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diff --git a/old/69571-0.txt b/old/69571-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4411c1e..0000000 --- a/old/69571-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2008 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Euterpe, by Lionel R. McColvin - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Euterpe - Or, the future of art - -Author: Lionel R. McColvin - -Release Date: December 18, 2022 [eBook #69571] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Tim Lindell, David E. Brown, and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was - produced from images made available by the HathiTrust - Digital Library.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EUTERPE *** - - - - - - EUTERPE - OR - THE FUTURE OF ART - - - - - TO-DAY AND TO-MORROW - - _A Full List of the Series will be found at - the end of this Volume_ - - - - - EUTERPE - OR - THE FUTURE OF ART - - BY - - LIONEL R. McCOLVIN - - Author of _The Theory of Book-Selection_, - _Music in Public Libraries_, _etc._ - - LONDON: - KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD. - NEW YORK: E. P. DUTTON & CO. - - - - - Made and Printed in Great Britain by - M. F. Robinson & Co., Ltd., at The Library Press, Lowestoft - - - - -EUTERPE - - - - -I - - -At the outset it will be desirable to state that when I speak of -the future of art I do not mean the “art of the future”. Art can -be considered from either an inside or an outside point of view; -that is to say, we can deal either with its nature, problems, and -performances--art itself, or with the amount and quality of the -interest taken in art by men and women--the “art-life” of the -community. The latter subject is that dealt with here. - -The “art-life” of the civilized world is at present in a transition -period, which is fraught with distinct, though maybe unrealized, -dangers. Its problems are only indirectly related to the present and -the future state of art-production: whether we foresee development or -retrogression in modern tendencies in literature, painting, music, and -so on, these dangers will need to be faced, or they will, at least, -minimize the value of the creative work of to-morrow. For we are -concerned not with the production of art but with the enjoyment and -appreciation of art. As the latter is the more important, since without -it production would be sterile, it is an essential preliminary that -the conditions necessary for the healthy growth of a more widespread, -deeper-rooted love of the beautiful should exist. We are now viewing -the situation as sociologists, as men, rather than as artists. The -artist can be satisfied when he attains a certain level of performance: -at least he can work with content and happiness while he is seeking to -reach a may-be unattainable perfection. He is, naturally and rightly, -concerned with absolute values; and the critic and the individual -lover can maintain the same attitude. If a painting or a poem reaches -perfection, he asks no more. But the sociologist must take a different -attitude. To the artist and the critic the work is the end; to the -sociologist it is the beginning. It is not enough for him to know that -the painting is great, since to him it is only the means by which men -attain artistic enjoyment; it has no significance until it has acted -upon the minds of men. That being so he must ask other questions about -it--firstly, _How many_ men can see it? How many are able to appreciate -its value intelligently, gaining the full aesthetic, spiritual, or -intellectual stimulus from it?--in short, What is the aggregate of its -human significance? - -It does not follow, of course, that we can relate the quality of a -work of art to the “quantity” of its appeal; it would, in fact, be -absurd to suppose that it is necessarily better that 100,000 should -know and appreciate the second-rate than that 100 should love the -finest--neither, with certain reservations, need this necessarily be -untrue. The point I would urge at present is simply that the value -of art to humanity does depend very largely upon the desire and -opportunity of men to take advantage of it. The poet whose works are -ignored saving by the very few may be as impotent as a mute inglorious -Milton. - -Therefore there are two factors--production and reproduction, or, shall -we say, creation and distribution. A musician composes a symphony, -a dramatist writes a play, a novelist a story--that is the first -factor. If no one ever performed the symphony, produced the play, or -published the novel, of what importance would this creation prove to -the world?--Practically none. The art-product must be distributed -before it can accomplish any part of its essential purpose. It -necessarily follows, moreover, that the _wider_ the distribution, the -more adequately will it function. This is all very obvious, though -often forgotten, and will disclose the next step in the argument, -which is that, were it not for certain tendencies, increased means of -reproduction and distribution would lead to a better developed, more -valuable, and more active artistic life. That being so, the present, -which is a period when mankind is enjoying the benefit of recent and -important reproductive inventions, should be imbued with hopeful -tendencies--Is it? - -Yes and no. Let us take stock of our position. Reproduction is -almost entirely a mechanical matter, depending upon non-artistic, -purely material factors. Production is the business of the creative -artists; reproduction that of the scientists. The latter have given -us within recent years inventions which have revolutionized artistic -conditions--the mechanical processes and innumerable secondary -inventions such as stereotyping, and mechanical composition and -binding, which have facilitated the reproduction of printed matter, -the three-colour and other photo-mechanical methods of reproducing -pictorial matter, the gramophone, the piano-player, and wireless to aid -the distribution of music, and so on, throughout the range of pure and -applied art. - -Until recent years the percentage of the population who were in direct -contact with the fine arts had remained much the same in civilized -countries from probably the earliest times. Art had almost invariably -depended upon direct patronage of some kind or other, religious or -secular, if not entirely at least to an important degree. I would -not denounce this; one cannot, when one remembers that the system -fostered art which has not been equalled under the new régime. But -direct patronage by the few is rapidly declining and is to-day almost -negligible. It has been replaced, simply as a result of the mechanical -factor, by a more democratic economic basis. Some arts are still to -some extent produced for the few, but others entirely for the many. The -important fact is that wherever reproduction is easiest that art is the -most democratic--books and music, for example; wherever least possible -its range is narrower and its support less democratic, e.g., sculpture, -household decoration, etc. - - * * * * * - -The character of our artistic experience has therefore to a very large -extent been decided by purely non-artistic factors. That which _can_ -be reproduced has been reproduced, and opportunity has developed -taste. This is a generalization, though not a fallacious one. We -may assume that the artistic needs of men have been led into their -different channels partly as a result of personal inclination, but -very largely through the influence of opportunity. If a number of men -were cast upon a desert island with only books to minister to their -aesthetic needs, the majority would take what was to hand and be quite -content. I am not saying that this is a good tendency but that it is -a true hypothesis, applicable to modern life, and a contention which -is tenable on historical grounds. The favourite pursuits of early -civilizations were not those of to-day, and it is very unlikely that -any one factor has done so much to change taste as the development of -means of reproduction. The pursuit of once-popular arts need not die -out; it need not even decline, since the numbers of those interested in -all the arts is increasing; but the proportionate or relative interest -alters. This being so, can we ignore the influence of the mechanical -factor? It is operating in a striking manner to-day when _relatively_ -music is being appreciated by more and literature by fewer people, when -the theatre is attracting, relatively again, fewer every day than the -cinema, when the graphic arts are becoming more significant than the -plastic arts. - -To ignore the mechanical factor is to put effect before cause. -Certainly the character of taste has influenced the direction of -invention to some extent, since the scientist would naturally turn -first to fields where his work would be most effective. This aspect -should not, however, be magnified. Sooner or later science has given -all it was capable of giving to _every_ form of art, regardless of its -importance or popularity. - -And so we realize that the _character_ of public taste--that is to say, -the proportionate amount of interest in the various arts--has been -dictated by the mechanical factor. We can go still further and assert -that its _quality_ has been largely determined by this same influence. - - - - -II - - -Before we can appreciate the truth of that assertion--that the -quality of public taste has been influenced by mechanical methods of -reproduction--we must be prepared to view the art-life of the community -as a whole. Too often we tend to regard only the better elements, the -top layer, and to ignore the lower strata. We segregate a section of -the populace--that which appreciates, or pretends to appreciate, Art -(with a capital A)--and forget that the remainder, which indulges in -jazz, ‘the pictures’, light fiction, Bovril pictures, and tin-chapel -architecture, is actuated by the same motives. The quality of their -artistic experiences and the standard of their taste and artistic -education may be very different, yet they seek the same kind of -experience as the others. It is entirely a matter of degree. - -Therefore we must regard the art-life of a community, as we must and do -regard its social, religious, or political life, as comprising a little -good, much bad, and more that is indifferent. Once this is realized, -and only then, the full significance of the mechanical factor is -apparent. - -Let us go back to the pre-mechanical era, when only a small number -of people had any opportunity for contact with art and only a few -had developed a love for and the ability to appreciate its higher -manifestations. At the same time a similarly limited populace found -satisfaction in the second, third--and fifth-rate. Probably then, as -now, more enjoyed the second-best than the finest, and so on, though -probably the contrast was not so great as it is now. However that may -be, when a new reproductive process was introduced it was naturally -applied to the lower types rather than to the better, for an obvious -reason. It enabled _more people_ to be brought into contact, and -these newcomers must naturally be unaccustomed to and incapable of -appreciating the best. The education of taste is a slow process, -whereas the new invention was a sudden force, applied immediately in -whatever direction offered it the greatest scope. And so we find at -once an increase in the lower grades of appreciation which is out of -proportion to the benefits bestowed upon the higher. - -The trouble did not end there, however. Greater familiarity tends to -form taste, especially in these matters. Art serves most men chiefly as -a luxury, a relaxation, a recreation; and in our quest for these we are -apt to take that which is most easily obtained. The mechanical factor, -by making the fourth-rate accessible, _generated a desire for the -fourth-rate_: this desire stimulated further reproduction, and this, in -turn, brought more into the artistic fold, at each step lowering the -quality of the most accessible and the most desired. - -The result is that to-day the average quality of the whole artistic -consumption of the populace is considerably lower than it had ever -been before in civilized times. Though every day more and more people -are reading some kind of printed matter, witnessing plays--silent and -audible--of a sort, looking at pictures, penny plain or twopence -coloured, though the time is not far distant when every man will be -interested to some extent in art in one or other of its forms, our -art-life is developing not so much in quality as in quantity. - - - - -III - - -There is, of course, a bright side to the picture, and lest we be -accused of pessimism it will be well to discuss this now. - -In the first place all forms of art, good, bad, and indifferent, have -benefited by mechanical means of reproduction. The actual numbers -of those who can experience the finest things in art have increased -manifold, and to that extent, the art-life of the world is better -off than before. My only contention is that _proportionately_ fewer -appreciate the best, though _actually_ more do so. My only intention -here is to point out the essentially _quantitative_ tendencies of -to-day, lest we should mistake them for something better. Quantity -alone is not everything, and, if we fail to realize these tendencies -and endeavour to counteract their undesirable features, the time will -come when the disproportion between those who seek the worthy and -those who do not will be very dangerous. Why this will be so I hope to -show in the next chapter. - -To return to the bright side--Though quantity is not everything, it -_is_ something. It is better that people should appreciate the lowest -arts than that they should ignore them altogether. Provided, of course, -that any art is not definitely decadent and degenerate, it is better -than none. But even this aspect has its disadvantages. It might be -argued, not without reason, that it is more difficult to wean a person -from the poor thing he knows and has come to like than to introduce an -absolutely artistically-uneducated person to the moderately good. Of -that, however we shall speak later. - -Thirdly, improved reproductive methods have enriched art by enabling -minorities to flourish. - - - - -IV - - -And so we approach the real danger, which is naturally more potent in -some fields than in others. We have seen that the mechanical factor -has, by making the fourth-rate more accessible, increased the number of -those with fourth-rate tastes. Now we encounter the commercial factor -which enters at some stage into every art and almost every artistic -activity. Books, music, and pictures must be published, plays produced, -concerts arranged, art-objects manufactured, and so on. Outlay of -capital is almost invariably involved, and those with capital can -seldom be induced to use it without the usual expectation of gain. In -short, to some person or other nearly _all our artistic experiences are -business propositions_. Practically the only exceptions to this rule -are the institutions maintained at the public expense--art-galleries, -museums, public libraries, etc.--and even these are not entirely -divorced from indirect commercial relationships. - -Thus the nature and extent of art-reproduction are very largely -governed by commercial considerations. The effect of this is easily -seen. The natural desire of the capitalist is to secure the best return -from his investment, and this may be sought in two ways. Either he -may produce something for which there is a large demand, or he may -produce something for which there is less demand and charge more for -it. He will certainly avoid the thing for which there is only a small -or a problematic demand. Let us now remember that the proportion of -those who desire good art is decreasing, and it is clear that the -commercial factor is not improving the standard of public taste. Within -limits the most demand is for the least worth-while, and yet it is the -satisfaction of this demand which makes the most attractive commercial -proposition. He who wants the fine thing prized by a minority must pay -more for it if he is lucky enough to be able to do so and if he is -fortunate enough to have it produced for him, or go without it if he is -not. - -The snowball rolls on. The vicious sequence operates continuously. The -bigger the demand the more ready is the business-man to meet it; the -better the supply, the greater the desire. - -The extent to which the commercial factor is potent varies -considerably, and depends largely upon the amount of capital which -is involved in the single reproductive operation. Fortunately there -are still business-men in the art-producing world who are glad to -compromise, who sometimes put their ideals before their pockets, who -are satisfied so long as they are enabled to pay their way, who are -prepared at times to lose. Accordingly, whenever the capital involved -is not large, and whenever the investor can undertake a number of -contemporary ventures the loss on some of which should be covered by -profits on the others, better though less popular art is given its -chance. - -Probably the most fortunate art in this respect is that of literature -(in the widest sense of the word), and the most unfortunate the drama. -The percentage of worthy books which remain unpublished is very low -compared with that of plays or music, and even this percentage does -not indicate the real difference, since through lack of opportunity, -the number of artists who devote their energies to composition or -play-writing is much smaller than it should be. The reason is obvious. -A small circulation will pay the cost of publishing the average book--a -much smaller circulation (were it not for advertising expenses) than -many imagine; on the other hand, commercial conditions being what they -are, considerable public support is necessary if the producer of a -play, a film, or an orchestral concert is to secure any financial gain. -The publisher, moreover, does not put all his eggs into one basket; -the producer of plays, unless he is in an unusually strong financial -position, must. The former can afford to take occasional risks; the -latter cannot. - -Even in the case of books, however, the reader who seeks the same -kind of reading as many millions of others is in a more favourable -position than the man with individual, minority inclinations. The -greater the volume of reproduction, the lower the cost per copy. Even -were the business-man willing, he could not give the latter the full -benefit of mechanical inventions. It would not be worth his while to -do so. The complete utilization of mechanical methods involves the -use of expensive plant, which is justified only when the output is -large. It is, of course, a matter of degree, and many processes (e.g. -machine-casing of books) can be applied as readily to the few as to the -many. Other processes, on the contrary, never benefit the minority. In -graphic art, for example, there are several colour-processes by which -very cheap reproductions of pictures can be produced, but their use -is, for necessary commercial reasons, confined to popular works. The -pictures required by the few are never reproduced by these methods. - - - - -V - - -We may now summarize the problem, before passing to a discussion of -ways and means to counteract the dangerous tendencies of to-day. - -Firstly--though creative artists and educationists must regard this as -a hard saying--the most powerful force in the art-life of to-day is the -purely mechanical factor. - -Secondly, this factor is to a great extent determining the nature and -amount of art-production and reproduction. - -Thirdly, it is causing a decrease in the average quality of the total -artistic life of the community. - -Fourthly, this degeneration must naturally continue unless it is -counteracted by other influences. - -This statement is not an exaggerated one, and it does not ignore -the good effects of the new order. Even though a certain amount of -repetition is involved, it will be well to discuss in detail the causes -of degeneration in popular tastes. - -(1) Mechanical improvements were applied first to those grades of art -which offered most scope to the commercial element (and are now still -so applied to a greater extent). - -(2) Even if, in the beginning, lower tastes were not in a majority, any -widening of the circle of those interested would inevitably bring in a -large percentage of the artistically uneducated. - -(3) Each widening of the circle would involve a lowering of taste, and -also increase the commercial inducement to cater for the lower grade. - -(4) This being so, those with better tastes become an even smaller -minority, and (though they probably would be _actually_ better off) -they become _relatively_ at a disadvantage economically. Though they -might now have to pay less than they had to before for something, -they nevertheless still have to pay more than those who belong to the -majority. - -(5) Furthermore, the low grade is more accessible, easier to -experience, more frequently offered than the better thing. - -(6) Therefore, since (especially the large numbers whose tastes are -on the border line) we unconsciously tend to follow the easy way, -unless we deliberately seek to improve or maintain our taste, it will -degenerate. It is necessary to remember that art is usually regarded -as a recreation and, in spite of the saying that we take our pleasures -sadly, we do often take a short view, and are satisfied to find that -artistic recreation for the day which is first to hand, without thought -of the morrow. - -(7) In art-matters we are mostly conservative. Neither do we readily -set ourselves apart from our fellows. The history of any “best seller” -will prove this. Up to a point it is read by those who have discovered -that they might like it; after that it is read chiefly “because -everybody else is reading it”. It is wrong to attribute this tendency -to a mere desire to be “in the swim”; much more often it is because -readers, unconsciously classing themselves as average, argue that the -book which interests the average man will interest them. To a large -extent this applies to all popular art. Few people care to “waste their -time” experimenting when it is so much easier to fall in line with the -crowd. The only wonder is how the popularity of the “best seller” and -its kind begins: once that has happened the rest is a normal process. - -(8) The average man, being thus willing to follow the dictates of -the majority, is seldom likely to look elsewhere for his artistic -experiences. And so the tastes of the majority are more firmly -established--and the tastes of to-day form the tastes of to-morrow. - -I would not describe this as a vicious circle. Rather is it a vicious -spiral, the circumference of which ever increases. How can this state -of affairs be altered? - -Let us not be misunderstood. We are not asserting that this world with -its many who appreciate the less valuable is worse than the world of -the pre-mechanical era. Far from it. In every way it is better. The -actual quantity of good artistic endeavour is much greater, and every -increase in the numbers of those who appreciate the least worth-while -is a distinct gain to the community and to the individual. Our anxiety -is not so much for to-day as for to-morrow. There is no reason to doubt -that before long practically the whole population will be interested in -some form and grade of art. It is then that the trouble will begin to -assume serious proportions. Let us take a biological parallel. It is -agreed that if good stocks do not increase at the same rate as inferior -stocks they will gradually die out. If, in a world full of artistic -endeavour the good artistic stocks are not as sturdy as the remainder, -they too will in time die out. So long as the commercial and mechanical -factors are allowed full play, the good artistic stocks will be at a -disadvantage, and so the future of the finest elements of art depends -upon the success of efforts to counteract these factors. We must find -means (1) to make the most desirable art more accessible than it is -now, and (2) to increase the numbers of those who desire it. The latter -will serve two purposes: (_a_) it will help us in the first aim; and -(_b_) it will increase the aggregate quality and value of the artistic -life. - - - - -VI - - -We will deal with the second aim first, and it may be termed roughly -“Education”--the process of increasing a man’s ability to enjoy -better art. The last phrase embodies our idea of the function of -art-education. If education does that--improves the range and quality -of his pleasure in the beautiful--it has performed its prime duty. -Needless to say, we are not speaking now of that branch of education -which concerns itself with the training of practitioners--creative -or executive artists. That is quite a different matter, and one of -our first quarrels with the present system is that these two types of -education are not as clearly distinguished as they need to be. - -There are two classes of people who will benefit by education--those -who wish to enjoy and those who wish to practise. The needs of the two -classes are quite distinct, yet he who would enjoy is often given the -instruction provided (or which should be provided) for the others. The -disadvantages of this are: (_a_) the enjoyer approaches the subject -from quite a different angle, and practical instruction will sometimes -depreciate his appreciative faculties. The outsider sees most of the -game, and, moreover, one with knowledge of technical matters will tend -to allow technical questions to come before purely aesthetic ones; -(_b_) He will spend a great deal of time to no purpose, and will waste -opportunities and leisure which could be more advantageously applied; -(_c_) As he might be, and generally is, entirely devoid of sufficient -creative or executive ability to practise to his own satisfaction a -certain disappointment and disillusionment will colour his regard -for the artistic; (_d_) It is useless and wasteful to give technical -instruction to those who cannot and do not desire to apply it. Neither -does the practitioner gain. There is a tendency to compromise, and so -he does not always obtain the special purposive instruction he needs, -and the personnel and institutions fitted to instruct the practitioner -cannot devote all their energies to this essential work. Any increased -love of art, be it remembered, will cause a much greater demand for -professional creative and executive artists. And (_e_) he probably has -neither the time nor the inclination for practical studies, and so, -if there are no schemes specially for his benefit, he will receive no -education at all. - -Therefore there is a great need for systematic education in the -appreciation of art. Many more attempts are being made to-day than -there were a few years ago; yet the subject--a very difficult one--is -still in its infancy. The methods and aims of such education have not -yet been adequately formulated and must exercise educationists in -the near future. Failing a well-defined plan, they have taken refuge -in aspects of art-instruction which are not those best calculated to -stimulate genuine enjoyment. This explains to some extent the confusion -of practical and appreciative ends. It explains also our addiction to -historical and theoretical studies. He who would study the graphic arts -must try to draw and to paint; the music-lover must acquire some sort -of executive ability, and so devotes enough time to the routine of -“practice” to kill all his enthusiasm; and the student of literature -must become versed in its history. The art-lover is probably not -getting much harm; the music-lover is now often relieved by mechanical -instruments from the necessity for technique; than the historical -studies of the last-named, however, nothing more dreary and futile -could be invented. - -Improvement in the methods of education in appreciation must involve -the total abolition of the Examination system. Examinations may be -able to show whether a man can draw “correctly”, play the notes of -a composition, or is versed in the dates of a number of writers and -able to list their important works. But it cannot possibly give any -indication whether the education in appreciation is achieving its real -aim--the increase of the student’s ability to enjoy more and better -things, to find greater happiness and richer artistic experiences. -Those who would develop the appreciative faculties of others must take -the results of their labours for granted. - -As before said, our ideas of how to instil a love of beauty, how -to awaken interest in and arouse perception of artistic values, -are still vague. It is a matter which cannot be taught by rule of -thumb. It is not concerned with ascertained facts, nor discoverable -by ordered experiment. It is an individual matter. Largely, in -practice, such instruction will be exemplary rather than explanatory. -Much of the time spent will be devoted to introducing to students -actual examples of the art, and thereby the obstacles of ignorance -and prejudice will be removed. In addition to this, however, some -systematic instruction in the principles of aesthetics, of the general -criteria of works of art--completeness, congruity, balance, and -proportion, the subordination of details, the relation of means to -ends--will be evolved. I would suggest as a starting-point the study -of _form_, of the anatomy or architecture of art. Apart from the moral -value of cultivating a sense of proportion, of perspective, of the -inter-relation of parts--a sense which is as essential to a sane life -as to the appreciation of a picture or a musical composition--nothing -could lead more readily to an understanding of the artist’s aims and -plan of campaign. In music, for instance, a brief account of the -sequence of the main themes, which could be memorized, would render -intelligible and _whole_ a composition which otherwise would seem -meaningless, shapeless, and dreary. - - - - -VII - - -The fact remains, however, that the percentage of the population which -is affected by systematic education is, and is likely to remain, -very, very small. The artistic regeneration of the world would be a -very slow process if it depended entirely upon the existence of a -definite desire for education. Before any one will come into contact -with educational institutions he must have attained to a relatively -high standard of appreciation and he must be endowed already with -considerable enthusiasm for art. The greater problems are clearly: -(_a_) how to increase the interest of those who are almost if not -entirely indifferent to the point when they _will_ desire systematic -instruction; and (_b_) how to benefit those who will never (maybe -_can_ never) reach even that stage, or who will prefer to “educate -themselves”. - -As a preliminary to this it will be well to examine some of the causes -of low taste. Why is it that millions enjoy _When it’s Night-time in -Italy_, but are bored to tears by the Schumann _A minor Concerto_? Why -should _The Bat_ have power to thrill them when _Macbeth_ leaves them -cold? Why, in short, do they prefer the least good to the best? I will -not say “worst,” because nothing is bad which artistically can give -pleasure and morally is not evil. - -The obvious reason, which most of us would give glibly, is that these -people are intellectually and spiritually incapable of appreciating -good art. How far this is true, and how far the other reasons I shall -give are responsible, I would not care to suggest. Very probably it is -true in the large majority of cases. In a world the majority of whose -inhabitants are quite incapable of thinking intelligently or logically -about the most important influences in their lives, where politics -and religion and the fundamental human relationships are governed by -ignorant prejudices and irrational habits, where a large proportion of -men are mentally and physically below par, can we expect every man and -woman to possess the latent ability to embrace the beautiful? However -that may be, this obstacle to artistic education can be removed only -by the sociologist, the educationist, the moralist, and the biologist. -We who are concerned with the artistic factor can duly presuppose the -existence, now or to-morrow, of a germ of artistic impulse, since we -can only influence those who are capable. - -Secondly, as we noticed before, the greater familiarity and -accessibility of the low grade is a potent hindrance to development. - -Thirdly, we must remember that the average man seeks recreation when -he embraces art. He may have degraded his idea of the recreational and -come to think that unless an experience “livens him up” or “takes him -out of himself” it is not suitable recreation. The fact remains that as -a rule he is unwilling to give the matter any sustained thought (even -though exercising his mind might be a great change from the routine -of manual labour), and he is satisfied if the day’s leisure is passed -pleasantly. The idea of sustained, cumulative recreation, such as is -gained by the real lover of any art, when the pleasure of to-day adds -to the recreative value of that of to-morrow, when each experience -makes the following keener and more lasting, never occurs to him. - -Again, he is conservative and play for safety. Any improvement in taste -would involve stepping on to fresh ground, and he is not prepared to do -that. Somehow--generally by observing the likes and dislikes of people -of similar mentality--he has discovered “what he likes”, and he sees -no reason why he should take any risks. That is largely why he goes to -see farces, reads detective yarns or tales of the wild and woolly West, -and patronizes ballad-concerts and music-halls, but would never dream -of venturing into a repertory theatre or a classical concert, or of -reading a different type of book. His time, he thinks, and his money, -are too precious for excursions into the unknown. - -That alone would be sufficient deterrent, but, in addition, it sets up -prejudices. He does not want to explore, yet he has (subconsciously, -of course) to justify his conservatism. This he does by raising an -imaginary barrier between the things he knows he likes and the things -he doesn’t know anything at all about and _might_ not like. When he -is brought face to face with the unknown, rather than confess his -ignorance and lack of enterprise, even to himself, rather than admit -that his tastes are low, he jumps to the conclusion that he is wise to -be wary and that there must be some good reason for his attitude. Thus -he sets his mind at rest by retarding its development. - -Unfortunately there are outside influences which strengthen these -prejudices. For instance, too many of those who appreciate, or pretend -to appreciate, the best are apt to set themselves apart and to insist -that there is an unbridgeable gulf between their art and that of the -common herd. The average man hates this highbrow snobbery and hates, -too, everything they are supposed to care for, since it is tarred with -the same brush. - -Then, again, attempts to “improve” his taste for him generally arouse -his ire and invoke further prejudices--mainly because the would-be -improvers do not go the right way to work. It is not at all difficult -to realize that, since we all regard art as matter for the exercise -of taste, which is an individual prerogative--there is no absolute -scale of artistic values, though there is a general consensus of -educated opinion--the man who will readily accept the judgement of his -intellectual superiors will not so readily accept the opinions of the -artistically better informed. - -Then, it is by no means easy to persuade the artistically uneducated -that there is any need for education. He thinks that the enjoyable -aspects of art are fairly obvious and that there is no point in looking -beyond the obvious unless he is seeking for some extra-artistic -element--some intellectual or spiritual value. As he is only seeking -enjoyment, why should he waste time looking for anything else? It -must, therefore, be made quite clear to him that the chief aim of the -educationist is to increase his pleasure in art and that there is no -ulterior motive. Unfortunately the methods of many teachers (and here -I include all publicists and would-be popularizers) are not such as to -give this impression. - -Much teaching has been misguided. For example, for some obscure reason -critics and teachers frequently fail to discriminate between the -“absolute” and the “historical” value of the classics. They delight in -praising work which has little claim to our interest other than its -antiquity. They confront the bewildered seeker for enjoyable beauty -with volumes of extracts from “The Great Writers”, collections of the -Hundred Best Books, etc., than which nothing more ungodly, more dreary, -uninspired, unworthy, and unbeautiful could possibly be found. They -should know better, these people! Why will they do it? Almost as bad -are those who go to the opposite extreme and hail with acclamation the -newest, most unintelligible phantasies born of a craving for novelty. - -I am not exaggerating, though certainly the position is improving -wonderfully. But, of the books written twenty years ago and earlier -with the presumable intention of stimulating interest in literature -and art, certainly half would have antagonized the ordinary man--had -he bothered about them at all, which he didn’t. The critic may say -that he is not concerned with improving the taste of the man in -the street. Undoubtedly he has other tasks besides those of the -popularizer; much of his work can appeal only to the artistically -educated and it would be dangerous for him to devote an undue share -of his energies to this work. Nevertheless, he should more often cast -aside the highbrow attitude and any idea that the needs of the ordinary -man are unworthy of his consideration. The example, in the realms of -science, of such men as J. A. Thomson, Lankester, and others equally -unlikely to devote their energies to any but a good cause, should help -to dispel this illusion. We badly need writers who, without being -namby-pamby, superior, or academic, can help the man with the germ of -interest, writers who can point to the ascending steps in the ladder -of taste. Theirs is not an easy task. In the first place, they must be -_themselves_ interesting, for only a minority are willing to read books -with an ulterior motive. The actual popularizing books must provide -recreation and enjoyment as well as stimulation. - -In this connection it might be remarked that we are too ready to throw -stones at the writer who tries to bring his literary abilities within -the range of a wide public. He is accused of playing to the gallery, -of prostituting his art, of thinking of his royalties, and so on. Might -not a writer capable of attaining heights on which only a minority -could join him be rendering a better service to humanity at large by -sometimes choosing to give the majority the best they can appreciate? -And the competent conscientious workmen who, though they may not hope -or desire to rank with the greatest, give the public something which -it desires and understands, and which is nevertheless much better than -anything else of the same kind that it would read, render a finer -service than we are willing to admit. - -Secondly, the popularizer must not rob his public of its self-respect -or unduly destroy its faith in its own judgment in artistic matters. To -do so is to open up another source of prejudice and to raise a fresh -obstacle to enjoyment, for he who loses faith in his own opinions, who -is told that he should put no trust in his own judgment, endeavours to -embrace the artistic standards of others. This he cannot do, but he -begins to read books, and so on, from a sense of duty--because he has -been told that everybody ought to read so and so--and then to become a -liar and a hypocrite, to pretend to others that he enjoys books when he -doesn’t, to imagine to himself that he does when he doesn’t, so wasting -his opportunities and stunting his latent capabilities. With the right -kind of education his tastes and opinions would improve gradually -and without his noticing the difference. Although his taste would be -improving, all the time he would be following his own judgment, and so -he would always enjoy his contact with art. - -The popularizer who would approach the subject in the most -fruitful way will realize that the lower forms of art are purely -recreational--excepting of course that some activities have physical -values also. The ethical, spiritual, and intellectual aspects are not -developed until we reach a higher level. Therefore, if he is going to -lead to better things any one to whom art has been synonymous with -pure recreation, he must do so by utilizing the recreative element in -the better. For example, the educated reader seeks in Shakespeare the -statement of philosophical and moral ideas, beauty of language and -aptness of phraseology, the delineation of character, and the like. -But what is the good of pointing out these qualities to a man as a -reason why he should go to a Shakespearian performance rather than to a -farce or a melodrama, to one who is, as yet, only seeking recreation? -Tell him instead that _Twelfth Night_ is a good farce and _Macbeth_ a -good melodrama--as they undoubtedly are; rid his head of the idea that -Shakespeare is primarily something else, something much more “brainy” -and stodgy; try to instil in him the motive that filled the old Globe -with an audience which is the exact counterpart of our own uneducated -pleasure-seeking theatre-goers, and Shakespeare would become more -popular. Contact with his work would undoubtedly improve taste and the -appreciation of Shakespeare’s other qualities. Shakespeare was popular -in his own time because he enjoyed the reputation of being a good -entertainer. He isn’t popular to-day because the average man has been -taught by misguided people to regard him as a great writer. Of course -there are other reasons, but that is a most important one. - -Yet another cause of low taste is the prevalent lack of the ability -to concentrate. Enjoyment of the better types of art involves -concentration, not only because it must be cumulative, but also because -great art is generally built round an ampler theme than that which is -of only temporary appeal. If the artist deals with a big subject, he -must have room. If he avoids substance, he economizes, condenses, and -concentrates his production. Whichever course he adopts, the reader -or spectator must give him greater--either more extended or more -intense--attention maybe both. - -Education will improve powers of concentration; but, on the other hand, -it depends upon this ability. Therefore the psychological factor must -be considered by all educationists. They must prepare ladders leading -by easy stages from the purely enjoyable and insignificant to the -serious and significant, but it is not enough that the steps should -involve only gradual intellectual and aesthetic progress. They must -require also only a gradual increase in concentration. - -The chief aim of education and popularization must be, however, to -increase the realization of the function of art--which is (though art -may fulfil other purposes) to provide enjoyment, enjoyment in its -highest, most spiritual form maybe, yet nevertheless enjoyment. For -the pursuit of art is the pursuit of the beautiful, especially the -beautiful which is of man’s creation. If this pursuit cannot give -pleasure, the fault must be ours, since the “beautiful” which cannot -give pleasure to any is not beautiful. The converse, that anything -which gives pleasure is beautiful, is certainly _not_ true, but, -whatever our philosophical or moral criteria of beauty may be, they -must include the pleasure giving property. - -We need, nevertheless, to question ourselves whether this factor is -not only ignored but sometimes even suppressed by some educationists. -There are so many things in this world of imperfectly developed men and -women that give pleasure and are most unbeautiful, that we hesitate -to class our precious goods in the same category lest they be tarred -with the same brush. Yet we must do so. There is much that goes by the -name of Love which is but lust, greed, pride of possession, avarice, -habit, perversion, and waste, but we are not tempted to pretend that -genuine human affection is not love because it is something better than -the rest. So we must not be tempted to deny that art is essentially a -source of pleasure simply because it is the source of the finest, most -lasting, pleasure. To do so is to alienate those who are most in need -of its influence. - - - - -VIII - - -The second need--after education--is to make good art more accessible. -We have seen that, so long as the supply of art is a commercial -proposition, little, if any, improvement in its average quality can -be expected. Until, in some way, the good can be given the same -chance as the bad, the majority will continue to clamour for the bad, -since it will be the only thing they know. It seems, therefore, that -the only effective way to break the vicious circle is to try to put -art-provision as far as possible upon a non-commercial basis. We must -not be over-optimistic. Not a great deal can be done at present, and, -in any case, progress will be slow. - -The only way in which this can be done is “co-operation”--firstly the -co-operation of individuals associated only for this purpose, and -secondly that co-operation which is implied in all State or community -action. Let us deal with the first and most fruitful, to begin with. - -Let us not, may it be repeated, forge that the extent of co-operative -activity is limited by present desire and in exactly the same way as -the commercial activity. Even co-operative undertakings must pay their -way. The difference is three-fold, however. Firstly, the business -entertainment provider devotes his energies to those activities which -make the greatest _quantitive_ appeal. He does not ask: “Shall I -attract enough people to make this pay its way?”--but instead, as a -rule, he asks which production will attract _most_ people and produce -most profit. It is nevertheless obvious that because a play, for -example, is not likely to be a popular success, or an artiste a star, -or a programme superlatively attractive, it is not right to assume that -these would not merit and receive sufficient support to cover expenses. -From ten plays (or ten musical programmes), one of which should succeed -in a business sense of the word and nine of which would only pay their -way, the commercial man naturally chooses the former. The other nine -are _never chosen_, unless unintentionally. Yet some of them might be -works of greater artistic merit. It is the business of co-operative -activities to select and to produce works of worth which belong to the -latter category. The art-life of the community would gain from this -in two ways: (_a_) since the tastes of the majority are low, the nine -unproduced works will almost certainly include some of higher artistic -value; and (_b_) there will be greater variety. - -Secondly, the selection of the works to be produced is made by the -business-man and not by the consumer. The business-man will object -to this statement, saying that his selection is dictated by public -demands; but it isn’t. In the first place, the public, whether popular -or other works are concerned, has no power to select at all; it can -only take or leave what is offered, which is a very different thing, -leading at the best to incomplete satisfaction and at the worst to -considerable waste. In the second place, the business-man selects not -according to popular demands but according to _his ideas_ of popular -demand--again a different matter. If it were not, he would not suffer -so many financial failures, for which the public has to pay in several -ways, such as higher prices, lower quality, conservatism, etc. - -In the third place, the commercial provider is in competition with -all his fellows. Each seeks to attract the biggest crowd, and to do -so indulges in the “star system”, in spectacular but not necessarily -artistic production, in expensive advertising, and so on. All of these -increase the price of the production without in any way improving its -artistic or recreative value. - -Co-operation in this matter involves the organization of Societies. -These may be quite small, e.g. Chamber-music groups, each of whose -members performs, dramatic reading-circles only large enough to provide -the casts--or on a large scale, e.g. the important Folk or Community -Theatres, the larger Music Clubs. The size of the Society would -determine the kind of work to be done, and would depend largely upon -local conditions. However big or small it may be, it would nevertheless -find suitable and desirable activities within its compass. Neither -need--nor in fact very often should--these Societies be “performing” -Societies, but, instead, “enjoying” Societies. By a performing Society -I mean one where the play or the music is performed by members of the -group, with the result that the practical or personal side is apt to -become more important than any other. The Music Clubs (of which there -are several, and should be more) on the other hand employ professional -players--the only real differences so far as the audience (of members) -is concerned between their own and ordinary commercial concerts are -that they receive better value for their money, can hear works which -would not otherwise be performed, and have some voice in the selection -of programmes. If the best results are to be attained, co-operative -art must make full use of the professional. Amateur art has its -limitations, and in any case demands the expenditure on practical -matters of energy which could be better spent in other directions. -Furthermore, the resources of any amateur group are limited. Thus, an -Orchestral Society which gave a monthly concert would be an exception, -and one orchestral concert per month is not sufficient to satisfy a -genuine music-loving community. The co-operative organizations would, -with probable advantage, eliminate much that was not absolutely -essential, e.g. their staging of plays would be as simple as possible: -otherwise there is no reason why their standard of production should -be below that of the commercial enterprise. In fact, it would probably -show more all-round excellence and better balance and ensemble. - -Probably the genuine artist-professionals would sooner work for such -Societies than for ordinary managers. They would, with a sufficiency of -Societies, earn as good a living and be more secure. They would have -more scope for developing their finer talents, a wider range of art to -interpret, and more intelligent, more enthusiastic, audiences. - -The possibilities of the other form of co-operation noticed before, -though great, will probably not be so fruitful. The State and Local -Government groups are very largely co-operative undertakings, their -function being to provide services which could not be given either at -all or so cheaply or efficiently without official organization. Some -of these services could, theoretically if not practically, be rendered -as well by private combinations. The extent of the activities of the -State is decided by the wishes of the majority, and, if the majority -desired that the State should engage in the dissemination of art, there -is no reason why it should not do so. In fact, it does by maintaining -art-galleries, museums, and libraries (in England) and by subsidizing -theatres, opera-houses, and conservatoires (in other countries). There -are some who would see the artistic activities of the State extended. - -There is much to be said both for and against this idea. On the one -side, it is arguable that State activities would be largely educational -and that it is just as desirable that people should be helped to enjoy -life as to succeed in other directions. This is perfectly true, and, -so long as the educational ideal is kept in sight, State assistance -is thoroughly justified. On the other hand, though the majority of -taxpayers agree that education is desirable, they do not all agree -that the finest art should be promoted at their expense. In other -words, non-essentially educational activities would not be justifiable -unless they were provided for, and at the request of, the majority; -and, well, we have seen that the majority do _not_ seek the best. -Therefore I feel that those who urge the subsidizing of theatres and -the like would be better advised to turn their attention to the other -type of co-operative enterprise. They might otherwise antagonize the -average man and do harm to the educational possibilities of the State -organizations. - -The museum is, of course, largely educational and not entirely or -even largely artistic in its aims. It and the art-gallery are also -in a very different position from such activities as the subsidized -theatre because they are devoted to the unique object--the specimen or -the picture--which _must_ be in the hands of the State if it is to be -available to all. There is no alternative to the public ownership of -museums and art-galleries. The public library, though it does not deal -with the unique, is in another way in a different category, since it, -alone of all State provisions, can give something to all men. Those -who do not desire good literature can obtain some other service--books -on business, science, sport, etc., recreative reading, and so on _ad -infinitum_--in return for their contribution towards its upkeep. The -public library, by appealing to all men, brings together a multitude of -interests and provides unlimited opportunities for the awakening of -new ideas. At the library alone is the good made as easily accessible -as the indifferent, and the very fact that they are to be found in the -same place is an educational factor of great significance. The man who -does not want good pictures or good plays has no need to come into -contact with them, and remains outside their influence. On the shelves -of a library books of all degrees of excellence and worthlessness -(within limits) are side by side so that even mere luck or too hasty -selection may lead to better tastes or fresh interests being acquired. -Therefore the library is an institution to be encouraged. - -Frankly I believe the remedy to lie in the hands of those who want -good art. None of these now can get as much of it as they desire; -most enjoy only a small portion. If people set to work to provide for -themselves so that, instead, a large part of their artistic desires was -satisfied, they would so do a great deal to improve the average tastes -of the community, since the membership of a healthy organization always -increases. Of course they must avoid the insidious desire, which has -wrecked many repertory enterprises, to attract outsiders, and must -never forget that the function of the Societies is the quite selfish -one of supplying their own needs. They, too, must be prepared to cut -their cloth accordingly. It is the desire to do more than the means of -the actual membership permits that leads to attempts to curry popular -favour “to help to balance things”. By so doing they put themselves on -the same footing as the commercial man, must take the same risks, and -suffer the same failures--and these are liable to be more disastrous -since Societies lack what little knowledge of popular tastes the -commercial man possesses. - -With sufficient organization and the co-operation of co-operative units -there is no reason why in time they should not be able to undertake any -feasible artistic enterprise. The music-lovers in at least six towns -in England could to-day with proper co-operation maintain a permanent -orchestra and the theatre-goers an intelligent adequate playhouse, and -all towns by grouping could do the same--so far as the orchestra is -concerned, at least. - -These things have been tried and failed, I will be told. To this, if it -be true, there are only two answers--the world has progressed only by -successive trials and failures; if the first failure had effectually -damped the ardour of our ancestors we should still be savages--and, -if these enterprises fail really from lack of desire for them and not -because of indifference, which can in time be removed, the artistic -level of the day must be much lower than even a semi-pessimist like the -writer dares to imagine. - - - - -IX - - -We cannot close even a brief essay without some reference to the -effect of some other mechanical devices, such as the gramophone, the -piano-player, and wireless, and a note on that all important subject, -commercial art. - -The appreciation of no art shows such great possibilities of expansion -in the near future as music. During the last few years it has been -released from its most irksome bonds and is now just beginning to -stretch its limbs. For technique has been the curse of music, and now -it is becoming possible to gain enjoyment without exercising one’s -executive and interpretive powers. - -Musicians are of two classes--executive and appreciative--those who -perform and those who listen. True enjoyment of music belongs to -the latter, just as true enjoyment of books, of pictures, of plays -is the reward of the reader and the spectator--not of the writer, -the painter, the actor, or the composer. _Their_ joy is of another -order--it is the joy of creation. - -Without the assistance of modern mechanical aids the music-lover had -either to listen to the music-making of his friends or of players at a -concert, or he had to attempt to interpret for himself. The first was -inconvenient and unsatisfactory. The selection of music was not his -own but that of others; the time and place were not of his choosing. -The alternative was even worse, since his appreciation was limited -by his interpretive powers and marred by his deficiencies. The owner -of a modern player-piano has the whole world of piano-music and a -wealth of arrangements at his command. Even the lover of orchestral, -instrumental, or vocal music has access, through the gramophone and the -wireless, to a passable substitute for the real thing. - -What effect will this have upon pianoforte music? In the first place, -we shall gradually rid ourselves of misplaced pride in the amateur’s -very limited technical powers. We shall no longer praise So and So -for being able to play Chopin’s _Studies_ after a fashion, but shall -consider him either a fool for wasting his time trying when he could -much more easily enjoy Cortot’s performance of them, or sympathize with -the poverty that prevents his purchasing this mechanical aid. Secondly, -we shall not waste time and kill natural love of music by the dreary -routine of “teaching the piano.” Instead, we shall teach appreciation. -If all the energy spent in acquiring a very inadequate technique were -diverted to the real business of appreciation, we should be a more -musical nation. Thirdly, we shall cease to tolerate the incompetent -player now so often foisted upon us or even sought for want of any -better, and the ostentatious “virtuoso” executant. - -Before very long the piano-player will cost no more than an ordinary -piano; in fact the ordinary instrument will no longer be manufactured. -In our schools “piano-playing” will be erased from the curriculum and -classes in appreciation substituted. - -But what about non-pianoforte music? There is a big difference. While -the piano-player produces exactly the same kind of musical tone as -the hand-played instrument, the gramophone, or the wireless, does -not reproduce at all exactly the timbre, quality or volume of the -instruments recorded. It provides not the real thing but a substitute, -which, though excellent, can never be entirely satisfactory. We do -not care to assert dogmatically what science will or will not make -possible in the future; at least, however, it is extremely doubtful -that a mechanical violin as adequate as the mechanical piano will ever -be invented. Wind instruments depend less upon human manipulation--the -organ, for instance, is nothing but an imperfect essay in this -direction. This is but idle speculation, however. As a practical -proposition we may say that the perfect mechanical reproduction of -music will be confined to the pianoforte. - -So we are left with these problems. Shall we be tempted to seek the -shadow and lose the substance--listen in often, but never attend -an orchestral or chamber concert or a violin or vocal recital? The -chances are that we shall, unless opportunities to enjoy the latter -are greater than at present. Considerable loss would result. The ears -of the next generation would become attuned to a diminished variety -of tonal experiences, for one thing. For another, the psychological, -even physical effects of large gradations in the volume of tone, such -as can be experienced only in the concert-room, should not willingly -be relinquished. And, again, it is not by any means the same thing to -listen to music in the company of others, in the atmosphere of the -concert-room, as it is to enjoy music in solitude. We may sometimes -prefer the latter, but that fact does not remove the difference. - -The second problem is that, though there is little physical or moral -good to be found in solo instrumental playing, such good _does_ result -from singing and partaking in concerted music. There is no good reason -why we should play the piano--rather than listen to it; but there -are many reasons why we should sing or play in chamber or orchestral -music. By all means let us listen to more music of all kinds; increased -facilities for listening should not, however, decrease our desire to -perform when performance can benefit us. - -Taking all these considerations together we may assume: - -(1) that pianoforte _playing_ will decline though much more pianoforte -music will be enjoyed. - -(2) that much of the practical energy now devoted to the pianoforte -will be directed to the study of other instruments. - -(3) that, unless our musical life is to increase in volume but diminish -in quality, more and not less concert-going and concerted instrumental -playing and choral singing must be provided. - -Books, music, pictures, sculpture, however, minister to only a -small part of the artistic needs of the community. By far the most -widespread, though not necessarily the most valuable, art-products are -those which we may describe as commercial, or industrial, or, better, -“applied” art. Only a minority, even in this age, concern themselves -with the first-named, but we all wear clothes, use furniture, live, -work, play, and worship in buildings, eat and drink out of vessels, and -so on, through every one of our daily occupations. Into each of these -art can, does, and must enter. We may wear clothes to keep us warm, -but they must be either ugly or otherwise--their existence implies -artistic properties, negative or positive. If they are ugly, we cannot -avoid their ugliness, though it may dull our appreciative faculties. -Of course this is true of all things. Every object, every occurrence -almost, has its artistic aspect. With every manufactured article, every -human production, however, this artistic quality is within our control. -When we make a cup, a hat, or a church, we can make it as beautiful or -as ugly as we like, subject to certain limitations, some of them real, -some imaginary. But we must be sufficiently interested in its artistic -value. It will seldom exist spontaneously, without conscious effort. - -That is, of course, the first and most powerful limitation. _Often -we don’t care._ And so long as we don’t care we shall receive -only according to our deserts. For the second limitation is that -manufactured goods are intended primarily for utility, and the -incentive for their production is profit. So long as we are content to -take the ugly but useful, so long as our artistic discrimination does -not give added commercial value to the beautiful, we can have no right -to expect the manufacturer to bother. He is not an apostle of art, but -a business-man. If we show him, as a business-man, that we desire a -well-proportioned jug and will refuse to buy a clumsy one, he will, -acting on business principles, supply the saleable article. So far -the remedy is in our own hands. Thirdly, many manufacturers have an -unjustifiably low opinion of public taste, and honestly believe that -the majority like tawdry things when, in truth, they accept them for -want of anything better or because they are cheaper. - -Fourthly, however, _when_ there is sufficient desire for the beautiful -it need not cost any more, but _until_ there is, it _will_, since, it -will be produced in response to a minority demand. This is a much more -serious limitation than it should be, for several reasons. - -(1) Popular taste has, since the initiation of the industrial era, -steadily improved, but the artistic standard of manufacturers is at -least a stage behind. There are at least two causes for this: (_a_) the -manufacturer can judge popular taste only by experiment, and this is, -on the average, bound to involve expense, and (_b_) when the machinery -and processes of manufacture are well established and smoothly running, -changes must entail extra costs and reorganization, ranging from the -installation of fresh plant to the employment of new designs. For this -reason alone the more artistic article must cost more, excepting in -those industries (such as the manufacture of dress-material) where -change and fashion are normal conditions. In other industries where -the product is less subject to variation (e.g. pottery--a firm could -produce and sell exactly the same cups and saucers for an unlimited -period), the extra cost is necessarily more to be expected. - -(2) The manufacturer may, and alas too often does, appreciate the -commercial value of beauty and _trades_ upon it. That is to say, he -manufactures ugly wall-paper and pleasant wall-paper, at practically -the same cost. He _could_ be content to make the normal profit from -both, but he realizes that many people don’t want to disfigure their -walls and will pay more for a pleasing design. He makes them do so, -since this behaviour is profitable to him. In this he cannot be -censured--rather should we praise him for not doing it more often. -Nevertheless, such action will be a drag upon artistic progress, and if -it can be prevented at all even the manufacturer in the long run will -benefit. Let all who can afford the more beautiful production purchase -it, but let them pay the extra price under protest. The manufacturer -must be made to realize that it is anti-social to make a profit out of -beauty, when by so doing he condemns the less fortunate man to suffer -the ugly. As the business-man is at heart as much interested as any -other person in the welfare of his fellow-men, this might have some -influence. And an independent inquiry (conducted by, say, a group of -art-students or a University) might achieve a little. They would try -to show us--if they could--why a fabric which is disfigured by a vile -design can be cheaper than a plain unprinted cloth, why there is truth -in the saying we all hear frequently, “Oh, yes, you all admire the -plain, simple costume or frock, but it’s so much more expensive, you -know,” and the like. - -Fifthly, industrial designers have not received due recognition and are -not well organized in relation to the industries. The designer is not -always as well acquainted with the special qualities and limitations -of the material to which his designs are to be applied as he might be; -the manufacturer does not often enough realize the importance of the -designer; and the young artist is apt to despise design--naturally, -because personal public recognition is never awarded to the -designer--and the best men prefer more pretentious if more precarious -fields. These shortcomings would, however, be removed as a matter of -course were the other limitations to be removed. - -Great improvements in industrial art cannot, however, be expected -until the general education and artistic appreciation of the public -has developed. Applied art will always move more slowly than fine art, -since the utility-factor will ever bring about a conflict of expediency -versus ideals. - -Architecture presents special difficulties, because it is at once -aggressive and unavoidable, and because it depends upon environment. -In other words, though we may, if we can afford, eschew the ugly pot, -tawdry furniture, and (so far at least as our indoor life is concerned) -garish clothing, we cannot avoid buildings. They form a large part of -our environment and influence our mental and bodily health. Those who -live in dirty, flat-fronted, unbroken streets have to resist actively -their environment if they would avoid dirty, drab, monotonous lives. -Those who daily traverse roads consisting of disorderly jumbles of -architectural misfits lose the sense of serenity, order, and fitness -they might gain in happier surroundings. The second of the points -mentioned before is that no building can be judged apart from its -surroundings. An essential of every work of art is that its parts shall -form a well-balanced whole, each detail being subordinated to the -general effect, which must convey a sense of completeness. Now, until -recently we have (with occasional exceptions) failed to realize that -the unit of architecture, so far as outward appearance is concerned, is -not the individual building but the whole street, everything, in fact, -which is in view from any one point. No one would suggest that the -wall of a picture-gallery was artistic because the individual pictures -were good, and yet, although much more care and artistry is devoted -to hanging pictures than is spent in arranging the contiguity of -buildings, we seem to be quite satisfied with haphazard town-planning. -Yet all who sorrow at the wilful waste and destruction of the -beautiful must lament when they see, as they must often do, noble and -beautiful edifices or the simple but refined works of architects, who -as a rule devote more love and receive less incentive than any other -art workers, ruined by their surroundings. - -But how, one may ask, can this be avoided? Adjoining plots of land -may belong to different owners, contiguous buildings are built for -different purposes, by those with much or little to spend, designed -by different architects--how can one expect them to conform to one -artistic scheme? Perhaps that is too much to expect. Can we even -ask that they should not be violently opposed to one another, not -mutually destructive? Yes. But this can be secured in only one way. -Local authorities must be given, or must take upon themselves, the -duty of controlling building operations in all public places. They -would not, and could not, be arbitrary: they would need to consider -many difficulties, and they could not rightly impose any restrictions -which would make the construction of suitable premises impossible -within the reasonable means of those for whom they were being built. -All they could undertake would be to co-ordinate proposed work, to -advise, and to prohibit flagrant affronts to public good taste. Let a -local committee composed of the best architects and the hardest-headed -business-men in the town, with a disinterested man of taste--a parson, -a farmer, a writer--as chairman, be formed. Much good could be done in -this way. - -In domestic architecture we cannot expect much attention to be -given to artistic matters in these days when it is difficult to -obtain a sufficiency of houses of any kind. Nevertheless, there -is one suggestion with great practical possibilities. It is that -of the novelist Mr. J. J. Connington, who proposes that instead -of standardization of design small parts capable of being erected -in a large number of ways should be standardized. The readers who -are interested are referred to _Nordenholt’s Million_ for further -particulars of this most interesting idea. - - - - -X - - -The most significant tendency of art and the greatest danger, -which operates in all fields, is, therefore, that commercialism, -mass-production, standardization, and the heeding of large volumes -of demand will lead to an increase in the quantity of art-production -but a decrease in the average of its quality, unless the evils of the -system are counteracted by certain developments, the chief of which are -education, co-operation, and the birth of a new attitude with regard to -art-ideals. - -Our attitude towards the arts must lead us to relate them more closely -to our other interests and, as a corollary, the different kinds and -different values of artistic enjoyment must be synthesized. We desire -neither to set art upon a pedestal of superiority nor to despise it as -a recreative frivolity. We need to realize on the one hand that all -human activities possess of a necessity positive or negative artistic -significance which we cannot avoid; even though we consciously ignore -art, we are subconsciously and indirectly influenced. Further, we -cannot disregard the close economic relationship between the artistic -and the merely utilitarian. - -We have seen something, but only one aspect, of this when discussing -applied art; the relation is wider than this, since, for example, the -amount of time, energy, money, and material available for artistic -purposes is closely connected with material economic conditions. And, -still further, there is the psychological or spiritual element, art -satisfying human needs which are unsatisfied by other activities, -supplementing, filling the gaps in our personal development. We cannot -put art into a watertight compartment. The extent to which art appeals -to an individual, and the particular way in which and the special -medium through which artistic impulses find expression, will depend -very largely upon biological and social factors, upon the materially -ordered associations of the individual, his work, his health, -everything that impinges upon his life. Further research will expose -the fundamental reasons for this, but even now we realize that a love -of dancing, of the theatre, of poetry, of sculpture is not a mere gift -or genius or taste or predilection but also something which is fostered -and directed by material environment. Confronted with this realization, -we must regard art as an inseparable organic element in life, not as a -superimposed culture which may or may not exist in any individual or -take any form. - -And the corollary of this, as said before, is that, since artistic -potentialities exist in all men according to their being and -environment, the realm of art will present as large a variety of -values, types, and manifestations as does our life itself. Yet all -these manifestations are part of one. Good, bad, or indifferent, they -represent the best, most suitable art that different men at any time -are capable of appreciating or desirous of cultivating. This is the -excuse for our plea for broadmindedness. - - - - - _Each, pott 8vo, 2/6 net_ _Occasionally illustrated_ - - TO-DAY AND - TO-MORROW - - -This series of books, by some of the most distinguished English -thinkers, scientists, philosophers, doctors, critics, and artists, was -recognized on publication as a noteworthy event. Written from various -points of view, one book frequently opposing the argument of another, -they provide the reader with a stimulating survey of the most modern -thought in many departments of life. Several volumes are devoted to -the future trend of Civilization, conceived as a whole; while others -deal with particular provinces, and cover the future of Woman, War, -Population, Clothes, Wireless, Morals, Drama, Poetry, Art, Sex, Law, -etc. - -It is interesting to see in these neat little volumes, issued at a low -price, the revival of a form of literature, the Pamphlet, which has -been in disuse for 200 years. - - _Published by_ - KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD. - Broadway House: 68-74 Carter Lane, London, E.C.4 - - - - -_VOLUMES READY_ - - - =Daedalus=, or Science and the Future. By J. B. S. HALDANE, Reader in - Biochemistry, University of Cambridge. _Sixth impression._ - - “A fascinating and daring little book.”--_Westminster Gazette._ - “The essay is brilliant, sparkling with wit and bristling with - challenges.”--_British Medical Journal._ “Predicts the most - startling changes.”--_Morning Post._ - - - =Callinicus=, a Defence of Chemical Warfare. By J. B. S. HALDANE. - _Second impression._ - - “Mr. Haldane’s brilliant study.”--_Times Leading Article._ “A book - to be read by every intelligent adult.”--_Spectator._ “This - brilliant little monograph.”--_Daily News._ - - - =Icarus=, or the Future of Science. By BERTRAND RUSSELL, F.R.S. - _Third impression._ - - “Utter pessimism.”--_Observer._ “Mr. Russell refuses to believe that - the progress of Science must be a boon to mankind.”--_Morning Post._ - “A stimulating book, that leaves one not at all - discouraged.”--_Daily Herald._ - - - =What I Believe.= By BERTRAND RUSSELL, F.R.S. _Second impression._ - - “One of the most brilliant and thought-stimulating little books I - have read--a better book even than _Icarus_.”--_Nation._ “Simply and - brilliantly written.”--_Nature._ “In stabbing sentences he punctures - the bubble of cruelty, envy, narrowness, and ill-will which those in - authority call their morals.”--_New Leader._ - - - =Tantalus=, or the Future of Man. By F. C. S. SCHILLER, Fellow of - Corpus Christi College, Oxford. - - “They are all (_Daedalus_, _Icarus_, and _Tantalus_) brilliantly - clever, and they supplement or correct one another.”--_Dean Inge_, - in _Morning Post_. “Immensely valuable and infinitely - readable.”--_Daily News._ “The book of the week.”--_Spectator._ - - - =Quo Vadimus?= Glimpses of the Future. By E. E. FOURNIER D’ALBE, - D.Sc., author of “Selenium, the Moon Element,” etc. - - “A wonderful vision of the future. A book that will be talked - about.”--_Daily Graphic._ “A remarkable contribution to a remarkable - series.”--_Manchester Dispatch._ “Interesting and singularly - plausible.”--_Daily Telegraph._ - - - =Lysistrata=, or Woman’s Future and Future Woman. By ANTHONY M. - LUDOVICI, author of “A Defence of Aristocracy”, etc. - - “A stimulating book. Volumes would be needed to deal, in the - fullness his work provokes, with all the problems raised.”--_Sunday - Times._ “Pro-feminine, but anti-feministic.”--_Scotsman._ “Full of - brilliant common-sense.”--_Observer._ - - - =Hypatia=, or Woman and Knowledge. By MRS. BERTRAND RUSSELL. With a - frontispiece. _Second impression._ - - An answer to _Lysistrata_. “A passionate vindication of the rights - of women.”--_Manchester Guardian._ “Says a number of things - that sensible women have been wanting publicly said for a long - time.”--_Daily Herald._ “Everyone who cares at all about these - things should read it.”--_Weekly Westminster._ - - - =The Mongol in our Midst=: a Study of Man and his Three Faces. By - F. G. CROOKSHANK, M.D., F.R.C.P. With 28 Plates. _Second edition, - revised._ - - “A brilliant piece of speculative induction.”--_Saturday Review._ - “An extremely interesting and suggestive book, which will reward - careful reading.”--_Sunday Times._ “The pictures carry fearful - conviction.”--_Daily Herald._ - - - =The Conquest of Cancer.= By H. W. S. WRIGHT, M.S., F.R.C.S. - Introduction by F. G. CROOKSHANK, M.D. - - “Eminently suitable for general reading. The problem is fairly - and lucidly presented. One merit of Mr. Wright’s plan is that he - tells people what, in his judgment, they can best do, _here and - now_.”--From the _Introduction_. - - - =The Passing of the Phantoms=: a Study of Evolutionary Psychology and - Morals. By C. J. PATTEN, Professor of Anatomy, Sheffield University. - With 4 Plates. - - “Readers of _Daedalus_, _Icarus_ and _Tantalus_, will be grateful - for an excellent presentation of yet another point of - view.”--_Yorkshire Post._ “This bright and bracing little - book.”--_Literary Guide._ “Interesting and original.”--_Medical - Times._ - - - =Perseus=: of Dragons. By H. F. SCOTT STOKES. With 2 illustrations. - - “A diverting little book, chock-full of ideas. Mr. Stokes’ - dragon-lore is both quaint and various.”--_Morning Post._ “Very - amusingly written, and a mine of curious knowledge for which the - discerning reader will find many uses.”--_Glasgow Herald._ - - - =Wireless Possibilities.= By Professor A. M. LOW. With 4 diagrams. - - “As might be expected from an inventor who is always so fresh, he - has many interesting things to say.”--_Evening Standard._ “The - mantle of Blake has fallen upon the physicists. To them we look for - visions, and we find them in this book.”--_New Statesman._ - - - =Narcissus=: an Anatomy of Clothes. By GERALD HEARD. With 19 - illustrations. - - “A most suggestive book.”--_Nation._ “Irresistible. Reading it - is like a switchback journey. Starting from prehistoric times we - rocket down the ages.”--_Daily News._ “Interesting, provocative, and - entertaining.”--_Queen._ - - - =Thamyris=, or Is there a Future for Poetry. By R. C. TREVELYAN. - - “Of high authority.”--_Saturday Review._ “Very suggestive.”--_J. - C. Squire_, in _Observer_. “A very charming piece of work. I agree - with all, or at any rate, almost all its conclusions.”--_J. St. Loe - Strachey_, in _Spectator_. - - - =Proteus=, or the Future of Intelligence. By VERNON LEE, author of - “Satan the Waster,” etc. - - “We should like to follow the author’s suggestions as to the - effect of intelligence on the future of Ethics, Aesthetics, - and Manners. Her book is profoundly stimulating and should be - read by everyone.”--_Outlook._ “A concise, suggestive piece of - work.”--_Saturday Review._ - - - =Paris=, or the Future of War. By Captain B. H. LIDDELL HART. - - “A gem of close thinking and deduction.”--_Observer._ “A noteworthy - contribution to a problem of concern to every citizen in this - country.”--_Daily Chronicle._ “There is some lively thinking about - the future of war in _Paris_, just added to the set of live-wire - pamphlets on big subjects, called collectively ‘To-Day and - To-Morrow.’”--_Manchester Guardian._ - - - =Hephaestus=, the Soul of the Machine. By E. E. FOURNIER D’ALBE, D.Sc. - - Hephaestus is the god of fire, the incarnation of the machine age of - to-day. He is now master of the world. How this came about, what - will be the results of this increasing domination of our planet, is - the theme of the book. - - - =Thrasymachus=, the Future of Morals. By C. E. M. JOAD, author of - “Common-Sense Ethics,” etc. - - A penetrating study of the herd, or conventional, morality of the - day, prophesying a Puritan revival in morals, with intolerance and - heresy-hunting. This will lead to the Americanization of England and - a great increase in irregular sexual relationships. In the end a new - religious revival is foreseen. - - - =Lycurgus=, or the Future of Law. By E. S. P. HAYNES, author of - “Concerning Solicitors,” etc. - - An analysis of the present condition of Law in England, dealing with - legislation, the law-courts, criminal law, family law, land-laws, - costs, international law, individual liberty, and such subjects. - - - =Prometheus=, or Biology and the Advancement of Man. By H. S. - JENNINGS, Professor of Zoology, Johns Hopkins University. - - A lucid summary of the recent striking advances in biological - knowledge, genetics, and the theory of evolution, with numerous - concrete illustrations. The conclusions are applied to the problem - of improvement in the human race. - - - =Timotheus=, the Future of the Theatre. By BONAMY DOBRÉE, author of - “Restoration Drama,” etc. - - Traces the possible developments of the theatre, not only along - mechanical lines, but upon those which playwrights, actors, and - psychologists might achieve, were their idiosyncracies given scope. - The whole forms a comment on the theatre of to-day. - - - =Pygmalion=, or the Doctor of the Future. By R. MCNAIR WILSON, M.D. - - The author foresees an evolution in the personality of the doctor, - who will become less of a scientist, more of a humanist, and use - every spiritual agency, as well as every practical measure, to - restore the human body and soul to health. - - -_READY SHORTLY_ - - - =Cassandra=, or the Future of the British Empire. By F. C. S. - SCHILLER, D.Sc. - - A penetrating analysis of the disruptive influences of work in the - Empire. - - - =Gallio=, or the Tyranny of Science. By J. W. N. SULLIVAN, author of - “A History of Mathematics.” - - - =Euterpe=, or the Future of Art. By LIONEL R. MCCOLVIN, author of - “The Theory of Book-Selection.” - - Shows how economic factors influence artistic production and affect - artistic methods. - - - =Artifex=, or the Future of Craftsmanship. By JOHN GLOAG, author of - “Time, Taste, and Furniture.” - - Indicates how the machine may be used to extend the glory of - craftsmanship. - - - =Pegasus=, or Problems of Transport. By Colonel J. F. C. FULLER, - author of “The Reformation of War,” etc. - - An account of “cross-country” vehicles, which will achieve a - revolution as great as that caused by the railway. - - - =Atlantis=, or the United States and the Future. By Colonel J. F. C. - FULLER. - - A witty and penetrating analysis of the American spirit. - - - =Midas=, or the Future of the United States. By C. H. BRETHERTON, - author of “The Real Ireland,” etc. - - A companion volume to _Atlantis_, written from a different - viewpoint. - - - =Nuncius=, the Future of Advertising. By GILBERT RUSSELL. - - - =The Future of the English Language.= By BASIL DE SELINCOURT. - - - - - -TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES: - - - Italicized text is surrounded by underscores: _italics_. - - Emboldened text is surrounded by equals signs: =bold=. - - Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. - - Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized. - - Archaic or variant spelling has been retained. - - The cover image for this eBook was created by the transcriber and is - entered into the public domain. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EUTERPE *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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