Museum. - -[280] Cremona. - -[281] Belvedere, Vienna. - -[282] _v._ ‘Legends of the Monastic Orders,’ p. 191. - -[283] I believe this picture was afterwards in the possession of Mr. -Dennistoun, of Dennistoun. Mr. Stirling mentions it as a fine specimen -of Murillo’s second style. - -[284] Once in Lord Methuen’s Gallery at Corsham. - -[285] It was in the possession of Her Majesty the Ex-Queen of the -French, who paid for it 25,000f. - -[286] There is a duplicate in the Bridgewater Gallery. - -[287] Sutherland Gal. - -[288] Vicenza. S. Maria del Monte. - -[289] Bartsch, _Le Peintre Graveur_, vii. 264. - -[290] For an account of St. Nilus, and the foundation of Grotta -Ferrata, see the ‘Legends of the Monastic Orders.’ - -[291] According to Sansovino, begun by Giorgione and finished by -Sebastian. - -[292] Dante, _Inf._ c. xi. - -[293] The Greek word _Papa_, here translated _der Papst_ (the Pope), -betrays the Eastern origin of the story. It is the general title of the -Greek priesthood, and means simply a priest, elevated in the German -legend into ‘the Pope.’ - -[294] Koburgher, ‘Legendensammlung,’ 1488, p. 325. Heller’s ‘Leben und -Werke Albrecht Dürer’s,’ p. 440. - -[295] Sutherland Gal. - -[296] ‘_La Messe de saint Basile._’ Louvre, École française, No. 508. - -[297] ‘Pour vous ramener à des idées plus favorables à la Madeleine, -vous transportant au temps et aux circonstances où vécut cette célèbre -Israélite, je pourrais vous dire, MESSIEURS, que l’antiquité, ne -jugeant pas équitable d’exiger plus de vertu du sexe réputé pour -le plus faible, ne croyait pas les femmes déshonorées de ce qui ne -déshonorait pas les hommes à ses yeux; qu’elle a d’ailleurs toujours -été bien moins sévère à des sentiments qui, naissant avec nous, lui -paraissaient une partie de nous-mêmes, et qu’elle n’attacha jamais -aucune idée flétrissante aux suites d’une passion qu’elle trouvait -presque aussi pardonnable que naturelle. Les grâces de la beauté -étaient alors regardées comme les autres talents; et l’art de plaire, -aussi autorisé que les autres arts, loin d’inspirer de l’éloignement,’ -&c. - -After describing, in glowing terms, her splendid position in the world, -her illustrious rank, her understanding, ‘_droit, solide, et délicat_,’ -her ‘_grâce_,’ her ‘_esprit_,’ her wondrous beauty, particularly -her superb hair, ‘_cultivé avec tant de soin, arrangé avec tant -d’art_;’—and lamenting that a creature thus nobly gifted should have -been cast away upon the same rock which had shipwrecked the greatest, -the most illustrious, of her _compatriotes, ‘le fort Samson, le preux -David, le sage Salomon_;’ he goes on to describe, with real eloquence, -and in a less offensive strain of panegyric, her devotion at the foot -of the cross, her pious visit to the tomb by break of day, braving the -fury of the guards, the cruelty of the Jews, and taking the place of -the apostles, who were dispersed or fled. And thus he winds up with a -moral, most extraordinary when we recollect that it was preached from a -pulpit by a grave doctor in theology:— - -‘Jeunes personnes qui vivez encore dans l’innocence! apprenez donc -de la Madeleine combien grands sont les périls de la jeunesse, de la -beauté, de tous les dons purement naturels; souvenez-vous que le désir -excessif de plaire est toujours dangereux, rarement innocent, et qu’il -est bien difficile de donner beaucoup de sentiments, sans en prendre -soi-même. A la vue des faiblesses de la jeune Israélite, comprenez de -quelle importance est, pour vous, la garde de votre cœur; et à quels -désordres il vous expose, si vous ne vous accoutumez à le contrarier -sans cesse, en tous ses penchants. - -‘Femmes mondaines, et peut-être voluptueuses! apprenez de la -Madeleine à revenir de vos écarts; ils ont été, dans vous, le fruit -de la faiblesse humaine; que votre retour soit le fruit de votre -correspondance à la grâce. Et pourriez-vous ou vous proposer un modèle -plus digne d’être suivi que celui que vous présente Madeleine, ou -trouver ailleurs un motif plus puissant de le suivre? - -‘Et vous qui, fières d’une réserve que vous ne devez peut-être qu’à -votre insensibilité, vous en faites un rempart, à l’abri duquel vous -croyez pouvoir mépriser toute la terre, et dont la mondanité de -Madeleine elle-même a peut-être scandalisé la précieuse vertu! femmes -plus vaines que sages! apprenez de notre Sainte, qu’il n’y a que la -grâce de Dieu et une attention continuelle sur nous-mêmes qui puissent -nous aider constamment contre la pente qui nous précipite vers le -mal; et craignez qu’on ne puisse vous dire, à son sujet, ce quo Saint -Augustin disait à une dévote de votre caractère, pleine d’elle-même et -médisante: “Plût à Dieu que vous eussiez donné dans les mêmes excès -dont vous croyez si volontiers les autres capables! vous seriez moins -éloignée du royaume de Dieu; du moins vous auriez de l’humanité!”’ - -Le Brun’s Magdalene is just the Magdalene described by this preacher: -both one and the other are as like the Magdalene of Scripture as Leo X. -was like St. Peter. - -[298] The original Latin distich runs thus:— - - Ne desperetis vos qui peccare soletis, - Exemploque meo vos reparate Deo. - - -[299] It was in the Standish Gallery belonging to Louis-Philippe, and -now dispersed. - -[300] There is a beautiful half-length female figure, attributed to -Correggio, and engraved under the title of ‘Gismunda’ weeping over -the heart of her lover, in the collection of the Duke of Newcastle. -The duplicate in the Belvedere Gallery at Vienna is there styled a -Magdalene, and attributed correctly to Francesco Furini. - -[301] Lichtenstein Gal. - -[302] These two pictures were sold out of the Louvre with King -Louis-Philippe’s pictures. - -[303] Turin Gallery. - -[304] Munich Gallery, No. 266. There is an inferior repetition in the -Royal Gallery at Turin. - -[305] The great picture formerly in the Durazzo Palace is now in the -Royal Gallery at Turin. It is wonderful for life and colour, and -dramatic feeling—a masterpiece of the painter in his characteristic -style. - -[306] Bottari, Tab. xxx. - -[307] Santa Croce, Florence. - -[308] This beautiful and valuable picture has been bequeathed by the -poet to the National Gallery. - -[309] The print by Edelinck is considered as the masterpiece of that -celebrated engraver. - -[310] Dresden Gal. - -[311] See p. 379, _note_. - -[312] There are about 150 churches in England dedicated in honour of -Mary Magdalene. - -[313] There is a fine series of frescoes from the life of Mary -Magdalene by Gaudenzio Ferrari, in the church of St. Cristoforo at -Vercelli. 1. Mary and Martha are seated, with a crowd of others, -listening to Christ, who is preaching in a pulpit. Martha is veiled and -thoughtful: Mary, richly dressed, looks up eagerly.—Half destroyed. 2. -Mary anoints the feet of the Saviour: she lays her head down on his -foot with a tender humiliation: in the background the Maries at the -sepulchre and the _Noli me tangere_.—This also in great part ruined. -3. The legend of the Prince of Provence and his wife, who are kneeling -before Lazarus and Mary. Martha is to the left, and Marcella behind. In -the background are the various scenes of the legend:—the embarkation; -the scene on the island; the arrival at Jerusalem; the return to -Marseilles with the child. This is one of the best preserved, and the -heads are remarkably fine. 4. Mary Magdalene sustained by angels, -her feet resting between the wings of one of them, is borne upwards. -All the upper part of the figure is destroyed. In the background are -the last communion and burial of the Magdalene. I saw these frescoes -in October 1855. They suffered greatly from the siege in 1638, when -several bombs shattered this part of the wall, and will soon cease to -exist. They are engraved in their present state in Pianazzi’s ‘Opere di -Gaudenzio Ferrari,’ No. 19. - -[314] Bayle, Dict. Hist.; Molanus, lib. iv., de Hist. Sacrar. S. Mag., -cap. xx. p. 428; Thomasium, prefat. 78. The authority usually cited is -Abdius, a writer who pretended to have lived in the first century, and -whom Bayle styles ‘the most impudent of legendary impostors.’ - -[315] Paris, Bibliothèque du Roi, MS. 7013, fourteenth century. - -[316] Il Perfetto Legendario. - -[317] Queen’s Gal. - -[318] Bodleian MSS., Oxford. - -[319] It is perhaps in reference to this tradition that St. Martha -has become the patroness of an order of charitable women, who serve -in the hospitals, particularly the military hospitals, in France and -elsewhere,—her brother Lazarus having been a soldier. - -[320] Fl. Gal. - -[321] B. Museum. - -[322] It was in the Sp. Gal. in the Louvre, now dispersed. - -[323] Santa Maria Penitente. - -[324] ‘Leben und Werke Von Albrecht Dürer,’ No. 2067. - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SACRED AND LEGENDARY ART, -VOLUME I (OF 2) *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. 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