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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..584efcb --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #69562 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69562) diff --git a/old/69562-0.txt b/old/69562-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ab650a1..0000000 --- a/old/69562-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4209 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Gas and flame in modern warfare, by S. -J. M. Auld - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Gas and flame in modern warfare - -Author: S. J. M. Auld - -Illustrator: W. G. Thayer - -Release Date: December 17, 2022 [eBook #69562] - -Language: English - -Produced by: deaurider, David E. Brown, and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GAS AND FLAME IN MODERN -WARFARE *** - - - - - -GAS AND FLAME - -MAJOR S. J. M. AULD, M.C. - - -[Illustration: Lieut. W. G. Thayer, of the Gas Defense Division, U. S. -Army, is the artist of the drawing here reproduced which was designed -for the purpose of bringing home the necessity of care in all that -pertains to the use and manufacture of the gas mask. - -In order to impress upon the soldier in training the need of care and -speed in adjusting the mask in case of gas attack, the poster was -printed with this wording: - - KEEP YOUR HEAD; HOLD YOUR BREATH,-- - BE QUICK!! - AND THIS WON’T HAPPEN TO YOU - -That the workers engaged in the manufacture of gas masks might realize -the importance of care and flawlessness in their work, the same poster -was placed in the factories with a legend reading: - - THE FINAL INSPECTOR] - - - - - GAS AND FLAME - IN MODERN WARFARE - - BY - MAJOR S. J. M. AULD, M.C. - ROYAL BERKSHIRE REGIMENT - _Member of the British Military Mission - to the United States_ - - FRONTISPIECE BY - W. G. THAYER - - [Illustration] - - NEW YORK - GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY - - - - - _Copyright, 1918, - By George H. Doran Company_ - - _Copyright, 1918, - By The Curtis Publishing Company_ - - _Copyright, 1918, - By Doubleday, Page & Company_ - - _Printed in the United States of America_ - - - - -PUBLISHER’S NOTE - - -Need for the education of vast numbers of men in various branches -of Gas Service and those in camps on the position of Gas Warfare at -the front, has made imperative the publication of this book, as has -also the need of educating the public, owing to the many misleading -newspaper reports, sometimes merely misinformative, sometimes -distinctly mischievous, appearing from time to time. - -Major Auld, chemist and teacher before the war, and as he modestly -styled it, “amateur soldier,” volunteered for service at the front as a -“Territorial,” at the very outset of the conflict. - -Some months after the first gas attack, he was taken into the Gas -Service, owing to his training and ability as a chemist, and later -became Chief Gas Officer to Sir Julian Byng’s Army. He was awarded -the Military Cross after the Battle of the Somme, and was wounded in -an expedition into No Man’s Land to observe the effect of a British -Gas attack. He has therefore been in touch with gas warfare from the -beginning and knows all phases. - -As the natural consequence of all this, the Government of the United -States welcomed him as the representative of Great Britain in its -counsel to America on all aspects of gas warfare. In this official -capacity the Major has been engaged here assisting in organization and -development of training, research and production aspects of Gas, and -lecturing at camps, the War College, and West Point. - -The American Gas Service has, for all these reasons, deemed the -publication of Major Auld’s experiences very desirable. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I - PAGE - The first rumours of German gas attacks--Sceptically - received--First attack in 1915--Canadian - pluck under gas--Nernst and Haber the - inventors of German gas--The difficulties of - getting practicable gases--The technic of gas - attacks--A German prisoner’s account 9 - - CHAPTER II - - The first respirators--First-aid devices--The - smoke helmet--Anti-gas sprayers--Their use - and delicacy--The English chemists set to - work--The task of training the whole army 26 - - CHAPTER III - - Popular terror of gas--Necessity for drilling and - early personal experience--Sure defence from - gas possible--The first gas alarms--The prussic - acid scare a myth--The phosgene scare a - reality--The helmet made to combat it--Necessity - for renovating the helmet 42 - - CHAPTER IV - - The attack of Dec. 1915--The Allies’ good training - tells--The casualties analysed--The new - element of surprise--Evidences of the use of - phosgene--The incident of the bulb--Improved - alarms--The Strombos sirens--Accidents - to the horns--The Tear Gas Shell--Its - chemical analysis--Combated by anti-gas - goggles--Tommies scoff at Tear Gas--The - Germans make it formidable 62 - - CHAPTER V - - Summer of 1916 the highwater mark of the German - gas cloud--Their improved methods--The - need of speed and secrecy--Gas as a rat - exterminator--Causes of Allied casualties--Germans - killed with their own gas--Gas - masks for horses and mules--Reduced Allied - casualties--Humorous incidents 88 - - CHAPTER VI - - The last German gas cloud sent over August 1916--Its - intensity--“Delayed” cases of phosgene - gassing--Cigarettes as a test of gassing--Dangers - of carelessness--The sprayer abandoned - for Mrs. Ayrton’s fan--Responsibilities - of the divisional gas office--Russian gas victims--The - day of the gas cloud over 112 - - CHAPTER VII - - The rising importance of the gas shell--The - variety of gases practicable with the shell--The - deadly Green Cross Shell--Risks of - transporting “duds” for chemical analysis--Reduced - Allied casualties--German blunders - in shelling tactics--Importance of universal - discipline 127 - - CHAPTER VIII - - The gas-proof dugout--First-aid methods of - alarm--Von Buelow improves German gas - tactics--Popular errors about gas--Effectiveness - of new British respirators--Vomiting gas--Germans - speed up their manufacture--Gas - as a neutraliser of artillery fire--As a neutraliser - of work behind the trenches--Raw recruits - ashamed to wear the mask--Casualties - resulting 145 - - CHAPTER IX - - Mustard or Yellow Cross gas--Not deadly but a - dangerous pest--Its troublesome persistence--Cleaning - it out by fires--Sneezing of Blue - Cross gas--Another pest--Its violent effect--The - limit of gas shell effectiveness--The need - for constant vigilance and disciplinary training 169 - - CHAPTER X - - Liquid fire--First used by Germans in July 1915--A - great surprise and success--German hopes - from it--Construction of a flame projector--Flammenwerfer - companies--Their perilous - duties and incidents of desertion from them--Improved - types of projectors--Co-operation - of machine-gun fire--Failure of liquid fire--Its - short duration and short range--Ease of - escape from it 185 - - - - -GAS AND FLAME - - - - -GAS AND FLAME - -CHAPTER I - - The first rumours of German gas attacks--Sceptically received--First - attack in 1915--Canadian pluck under gas--Nernst and Haber the - inventors of German gas--The difficulties of getting practicable - gases--The technic of gas attacks--A German prisoner’s account. - - -In the early part of April, 1915, we were in the trenches opposite -Messines. We enjoyed the usual morning and evening “hate”; we sniped -and were sniped at; we patrolled and wired and attempted to drain -away the superfluous water, and there was much mud and humour and -expectancy. It is true there were no Mills grenades or Stokes mortars -or tin hats, but trench warfare was not so very different then from -what it is now--with one great exception: There was no gas. And -there were consequently no respirators to carry day and night. It is -almost impossible now to remember the time when one did not carry a -respirator in the trenches. Somehow it makes you feel quite naked to -think of it--and yet there we were, imagining we knew what war really -was like! - -The newspapers we got at that time were generally a good many days old, -and censored at that, and our chief source of news about the war in -other people’s parts of the line was a summary of so-called information -issued from headquarters, which percolated down to the battalion and, -like every other summary before and since, went by the name of “Comic -Cuts.” - -Somewhere about the middle of the month we heard that in somebody -else’s summary had appeared a paragraph to the effect that a deserter -from the German lines up in the salient had told a cock-and-bull story -of how they intended to poison us all with a cloud of gas, and that -tanks full of the poison gas were already installed in their trenches. - -Of course nobody believed him. The statement was “passed for -information for what it is worth.” And as nobody ever believed anything -that appeared in Comic Cuts in any case, we were not disposed to get -the wind up about it. And then, about a week later, on April 22, 1915, -was launched the first gas attack; and another constant horror was -added to an already somewhat unpleasant war. Details about the attack -are still somewhat meagre, for the simple reason that the men who could -have told much about it never came back. - -The place chosen for the first gas attack was in the northeast part of -the Ypres salient at that part of the line where the French and British -lines met, running down from where the trenches left the canal near -Boesinghe. On the French right was the ---- Regiment of Turcos, and on -the British left were the Canadians. - -Try to imagine the feelings and the condition of the coloured troops -as they saw the vast cloud of greenish-yellow gas spring out of the -ground and slowly move down wind toward them, the vapour clinging to -the earth, seeking out every hole and hollow and filling the trenches -and shell holes as it came. First wonder, then fear; then, as the first -fringes of the cloud enveloped them and left them choking and agonised -in the fight for breath--panic. Those who could move broke and ran, -trying, generally in vain, to outstrip the cloud which followed -inexorably after them. - -The majority of those in the front line were killed--some, let us -hope, immediately, but most of them slowly and horribly. It is not my -intention to try to play upon feelings, but those of us who have seen -men badly gassed can only think with horror of a battlefield covered -with such cases, over which the Germans subsequently advanced. - -The Canadians on the British left fared both better and worse than the -French coloured troops. Only their left appears to have been in the -main path of the poison cloud, but there is little doubt that in the -thickest part those who did not escape either to a flank or to the rear -were killed on the field. Thousands of those in the support trenches -and reserve lines and in billets behind the line were suffocated--many -to die later in the field ambulances and casualty clearing stations. - -Of those on the fringe of the cloud many saved themselves by burying -their faces in the earth. Others wrapped mufflers round their mouths -and noses or stuffed handkerchiefs into their mouths. Many of these -men were saved by their presence of mind, for though gassed at the time -they recovered later, after treatment in the hospitals. - -It is on record that the Canadians, with handkerchiefs or mufflers tied -over their mouths, continued to engage the Germans and that a number -of them actually charged back through the gas cloud in an endeavour to -reach the enemy. What became of them is not known. - -In this way a big gap was made in the Allied lines, through which the -Germans advanced. But the Canadians quickly formed a flank on the left -and stoutly engaged the enemy, with such success that they first slowed -up and then brought to a halt the advance of the Germans. It was this -prompt action and gallant resistance that probably saved the day. - -Whether the German high command had underestimated the probable effect -of the gas and had arranged for only a limited objective past which -the local commanders did not take the initiative to go, or whether -the latter were unaware of the real weakness of the Canadian line is -unknown. The fact remains that they did not press their advantage to -the full. They had taken the Allied front line on a wide front, killed -or captured thousands of men and taken sixty guns, and seemed to have -a clear way through to Calais; but they were stopped by the pluck of a -handful of Canadians. Reinforcements of men and guns were rushed up, -and the immediate danger was over. - -It is a matter for surmise how long the Germans had been planning and -preparing their use of gas. The idea may have been a pre-war one, but -it is difficult to believe that a project deliberately planned for -years would not have been developed so as to make it a sure winner--for -it could easily have been that. If, for example, they had made the -attack over a wider front with such strong gas clouds as are now used -nothing could possibly have stood against them. Every living thing to a -depth of fifteen miles or more could have been killed. - -On the other hand it is impossible to imagine the use of poison gas as -having been decided on without better preparation having been made to -meet retaliation, unless it was assumed either that the use of the gas -would be decisive or that at any rate the war would be finished before -the Allies could hit back with the same weapon. - -In any case the preparation must have been going on for months. All -the production of material, organisation of personnel and so on takes -a long time. This we realised ourselves later, for though the decision -to retaliate with gas was made in May it was September before an attack -could possibly be made. If we assume that a like interval of four -months elapsed for the perfecting of the German arrangements it means -that the decision to use gas was made about Christmas, 1914. - -The onus of urging the Kaiser’s advisers to adopt the use of poisonous -gases had been laid at the door of Professor Nernst, professor of -chemistry at the University of Berlin. Professor Nernst is a noted -chemist, and even before the war was a notorious Pan-German and -Anglophobe--one of the “professors” who carried too much weight in -Germany and whose arrogance and shortsightedness helped to lure -her to her downfall. Some time after the use of gas was started -Professor Nernst was made a count by the Kaiser for his “notable -services”--meaning presumably the use of gas in warfare. - -The actual carrying out of the gas operations was intrusted to another -professor of chemistry, this being one Haber, of the Kaiser Wilhelm -Physical Chemical Institute at Berlin. In 1914, long before the war -started, Professor Haber and his assistants are known to have been -working secretly with some intensely poisonous arsenic gases and -liquids, and one of the assistants was killed and another is reported -to have had his arm blown off during the researches. - -Haber’s particular job was to make all the scientific arrangements -in the field; to decide on the gases to be used, and the quantity -to employ; to study the wind directions and decide exactly when to -make the attack. In the weeks preceding the twenty-second of April, -Haber was continually at the Front receiving reports from the wind -observation stations and in close touch with the men in charge of the -cylinders in the trenches. On several occasions during this time the -attack was fixed for a certain hour, but was postponed by Haber, owing -to the wind’s being unsuitable. - -The actual arrangements that had to be made were much more complex -than the carrying out of the attack itself. First of all, decision had -to be come to as to the gas to be used in the fiendish attempt. Such -a gas had of course to be highly poisonous. Then it must be cheaply -and easily made in large quantities; it had to be compressible, so -that it could be transported easily; it must be heavier than air, so -that it should keep close to the ground when first liberated; and for -preference it should not be unstable--that is, decompose easily and -enter into nonpoisonous combinations with materials, other than man, -that it should come across in its passage through the air. - -Any chemist to whom such a problem is put will inform you there are -very few gases that fill the bill. The German choice rested on that -gas well-known to students of chemistry--chlorine. Chlorine in large -quantities was available from the alkali works in Germany, and it -meets all the other requirements except that of not easily combining -with other things. This deficiency was fortunate, for it meant that -protective chemicals were easy to find when it became necessary to -provide respirators to the Allied troops. - -Then there was the question of transport and emission. The gas was -eventually put up in steel cylinders, about thirty inches long and -eight inches across and stout enough to stand a pressure of about ten -atmospheres, the gas being stored in them compressed to a liquid. On -opening such a cylinder the liquid boils and gives off the gas again, -but this would not do for field work, because of the intense cold which -is produced by the sudden expansion. This would freeze up the pipes and -slow down the discharge to such an extent that the gas attack would be -too weak. - -To get over this difficulty the Germans fitted their cylinders with -internal siphon tubes so that actually liquid chlorine was forced into -the air, where it evaporated without affecting the gas remaining in the -cylinder. By this means the whole of the gas in the cylinder, amounting -to forty-five pounds, is emptied into the atmosphere in less than three -minutes. The sudden expansion of the chlorine in the air also makes -both it and the surrounding air cold and helps to keep the cloud close -to the ground. - -The actual handing of the gas attacks was allotted to two regiments of -pioneers--the 35th and 36th Pioneer Regiments, which were specially -organised for this purpose. These regiments have the ordinary -organisation of two battalions per regiment, with three companies and a -park or transport company per battalion. The rank and file are ordinary -pioneers, but the officers are specially picked and include chemists, -mechanical experts, meteorologists, and other men with special -scientific qualifications. - -The choice of country in which to make a gas attack was a serious -matter to the enemy. The gas of course will go with the wind, but it -depends largely on what the country is like where the wind will go. The -Germans themselves say they prefer a flat country without any marked -under features and sloping gently toward our lines, just as they had at -Ypres. Indeed, they went the length of saying that a gas attack could -not be carried out in hilly or very broken country; and they suffered -in consequence later on, through being taken unawares by the French in -just such country in the Vosges when retaliation was commenced. But -taking it altogether the Germans were wise in their choice of position. - -Another thing that had to be considered was the outline of their own -trench system, so that they would not let off the gas in such parts -of the line that it would float back and gas their own troops in the -neighbouring trenches. To do this they invented a “factor of safety,” -which represented an angle between the direction of the wind and the -line of the trenches. No attack was to be made if the wind direction -came within forty degrees of any trench within gassing distance. This -worked very well. - -Another consideration was the strength of the wind. The wind must not -be too strong when the gusts disperse the gas cloud, or it will weaken -it so that it loses a lot of its effect and will be blown over the -enemy too quickly; nor must it be so weak that it will take a long time -to reach the opposing trenches. - -Another great danger in winds of too low velocity is that these are -just the winds which change their direction most frequently, and -anything under two miles per hour is just as likely to blow the -gas back to the place from which it came. It was disregarding this -principle on one occasion later on that caused the Germans numerous -casualties from one of their own gas clouds. In general, however, it -may be laid down that the most favourable winds are those between four -and twelve miles an hour, so that with a wind of eight miles an hour -the cloud would move just twice as quickly as a man walking rapidly, -and would take only twelve and a half seconds to cross No Man’s Land in -places where the trenches are fifty yards apart. - -Let me try to give an account of the procedure of carrying out gas -attacks as it was told me by a German prisoner taken not so very long -ago. He said: - -“I am not one of the gas pioneers, but being an engineer by trade and -having been in the trenches for many weeks with the 35th Regiment -of Pioneers I have got to know their methods fairly well. Indeed I -assisted on one occasion in carrying cylinders into the trenches for -an attack against the British. Gas is not popular with us; we have had -too many mishaps, and the cylinders are a nuisance to carry into the -trenches. They weigh ninety pounds and they are always carried in by -the infantry. A gas regiment does not do that for itself. It is a long -carry and it is really more than a one-man load. At the most two men -are allotted to carry in each cylinder, whatever the distance. - -“Several thousand of these cylinders must be taken into the trenches, -and then we have the job of putting them in position. Deep holes are -dug just underneath the parapet of the trench, and into these holes -are placed the separate cylinders with the tops flush with the ground. -As each cylinder is placed into position the hole is covered with a -board, on top of which is placed a thing we call a ‘_Salzdecke_,’ which -is really a kind of quilt stuffed with peat moss and soaked in potash -solution so as to absorb any of the gases that may leak out. - -“On top of the _Salzdecke_ are built up three layers of sandbags, so -that there is not much danger of the cylinders’ being hit by shell -fragments. This also serves to hide the cylinders in case a raid is -made, and the sandbags form an excellent firing step. In fact, you -would never guess that the gas was ready in position to make an -attack. All of this takes a long time to do, and then we have to wait -for a wind that is favourable. - -“It may be weeks before the right time comes, but all the time the -pioneer officers and _Unteroffiziere_ make observations of the wind and -report back to somebody at headquarters. On the night fixed for the -attack all the infantry are warned beforehand. If the wind continues -favourable the sandbags are taken off, the domes removed from the -cylinders, and to each cylinder is attached a lead pipe which is bent -over the top of the parapet into No Man’s Land, with the end slightly -bent up, so that if any liquid comes out it is not wasted in the ground -but evaporates in the air. The end of the lead pipe is weighted with a -sandbag, so that it will not kick when the gas is turned on and blow -the gas back into our own trenches, as happened in one or two of the -earlier attacks. It is this kind of thing that makes gas unpopular in -the German Army. - -“Eventually the time really does arrive for the attack, and the -pioneers stand by the cylinders, of which twenty form a battery; and -to each battery there are two pioneers and one noncommissioned officer -waiting to unscrew the taps. A signal is given by means of a rocket. -All the infantry have been eagerly waiting for this signal, which means -that they have five minutes to clear out of the front-line trenches -before the gas is turned on; and I can tell you they do not waste any -time. Everybody makes a rush to the support trench and leaves the front -line entirely to the pioneers. - -“We all keep our masks ready to put on at a moment’s notice, because -in the earlier attack the wind on two occasions blew the gas back -again into our own trenches and killed a lot of the infantry who were -unprepared for its return. According to the length of time the attack -is to last the cylinders are turned on, from one up to five at a time, -in each battery. - -“As soon as the taps are turned on the pioneers make for cover, but -they have a good many losses from bursting cylinders, from leaks, and -from the shrapnel and high-explosive shells which invariably greet the -start of an attack. The promptness with which this happened at the time -I was in the line made us believe that your people had known all about -our gas preparations for some time. The infantry are all very glad to -be away from the front-line trench when the cloud is sent over.” - -This method has been practically unaltered throughout the time the -Germans have made gas attacks. In the first attack they probably had -one gas cylinder on every yard of front on which gas was installed, but -the number was increased in subsequent attacks. - - - - -CHAPTER II - - The first respirators--First-aid devices--the smoke helmet--Anti-gas - sprayers--Their use and delicacy--The English chemists set to - work--The task of training the whole army. - - -There is no need to dwell on the execration with which the use of gas -was met by the whole civilised world, and I will merely try to recount -how it was taken by the men in the trenches. - -The British Tommy is a difficult man to terrify, and the moral effect -on the men, though quite unprotected, was remarkably small considering -the terrors of the game. For two or three days all we heard about were -the things we should do in the event of being similarly attacked. It -appeared that great chemists from England had immediately taken up the -question of providing efficient respirators, and until they came out -were advising people as to emergency measures. Some of these methods -seemed to us very funny. We were told, for example, that a respirator -could “easily” be made by knocking the bottom off a bottle, filling the -bottle with earth, and then learning to breathe with the neck of the -bottle stuck in the mouth. The breath was to be taken in through the -bottle and let out through the nose; but as bottles were scarce and few -of them survived the attempt to get the bottom broken off there was not -much doing. - -However, we learned that handkerchiefs filled with earth and kept moist -would keep some of the gas out, and by the time the first novelty had -worn off we were receiving private respirators from England. These -had all been made in response to an appeal by Lord Kitchener to the -women of England to make respirators for the troops out of cotton wool -wrapped up in muslin or veiling. The result of this was that the War -Office was absolutely swamped with millions of these respirators within -a few days, and most fellows in the trenches had one or two sent out by -post straightaway. - -Besides these, arrangements were made by the various divisions for -respirators to be made in towns behind the lines; and the government -factories in England got to work to turn out a simple type of -respirator which had been devised by the English chemists as the -quickest to make and the simplest to use. The result was that within -about one month we had four or five different kinds of respirators -issued to us. Most of these were simple pads of either cotton wool or -cotton waste. The earlier ones were soaked in washing-soda solution, -and the later ones were moistened with a special solution consisting -of ordinary photographic hypo and washing soda mixed with a little -glycerin. - -One type that we had for a week or two in the trenches consisted of -the usual pad of cotton waste together with a small wad of the same -material which was kept separate. The respirators were stored in boxes -let into the paradoses, or rear walls of the trenches. On the alarm -being given each man in the trench made a dive for a respirator, -stuffed the wad into his mouth as a first protection, and then bound -the pad round his mouth and nose, the wad being afterward taken out of -his mouth and stuffed round his nose so as to make a tight fit. - -These practices were popular for once or twice, but when it began to -be realised that the wads were not always used by the same man the -novelty waned. We thought we were getting pretty smart at it when we -could get every man in the trench fully protected--that is, with the -tapes tied--in forty seconds from the word “Go.” - -Later on we had the official “black-veiling respirator,” which was -issued to all the British troops and which went through two or three of -the earlier attacks as the chief protection. - -It was from one of these attacks delivered in the salient again, on the -twenty-fourth of May, that the first benefits of good training in the -use of the respirator were seen. One of the regiments which had been -on the flank of the first attack and had seen the effects of the gas -and what it really meant had taken the training very seriously, and -the officers had insured that every man had a respirator, kept it in -good condition, and knew how to use it in the quickest possible time -should occasion rise. Other regiments were not so good, and it was just -this training or lack of it that made all the difference between heavy -casualties and light casualties in subsequent attacks. - -On the twenty-fourth of May the regiment mentioned above happened to -be in the very thickest part of the cloud, and though the battalion -on either side of it suffered serious losses they themselves came off -almost scot-free. Instances of losses from insufficient education in -the use of the respirator were numerous on this occasion. A lot of -men took their respirators off in the middle of the attack in order -to wet them with solution again; and as they did not wring them out -sufficiently the respirators were difficult to breathe through and the -men thought they were being gassed and repeated the dose--the result -being that they could not draw air through the sodden cotton waste, and -they were gassed either from pulling off the respirators altogether or -from the air coming in at the side. - -One very bad instance was quoted by a medical officer at an advanced -dressing station which was taking in gas cases as they came down from -the line. Two or three men from one battalion came in pretty badly -gassed, but still able to walk. The M. O. asked them if they had -respirators issued to them. They said “Yes.” - -“Well, why didn’t you put them on?” - -They said: “We did put them on; we’ve got them on now.” - -And so they had--strapped across their chests! - -At that time respirators were generally carried by the men tied round -their caps, and in some cases could not be removed in time; and the -May twenty-fourth attack made it apparent that the respirators should -be carried in a position ready for immediate use. For this purpose a -waterproof cover was provided and the respirator kept in a small pocket -inserted into the jacket, or else in a pouch slung over the shoulder. - -The other bad feature about the preparations was the arrangement for -dipping the respirators in solution in the trenches, as referred to -above. During the attack a lot of the men dipped their respirators in -water; which of course washed the chemicals out of the respirators and -made them ineffectual much sooner than they should have been. But all -of these matters were remedied before another gas attack was made. - -After the first emergency respirator had been issued every effort was -made to devise a more effective form of protection than that given by -the cotton-wool pads, in expectation of a recurrence of German attacks. -As a matter of fact there were no attacks between the beginning of June -and December, 1915, because the wind was unfavourable to the Germans. -This was another point that they had apparently overlooked, because on -investigation we found that the prevailing winds in Flanders blew from -west to east, and that about three-quarters of the total winds were in -our favour and against the Germans. - -The long interval of the summer of 1915 gave us a splendid opportunity -to develop the protection against gas which had been commenced in the -spring while attacks were still being made. The most important of -these developments were the invention of the celebrated “smoke helmet” -and the use of sprayers for the removing of gas from the trenches. We -also found out the exact value of certain other devices and methods -which had been suggested for combating the gas clouds, and a lot of -impossible ideas were consequently turned down. - -The latter might be discussed first of all. One suggestion which was -made and believed in by most people at various times--including the -Germans themselves--was that fires built in the trenches or on the -parapet would cause such an upward draft as to lift up the gas cloud -and carry it safely over our heads. Experiments showed, however, that -this idea was absolutely false, because though an upward draft was -certainly formed the incoming air carried with it just as much gas from -the surrounding atmosphere, and nothing was gained by it. It was a long -time before the Germans tumbled to this, and even many months later -their own instructions on defence against gas included statements that -showed their reliance on this procedure. - -One suggestion which actually reached the point of being acted on was -that the gas cloud could be dispersed by an explosion, and for this -purpose we were provided with wooden boxes filled with black powder and -with fuses attached, which we were supposed to light at the crucial -moment and throw into an advancing cloud. This heroic procedure was -never actually made use of, however, because experiments in the -meantime again showed that such explosions had very little effect on a -cloud of gas. - -Two suggestions which really did turn out to be winners were those -referred to previously--the smoke helmet and the Vermorel sprayer for -clearing the trenches. - -The idea for a respirator in the form of a helmet to go right over -the head is stated to have originated from an idea of a sergeant of -the Canadians who was gassed at Ypres, who stated that he had seen -some of the Germans through the gas cloud with things that looked like -flour bags pulled over their heads. It was thought that something of -this kind could actually be made use of, and experiments showed that -it was really a practical idea, because breathing is done through a -very big surface and not only through the chemicals directly in front -of the mouth and nose, as in the case of the respirator. By having -a big surface it is possible to have thinner material and there is, -therefore, less resistance to breathing. All that is required is to -tuck the helmet down inside the jacket and button the latter tightly -round it at the neck, and if this is done there is little possibility -of gas leaking in. As a matter of fact there is no evidence that the -Germans ever did use anything of the kind. - -The first types of smoke helmet were made of flannel and had a window -for seeing through which was made of mica or celluloid. The helmets -were soaked in the same kind of solution--hypo, carbonate of soda -and glycerin--that had been employed for the respirators. Helmets of -this kind were capable of standing up against really considerable -concentrations of chlorine, and they were quickly recognised both by -the troops and by experts as being a very big improvement on the old -respirator. - -These helmets were made and issued to the troops as quickly as -possible and a few of them were actually used in the attack of May -twenty-fourth. Men unpracticed in their use were apt to find them hot -and stuffy, and, not realising that the feeling wears off, were often -inclined to think that they were being suffocated or gassed. As a -matter of fact well-drilled men could do almost anything while wearing -the helmet, the chief difficulty being that of limited vision. After -wearing the helmet for a short time the celluloid window got clouded -over from the moisture in the breath, but this could easily be remedied -by wiping it on the forehead. In many cases also the windows got -cracked or broken from the rough treatment they were bound to meet in -trenches, and this was a constant danger until men learned how to fold -the helmet properly so as to protect the celluloid and to place a small -sheet of cardboard or thin wood over the window before folding. - -The sprayers previously mentioned were originally suggested for use -against the gas cloud itself, the idea being that chemicals should be -sprayed at the cloud so as to neutralise the poisonous gas and thereby -purify the air. Nearly everybody with even a nodding acquaintance with -chemistry wrote in suggesting ammonia for this purpose, oblivious of -the fact that the chemical reaction between chlorine and ammonia in -these circumstances produces a dense cloud which is most irritating to -the eyes and throat, and that this together with the excess of ammonia -would be almost as bad as the original gas. - -In any case it is impossible to deal with the gas cloud by spraying, -because of the enormous amount of chemicals and apparatus that would -be required to neutralise the attack. A cloud of chlorine from one -thousand cylinders, for example, would require more than forty tons of -the strongest ammonia solution obtainable to kill all the gas, even if -none of the spray were lost in the ground. Besides this the spraying -might have to be continued for hours, some of the attacks having lasted -intermittently for more than three hours. - -It was quickly seen that this was an utter impossibility, but -experiments showed that a spray of the hypo solution was quite capable -of removing what remained of the gas cloud out of trenches and shell -holes and from dugouts into which the gas had penetrated. This of -course applied only to chlorine. Arrangements were therefore made for -supplying a large number of these sprayers, which are exactly the same -as those used for spraying fruit trees and potatoes with fungicides, -and men were specially trained in their use so that they could be -employed after an attack was over. These men were officially known as -the “Vermorel sprayer men,” and were popularly supposed to preface all -their operations with the words “Let us spray.” - -The solution to fill the sprayers was kept in all the trenches in -corked rum jars, and there were many amusing incidents rising out -of the dual purpose to which these revered vessels were put. It is -stated that a certain battalion on going into the line for the first -time saw these rum jars safely ensconced in niches in the parapet and -immediately thought that they contained the rum ration concerning -which they had heard so much before they came out. Some of the more -adventurous ones surreptitiously tried out the supposed rum and drank a -few mouthfuls of the nauseous liquid before discovering their mistake. -The real joke lay in the fact that even after they realised that the -liquid was not rum they continued to drink it, and by the time they -finished their two days’ tour of instruction there was not a drop of -Vermorel sprayer solution left in any of the trenches. - -The sprayers were somewhat delicate pieces of apparatus to keep in good -condition in the trenches, and were apt to get crusted with mud and -out of order unless they were well looked after. Like everything else -connected with the defence against gas, their condition in the trenches -varied with different regiments according as they were well trained and -disciplined or otherwise, but as a rule the sprayers were well enough -looked after, and proved extraordinarily useful on many occasions after -their first appearance in the line. - -As stated before, the long interval of the summer and autumn of 1915 -gave the chemists and the army plenty of opportunity for thinking about -the gas question, developing organisation and methods to meet attacks -in the future, and making arrangements for the training of the troops -so that they should be thoroughly prepared when the next attack should -arrive. - -One of the most important things that was done was to start a big field -laboratory for dealing with questions of gas warfare. And as it had -already been realised that the whole basis of defence against gas was -going to lie in the hands of the troops themselves by increasing their -steadiness, developing their discipline, and generally accustoming -them to the idea that gas was now an ordinary method of warfare, -chemists and instructors were appointed for attachment to each of the -British armies. - -These men were all chosen from the line. For the most part they were -infantry officers who could realise the real needs and limitations of -the troops, but they were picked in each instance because they had, at -any rate, some chemical knowledge and could translate into practice -for the benefit of the troops various chemical measures which had been -adopted for the latter’s safety. Their first chief job was to see that -respirators and smoke helmets were issued in sufficient number; to see -that they were in good condition; and then to arrange for the training -of all the troops in the army in their use. This was a heroic task, to -be accomplished in as short a time as possible, but by dint of speaking -to large bodies of officers and men at the same time it was so far -completed that all ranks were given practical instruction in the use of -the helmet. - -When it is realised that each of these officers had to deal with at -least one hundred thousand troops it will be seen that it was no -mean feat that was accomplished. What was started then has never been -completely accomplished, partly because of the continual development of -gas warfare and partly because it is a matter of education--which is -always slow--but very largely also because of the continually changing -personnel and the enormous numbers of men that have had to be trained. - - - - -CHAPTER III - - Popular terror of gas--Necessity for drilling and early personal - experience--Sure defence from gas possible--The first gas - alarms--The prussic acid scare a myth--The phosgene scare a - reality--The helmet made to combat it--Necessity for renovating - the helmet. - - -The final object in the training of men in defence against gas is -that troops shall be able to protect themselves completely and as -quickly as possible in all the multitudinous circumstances in which -they may encounter the poisonous gas in the field. To attain this -it is necessary to inspire confidence by letting them in as far as -possible on the principles underlying the use of gas and the tactics -which are adopted by the enemy; and, secondly, to bring their practical -proficiency and discipline up to such a standard that they make the -very best use of the apparatus that is given to them. - -It must be remembered that one of the greatest difficulties in talking -to people about gas is the mystery of it. Even educated people hardly -understand the word “gas” in connection with war and are apt to think -of coal gas and dentists’ gas in consequence. The result is that the -gas of the Germans was sometimes credited with all sorts of impossible -qualities of movement and deadliness, and it can hardly be realised -what alarm and distrust may exist in the raw recruit with regard to -gas until he has been given some instruction. This is even as great a -danger as the over-confidence of the veteran soldier, who may know just -as little about it. - -Mere drilling and assertion are not sufficient to inspire confidence -and acquire proportion, and it was realised very early that personal -experience was needed. To gain this arrangements were made for every -man to see and smell gas in concentrations that would at any rate -produce severe discomfort if dwelt in for any length of time, and for -each soldier subsequently to be exposed to gas while wearing a gas -helmet in such a concentration that negligence in obeying orders or in -using the smoke helmet correctly would lead to real danger to life. By -this means confidence could be inspired in everybody, though there is -always a certain danger due to recklessness among the more adventurous -types. - -Besides this it was necessary to give as many men as possible some -idea of the common sense of the operations in which the army was being -drilled. This could only be done by giving a clear idea of how the -gas is used; how gas travels; where it accumulates; how it can be -removed, and so on; and under what conditions a respirator or smoke -helmet protects or ceases to protect its wearer. It was on these lines -that instruction was built up; and to do it thoroughly it was found -that a large number of instructors were required in order to train the -officers and noncommissioned officers and to get them to treat their -respirators with as great respect as their rifles and to learn to carry -them through a gas-defence drill in just as smart a manner as the -ordinary arms. - -For this purpose special schools of instruction were started at each -army headquarters, and as many regimental officers and noncommissioned -officers as possible were given a four or five days’ course of gas -training, so that they in their turn could go back to their regiments -and spread the gospel, as the responsibility for getting things done -must eventually fall upon them. Not only was it found impossible to -provide specialist officers for each regiment or battalion, but it -was recognised that such a procedure would have a bad effect on the -gas-defence measures. - -Gas defence was a matter which affected everybody and was in no way -to be regarded as a specialist’s job; battalions were already full -of specialists. Indeed the colonels were apt to complain that they -had nobody but specialists to command. There were bombers, snipers, -signalers, machine gunners and sanitary men; and at that time the -trench-mortar personnel was also a part of the infantry battalion. With -all these things the feeling was that if a job could be looked on as -being a specialty it should be put on the specialist officer concerned, -and nobody else worried about it much. Now if gas defence was to become -Lieutenant Snook’s job, it meant that it was going to be nobody else’s -job, and it was essential that the idea should grow up in the army that -gas defence was a purely military matter and affected everybody. - -What was said then is just as true to-day--that the defensive appliance -is a certain protection if it is used properly and in time. Defence -against gas is thus on an entirely different footing from defence -against shells and bullets, where protection cannot be assured; and, to -quote instructions on the subject: “For destructive effects gas must -depend on surprise, on poor discipline or on defective appliances. -Consequently gas casualties are preventable if the soldier is trained -continually to exercise vigilance and is well drilled in the use and -care of his respirator.” - -The basis of the whole thing, therefore, was that every officer -should see that the men under his command were properly instructed in -defensive measures against gas attacks, and that all orders on the -subject were thoroughly understood. It was then up to the officers to -see that their men could get their helmets on properly in the minimum -time, and this involved considerable amount of drill practice. It was -pointed out to the officers that since protection had been provided, -those battalions which had been carefully instructed had come through -practically unharmed, while those battalions in which instructions had -been neglected suffered severely. - -It was also up to the officers to explain to their men as much as they -themselves had learned about gas clouds, and to impress on them, for -example, that by moving to the rear they would move with the gas, and -that if they got flurried they would breathe more deeply and would run -much more risk of being gassed. - -Besides these questions of instruction and drilling a lot of other -arrangements had to be made, so that warning of German gas attacks -should be spread in the quickest possible time. Arrangements were -made to install alarms of various kinds in the trenches. Of course no -reliance could be placed on any method of communication which involved -the use of the lungs. A man cannot blow a bugle or a whistle while he -has a helmet on, and if he waited to give a signal by such a method -before protecting himself he would be almost certain to be gassed. What -was done was to place bells and gongs made from shell cases up and -down the trenches. - -At first these were rather futile things, the bells generally being -much too small--some of them merely cow bells. The shell cases were a -bit better and are still used for local alarms; but the arrangements -for giving warning were not really very good at that time. The best -devices were a number of motor horns, which were obtained locally, but -the supply was insufficient and there was no general issue. Later on -the alarm arrangements were tremendously improved. In some cases signal -lights were used, but so many different kinds of rockets were already -employed for signalling to the rear that there was great difficulty in -finding a light sufficiently distinctive. There was also the danger -that it could be quickly copied by the boche, who would thus amuse -himself by giving us all kinds of shocks from false alarms. - -Quite as important as the provision of signals was the making of -observations to see when the wind was in a dangerous quarter. This was -done partly at the meteorological stations at headquarters and partly -on the front line itself. The latter was regarded at the time as the -most important, and orders were given that each unit in the front -line should rig up some kind of wind vane and learn to ascertain the -strength of the wind, so that they should be immediately prepared for -an attack whenever the wind was in a dangerous quarter. - -Wind vanes in the trenches were of the simplest types and a great deal -of ingenuity was displayed in fitting up weathercocks that would be -capable of turning in really low wind--say, one with a speed of only -two miles an hour. The bearings for the central rod were the greatest -difficulty, but it was found that by boring out a rifle bullet a sharp -pointed stick or a thick piece of wire could be got to revolve in the -hollow bullet quite easily, what remained of the lead core acting as a -kind of lubrication. - -The greatest nuisance of these wind vanes at first was that they were -made so generally obtrusive that they could be seen from the enemy’s -lines, and they nearly always drew fire from snipers, and sometimes -actually from the artillery. Presumably the enemy thought that where -the wind vanes were installed company headquarters were probably -situated. The position of the wind vanes consequently had to be chosen -so that the direction and speed of the wind would be measured several -feet above the ground without the apparatus being too obvious. One -of the simplest types of vane adopted, and one which could hardly be -seen from any distance, was a bit of a stick to the end of which was -tied ten to twelve inches of thin thread with a tiny bit of cotton -wool at the end. When the wind is blowing the direction taken by the -thread shows the line of the wind fairly exactly, and the behaviour of -the cotton wool in rising and falling indicates the strength of the -wind. The latter, however, was supposed to be measured by reference -to Beaufort’s scale, which depends on the movement in wind of natural -objects. Beaufort’s scale, which was devised long ago by an English -admiral of that name, is as follows: - -Smoke moves straight up, speed of wind is _nil_; smoke slants, speed -is two miles an hour; the wind is felt on the face, speed is five -miles; paper, etc., move about, speed is ten miles; bushes are seen to -sway, speed is fifteen miles; tree tops sway and wavelets are formed -on water, speed is twenty miles; tree tops sway and whistle, speed is -thirty miles. - -All of these arrangements for training and equipment of the troops were -hurried on as quickly as possible, but at the same time sight was not -lost of the probability of the German’s using gases different from the -chlorine which had originally formed their stand-by. It was felt that -a good all-round protection should be capable of keeping out not only -chlorine and similar gases but also others which were quite likely to -come into use. - -During the whole of this time we were getting a lot of information from -the intelligence branch as to materials which the Germans were making -for use against us in their next gas attacks. Some of this information -was really farcical, but on the other hand some of it was very good -and helped to confirm the conclusions to which our own scientists were -coming as to the likelihood or unlikelihood of particular gases. In the -former category may be classed one story which came to us containing -a very circumstantial description of some experiments which were -stated to have been carried out in Berlin. These trials were stated -to have been made in what we considered a very proper place, namely, -Hagenbeck’s menagerie, where, in the presence of a large number of -military representatives, a new gas was tried out. - -A noncommissioned officer appeared with a tank of the gas on his back, -the spraying nozzle coming out under his arm. A camel and an elephant -were brought out. The noncommissioned officer advanced toward them, -and at twenty paces’ distance he pressed down the lever on the tank -and out came some small black bubbles of gas, which floated down the -wind toward the faded animals. The bubbles burst, giving off a yellow -vapour, and the minute this vapour came in contact with the camel and -the elephant the beasts dropped down dead! - -This sounded very terrible, but even in the conditions we were at the -time it was not taken too seriously, and of course nothing of this kind -has ever made its appearance. - -Another story which commenced to make its appearance at that time -and which we have heard a great deal about ever since was that the -Germans were busy making prussic acid in enormous quantities for a huge -offensive which was to finish the war. It was stated that the Kaiser -had at last been persuaded to use this terrible weapon in order by its -use to finish the war at once and prevent needless suffering. - -When they first made their appearance stories with regard to prussic -acid had to be taken a great deal more seriously than those like the -“little black bubbles.” For one thing we were unprotected against -prussic acid, and for another it was known of course to be an extremely -deadly poison. Indeed before the war it was regarded as the most -poisonous vapour known, so a great deal of weight was attached to these -statements, and experiments were at once put on foot to find protection -against prussic acid and to see exactly how poisonous it was compared -with other gases. - -As a matter of fact prussic acid has not been used by the Germans -simply because it is not poisonous enough. It is not so poisonous, for -example, as phosgene, and a lot of captured German documents showing -the relative toxicity of different vapours always put it on a rather -low basis. It was this and not a desire to avoid utter barbarity which -decided the Germans not to use it. The ordinary German soldiers, just -like ourselves, still consider prussic acid as the most dangerous -possible material, and whenever they have a story to tell of a new gas -being invented or being got ready to use against us they will tell you -in awestruck tones that it is prussic acid. - -The most valuable piece of information which we got was a complete -set of notes of some very secret lectures given to specially selected -senior officers at a conference in Germany. We gathered that this -conference was held behind closed doors and triple lines of sentries, -and all that kind of thing, and I cannot of course indicate how the -information came into our hands, but there it was. It described a lot -of new gases which had been considered, and stated among other things -that they intended to make a big gas attack against either the French -or ourselves in Flanders in December, 1915, some time before Christmas -when the wind was favourable. For this purpose they were going to -use a mixture of chlorine with another gas, phosgene--the amount of -phosgene to be twenty per cent of the whole. - -Now phosgene had been realised by our own chemists as a very likely -gas to be used. I cannot say that it is more poisonous than chlorine, -but it is infinitely more deadly because it is much more difficult to -protect against and is more insidious in its nature. For one thing, -though it is an asphyxiant like chlorine it is possible for a man to be -only slightly gassed and think he is all right, and then, especially if -he takes any exercise in between, to fall dead several hours later from -heart failure. - -The information was so complete that our arrangements to provide a -helmet which would protect against phosgene were hastened as much as -possible; and it was as well that they were, for the attack actually -did come off just about the time and place mentioned, in the Ypres -salient. - -It was realised of course that any change in protection would have -to include both prussic acid and phosgene; and this is not nearly so -easy as it sounds. Phosgene is peculiarly chemically inert for such an -active poison, and it was some time before a reasonable protection -was found which could be incorporated in a smoke helmet. The substance -actually decided upon was a solution of sodium phenate--that is, -carbolic acid dissolved in caustic soda, the mixture containing an -excess of caustic. This solution is quite capable of dealing with -reasonable concentrations of phosgene and would successfully protect -against three parts of phosgene to ten thousand of the air, which in -the circumstances was quite good enough. The French also altered their -protection at the same time and used sodium sulphanilate as the basis -of protection against phosgene. The objections against the sodium -phenate were that it could not be absorbed into a flannel helmet owing -to its destruction of the fabric, and on account of its being strongly -caustic it would tend to burn the faces of the men it came in contact -with. These difficulties were overcome by making the helmet of two -layers of flannelette instead of one layer of flannel, and by mixing -with the sodium phenate a large quantity of glycerin. This kept the -fabric moist and prevented the caustic from exerting its corrosive -action. - -It was realised from the start that a smoke helmet containing free -alkali would deteriorate considerably on exposure to air, and it was -found advantageous to provide a breathing tube in the mask so that -a man would breathe in through the helmet and out through an outlet -valve; in this way the breath, which contains a lot of carbonic acid, -would have no bad effect on the chemicals. The use of an outlet valve -was also found to have the advantage of keeping the air purer inside -the helmet and preventing the stuffy feeling which accompanied the -older types of helmet. - -This additional complication to the helmet was not looked upon -favourably at first by the troops, but it was very quickly realised -that only a little practice was required to make a man breathe quite -normally in the way mentioned above, and that the advantages accruing -from the alteration were very great indeed. We found that we could -carry on for much longer stretches of time without being fagged -out, and more exact trials by the scientists showed that a man’s -temperature, pulse and rate of breathing did not increase nearly so -rapidly if he used an outlet valve as when breathing out and in -through the same material. This is largely due to what is called “dead -space,” which means the volume of air in between the lungs and the -atmosphere and in which the air is largely composed of breath exhaled -from the lungs. The smaller this space the easier it is to breathe. - -This principle of using an outlet valve has been retained in all the -British respirators which have been invented since and is regarded as -one of the very highest importance. - -Another thing which had to be taken care of was that the new helmets, -which were called “tube” or “P” helmets, would gradually deteriorate -on exposure to air, and would consequently have to be withdrawn from -the troops in the line from time to time in order to redip them in -chemicals and make them as effective as before. For this purpose large -repair factories were started at the bases and were placed in charge -of Englishwomen who were brought over for the purpose. These factories -were organised with local labour, helped out by a little military -personnel, and were capable of washing the helmets returned from the -line, redipping them in new solution, and sending them back in good -condition again. - -This was no small job, as the smoke helmets which were sent in were -generally filthy dirty, sometimes soaked in mud and sodden with water, -and requiring very careful handling to be brought back into good -condition. All sorts of things got back with these helmets to the -repair stations, and it was not an uncommon thing for the satchels -containing the helmets to be found to hold anything from a live hand -grenade to the photograph of some girl, which had been stored there for -safe keeping. Both then and later we always had considerable difficulty -in preventing Tommy from using his helmet satchel, and later on his box -respirator satchel, for these illicit purposes. He seemed to consider -that if he had to carry another haversack he had a perfect right to put -in it whatever he liked--rations, knives and forks, ammunition, private -knickknacks of all kinds. This of course had to be stopped, owing to -the damage these things might do to the respirator and the difficulty -they might make in getting it out quickly. - -During September and October, 1915, there were several scares as to the -imminence of gas attacks by the Germans, and on one or two occasions -it was definitely stated that the cylinders were actually in position -in their trenches. This helped to hasten things up, and the factories -in England and the repair stations in France kept themselves busy in -producing the new type of helmet. A large number of them were actually -issued to the troops by the time the Battle of Loos was started, and -were consequently employed by our men when the first gas attacks were -made, in September of that year. - -It was these helmets which appeared in so many of the picture papers -showing the charge of some British Territorial infantry through the gas -cloud at the beginning of the battle, and there is no question about -it that the men had a very fearsome appearance. With the hood over -the head and the two big goggle eyes, and the outlet valve sticking -out where the nose should be, it is small wonder that the Germans -described them as “devils,” and were so terrified as not to be able to -put up much fight on the front where the particular charge was made. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - - The attack of December, 1915--The Allies’ good training tells--The - casualties analysed--The new element of surprise--Evidences of the - use of phosgene--The incident of the bulb--Improved alarms--The - Strombos sirens--Accidents to the horns--The Tear Gas Shell--Its - chemical analysis--Combated by anti-gas goggles--Tommies scoff at - Tear Gas--The Germans make it formidable. - - -The expected German gas attack was actually made on December 19, 1915, -at about 5:15 A. M., just before “Stand to” in the morning, the venue -being the north of the Ypres salient, from the canal bank at Boesinghe -down to Wieltje, a distance of three miles. It was preceded by the -appearance of parachute lights of an unusual kind and by a number of -red rocket flares. Almost immediately afterward gas was smelt in the -front trenches. In some cases a hissing sound made by the gas’s leaving -the cylinders was heard and was taken as a warning by the soldiers in -the trenches. In other cases the noise seems to have been deadened -by rifle fire. Taking it altogether, however, there was very little -warning, as the wind was favourable and the gas traveled surprisingly -quickly. - -There was absolutely no confusion, and the men put on their helmets at -once and lined the parapets within a minute. Where the trenches were -close together the men had some difficulty in getting on their helmets -in time. This was particularly the case in listening posts where we -had patrols out quite close to the German wire. In the support and -reserve trenches the arrangements for spreading the warning were not -so good as those in the front line, and a number of men were caught by -the gas before they had their helmets on. Indeed in a number of cases, -especially in batteries, the gas was smelt before the receipt of the -warning. - -The actual gas wave lasted only about half or three-quarters of an -hour, but in some places the helmets had to be kept on for four hours, -as the gas hung about in hollows and dugouts for a long time. This was -particularly noticeable in the neighbourhood of the canal. The cloud -was felt as far back as Vlamertinghe, eighty-five hundred yards behind -the line, and was still visible at this point. For at least three -miles back behind the front-line helmets had to be put on everywhere, -and for six miles behind the line the smoke helmets were generally -worn, some men who did not put them on at this distance being gassed. - -The actual gas wave was accompanied by a heavy bombardment of the -front line and of Ypres and the villages behind it, shrapnel and -high-explosive shell and also tear shell being used, the latter shell -being fired particularly against our artillery. This bombardment -lasted throughout the day and most of the following night. Though our -wire had been cut in many places by the artillery fire, the Germans -made no serious infantry attack, and small patrols which left their -trenches in a few places were immediately shot down, as our fellows -were continually on the alert and had not suffered to any considerable -degree. - -Altogether a large number of troops were exposed to the gas, but, -compared with its extent, the cloud caused only a small number of -casualties. This was very satisfactory after our experiences of the -spring. Men who were gassed but not killed were all subsequently -questioned as to the reason for their being gassed, and in each case a -definite reason was forthcoming. In no single instance was the fault -laid at the door of the smoke helmet, which apparently had been quite -capable of standing up to the highest concentrations in any part of the -cloud. - -Among the reasons given for the casualties were things like the -following: Some men in the fire trenches did not get on their helmets -quickly enough owing to the short distance between the trenches, lack -of warning in the support line and insufficient practice. Some officers -and men sleeping in dugouts did not have their helmets attached to them -or they were caught away from their dugouts without helmets. Helmets -in many cases were under the overcoats, which made it very difficult -to get them and put them on quickly, as it was necessary to undo the -overcoat, the top button of the jacket and the cardigan waistcoat -before the helmet could be tucked in. One cause of casualties was that -the “P” helmet smelt very strongly of carbolic, and a lot of men who -had not had this explained to them thought that the peculiar smell -was that of gas coming in and they took their helmets off with a -view to replacing them with other helmets. This of course was fatal. -One sergeant was gassed through his helmet’s being holed by a bullet, -though he himself was not wounded. In some cases wounded men tried to -remove their helmets and were gassed in this way, and it was found -necessary to watch men who were hit to prevent this. - -In many ways this attack of the Germans was of the greatest importance, -as it displayed all of the features on which the subsequent -development of the gas cloud was based. These features were: Increased -concentration; the use of new material; surprise. These three things -are really the basis of all gas warfare, even at the present day, -whether the attacks are made in the form of clouds or by the use of gas -shells or other projectiles. - -The increased concentration was obtained chiefly by the reduction in -the time occupied by the attack. The first attack of all lasted about -one hour and a half. The next attack lasted about three hours. The one -in question lasted only thirty minutes, so that if the same amount of -gas was used the concentration of the cloud must obviously have been -increased six times over that of May twenty-fourth, as there is little -doubt that the cylinders had been installed in approximately the same -numbers--that is, one to a meter of front. - -Probably the most important feature of the attack was the introduction -of phosgene. Now there never was any actual chemical evidence of the -poisons of phosgene in the German gas clouds until some of their -cylinders were captured by us when they retreated on the Somme in the -beginning of 1917. But unfortunately the peculiar effects of phosgene -on our men who were gassed were only too apparent. There were a large -number of “delayed” cases--men who thought they were only slightly -gassed but who became ill or even died several hours or sometimes a day -or so later from heart failure, especially if they had taken any heavy -exercise in between. - -In these cases there was hardly any coughing. What was really wanted -was rest, but this was not realised at the time, and many men walked -to the dressing stations--sometimes a mile or more--through deep -mud and became quite exhausted. One officer of the Durhams had been -slightly gassed at the beginning of the attack but felt perfectly all -right until about noon, when he became faint and exhausted, though -not apparently seriously ill. After lying down he felt better, but in -the evening got worse again, and in walking to the ambulance to go to -the field dressing station he suddenly collapsed and died. This was -fourteen hours after the attack. - -Another weighty piece of evidence as to the nature of the gas was given -by the smell, which to trained observers was quite different from the -typical chloride-of-lime smell of chlorine; and by the peculiar effects -on the taste of tobacco to men who had smelt the gas. If you take a -good smell of dilute phosgene and then smoke a cigarette the tobacco -tastes like nothing on earth. Tommy’s nearest description of the taste -and smell is “mouldy hay.” This peculiar effect is quite typical of -phosgene and is known as the “tobacco reaction.” - -In the hope of getting samples of the German gas clouds for analysis -a large number of gas vacuum bulbs were distributed up and down the -line, and selected men were taught how to use them. This was supposed -to be done by nipping off the drawn-out end of the gas bulb, whereby -the contaminated air would rush in. The end was then to be closed with -a hollow stopper containing wax. - -To get these samples was asking a great deal. Even when packed in -special boxes glass bulbs are somewhat fragile things for trench life, -and the wooden boxes made excellent kindling wood, which was always -being sought for. The result is that when the cloud does come along -the vacuum bulbs are often conspicuous only by their absence. Even -if they are kept whole it is asking rather a lot of a man to take an -accurate scientific sample during the excitement of a gas attack which -is accompanied by a bombardment by explosive shells and gas shells. - -For a long time none of the bulbs found their way back to the field -laboratory. Eventually one did come, carefully packed in shavings and -wadding. I happened to be present when it was brought in, and there was -a good deal of excitement at the little prodigal’s return. The bulb was -taken out, but under it was found a leaf from a field-service note -book, on which was written: “Danger. This bulb was found in a hedge. -It seems to have been dropped from an aeroplane and probably contains -cholera germs. Fortunately it has not been broken.” - -The “surprise effect,” which was mentioned above as being the third -fresh feature of this new-era gas-cloud attack, took the form of making -the attack in the dark and at a time when men were least prepared--that -is, just before the morning “Stand to,” the hour before dawn, when all -troops in the trenches stand to arms. By making the attack at night, -or at any rate in the dark, the boche achieved two objects: First of -all, there were better wind conditions for an attack, because the -night winds tend to flow down toward the earth and keep the gas cloud -low-lying and thick, whereas in the day the sun warms the ground and -produces so many upward currents of air that the cloud gets lifted up -and dissipated; in the second place it was impossible to see the cloud -when it was first liberated, and this reduced the means of detecting -the attack to only two--the hissing noise of the gas escaping from the -cylinders and the smell of the advanced parts of the cloud. - -Later on it was known that the best hours for all gas attacks, both -cloud and shell bombardment, are in the night; and as a matter of -fact practically all gas warfare is now carried out at night, but at -that time the significance of this was not grasped, and many of our -casualties were due to lack of preparedness, numbers of men being -caught “on the hop” and overwhelmed. - -Some most important steps in improving our protecting measures were -taken as a result of the lessons learned from the attack; in fact, it -may be taken that all measures in defence against gas have been learned -from bitter experience, and to this extent the sufferings of the -victims may be taken as having at any rate some compensating value. In -such a new and strange and continually developing kind of warfare very -little can be done by _a priori_ argument. This fact we have always -tried to impress on the men--that the gas warfare orders, sometimes -apparently trivial and frequently wearisome and annoying, have all been -made as the result of lessons learned from actual attacks. - -Among the chief things that were done after the December nineteenth -attack was the improvement of our system of alarms. - -The bells and horns in the front line had been found quite -insufficient, especially for warning people in the rear; and the -telephone could not be depended on for this purpose owing to the -possibilities of the wires being cut by shell fire. To protect them -from being cut, all wires would have to be buried at least six feet -deep in the ground, and this is practically impossible owing to the -work involved. - -It would consequently be fatal to depend on telephonic communication, -especially as a gas attack is nearly always accompanied by a pretty -heavy bombardment of rear lines. In one case I knew, during just such -a bombardment, the staff captain at a brigade headquarters was talking -to one of the battalions when the whole telephone instrument seemed -to burst into a sheet of flame in his hands, owing to a cut wire. The -battalion concerned was isolated for more than an hour as a result, -and anything might have happened in the meantime. - -For these reasons it was decided to adopt for gas alarms sirens worked -by compressed air, which would make a noise sufficiently loud and -distinctive to be heard long distances away. The type of siren which -was used has been kept in use ever since in continually increasing -numbers and has proved extraordinarily useful. It is known as the -Strombos horn, and consists of the horn proper and two iron cylinders -of compressed air charged to a pressure of one hundred and fifty -atmospheres. Only one cylinder at a time is connected to the horn, the -other being kept as a reserve. - -The Strombos horns are mounted in the trenches in such a way as to -protect them from shell splinters as far as possible. This is generally -done by packing them round carefully with sandbags, only the mouth of -the horn being displayed and pointing toward the rear. Every sentry -must know how and when to sound the horn. All he has to do when he -realises that a gas attack is being made, or on receiving instructions -from an officer to do so, is to loosen the tap on the cylinder one -complete turn, when the horn will sound continuously for more than a -minute. The noise is terrific and in an enclosed space or in a quiet -region it is absolutely deafening. In the trenches, however, it is none -too loud, and the distances between the horns in the front system of -trenches are never more than four or five hundred yards. Farther back -in the chain, toward the rear, the distances can be increased. Horns -are now installed at battalion, brigade and divisional headquarters. -By turning them on when the noise of those in front is heard it is -possible to pass the alarm in an incredibly short space of time and -thus forestall the cloud of gas to such an extent that every man in the -support trenches or in rest billets or the villages behind the firing -line is aware that an attack is in progress and gets ready to protect -himself. - -Naturally, things don’t always work out exactly according to schedule. -The horns are frequently damaged. In one place I was at, just this -side of the canal, near Boesinghe, a heavy German trench mortar -wrecked three of our Strombos horns within a week, and another and -less suitable position had to be found for the alarm. Then there are -occasional false alarms. These sometimes arise from individual men -“getting the wind up” from a bombardment by gas shell and thinking that -a cloud attack is being made. Others I am afraid have been more in the -nature of experiments “to see how it works.” After all, it must be a -great temptation to a sentry to be in charge of a Strombos horn and -never have the pleasure of turning it on. - -False alarms are a great nuisance, however, and good arrangements have -now been made to prevent their spreading. It is possible to avoid -all the unnecessary disturbance to which troops are subjected by a -false gas alarm. This disturbance is particularly objectionable in -back areas where regiments returned from the trenches are in billets. -When the alarm goes everybody has to turn out--probably in the middle -of the night. Sentries wake the officers and men in all the billets; -messengers have to be sent post-haste to outlying villages or farms -with which there is no telephonic communications; respirators are -hurriedly inspected and placed in the alert position; the gas-proof -curtains of cellars and dugouts are adjusted; the officers move about -in the darkness to see that all their men are accounted for and ready; -every one is in a state of expectancy--and then the word comes through -that it is a false alarm, and the men go back, cursing, to their -billets. Not only is an occurrence of this kind wearying to tired -troops, but it has the old disadvantage of crying “Wolf, wolf!” when -there is no wolf--the consequent determination on the part of the men -not to take the next alarm so seriously. - -Though it was not realised at the time, it is almost certain that the -Germans started to use gas in shell almost simultaneously, and probably -actually in the first attack, with the use of the poisonous gas clouds -in the attacks of April and May, 1915. Many instances came to notice of -men’s eyes being strongly affected to such an extent that they could -not keep them open. There seemed to be something in the air which made -an unprotected man weep copiously if he tried to keep his eyes open, -and of course if he closed them he could not see what he was doing. - -These effects, and a peculiar smell which was noticed both during and -after the gas-cloud attacks, gave rise to the belief that something -like formaldehyde was being used by the Germans mixed with some -chlorine gas. Others described the smell as being that of chloroform -or ether, but nobody could say definitely what the material actually -was. It was only after a number of blind shell had been obtained and -examined that it was realised that the Germans were firing shell filled -with liquid which had a powerful lachrymatory effect. - -It does not appear certain whether the use of lachrymatory liquids -for putting men out of action by making their eyes water is in itself -contrary to The Hague Convention, as the vapours need not actually be -poisonous. This was the case with the first German gas shell, as it -was found that the liquid contained consisted only of a material known -chemically as “xylyl bromide.” The vapour of this liquid and of many -similar substances has a most powerful effect on the eyes, like that of -onions but much stronger. Except in very high concentrations it cannot -be regarded as poisonous--at any rate not in the sense that chlorine is -poisonous. - -Examination of the German lachrymatory shells showed that the liquid -was contained inside the shell in a sealed lead vessel so that the -material should not come in contact with the steel of the shell, which -it destroys gradually. Shell of this kind, though termed gas shell, are -not really such, as the liquid has to be broken up into fine droplets -by the explosive charge of the shell before the vapour can produce its -effect. The liquid has no pressure of its own inside the shell and -depends entirely on the bursting charge to get it distributed into the -atmosphere. - -The xylyl bromide used by the Germans was not pure, but contained a -big proportion of benzyl bromide, showing that it had been made by the -action of bromide on coal-tar light oil from which most of the toluene -had been removed for the manufacture of the well-known high explosive, -trinitrotoluene. - -The effect of xylyl bromide on an unprotected man is instantaneous -and remarkable. Even such small proportions as one volume of vapour -diluted with one million volumes of air will at once make a man weep so -copiously that he cannot possible keep his eyes open. - -Obviously a material of this kind has great military value, for though -it does not put men out of action permanently by killing them it -neutralises their effectiveness to such an extent that for the time -being they may be regarded as of no military importance. In strong -concentrations the effect on the eyes is most powerful. I have walked -into an area which was being bombarded with lachrymatory shells -and suddenly got the effect just as if I had been hit in the face. -Fortunately the lachrymation has no lasting effect on the eyes, and a -man on getting into pure air very quickly recovers. - -Throughout the spring and summer of 1915 these lachrymatory shells -were used in considerable numbers, especially in the vicinity of -Ypres, and at times the ramparts of that much bombarded town reeked -of lachrymatory vapour and nobody could stay in certain spots for -any length of time without having his eyes protected by specially -constructed goggles or by wearing a gas helmet right over his head. - -Taking it altogether we were not troubled nearly so much by this new -type of gas as were the French, in the southern part of the line. In -much the same way that the gas cloud was developed by the Germans -against the English the gas shell were developed chiefly against the -French, and very much larger numbers were employed against the French -positions than we had to contend with during the first six months or -so. Later on things were more equallised in this direction. Captured -German documents and statements by prisoners showed us that the -Germans were counting very considerably on the effect produced by the -lachrymatory shell, and detailed instructions for their use in various -circumstances were carefully laid down. The lachrymatory shell was -known by the Germans as “T-Shell,” and the xylyl bromide as “T-Stoff,” -and instructions were laid down for the use of this material. Another -kind of shell was known as “K-Shell,” which up to that time had not -been used against us, or at any rate had not been recognised. - -The T-Shell was particularly to be used against positions which it -was not intended to occupy immediately, the reason for this being -that T-Stoff hangs about for a long time. Some of the liquid is apt -to be spread about the ground and gives off enough vapour to make the -neighbourhood of the shell hole uninhabitable for many hours, and in -favourable condition--for the enemy--for several days. The K-Shell, on -the other hand, was intended to be used against infantry positions and -strong-points which it was hoped to assault and capture within an hour -or two of the bombardment or on areas which it was hoped to traverse -during a big attack. - -The advent of the lachrymatory T-Shell incommoded us considerably, but, -as it was quickly realised that the gas was not poisonous, the Tommies -were not much taken back, and the “tear shell,” as they were quickly -called, were not considered by the rank and file to have importance, -which as a matter of fact they have; but at the same time we heard -rather alarming stories of the effects of gas shell as used against -the French. - -It was rumoured, for example, that in the Crown Prince’s big advance in -the Argonne, in the late spring of 1915, that such enormous numbers of -gas shell had been used against the French positions that the infantry -occupying them were not only put out of action by the effect on their -eyes but that the amount of gas used was so large that the French -soldiers were actually anæsthetised and were taken prisoners by the -Germans while in an unconscious condition. - -Whether this was true or whether it was exaggerated is not certain, -though it is certainly true that the Crown Prince’s advance was -prefaced by a hurricane bombardment of gas shell, the tactical effect -of which was considerable. - -Stories of this kind, however, combined with the effects which we -ourselves were experiencing, made us realise that protection against -tear gas was essential, and for this purpose arrangements were made to -supply every officer and man in the front line with a pair of anti-gas -goggles. The earliest types of these goggles were very simple in -construction, and we are told were copied from a French pattern. They -consisted of a waterproof fabric lined with flannel containing a wire -spring for the nose and fitted with celluloid eyepieces. By bending the -wire to the shape of the nose it was possible to close the nostrils and -at the same time give a reasonably good fit to the flannel on the face. - -In some cases the flannel was anointed with some kind of grease so as -to make a still closer fit, in order to keep out small traces of gas -which are quite sufficient to produce lachrymation. Later on we had a -much better type of goggle backed with rubber sponge to make a tight -fit to the face. - -With the small numbers of gas shell used against us we had no -experience of any effect on the lungs, and it was found also that the -helmet form of respirator was enough to keep out, at any rate, low -concentrations of the lachrymator; but we got a rude awakening when -the boche began to use his tear shells in larger numbers. Such a case -happened to us in the beginning of 1916, at the celebrated village -of Vermelles, a little ruined town just behind the lines near Loos. -The enemy tried out an attack on us over about a mile front for the -purpose of bagging some of our trenches, and he attempted to keep -reinforcements from coming up to counter attack him by putting down a -tear-shell barrage through Vermelles and north and south of it over the -roads on which our fellows would have to advance. He used thousands -of his tear shells and the neighbourhood absolutely stank of them. -Fortunately, it was almost impossible to put down an effective standing -barrage with gas, and our reserves got through on two roads that had -not been blocked effectively. The boche attack was a fizzle, but -Vermelles was a little private hell of its own for that day and most of -the next forty-eight hours as well. - -During and immediately after the bombardment, troops passing through -the village wore both goggles and gas helmets, but the concentration -of lachrymator was so great that many of our fellows were sick and -actually vomited inside their helmets. If you can imagine men going -up to a battle with these flannelette bags over their heads and -then being sick inside them, you can realise that the boche was not -particularly popular with us at the time. - -Besides this, Vermelles was much used by troops in reserve and was full -of cellars and dugouts occupied by the waiting infantry and also by -signallers, headquarters of various kinds, and so on. The vapours--and -some of the shells themselves, for that matter--got down into these -cellars and made them almost uninhabitable for days, except in those -cases where they had been properly protected by double lines of -blankets hung at the entrances. - -About the same time in 1916 the enemy began making surprise -bombardments with a new lachrymator and with the K-Shell mentioned -previously, for the purpose of assisting in raids. Both of these gases -rejoice in long names, the lachrymator being bromethylmethylketone, and -the K-Shell gas monochlormethylchloroformate. These gases are much more -poisonous and do not hang about as long as the old “T” tear gas. - -One such raid in which they were used was carried out at a place -called La Boiselle--afterward famous as a jumping-off point in the -Somme Battle. - -I was not in at the raid, but heard details of it afterward. The boche -rained his gas shells into the selected area and at the same time -prevented reinforcements from getting up by putting down a so-called -box barrage with explosive shells round the trenches to be attacked. - -Our men were taken completely by surprise. Many of them were badly -gassed, all were temporarily blinded; and then after a short interval -the boche came in. He timed his arrival so that most of the gas had -disappeared. Then there was some very fierce fighting--so fierce that a -number of our men died afterward because of the exertion following on -the breathing of the K-gas. - -But gassed and blinded men, however brave, cannot fight successfully -against others fresh and unaffected, and the enemy captured a number of -prisoners and two Lewis guns. - -Curiously enough, during the Somme Battle a few months later we did -in properly the regiment which had carried out the raid and captured -the official report of the commander of the raiding party. In this -report he said: “... the men of the Royal Irish Rifles created a fine -impression both as regards their physique and their mode of repelling -an assault. Had it not been for the use of the gas shells it would have -been impossible to clear the section of trench attacked.” - -Rather a fine tribute--and one thoroughly deserved! - -Of course surprises of this kind cannot be pulled off twice, but -occurrences like this and the bombardment at Vermelles let us see that -the enemy intended to develop his gas-shell industry much more than -we had anticipated, and our protective measures were taken in hand so -as to meet future eventualities. In fact it was about this time that -the box respirator was being hurriedly developed so as to protect us -against any further devilment that Fritz might send along. - - - - -CHAPTER V - - Summer of 1916 the highwater mark of the German gas cloud--Their - improved methods--The need of speed and secrecy--Gas as a rat - exterminator--Causes of Allied casualties--Germans killed with - their own gas--Gas masks for horses and mules--Reduced Allied - casualties--Humorous incidents. - - -The great time for the German gas troops was undoubtedly 1916, and -from April to August of that year they carried out five big cloud gas -attacks on the British alone, not counting several on the French Front -and a number against the Russians. - -During the interval from the December attack of the previous year -they had obviously been thinking hard and preparing lots of gas, for -the new attacks showed several fresh features both as regards extent -and tactics. Along the lines of making the gas more poisonous, using -greater quantities and higher concentration and the springing of -surprises, everything was done to make the gas cloud an even more -deadly affair than it had been in previous shows. That our own -casualties were much less than before, and that the boche in at least -one case had a lot more killed by his own gas than we had, were very -satisfactory results of all the labour and research as far as we were -concerned. - -For the same reason that the December attack had been reduced in -duration to half an hour, the new clouds lasted only ten to fifteen -minutes; thus once more multiplying the concentration by two or three. -On top of this the amount of phosgene was increased up to at least -twenty-five per cent and probably to about fifty per cent, so that in -this way also the cloud became much more deadly than before. It is -interesting to note that pure phosgene cannot be used, otherwise the -Germans would undoubtedly have employed it. Straight phosgene does not -come out of the cylinders satisfactorily--it must have a big proportion -of something like chlorine mixed with it to force it out and get it -into the air as quickly as may be. - -All of this made the gas cloud a nasty thing to face. As it became -progressively more deadly it required less and less to kill. A couple -of breaths of the poisoned air became enough to kill a man; but as -our protection was good enough, it meant that the most important thing -for the enemy to do was to take us unawares by getting his gas over so -quickly or deceiving us in some other way that we should be down and -out almost before we knew it. This is where his surprise tactics came -in. - -These tactics consisted in attempting a great secrecy in the -preparations, in the use of smoke clouds to put us off the real track -of the gas, and the putting over of a number of different waves of gas -at varying intervals. The value of the last two will be more apparent -from the accounts of the individual attacks, but the importance of the -first-mentioned method must be emphasised a bit. - -It must be remembered that the carrying in of the gas cylinders is the -work of the infantry and, as we discovered ourselves when we started -retaliation, is a very unpopular job owing to the difficulties of the -carry. Any carelessness in allowing the cylinders to clank by bumping -against each, other or against any other metal objects in the trenches, -or metallic sounds made by rather bored pioneers in unscrewing the -domes or attacking the pipes, are going to give away the fact to the -opposing side that something unusual is going on. And something unusual -going on or suspected generally spells g-a-s in the trenches. - -In some cases, too, the opposing trenches can be seen from observation -posts--O. P.’s or O. Pips, as they are called in British Army -parlance--and in such cases if the carrying is started or the -installation of the cylinders is continued during the day there is a -good chance of the whole show being blown on by some watchful observer -with a telescope to his eye a mile or so away. All this the boche -realised and made his arrangements accordingly. But in at least one -case, in April, in his anxiety to get the cloud over without diminution -of strength and so that we should have little time for protecting -ourselves and spreading the alarm, he chose as his venue for the -attack a big portion of the line where the trenches were very close -together--seldom, in fact, more than fifty yards apart. Of course -it is just in such circumstances that secrecy of preparation is of -the greatest importance--but at the same time it is of the greatest -difficulty to maintain. As a matter of fact the Germans overreached -themselves by this choice of position, and little indications spotted -by our watchful sentries and patrols made us pretty certain that a -gas attack was impending, and our watchfulness and preparedness were -correspondingly increased and a constant state of “Gas Alert” kept up. - -The first two attacks of the year were made against the 16th--the -Irish Division. This was the division in which Willie Redmond was a -captain, and it was composed of some of the best fighting material in -the world--all Nationalist Irishmen and anxious to get one over at -Fritz. Whether the Irishmen were chosen as a target with the foolish -idea of “putting the wind up,” or whether it was out of revenge for -their appearance in the British ranks after all the labour that had -been expended in trying to spread sedition in Ireland, we do not know. -Whatever the idea was it terminated in most abject failure, for the -Irishmen came through both attacks wonderfully well and absolutely -smashed up the German infantry advances which were attempted after the -passage of the cloud. Both attacks were made on that part of the line -near Hulluch running for about two miles south from Cité St. Elie. - -The Germans opened the ball by letting our support and reserve lines -have a heavy bombardment of tear shells. Almost immediately after, in -the dim light of the early dawn, the first gas cloud floated over. It -was very thick and had been largely mixed with smoke in the hope of -leading our fellows to believe that it was terribly strong. It was not. -But the cloud was so dense that even at brigade headquarters, three -miles behind the front line, it was impossible to see across the road. -There was enough gas in this mixed cloud to make it very dangerous and -uncomfortable to unprotected men, but there were very few casualties. -The alarm was quickly spread, the men remained cool, and an attempted -attack by the enemy infantry to follow up the cloud was smashed up -without being able to get closer than our barbed wire. - -After this first wave there was a tendency among the men to regard -the danger as over and to congratulate themselves on the apparent -and obvious boche failure. As they were prepared to go through with -anything the boche could put over, there was a natural tendency to -underrate the effects of gas, seeing it had caused them no losses. -It is undoubtedly true that a number of helmets were discarded -entirely--some of the soldiers thought they were useless after being -through an attack, and threw them away, depending entirely on their -reserve helmets. These they omitted to place in the “Alert” position, -pinned up on their chests ready for immediate use. In one or two cases -which came to my notice officers and men went off to the latrines or to -headquarters without helmets at all. This of course, was not general, -but it shows how some of our men fell for the boche ruse, which -consisted of putting over a second wave two hours later on exactly the -same Front. - -The second cloud was a frightfully strong one, composed entirely of -gas in the highest possible concentration. It was this wave which -caused all our losses on April twenty-seventh, as it took a number of -men completely by surprise. But even so, the Irishmen were not a bit -dismayed, and when the Germans again attempted to advance--parties -of their bombers in some cases appearing immediately behind the gas -cloud--they were met by such a stout resistance that those who were not -shot down retired in disorder to their own trenches. - -The intensity of the second wave can be gathered from the fact that -buttons and ammunition were quickly corroded and turned a villainous -green colour. In a few cases rifles stuck and Lewis guns jammed, owing -to the effects of the gas on the ammunition and the breach mechanism. -One good thing about the attack was that most of the rats in the -trenches were killed. In some parts of the line the trench rats are an -absolute plague. They eat any food or candles left lying about or kept -in cardboard boxes. They swarm in the dugouts and appear in all sorts -of odd corners. They disturb the little rest one does get; and I have -had them run all over me, even over my face, while lying in my dugout. -All attempts to clear them out were useless. But what ferrets and -terriers and virus could not accomplish the boche gas did. Mister Rat -cannot stand up to a strong mixture of chlorine and phosgene without a -gas mask, and so in this attack, as in others we experienced, he died -by hundreds; and nobody mourned him. - -Curiously enough two kittens, which inhabited the dugout of the -commanding officer of one of the battalions of the Scottish Borderers, -who were in reserve, came through alive. The kittens were badly -gassed and lay breathing rapidly, suffering from spasms and with -profuse salivation. Possibly their fur helped to absorb some of the -gas, for five hours later the little victims were almost themselves -again, though they continued to cough occasionally and drank water -continually. The water they took in preference to milk. - -The effects of the poison on the soldiers who were gassed were pretty -much the same as has been so frequently described in the press before. -In the lighter cases it was mostly severe and painful coughing and -bronchitis, with occasional retching and vomiting. The severe cases -had the frothing at the mouth, the painful fight for breath and the -blue face with staring eyes which are typical of severe gassing with -chlorine and phosgene. I was told that there were not many delayed -cases--that is, men being taken seriously ill hours after the attack, -though apparently unscathed before. - -The casualties were really remarkably small in the circumstances, and -even despite the surprise tactics, were not as numerous as those of -the December attack. Apart from the men who were caught without their -respirators, most of the casualties were the result of some special -circumstances. The helmets themselves when properly inspected and -adjusted gave good protection. In connection with the laying aside of -the respirators after the first cloud a sergeant told me that when the -second wave came over he had seen two soldiers trying to get into the -same helmet. The humorous side of this had apparently appealed to him -even in the middle of the attack. - -Of course with the trenches so close together a lot of men had -difficulty in getting protection in time. Parties of men in advanced -saps and listening posts had the greatest difficulty, and numbers -of these men were killed. One pioneer of a tunnelling company came -out of a mine gallery knowing nothing about what had been happening -aboveground, and walked straight into the middle of the gas cloud. - -A man in one of the companies of the Irish Rifles was wounded in the -head by shrapnel through both his steel and gas helmets. In spite of -the wound and the hole in his gas helmet he held the latter close round -his mouth and nose and was not gassed at all--a clear case of presence -of mind saving his life. - -One thing which impressed every one with the need for thorough gas -training at home, and which should be taken to heart by all men in -training at the camps or likely to go there, was the way in which -reinforcements and men who had recently joined up suffered. Their -casualties were out of all proportion to their numbers and were due -entirely to the fact that insufficient attention was given at that time -to the gas-defence training of the recruits. Many of them had never put -on a helmet before, and none of them had ever smelled gas. - -In one particular instance a batch of twenty men had come straight over -from England and were in the gas attack the day after their arrival in -the trenches. The only training they had had was a lecture from their -own regimental officers, and consequently they knew little or nothing -about the use of their helmets. Every one of these men was gassed. It -is true that they had scrambled into their helmets somehow, and none -of them died; but the fact remains that absence of training at home -cost the fighting line twenty men in one company. In this company they -were the only men gassed. Largely as a consequence of this, gas-defence -training was taken up very seriously in the early training of recruits, -and big gas schools were established at all the camps both in England -and at the bases in France, so as to catch the young soldier early. - -The boche made another gas attack on the Irish Division on the same -Front two days later. Once again he let off two waves--this time with -an interval of only a quarter of an hour. But despite his idea of -“mixing them up” he could not bring off that particular surprise again. - -The second attack was one of the most interesting on record, for it -was here, near Hulluch, that the gas blew back on the Germans and -killed many more of them than our total gas casualties. The thing -happened in this way: The first gas wave was loosed off at three-fifty -A. M., opposite the celebrated Chalk Pit Wood. Fifteen minutes later a -heavy cloud was discharged on the Hulluch front. But the wind was too -light and variable. The cloud came over our line and then the gentle -wind first dropped altogether and then gradually veered round. The -gas hung on No Man’s Land and over both sets of trenches for a short -time, and then with increasing pace drifted back right over the German -position, just where Fritz had been seen massing for an attack on the -Hulluch sector. We did not see the confusion which reigned, but almost -simultaneously with the arrival of his own gas our barrage came down -and the German attack dispersed. - -All that day our observers reported the carrying out of German -casualties from the trenches on stretchers and a constant stream of -ambulances coming up and then returning along the roads to the rear. We -surmised that the boche had swallowed some of his own poison, but it -was not until several months later, from some documents captured during -the Battle of the Somme, that we were able to appreciate his disaster -to the full. - -The first of these documents was the diary of a soldier who had been in -the neighbouring trenches. It ran: “... We went along the trenches to -find the headquarters of the ----th. It was awful. Everywhere lay dead -bodies or men gasping for breath and dying from the gas. Somebody must -be to blame. At first I could not go on. One almost had to step on them -to get through. I asked an officer of the ----th what had happened. -They were going to be relieved....” - -But the other documents were more explicit, as they happened to be the -official report on the matter from the war office in Berlin. It appears -that the Germans had eleven hundred deaths from their own gas. A most -rigid enquiry was held and it was found that many of the men were not -carrying respirators, either in the trenches or in the area immediately -behind the line. But this did not explain the extent of the disaster, -so eight hundred of the respirators collected from casualties were sent -to Berlin for examination and report. Even allowing for those which -might have been injured in transit, there were still thirty-three per -cent of the masks so defective that their owners were certain to be -gassed. To see whether this applied only to the area affected a large -number of respirators were collected from up and down the whole Western -Front, and it was found that even among those as many as eleven and a -half per cent were similarly at fault. It would seem that there had -been very poor inspection of the respirators both in manufacture and -after issue to the troops. Apart from the joy of seeing the boche hoist -with his own petard it was rather a relief to find that the efficient -German Army was not so frightfully efficient after all. - -This matter of inspection is taken very seriously in the British Army. -Besides the rigorous factory inspection all respirators are inspected -thoroughly every day even in the trenches, and Tommy is expected to -look after his respirator just as he looks after his rifle. As an -official statement issued after the April attack said: “A defective -helmet frequently leads to the death of the wearer. Inspection of -respirators must be frequent and thorough.” A sergeant who was -notorious for his thorough dealing with recruits got away with it in -even better terms when addressing a squad on parade. In thundering -tones he said: “If you don’t look for the ’oles in your ’elmet, they’ll -soon be looking for a ’ole for you.” - -Another thing that resulted from the attacks just described, and -from another similar attack shortly afterward in the salient, was -the putting on the screw with regard to the carrying of respirators -continuously by every one in the trenches. A very good and well-known -story on the British Army in this connection is that of a brigadier -general who was proceeding to the line for his daily inspection when he -discovered that he was minus a gas bag. He stopped the first orderly -he saw, borrowed the man’s helmet and serenely went his way with a -clear conscience. Arrived in the trenches, one of the first sights that -met his horrified gaze was a soldier without a gas mask. In virtuous -tones he demanded the reason for its absence, and then, waving aside -the halting explanation, went on loudly to assert his belief that the -soldier would not know how to use a respirator even if he had one. - -“Here,” he said, “take mine and show me whether you can put it on in -quick time.” - -The awe-stricken Tommy slung the satchel over his shoulder, and on the -word “Gas!” from the general thrust his hand into the haversack and -pulled out--a very dirty pair of army socks. - -The fourth German attack of 1916 was made on June seventeenth in -Flanders, near Messines; in fact, just north of the Wulverghem-Messines -road. Like those of April, it was intensely strong, very short, and -sent over in successive waves at intervals of about twenty minutes. -There were really no fresh features about the show, but the cloud seems -to have been even stronger than before. I had no personal experience of -this attack, but the cloud must have been very strong, for it killed -animals at “Plugstreet”--the only name we used in the British Army -for Ploegsteert--three and half miles away, and was quite distinctly -perceptible even at Béthune. At the “Piggeries”--the remains of a -model farm in rear of Plugstreet Wood belonging to a notable French -sportsman, a place well-known to so many British soldiers--a calf was -found dead, after the passage of the cloud, with the body very much -blown out. Dead rats lay in close proximity. - -Even farther back than this animals were seriously affected. The -army mules in the line of the gas were seized with fits of coughing -and kicked violently, making them even more difficult to handle than -usual. It is probably not realised that horse masks are now issued on -a scale sufficient to provide protection for all horses and mules, -such as those of the first-line transport and the artillery, which -have to approach anywhere near the lines. The present form of these -respirators is that of a big bag soaked in chemicals which fits over -the animal’s nostrils, leaving its mouth free so that the use of the -bit is not interfered with. When not in use the horse respirator folds -up very nicely and neatly into a canvas case which can be carried on -the breastband of the harness or any place from which it can be quickly -adjusted. Some of the animals take to these masks--“Horspirators,” -some wag called them--quite quickly, but others are strenuous -objectors; some of those hardened sinners, the mules, transforming -themselves into masses of teeth and hoofs whenever an attempt is made -to fix on the gas bags. - -In one case where a horse and a mule in the same supply column were -fitted with their masks at the same time the difference was most -marked. The horse was dressed up without much trouble, though he did -not like it. He whinnied and sneezed, breathed hard and perspired -and looked rather pitiable, but stuck it out. The mule, on the other -hand, had to be roped to get the mask on at all. Then he danced about, -heels in the air and head down, and tried to rub off the objectionable -appendage against the rope, and then against a tree. This did not -effect its removal, and for a minute the cunning animal stood still -with his ears cocked at different angles. Then suddenly he put his -head to the ground and before anything could be done to prevent it put -his foot on the respirator, pulled his head up smartly and left the -respirator under his hoof. - -These masks have proved of the greatest value and have saved any -number of horses’ lives. The cavalry are not provided with them, as -it is not anticipated that they will be near enough to be affected by -gas-cloud attacks, and when the cavalry are mounted and in action it is -unlikely that they will meet even poison-gas shells in large numbers. -Added to this is the fact that a horse can stand more gas than a man -without being distressed. - -The casualties in the June attack were lower than in any one -previously. Indeed, it was a satisfactory feature of the whole gas -business that despite the increasing deadliness of the German clouds -the losses they caused became less and less. Of course the proportion -of severe cases in those gassed became greater, for with such strong -clouds it had become a case of hit or miss. Either a man was protected -completely or he was caught out badly; and this spoke well for the -protection supplied, for otherwise there would have been a much bigger -proportion of light cases. - -Of the minor effects of these boche gas clouds, that on vegetation is -the most marked and gives a good idea of the strength of the gas. For -miles in the track of the cloud all green stuff is burned up or wilted. -Grass is turned yellow, the leaves of trees go brown and fall off, and -the garden crops are entirely destroyed. I have seen root crops in the -fields and garden crops of onions, beans and lettuce quite destroyed. -But curiously enough, farther back, in places where this still happens -to the garden crops, the cereals and the hedges seem to escape serious -injury. - -Of course over a wide area all metal work is thickly tarnished, and -this might be a danger in the case of telephone instruments and other -delicate appliances, except that the exposed parts are always kept -slightly oiled and then cleaned thoroughly after the attack. The same -thing is done with rifles and machine guns and their ammunition, and -with the clinometres, fuses and breech mechanism of guns and trench -mortars. Since this war started very little difficulty has occurred -through corrosion, but the chief thing is to clean off the grease and -reoil all metal parts exposed to the gas immediately after the attack -is finished, otherwise the greasy surface seems to hold the gas or the -acid it engenders, and allows it to eat in at its leisure. - -During the attacks of 1916 the alarm arrangements worked very well, -and the Strombos Horns in particular justified their use. Even above -the noise of machine-gun fire and the bursting of shells their shrill, -unmistakable note could be heard for long distances, giving warning to -all troops on the flanks and in the rear. There were very few instances -where they were not let off in time and the sentries posted over them -apparently knew their jobs better, for instance, than one man who -was questioned on the subject. This particular sentry was asked by a -noncommissioned officer going the rounds in the trenches what he would -do in the event of a gas attack being made. “Oh,” replied the bright -boy, “that’s easy. If any gas comes over it blows the horn and I call -the platoon sergeant and tell him about it.” - -A much more conscientious sentry over a Strombos Horn had been told to -be particularly on the lookout for a gas attack, as one was expected -at any time. The officer on duty, going round about midnight, heard -a suspiciously regular sound coming from one of the fire bays, and -thinking that one of the sentries was indulging in a stolen forty winks -he cautiously rounded the traverse. Here he found the sentry lying -on the top of the parapet staring into the darkness and going sniff, -sniff, sniff with his nose. - -Being asked more forcibly than politely what was the matter with him -the man replied: “I’m sniffing for gas.” - -Sniff, sniff, sniff. - -“Can you smell any?” - -“No, sir; but I want to smell it if it does come, as I’m a gas sentry -and the leftenant told me always to keep smelling for gas.” - -Sniff, sniff, sniff. - -The job of seeing that the air cylinders of the Strombos Horns are -kept at their full pressure is intrusted to the divisional gas -noncommissioned officers, who go round periodically with pressure -gauges and test them out. If they fall below a certain pressure they -are replaced at once by fresh ones from the divisional store. Some -Australians going up the line one night were carrying a number of such -cylinders for replacement, when one of them got turned on accidentally -and they didn’t seem able to stop it. - -A passing officer hearing the hissing noise called out: “What have you -got there?” - -“Air bottles,” was the answer. - -“What for?” persisted the officer. - -A pause, and then out of the darkness: “Oh, hell! To put the wind up -the boche, of course.” - -This story will probably be appreciated more by Britishers than -Americans, though I think the latter in many cases already know the -significance of the expressions “getting the wind up” and “putting the -wind up.” They refer of course to what official reports or newspaper -men would style as “reduction of morale.” - - - - -CHAPTER VI - - The last German gas cloud sent over August, 1916--Its - intensity--“Delayed” gases of phosgene gassing--Cigarettes as a test - of gassing--Dangers of carelessness--The sprayer abandoned for Mrs. - Ayrton’s fan--Responsibilities of the divisional gas office--Russian - gas victims--The day of the gas cloud over. - - -The last German gas cloud to be discharged against the British Front -was in August, 1916. In every way it was the greatest test to which our -men had been put. It was the strongest cloud attack the Germans had -made--not only were the individual waves of only ten minutes’ duration -but the boche had more cylinders in his line than usual. According to -his own admissions the bottles were put in at the rate of three every -two yards and in some places two per yard. Added to this he had brought -up the proportion of phosgene to the maximum that can be used. The -circumstances, too, were very unfavourable to us. It must be remembered -that the Battle of the Somme was in full swing, and that for once in -its war history the Ypres salient, where the gas attack took place, -was a “quiet” sector where divisions used up in the battle went to -“rest” and reorganise. The result was that the divisions attacked were -composed very largely of fresh drafts. They had lost very heavily in -officers and most of the company noncommissioned gas officers had been -knocked out. Their gas training was therefore not at the high standard -that it had attained previous to the battle. - -Added to this, a relief was going on in the trenches. This, by the way, -was the second time that our fellows were caught by a gas attack during -a relief. Whether it was that the boche intelligence was particularly -good or whether it was simply that his luck was in is not certain, but -it meant that our trenches, both the front line and the communication -trenches, had just twice the number of men in them that they would have -had normally. And every man, both incoming and outgoing, was carrying -his complete “Christmas Tree” rig--rifle, ammunition, full pack, -haversack, greatcoat, gas masks, and all the rest of it; in some places -hardly able to squeeze through the trenches in his bulky marching -equipment. - -Into this congestion the boche let off his gas on the eighth of August -about ten o’clock P. M. It says worlds for the steadiness of our -fellows that the total casualties from the three waves he sent over -remained at the same low ebb that they had reached in the June attack. -Of course but for the adverse circumstances they would undoubtedly have -been still lower. It is interesting to note that the position on which -the attack was made--namely, the line between Bellewarde Lake and the -Yser Canal--included much of the line over which the first attack of -all had been made a year and a half previously. - -The intensity of the cloud can be realised from the fact that helmets -had to be worn at a division headquarters nine miles from the point of -discharge, and the gas was perceptible, though not so dangerous, many -miles beyond this point. - -The most distinctive feature of the whole affair was the number of men -who suffered from the delayed action of the phosgene and collapsed -several hours after the attack, especially if they had taken any -exercise or eaten a heavy meal in between. The latter is not very -likely, though it does occur, for a man even slightly gassed with -phosgene feels very depressed--“fed up” and not particularly inclined -for a hearty meal. But the getting of the exercise is only too easy, -what with the necessary work in the trenches and the possible walk back -to the aid post or the march back to rest billets in the event of a -relief. It was men who had done this kind of thing who suffered most. - -After the attack we received official orders that no man suffering -from the effects of the gas should be allowed to walk to the dressing -station, and that if possible after a gas attack troops in the front -trenches should be relieved of all fatigue and carrying work for -twenty-four hours. It was also ordered that during the passage of the -gas all movement should be reduced to a minimum and there should be -as little talking as possible. These were very wise orders, for there -had been too many officers and noncommissioned officers gassed through -moving up and down to control the positions of their men and from -shouting orders through their helmets. A certain amount of talking -is necessary, of course, but too much of it makes a man breathe more -deeply and may be just the added strain sufficient to affect his heart -and cause his collapse. - -Of course after a gas attack there are always a certain number of -malingerers--“Skrimshankers,” as we call them--who affect to be gassed -in order to get away from the line for a bit. These are generally -spotted easily enough by the doctor men. One medical officer I knew, -harassed by the number of slightly “gassed” cases who would have to -be evacuated, and suspicious about the genuine character of some of -them, handed round cigarettes. All those who accepted and smoked their -cigarettes were kept back. Later examination showed that he was right -in every case. - -A similar instance that I heard of, this time in a practice attack in -a camp in England, concerned a very poor specimen who pretended to be -badly gassed. He was taken to the orderly room on a stretcher; but -unfortunately for him the medical corps sergeant recognised him as a -man who had fallen out during a march a short time before, and knew all -about him. - -Meantime the man was feigning unconsciousness, but the sergeant winked -at the medical officer and said: “It’s a pity that order about sick -leave prevents men from going home in a case like this unless they live -in London. What this poor fellow needs is a couple of weeks in his own -home.” - -The corpse thereupon sat up and said: “That’s all right, sir. I live in -Bow. When can I go?” - -As in all the previous attacks an analysis of the casualties showed -that where the helmets had been kept in good condition and had been -used properly and in time they had given perfect protection. The -casualties were all due to preventable causes--some of them lamentable, -others humorous, had it not been for their tragedy. - -Many men were gassed through taking off their helmets too soon. It -is really up to the officers and noncommissioned officers who have -attended a course at a gas school to decide when the atmosphere is -safe, and it is not nearly so risky to do this as it sounds. All that -is necessary is to let a little air in from the outside by cautiously -opening up the face piece of the mask--or the skirt of the helmet in -the case of the old gas bag--and sniffing cautiously. Of course if it -is not done cautiously and there happens to be a lot of gas about, the -rash man suffers. - -A number of men were gassed through going into unprotected dugouts -before they had been ventilated or through wandering into pockets of -the gas after the attack. They should have been on the lookout for -these patches, as the gas notoriously keeps close to the ground at -night, and sheltered places are bound to remain unhealthy for much -longer periods than the open. It is curious that by some vagary of the -wind the cloud farther back hopped over some houses that were used -as billets and affected neither the inhabitants nor the unprotected -animals on the ground, whereas some fowls that were roosting in the -trees and on the tops of the houses were killed. - -One instance that shows how carelessness spells casualty in gas warfare -was that of a working party of thirty or forty men who were busy on -railway work a mile or two behind the line. They had taken off their -coats and gas helmets and placed them on some trucks, but when the -alarm was given and a rush was made for the helmets the trucks were -found to have gone. - -One thing that was done after the August attack was definitely and -finally to withdraw the Vermorel sprayers for use for clearing the gas -out of the trenches and dugouts. These instruments, brought up for the -work of spraying fruit trees and vineyards, had done some first-class -fighting of the German gas, right in the front line, as long as the gas -was chlorine. But with the introduction of large quantities of phosgene -the work of the sprayers was gone. They could not touch the phosgene, -and consequently Tommy’s dependence on them was a snare and made things -more dangerous for him than if they had not been used at all. For a -dugout might be sprayed and thought, therefore, to be quite healthy to -sleep in and yet contain as much phosgene as would at any rate cause -minor and delayed effects. - -To clear out the gas recourse was had to ventilation by means of fires -and by specially constructed canvas fans. - -These fans were the invention of an English lady named Ayrton--the -widow of the physicist of that name--and were originally intended by -her for fanning back the gas cloud to the German trenches. Of course -they were quite incapable of doing any such thing, but during trials -with them it was found that they were quite good, after an attack, -for fanning the gas out of the trenches or creating such a draft of -air into a dugout or cellar as to force out the impure air from the -interior. - -These anti-gas fans, or flapper fans as they were called, are made of -canvas supported by braces of cane and attached to a hickory handle -about two feet long. The blade of the fan, which looks like an immense -fly swat, is hinged in two places and measures about fifteen inches -square. When the fan is brought down on the ground it bends over on the -back hinge and produces a sharp puff of air, in just the same way that -the sudden shutting of an open book does. - -By working the fans in series, one man behind another, it is possible -to keep a current of air going which will ventilate a room or clear -out a trench in remarkably quick time. In clearing out a trench the -fan is brought back over the shoulder, and this helps to “shovel” the -contaminated air out of the trench after it has been brought off the -ground by the lower stroke, which is more like a smart slap. - -These fans are kept as trench stores, which means that they are handed -over on relief to the incoming unit taking over the line of trenches. -They have proved very useful, especially in skilful hands their chief -value being that, unlike the sprayers, they do not distinguish between -different kinds of gases and they will deal as unceremoniously with -tear gas and phosgene as they do with chlorine. - -By the time of the last gas-cloud attack the organisation of the -British Army for defence against gas had been brought to a pretty high -state of efficiency. A special branch of the gas service had been -detailed for the purpose and special gas officers were appointed to the -staffs of the various formations, from army down to division. - -The position of divisional gas officer is no sinecure. Besides having -the job of screwing up the gas discipline of his division and having -a general oversight of all gas-defence training and supplies, he is -responsible to the divisional commander for the preparedness of the -line to meet a German gas attack. He is the “intelligence” officer of -his general as regards all things pertaining to gas and has to be a -walking dictionary on the subject. He has to be a great part of his -time in the front trenches and it is up to him to see that all enemy -blind shells, and so on, are examined and brought in if they seem to -be anything new. As he must deal direct with the battalion commanders -he must know them and the senior officers of each regiment personally, -so as to smooth the way in getting things done. Then if a gas attack -or bombardment is made he must get there quick, so as to find out all -about it from personal experience. - -Altogether he is a very important and busy person, and to those -acquainted with his work the following incident will appeal. I happened -to overhear part of a conversation between two Cockney Tommies on the -road: - -“What’s this ’ere divisional gas officer, Bill?” - -“Why, he’s the bloke what goes round and blows up these observation -balloons.” - -The divisional gas officer has a number of specially trained -noncommissioned officers to help him, and each company of infantry and -battery of artillery has at least one noncommissioned officer. It is -the first and most important job of these noncommissioned officers to -help the commander in everything pertaining to defence against German -gas. He assists at drills and inspections, help in the arrangement -and fitting up of alarms, in the taking of wind readings and the -protection of the shelters and dugouts. In his charge are placed the -gas fans and the sampling apparatus. A good company gas noncommissioned -officer is a real joy and can polish up the gas discipline of the -company tremendously, as well as take a lot of responsibility off the -overworked company commander’s shoulders. A bad noncommissioned gas -officer, on the other hand, can be the direct and indirect cause of the -loss of many lives when the gas attack does come. - -This ended the British experience of German gas-cloud attacks, for -though the 35th and 36th Pioneers made three subsequent visits to the -Western Front it was each time to gas the French. The last cloud attack -of all was made near Nieuport, at that time in the French lines, on -April 23, 1917. - -Since then the only cloud attacks have been made against the Russians -and the Italians. - -Probably the chief reason that has caused the boche to hold back with -his cloud attacks has been his conclusion that they were unprofitable -against well-disciplined, highly trained and thoroughly protected -troops. With a limited amount of gas available he naturally chose the -method that would give him the best results. For the cloud attack -his cheapest target was the Russians, who were incompletely equipped -with gas masks of a modern kind and who for a long time were badly -disciplined in anti-gas measures. Against such troops the gas cloud -is just the thing, and the Germans have estimated that ten to fifteen -per cent of all troops exposed to a successful gas cloud would become -casualties. This was probably true on the Russian Front, but was -certainly not true in the West. - -Then the gas cloud has almost reached its apparent limit of -development. There is a limit to the number of gases that can be used -from cylinders, and there is a limit to the number of cylinders that -can be discharged at one time. Besides this the gas cloud is largely -dependent on infantry labour for carrying and installation, and it is -mighty difficult to bring off a complete surprise owing to the time it -takes to prepare an attack. - -On top of all this the whole procedure is wrong as regards efficiency, -for it puts up the highest concentration of gas where the boche does -not want it--just in front of his own trenches instead of in ours. - -For all these reasons the boche during the past year has specialised on -the development of his gas shells. Of course he may come back with the -cloud again, and we do not relax our vigilance or it certainly would -reappear. But unless he discovers something new in the cloud line, and -if we keep up a high standard of training, he will not do much damage, -though for that matter the same thing is true about gas shells and -trench mortar bombs. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - - The rising importance of the gas shell--The variety of gases - practicable with the shell--The deadly Green Cross Shell--Risks - of transporting “duds” for chemical analysis--Reduced Allied - casualties--German blunders in shelling tactics--Importance of - universal discipline. - - -One of the most interesting things about the development of gas warfare -has been the way in which the gas shell, from being the least important -method of poisoning the air, has become the chief gas weapon in the -German armoury. - -The reasons for this extraordinary development, though various, are not -far to seek. They lie chiefly in the fact that unlike the gas cloud we -have not even yet approached the limit of the number or size of the gas -projectiles that can be used. Nor, which is even more important, is -there any limit to the variety of the poisons that can be used in gas -shell. - -The fact of the matter is that the gas shell is not really a gas -shell at all. It is nearly always a “liquid” shell and sometimes even -a “solid” shell. The term “gas shell” is used because the liquid or -solid contents are atomised by the explosion of the bursting charge or -are distributed round in the form of such tiny particles or droplets, -as the case may be, that they act almost as a gas. In the latter -case they form what might be described as a mist or smoke, but with -this difference from ordinary smoke--that the gas mist or smoke is -generally, though not always, invisible. - -Just imagine what would happen supposing a shell were filled with -water. Burst such a shell with a sufficiently big charge of high -explosive and all the water would be distributed into the air in the -form of such finely divided spray that it would form a mist. This mist -would either vapourise into the atmosphere completely or hang about -like a cloud, according as the air was dry or moist. In any case, if -the burster were big enough no water would be spread on the ground; nor -would any big drops be formed. - -This is just what happens with any of the poisonous materials filled -into a shell. Indeed if the burster were big enough and carefully -chosen it would be possible to form a “gas” with treacle. With a -volatile material like gasoline on the other hand all that would be -needed would be a burster just big enough to open the shell. - -It can be seen therefore that the choice of materials for gas shell is -practically unlimited and is governed only by their being poisonous -enough and by the ease of production. - -Another thing in which the gas shell has the advantage over the -cylinder gas is in getting surprise, which is naturally much easier -to effect with shell. By the way, if the reader wishes to be counted -among those who knows, he will always speak or write the plural of -shell without adding a final “s.” To talk of a number of shells is very -civilian. - -As I pointed out before, we were expecting something new to happen in -the gas-shell line during the whole of 1916, and had an idea that the -new arrival would be something of a cyanide nature--possibly prussic -acid itself. When it did come, however, it proved to be a liquid -filling closely related chemically to phosgene and to the K-Stoff, -which I have previously described. These new gas shell were the first -of the present series of German gas shell, which are all distinctly -marked with coloured crosses and named accordingly. These particular -shell were the Green Cross Shell, a green cross being painted on the -base of the cartridge or on the side of the shell or sometimes on both. -They made their appearance on the Somme Front about a fortnight after -the battle had started--that is, about the middle of July, 1916--though -a few of them had been used against the French on the Verdun Front -sometime in June. - -It was not long before blind or unexploded shell--“duds,” we call -them--were collected and sent back for examination. This is one of the -disadvantages of using gas shell--your opponent can always keep track -of what you are doing. Sooner or later a fuse will not function or a -bursting charge will not explode and your watchful enemy carefully -collects the shell, and has for examination a considerable amount -of the poison material. I say “carefully collects,” for it is no -child’s play dealing with shell which may go off in your hands on the -slightest provocation. However, it has to be done, and as it is the -gas officer’s pidgin he manfully shoulders his task and the shell and -has it brought in. Very frequently the fuse fails to act because a -powder pellet holding up the striking needle has not burned away; but -I remember one case where the gas officer of one of the armies took -back a big dud gas shell. It meant transporting the weighty souvenir -in a not particularly well sprung car over very bumpy roads, and he -was quite relieved to arrive at his destination--the field laboratory. -Here it was reverently taken to bits by the experts. Imagine the gas -officer’s horror to find he had been bumping along for several hours in -the company of a shell the powder pellet of which had burned away and -whose only safety device was the weakest of weak creep springs on which -the striker rested. A hard knock or a drop of six inches would almost -certainly have exploded it. - -The laboratory officers, who are experts at the game, may have to go up -to the Front themselves to solve important duds which are regarded as -dangerous and require expert attention. In one instance the officer -concerned--in civil life a very celebrated professor at one of the -London colleges--went up to the salient and explored about a mile and -a half of trenches and finally located his prey--a fine dud 4.2-inch -howitzer gas shell--out in the open. - -Though the place was pretty unhealthy he “climbed the bags” and made a -careful examination of the shell where it lay, finally bringing it back -in with him. I forget whether he drew its sting on the spot, but in any -case it was a pretty good effort, especially for a man no longer in his -first youth. - -Chemical analysis of the blind Green Cross Shell showed the contents -to be a colourless liquid known to chemists by the extensive name of -“trichlormethylcholoroformate.” Its effects are just as ferocious -as the name implies, and experience showed it to be very poisonous. -Indeed it is as poisonous as phosgene itself. The Green Cross Shell -gas--“diphosgene,” to give it its short name--has many effects and -symptoms that make it a dangerous weapon. When dilute it has a peculiar -though not particularly nauseating smell, a smell variously described -as “earthy,” “mouldy rhubarb”--whatever that smells like--and damp hay. -Unlike the shell gases we had encountered before, it has very little -effect on the eyes and causes practically no lachrymation. And this -was a trap, because we had been used to lachrymators, so that many men -despite the obvious smell were not particularly quick in protecting -themselves because of the new symptoms. - -Of course this applies only to such low concentrations as would take a -long time to gas a man. In the higher concentrations the Green Cross -very quickly asphyxiates--just as phosgene and chlorine do--and there -is no question of whether it is deadly or not. The old Army quip about -there being only two kinds of people in gas warfare, namely “The -Quick and the Dead,” certainly applies if you get a Green Cross Shell -bursting close to you. But even for gas shell bursting some distance -away immediate and complete protection is necessary because of the -delayed or after effects of the gas, which are exactly similar to those -of phosgene. Every care that is taken with regard to men poisoned with -phosgene has to be taken for men poisoned with Green Cross gas. - -Those suffering from the effects of the gas are not allowed to exert -themselves at all or to take heavy meals. They are kept under close -observation for at least two days, and are treated, in fact, as -casualties even though they are not apparently ill. Before the need -for this was understood an officer I knew was slightly gassed with -shell gas but thought nothing of it. Later on he felt a bit queer, -and the regimental medical officer advised him to go down to the -dressing station. He walked the length of the communication trench and -then mounted a “push bicycle” for a mile’s ride to the aid post. The -exertion was too much, however, and he reached the aid post only to -fall dead. - -The danger of not treating gassed men as casualties and resting them -for a couple of days, after which they would probably be fit for work -again, is shown by a case where forty men were lost to the line for -a considerable time, though fortunately none of them died. These men -were part of a working party engaged in the construction of dugouts. -They were caught in a surprise bombardment, but were apparently not -much affected. After completing their night’s work they marched back -to billets and turned in as usual. The next morning several of them -were so ill--nearly to the point of collapse--and the remainder were so -visibly affected that the medical officer ordered the whole party to be -sent down to the casualty clearing station, where they were evacuated -to the base. - -In still another case I remember a sergeant and twenty men of a wiring -party engaged in the consolidation of a recently captured position -were similarly caught by a sudden and intense Green Cross bombardment. -A number of the men were gassed and felt pretty seedy, but continued -their work and then withdrew. The sergeant felt no ill effects until -an hour after turning in, when he woke with a bad cough and internal -pain and died two hours afterward. One private went to bed without -complaining at all and was found dead next morning. Another died soon -after getting up. A third reached headquarters complaining of shell -shock and died three hours later. I mention these cases so that my -reader will realise why such great care is now taken with men who have -been exposed to poison gas, and how by looking after them in this way -it has been possible to reduce the number of delayed cases of death or -serious illness to a minimum. - -Talking of delayed effects of gas shell reminds me that at least -two documents were captured during the Somme--one of them I got -myself--which were obviously notes of lectures given to officers at -a German gas school or staff course. In both of these sets of notes -there were references to the Lusitania, showing that the German Higher -Command was trying to explain that dastardly act to its own troops by -making out that the Lusitania was sunk because it was carrying phosgene -shell for the Allies. This lie can easily be nailed to the board, as -not a single drop of phosgene--or any other poison gas or liquid, for -that matter--was shipped from America before this year, 1918. Both -of the paragraphs I refer to contained a double lie, for they each -asserted that the French started the use of gas shell. One of them -ran as follows: “The French first started the use of gas shell--with -great hopes, but with little success! The most striking result was that -experienced by the passengers of the Lusitania, whose rescued mostly -died later.” - -But to return to the Green Cross Shell. These were used during the -Somme Battle in enormous numbers, far surpassing anything we had had -before in the extent of the bombardment. There were a great many new -features about these shell quite apart from the altered nature of the -gas. First of all there was the size. Until then we had had gas shell -of only two sizes--150-millimetre howitzer shell and the 105-millimetre -howitzer shell. The former contained from five to eight pints of liquid -according to the construction of the shell, and the latter about three -pints. To these longer shell were now added shell from the ordinary -field gun, or 77-millimetre gun--quite a small affair compared with the -others and containing only two-thirds of a pint of liquid poison. But -then, though so small, it could be fired more rapidly and accurately -and could bring off an initial surprise in a way that the bigger guns -could not do. - -Shell of these three sizes were used then on nearly all occasions and -in very large quantities. One thing that made large numbers possible -was the simplicity of the shell compared with the old pattern. There -was no separate lead container and the “gas” was filled straight into -the body of the shell, as the new material was unacted on by iron or -steel. The head of the shell was screwed in and kept in position and -perfectly gas-tight by means of a special cement. - -As very little explosive was needed to open them up and spread the -contents round the noise made by the burst of the Green Cross Shell -was little more than a pop--at any rate when compared with the -high-explosive shell or the old tear shell. The result was that at -first men were apt to regard them as duds and to delay the putting on -of respirators until it was too late. - -These gas shell are supposed to make a peculiar wobbling noise in the -passage through the air because of the liquid inside them, and in -this way to be recognisable beforehand. Personally I cannot tell any -difference in the noise compared with H. E. or shrapnel of the same -calibre, though I have heard thousands of both kinds; but I dare say -some people can, as the belief is fairly widespread. - -Of course Fritz’s liberality with his gas shell caused us a lot of -casualties, but not nearly so many as we might have had if he had known -how to use them. The fact was he had not at that time got hold of the -proper technic--developed later on by the French--of concentrating his -gas shell on special targets. By now, of course, he has; but at that -time he still clung to the idea of being able to poison big areas with -his shell gas by putting down a series of barrages over the country -to be attacked. Either he had not enough shell or he chose his areas -too big, for he did not produce effective concentrations anywhere but -locally. If he had, our losses might have been tremendous. As it was it -became rather a hit-or-miss proposition, and I have seen hundreds and -hundreds of these shell drop into absolutely unpopulated areas of the -devastated Somme battlefield. - -In one case a battery of field guns came in for its share of one such -promiscuous bombardment while I was there. The number of shell coming -over was so great that it was like a magnified machine-gun shoot, but -only a very few got on to the battery and the casualties were only -two--both caused by a direct hit on one of the guns by a gas shell. -If the boche had been able to concentrate his shell on and round the -battery instead of giving it just the same amount as the unoccupied -surrounding country the effect might have been very different. - -One possible reason for the promiscuous and sometimes very casual -shooting may have been the fact that the boche at that time had -practically no air observation. Our flying fellows had temporarily -chased his planes out of the skies and had shot down all his -observation balloons. This made it impossible for him to pick his -targets, and he either had to bombard the countryside or shoot “by the -map,” neither method being particularly conducive to good results with -gas shell. - -On the other hand, one or two places that he knew were pretty certain -to be occupied by our troops were given their full dose. One such -place was Caterpillar Wood--a big narrow spinney running off from the -Fricourt Valley and so named because of its shape and the fact that on -the ordnance maps, on which the woods are colored green, it looks just -like a green caterpillar crawling over to the shelter of Mametz Wood. -This place was continually shelled with large numbers of the Green -Cross Shell, and as it stood in the side of a valley the gas persisted -longer there than elsewhere and built up a tidy concentration which -caused a lot of trouble. - -The gunners were among our chief sufferers from these gas shell, as -their guns were so frequently placed in sunken roads and folds in the -ground for protection against explosive shell and aërial observation, -and these were just the kind of places that held the gas longest. In -the open much less damage was done. I remember one night the first-line -transport of a battalion of the Black Watch ran into a patch of country -into which the boche was raining 77-millimetre Green Cross Shell, and -came out with only three casualties, two of which were from a direct -hit on one of the wagons, the driver being killed instantly. - -It seems particularly bad luck to be killed by a direct hit from a -gas shell, for the bits of shell that fly about don’t do much damage -in the ordinary way and don’t travel great distances. Indeed it is -remarkable, even in the biggest gas-shell bombardments, how very few -men are hurt by the fragments. - -The first week or two after the advent of the Green Cross the toll of -gas-shell casualties was considerable if not alarming, but steps were -immediately taken to get the situation in hand. It is in a case like -this, where a surprise had been brought off, that Discipline, with a -very big “D,” counts for so much. Fortunately the gas discipline of -the British Army was pretty good, and it was not difficult to get new -instructions carried out and orders obeyed. Once they got going their -effect was most apparent and the gas-shell casualties dropped from week -to week until they approached a minimum. - -Among the important steps that were taken were a revision of the -methods of spreading the alarm, and the protection and clearing out of -dugouts into which the gas had penetrated. - -Mention has already been made of the slight noise caused by the -explosion of the gas shell, and instructions were accordingly issued -that all shell that sounded like duds were to be regarded as gas shell, -and the respirators adjusted accordingly. This got over one of the -elements of surprise. - -A great many men, especially those in battery positions, had been -gassed in their dugouts before warning of the gas bombardment had -been spread. Numbers of these men were actually gassed in their sleep -and were awakened too late by the choking fumes themselves. What was -done was to post a gas sentry at every battery in just the same way -that it was done in the trenches. Special local-alarm signals were -arranged so that the sentry could wake every one in the neighbourhood -without having the alarm spread beyond the limit of the gassed area. -These alarms generally took the form of bells or of gongs made from -big shell cases; but later on policemen’s large rattles were found to -be the most effective “weapon” for the purpose, and numbers of these -were distributed up and down the line and in the battery positions. It -was feared at first that the noise of the rattles would be mistaken -for machine-gun fire and no attention be paid to it, but this did not -materialise and the rattles have done good service. - -The only thing about them is that they are made of wood--and nicely -pickled, easily burning wood at that. In the trenches kindling chips of -any kind are eagerly sought after to make a miniature fire to warm tea -or cook an egg. When men will go the length of shaving the handles of -their entrenching tools to obtain dry wood it could hardly be expected -that policemen’s rattles would always be respected. I am afraid a -number of them disappeared. With the artillery things are not so bad as -fuel is easier to obtain and the rattles are therefore less liable to -get lost. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - - The gas-proof dugout--First-aid methods of alarm--Von Buelow - improves German gas tactics--Popular errors about gas--Effectiveness - of new British respirators--Vomiting gas--Germans speed up their - manufacture--Gas as a neutraliser of artillery fire--As a - neutraliser of work behind the trenches--Raw recruits ashamed to - wear the mask--Casualties resulting. - - -Probably the most important thing that was done as the result of the -Somme Battle experience was to insist on there being at least one -protected or gas-proof dugout at every headquarters, battery position, -signal station, aid post, or wherever gas shell were particularly -likely to drop. - -I have deferred describing these protected shelters until now, but -as a matter of fact they had been devised and adopted nearly a year -previously, though not many of them had got into actual use. The -protection consists essentially of a damp blanket fitting closely over -the entrance to the cellar or dugout or emplacement, whichever it may -happen to be. The value of the blanket depends on the fact that if you -prevent the movement of air you prevent the movement of gas. That is -all there is to it. Stop any possible draft and you will keep out the -gas. In practice the blankets are kept rolled up out of the way and are -let down only when the alarm is sounded or when gas is about. In order -to get an air-tight joint the blanket is made to rest on a sloping -framework set into the entrance to the dugout. To make sure that the -blanket really does remain stretched out over the frame and does not -gape at all, two or three wooden battens are fastened across it at -intervals. - -Where space is available two such sloping blankets are used, at least -two feet apart and preferably far enough apart to allow a stretcher in -between. This forms an “air lock”--you must go into the lock and close -the outer blanket before going through the inner one--and not only -makes protection of the interior doubly sure but makes it possible to -enter the dugout even in the middle of an attack or bombardment. In the -old days the blankets used to be sprayed with the Vermorel sprayer -solution, but anything that will keep them damp and flexible will do. -In the early days, too, the companies or batteries used to do all their -own work on protecting dugouts, and it was always possible in cold -weather to obtain an extra supply of blankets on the plea that they -were required for making gas-proof shelters. Nowadays a close eye is -kept on these supplies, which are doled out by the engineers, and it is -seen that if blanket material is supplied for protected dugouts it is -going to be used for protected dugouts, and for nothing else. - -Gradually all dugouts, cellars and buildings within the gas-shell -area--let us say up to three miles from the front line--are being -provided with blanket protection, which means a big decrease in -casualties, for once inside such shelters men can sleep in more or less -comfort until they again have to don their respirators and face their -tour of duty in the poisoned air outside. - -It practically came then to this--that protection against the -poison-gas shell was a question of gas-proof dugouts on the one hand -and rapidity of spreading the alarm and quickness of getting protected -on the other. At the gas schools and in the regiments and batteries -men are trained to be so quick in their movements that they can get on -their masks in six seconds. They are also taught on the burst of a gas -shell in their neighbourhood to hold their breath at once. It sounds -easy enough to do this, but it must come to a man automatically in any -circumstances he may happen to find himself--and you can find yourself -in some queer circumstances in war--and to assure this a great deal of -training is needed. Anybody, however, can hold his breath for thirty -seconds, and with practice it is possible to go well over a minute. -During this time it is possible to make a fool of oneself in half a -dozen different ways in putting on a respirator, and yet get it on in -time in the end. But drill sergeants will stand for nothing less than -the standard time and the most meticulous accuracy. God bless these -tyrants--they must have saved a lot of lives! One of the difficulties -we began to encounter with regard to gas shell was the spreading of -the alarm among men on the march or in communication trenches where no -alarm devices are installed. In some battalions it was the custom to -teach men to spread the glad tidings by taking off their steel helmets -and beating them with their bayonets. This certainly makes a good old -noise, but unfortunately it is just when gas shell are coming over that -shrapnel is also likely to be in the air, and to deprive a man of this -tin hat at this time in order to provide him with a gas alarm is rather -robbing Peter to pay Paul. - -The best way undoubtedly, and the one now taught throughout the British -and American forces, is to hold the breath, then put on the respirator, -and finally spread the news to everyone else by shouting “Gas shell!” -as loudly as possible with the mask on. In this way the information -can be spread throughout a big working party or from front to rear -of a column of infantry on the march in a remarkably short space of -time. Even in the trenches it is well to give word-of-mouth warning -as well as by means of the local-alarm devices, for a second or two -of absolutely invaluable time may be saved in this way. One soldier -questioned by an officer going the rounds as to what he would do in -the event of a gas shell bombardment replied nervously: “Put on my gas -mask and shout ‘Rattles!’” - -For the remainder of 1916 the boche treated us with gradually -increasing numbers of Green Cross Shell. His tactics, too, got a -bit better--I mean for him--for he began to make more concentrated -bombardments on particular targets. Possibly this was because of -special orders that were issued on the subject. One of these was by -General von Buelow to the artillery of his army, in which he said: -“There have been many instances of Green Cross Shell being fired in -small quantities. This is a waste of ammunition, as with all gas shell -good effects are only obtained by using them in large quantities. The -firing of small quantities of gas shell has also the disadvantage -that the enemy is practiced in the use of his anti-gas appliances and -attains a higher degree of gas preparedness. For this reason the effect -produced by larger quantities will be reduced.” - -This showed the increasing interest in the use of gas shell taken -by the German General Staff, and heavier and more concentrated -bombardments based on the above orders became more frequent. One of -these, brought off in unusual circumstances, occurred at Arras in -December, 1916. I say “unusual” because the weather was so cold at -the time that the Green Cross liquid did not evaporate so quickly as -usual but hung about in some places for long periods. The bombardment -occurred at night and about three thousand shell must have been fired -into one corner of the town--in fact, all round the old gateway through -which the whole of the transport from the St. Pol road would have to -pass. The surrounding houses and cellars got filled with gas, and in -such billets, especially where shell had actually burst inside a room, -the liquid soaked into the walls and floors and only evaporated the -next morning when the air grew warmer. A lot of men were gassed in this -manner on the following day, as they naturally thought the gas had -vanished, and were gradually overcome as things warmed up. - -In the open, gas disappeared more at its usual rate, though it hung -about all during the bombardment and for several hours after, thus -forcing men in the neighbourhood to wear respirators for long periods. -Some of these men, overcome by fatigue, actually slept in their -respirators. I think this was the first time I had heard of its being -done, though it has been done often enough since. - -By this time the British Army had been fitted out with the celebrated -box respirator--a respirator of particular interest to Americans, as it -was the type adopted for and at present in use in the American Army. A -short description of it will not be out of place. The principle of the -respirator is to have a box filled with chemicals and attached by a -flexible tube to a face piece or mask, which fits closely to the face. -All air breathed by a man must therefore pass through the chemicals, -and these are so chosen that they will absorb any and every poison that -may be present in the atmosphere at the time. In order to keep the air -pure in the mask and to have a double line of protection a man breathes -through a special mouthpiece and has his nose clipped. So even if the -face piece, which is made of rubber cloth, should be torn or damaged in -any way the soldier is perfectly safe as long as he does not attempt to -talk--that is, if he keeps his nose clipped and does not remove the -mouthpiece from his mouth. - -The respirator is not only active against a diversity of poisonous -gases but it will keep out very high concentrations of gas for many -hours. - -One of the most misleading statements made about gas masks--sometimes -by newspaper men and consequently given wide publicity--is that such -and such a mask will stand up for so many hours against gas. It is a -very natural thing to want to know or to state how long your respirator -will last, but without stating what concentration of gas is being -talked of it is impossible to give such definite information about -any mask. It simply depends on the amount of gas there is in the air. -But the box respirator if kept in good condition and properly used is -guaranteed to keep out German gas continuously for many hours, even in -concentrations which it is quite impossible for the boche to maintain -in the field. In the American modification of the box respirator the -absorptive power of the chemicals used is even greater than in the -British box, and this makes it the best respirator in the world, which -is very reassuring for those who have to make use of it. - -The box respirator is contained in a haversack and is carried slung -on the shoulder until such time as the soldier comes into the forward -areas, where it must be carried tied up on the chest ready for instant -adjustment in case of need. As I mentioned before, it can be put on in -six seconds from the word “go,” and once a man is practiced in wearing -it he can walk, run, shoot, dig, speak or do anything but eat and smoke -in it; and this for long stretches at a time. I know many cases where -men have been forced to wear masks literally continuously for more than -eight hours; and much longer periods than this, with perhaps short -intervals of rest in protected dugouts or in unaffected areas, are -common. - -Of course the soldier has to be practiced in putting the mask on -quickly. It is not quite so simple as the old “gas bag,” about which -a drill sergeant said to a squad: “You just whops it out and you -whops it on.” But it does not take long to make men proficient with -the respirator, at any rate on the parade ground. It is making him -proficient under conditions of war that counts and all his instruction -is now aimed toward this end. - -With the mask in position and a tin hat on top of his head a soldier -has a peculiar beetlelike appearance, which is not very improving, -though the following conversation was reported to have been overheard -by an officer about to enter a dugout: - -“’Ere, mate, take yer gas mask off.” - -“It is off.” - -“Then for Gawd’s sake put it on!” - -The Germans were much interested in our new respirators and their -development, and apparently had great difficulty in obtaining specimens -for examination. During the winter of 1916-17 German soldiers were -being offered a reward of ten marks for every British box respirator -that they brought in; but as we were doing most of the shooting at that -time I can hardly think that Fritz made a fortune out of his chance. - -But to return to the gas shell. During 1917, it became apparent that -the Germans were placing more and more reliance on the use of gas shell -and were manufacturing them in enormous numbers. For a whole year after -the introduction of the Green Cross there was only one modification -of the chemicals used and that was the admixture with the diphosgene -of a material which has been called “vomiting gas.” This substance is -a chemical named chloropicrin, and it certainly lives up to its pet -name if you take a real good breath of it. The boche mixed it with his -diphosgene in order to make the latter more potent if possible, or else -because he was running short of diphosgene; but he still calls the -mixture Green Cross and uses the gas for its killing power. - -The chief development, however, was rather in the tactics than in the -chemicals used. Gas shell were no longer thrown away; each target -or area was apparently considered separately and was given enough -shell to make certain of putting up a very high concentration of gas -on it. At this time the boche divided his gas-shell shoots into two -classes--those for “destructive” effect, and those for “harassing” -purposes. - -The destructive fire was intended to take on big targets, which were -not only definite but were known to contain living targets--for -example, concentration points where troops were bound to be gathered; -billeting areas, including well-known villages or towns; areas known to -have a number of batteries collected in them, and so on; in the latter -case the batteries themselves would be taken on individually if their -positions were known. - -Apart from a number of fairly big bombardments, like that at Arras, -mentioned above, the destructive shoots were chiefly counter-battery -ones, intended if possible to “neutralise” our artillery while it -should be actively engaged in putting down a barrage, either to prevent -a German attack or in preparing the way for our own infantry when we -were attacking, which, of course, was much more frequently the case in -1916 and the first half of 1917. - -This neutralisation business wants a bit of explaining. It will -have been realised that the Germans were and still are using two -very distinct kinds of gas shell--those which kill, like the Green -Cross, and those which only temporarily put a man out of action, like -the lachrymators and nowadays the mustard gas. Of course, the idea -underlying the use of gas shell in general--and the whole war for -that matter--is to put men out of action. The most effective way of -doing this is to kill, as that puts a man out of action for good and he -doesn’t return. But you can kill men with gas only by taking them by -surprise, because of the excellence of the gas masks. - -After the surprise has been effected the chief use of the gas shell -is to force the opposing side to continue wearing their gas masks -and in that way to hamper them and reduce their fighting efficiency -for considerable lengths of time. This is where the lachrymators -and mustard gas and similar stuffs come in, because they are very -persistent, and a little goes a long way in forcing a man to keep his -respirator on. The quick-killing gases, like phosgene and the Green -Cross, are not very persistent, and it would be waste of material -to continue shooting them when you could effect the same thing with -another stuff, which would hang about for hours or perhaps for days. - -Now see how this affected the German “fire for effect,” or destructive -shooting, as applied to a battery, and why the gas shell are so -particularly suited for taking on targets of this kind, which used to -be engaged only by high-explosive shell. Imagine a battery of, let us -say, field howitzers. Our men are making an attack. The howitzers are -busy pounding the German trenches to bits, and then they are going to -“lift” on to the support trenches when our men go in. The whole of the -success of the infantry assault may rest on the guns’ keeping up to -the program with the requisite amount of fire. The boche business then -is to try to put our guns out of action. If he can do this he has the -infantry--I won’t say at his mercy, but at any rate at such a serious -disadvantage that their losses will be tremendous compared with what -they would be under cover of a good barrage from the guns. - -Now if the enemy uses high-explosive shell to take on our batteries -he can put them out of action only by registering a direct hit. If -the guns are well dug in in good emplacements with head cover it will -be possible for high-explosive shell to drop within a dozen yards -without doing anything but scare the gunners. Not so, however, with -the gas shell. Drop enough gas shell within a dozen or twenty yards -of the battery position and the gas will float down with the wind and -penetrate every nook and cranny. If the gunners are not quick some of -them may be gassed; and if, as is sometimes the case, the gun has been -worked short-handed this alone may throw down the rate of fire to a -very considerable extent. Add to this the fact that the remainder of -the crew will have to don their respirators in order to fight their gun -at all, and it can be seen that the rate of fire may be reduced to such -a low limit as to make it of little value for the time being; or the -gun may even be put out of action completely. - -Once the first surprise is over and no more immediate killing can be -counted on, the bombardment may be continued with persistent gas shell, -which are just as effective in making the men wear masks. - -From our point of view it all comes down to the ability of the gunners -to be quick enough at first in preventing themselves from being gassed; -and then later of their being capable of carrying on with their firing -while wearing masks. It means that gas training and discipline are, -if possible, more important for the artillerymen even than for other -branches of the service. This is realised to the full in all their -training and practice, for if they are not able to respond to an S -O S call from the infantry an otherwise abortive German attack may -be turned into a disaster. It is like everything else in this war--a -question of training and discipline. - -The neutralisation of the infantry or the transport is conducted on -similar lines, and though it rarely reaches the point of being complete -a partial neutralisation of reserves which prevents their getting up -in sufficient numbers or in time, either for reinforcement or attack, -may have most serious consequences in an operation. The partial -neutralisation is attempted, just as for the artillery, by killing as -many as possible by heavy surprise bombardments with the lethal shell -and then continuing with persistent gas in order to force the remainder -to wear their gas masks. - -Let me describe as an example a particular way in which the infantry -may be partially neutralised if they are not thoroughly steady, -well-disciplined and trained up to the final dot in gas-defensive -measures and the use of their respirators. Troops in the front line, -whether they are in settled lines of trenches or merely in temporary -positions, are absolutely dependent on their supplies. Supplies of -ammunition, barbed wire and, above all, rations must be brought up to -them constantly; otherwise they cannot continue to fight. All these -things are brought up at night. The motor lorries of the Army Service -Corps take the supplies up to selected points, where they are taken -over by the first-line transport--that is, the regimental transport, -which consists of horse or mule drawn general service or limber wagons. - -As night approaches everything is loaded up and departure timed so that -the trysting place with the infantry carrying parties is reached after -dark. These meeting places are very frequently crossroads immediately -below the lines, and in position warfare are usually situated close to -the entrances of the communication trenches. Pass by such a place by -day and you will find it deserted, but as soon as darkness has fallen -it becomes a hive of activity--as busy a crossroads as you might -find in the centre of a big city. There is a constant movement in and -out of men, animals and vehicles. Unloading and taking over of the -supplies alternate with checking off the goods and the moving off of -the carrying parties. Military policemen direct the traffic and relieve -the ever-threatened congestion. Altogether it is one of the busiest and -most important phases of the routine side of war, and anybody there -without a special job is a nuisance and is not wanted. - -Places like this of course are apt to be well-known to the boche, and -every now and again he will drop in some high-explosive shell or put -over some shrapnel in the hope of catching the crossroads at its busy -hour. But even if he is lucky and manages to get on to the spot it -hardly holds up the work at all. I have seen a big shell drop into -just such a place and make a huge hole in the road, killing men and -horses and smashing up a wagon. Half an hour later there was hardly a -sign that anything had happened. The hole had been filled in and the -material debris cleared away. The wounded of course had been looked -after first. - -Now imagine instead of ordinary shell that a number of gas shell had -been dropped into this busy centre. On a dark night, probably very -muddy underfoot and with all the excitement of kicking mules, flares -going up and anything from machine-gun bullets at long range to shell -of every size dropping in or expected, things are difficult enough. But -with the advent of the gas shell every man must get himself protected. -It is now that the “hold the breath, and mask on in six seconds” stunt -is going to be of value. With well-trained troops the losses from the -gas may be negligible, and it is equally true that they will be heavy -if the discipline is poor. But whether one way or the other it means -that all the frightened horses and mules must next be fixed with their -respirators and the work in hand must be proceeded with by everybody -while wearing gas masks. This is the real test. - -If the men are well trained the carrying parties--perhaps with loads -of barbed wire on their backs--will get away as before and proceed up -the filthy communication trench to the front line; swearing probably, -uncomfortable certainly, but safe. Similarly the drivers will be -able to get their teams away from the gassed area as soon as they are -unloaded, and the serving out of the supplies will go on as before, -though at a reduced rate. But if the soldiers were not able to carry -on in these terrific circumstances--could not wear masks for long -periods and could not do anything in them--confusion would undoubtedly -supervene and the work be brought to a standstill. If this happened -the men in the front line next day would be short of rations, of -ammunition, of wire. They would, in fact, be neutralised. - -It is attempted neutralisation of artillery and infantry by methods -such as these, carried out over large selected areas and generally as -a preface to an attack--either their own or ours--which constitutes -the German “fire for effect.” The “harassing fire” is simply the same -thing on a smaller scale and with no immediate tactical reason at the -back of it except that of killing and general annoyance. As a rule a -sudden burst of a few shell will be landed on some likely place, such -as the entrance to a communication trench, a sunken road, a bridge or -an observation post. These small shoots were always causing us a few -casualties. There was no warning, or somebody was not quick enough, or -did not get his respirator on, or took it off too soon. There would -always be some reason--but in the end it would generally come down to -something that the disciplinary thumbscrew could cure. - -It is almost unbelievable nowadays that at one time one of the chief -sources of these constantly occurring casualties was shame-facedness at -being seen in a mask. Men would not protect themselves until absolutely -forced to do so, for fear others would regard them as being too easily -frightened. This was especially the case with new comers, who did not -want to drop in the estimation of the older hands. - -One case was reported where a corporal in charge of a small party of -men in passing along a communication trench ran into some pockets of -gas from a bombardment that had just stopped. He ordered his party to -don their masks and proceeded up the trench. A few yards farther on -they passed through the support line, which happened to be fairly free -from gas, and here they were met by jeers from some of the supporting -troops who shouted “Hello, got the wind up?” and in this way induced -the corporal, really against his better judgment, to order masks off. -Not more than twenty or thirty yards farther along the party ran into a -particularly bad pocket of Green Cross and the corporal and several of -his men were so badly gassed that they had to be sent to the rear. - -The attitude of the officers is always reflected in the attitude of -the men. At that time you would sometimes meet young officers who had -either been on the outer fringe of a gas-shell shoot or had merely -smelled tear gas thinking they knew all about it and refusing to -believe in the extreme deadliness of the poison gas and the need for -enhanced discipline. They would damn the gas and the need for taking -precautions, and their men would consequently damn the gas and the need -for taking precautions. This of course would mean another batch of -casualties when Fritz did treat them to the real article. - -Just to show how a small matter of indiscipline may result in disaster -I would instance the case of two men who took off their respirators -in a front-line trench. Their battalion was going to be relieved -that night and they took off their webbing equipment for the purpose -of fastening on the haversack and pack. Absolutely against orders -they also removed their box respirators, and of course it was just -that moment that the boche chose for dropping in half a dozen small -trench-mortar bombs filled with phosgene. These vicious little guns -are very accurate and most of the shell landed on or near the parapet -and filled the fire bay with gas. Both men dived at once for their -respirators and in so doing upset three other men in the bay. All five -were gassed and three of them died later. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - - Mustard or Yellow Cross gas--Not deadly but a dangerous pest--Its - troublesome persistence--Cleaning it out by fires--Sneezing or Blue - Cross gas--Another pest--Its violent effect--The limit of gas shell - effectiveness--The need for constant vigilance and disciplinary - training. - - -This was pretty well the position of things in July of last year, when -the German use of gas shell underwent a radical development due to the -advent of the so-called mustard gas. So much has been written about -this gas and so many mis-statements have been made concerning it that -it is as well for the public to understand what mustard gas is, what -it can do and what it cannot do. On the one hand, it has been credited -with such impossible potency as would make it wonderful that any Allied -soldiers remain at all. On the other hand, it should be realised that -in mustard gas the Germans possess a very powerful weapon of war and -one which they are using to a very considerable extent. - -In the first place let it be said that mustard gas is not a killing -gas like Green Cross, but that it is of the persistent type, like the -older lachrymators. Unlike the lachrymators, however, its effects are -not transitory and a man put out of action by mustard gas is going -to be a casualty for several weeks and perhaps longer. Mustard gas -principally affects the eyes and the lungs, but in a very strong vapour -or in contact with any of the actual liquid from the shell a man’s skin -may be burned very severely--even through his clothes. More attention -has been turned to this blistering effect of the gas than to anything -else, but as a matter of fact the blistering is of secondary importance -and in itself does not result in the loss of many men to the line. Of -course one has to be very careful. It is foolish, for example, to lean -up against sandbags that have been spattered with the liquid or to sit -in a mustard-gas shell crater. Sooner or later the skin underneath will -develop a severe and possibly extensive blister, which is very painful -and certain to last some time. - -These burns are not dangerous, but they are most uncomfortable, to say -the least, especially as they are most easily produced on the more -tender parts of the skin. - -Great excitement was caused at first among the Highland regiments -because the story was spread about that the Scots were particularly -susceptible to the mustard gas because of their attenuated clothing. As -a matter of fact the kilt doesn’t seem to be a source of danger at all, -and Highlanders are burned no more frequently than others. Possibly the -continued exposure of their legs hardens them. - -The chief effects of the mustard gas are on the eyes and lungs. The -first thing you notice is the smell--which is slightly of garlic or -mustard--and irritation of the nose and throat. Neither effect is -enough to make you feel gassed, and the chief symptoms develop later -on. When the gas is strong it is apt to cause sickness and sometimes -actual vomiting. Later on the eyes inflame and get very sore, the lids -swell and blister, but no permanent injury to the eyes takes place, -though the victim may be temporarily blinded. The effects developed in -the lungs are equally painful and consist of severe inflammation and -bronchitis, which may take some time to get better and if not well -looked after may develop into pneumonia. - -It will thus be seen that for a persistent gas, though not deadly -poisonous, mustard gas is a nasty proposition. First the gas does not -of itself force a man to protect himself. With the old lachrymators a -man either put on his mask or his eyes would smart and water so badly -that he could not keep them open. With the Green Cross and similar -gases a man either protects himself or dies. But with the mustard gas, -though the smell and irritation may be perfectly apparent, the effect -is not such as to force a man to don his mask. Yet if he does not do -so and continues to live in the vapour unprotected he will certainly -become a casualty. It may take half an hour, it may take several hours -to come on, but come on it will. - -Another particular disadvantage of the mustard gas is its persistence. -It will hang about in shell holes for many hours and even for days. If -it gets into a dugout it is very difficult to get rid of it, and as -long as there is enough to produce the faintest smell or irritation of -the nose there is enough to bring on serious symptoms eventually. This -means that when it is used our fellows are forced to wear their masks -for very long stretches of time. - -The mustard gas is known officially by the Germans as Yellow Cross -gas, and the shells are marked on the sides with bright yellow crosses -and bands. The paint used for these bands changes colour in contact -with the mustard-gas liquid, so that if a shell should leak it at once -becomes apparent and can be taken away and buried. - -The Yellow Cross gas was first used at Ypres and bombardments there -were quickly followed by similar ones at Nieuport and Armentières. -Enormous numbers of shell of all calibres were employed, including a -new and larger size--the 8.3-inch howitzer shell, which holds nearly -three gallons of the liquid and can be fired a distance of six miles. - -At Nieuport more than fifty thousand shell were fired in one night, and -equally large numbers were used in deluging the other towns. Since then -the numbers used have continually increased, especially when the boche -was preparing for an attack or expecting one of ours. - -Duds that were collected showed that the mustard-gas liquid was a -chemical called dichlorethyl sulphide, a liquid that gives off its -vapour only slowly. The shell themselves were similar to the previous -gas shell except that the small one have a new type of fuse--a very -simple and quick-acting fuse which bursts the shell before it can get -into the ground, and consequently produces a very little crater. This -of course helps to spread the gas round more than if a big hole were -formed. The respirators keep out the Yellow Cross gas completely, -and the blanket protection of dugouts will also keep out the gas -splendidly. Of course if a dugout gets a direct hit with a mustard -shell there is nothing for it but to leave it empty for some days, as -the liquid cannot be removed by ventilation with either fans or fires. - -A case that will illustrate what I mean was one in which a three-inch -mustard-gas shell got a direct hit on a doctor’s dugout and gassed -him and his orderlies. Some time afterward the remaining orderlies -thought they ought to send the doctor’s things down the line and went -in and got them out of the dugout. They noticed a faint smell but did -not worry about it, and soon afterward found themselves gassed in -consequence. - -A fire was then placed in the dugout to clear it. In the meantime -the medical sergeant secured another dugout by clearing out some -infantrymen. In the evening the infantry felt soul-sick and wanted -somewhere to sleep, so they went into the original gassed dugout and -slept there. In the morning they all went down, gassed. - -Where there has been no direct hit and the mustard-gas vapour gets -into the dugout, it can be cleared out just like ordinary gas, by -ventilation either with fans or by means of fires. For clearing dugouts -a great deal of reliance is placed nowadays on building small fires -inside. A dugout with two entrances can be very quickly cleared by -means of fires, as a through draft is produced, which carries the -gas away with it; but difficulty is frequently found in getting the -necessary fuel for the fire and in keeping the stuff handy. Bundles of -firewood and kindling material are supposed to be kept in the dugouts -ready for use; but, as has already been explained, the Tommies are -always on the lookout for combustible materials for their own fires, -and continual inspection has to be made to see that the special -supplies for ventilation are kept available. One officer told me that -he always had the supplies of wood, paper and kerosene kept in an -army-biscuit tin which was closed and sealed; because, as he said, -no Tommy would ever investigate the contents of a biscuit tin unless -absolutely forced to do so for lack of other food. - -It should be realised, however, that properly protected dugouts have -given perfect immunity from the mustard gas as long as the protection -has remained intact, and a great deal of attention is being paid to -increasing the number of the protected shelters in order to give the -men the necessary rest from wearing their respirators occasioned by -the extensive use by the boche of his Yellow Cross Shell. In Nieuport -a special gas patrol was instituted for going the round of the town -to see that blanket protection of cellars and shelters was kept in -good condition, as there was always a chance that they would not be -well looked after or that the blankets had been taken down by some -enterprising Tommy for his own personal use. - -Round about battery positions the most annoying feature of the mustard -gas is the length of time it persists. In the shell holes it can at any -rate be partly destroyed by sprinkling with chloride of lime. It is -rather interesting to find that in some captured German instructions -great secrecy was laid on the use of chloride of lime for getting -rid of the effects of mustard gas. The boche kept boxes of chloride -of lime in all positions where the gas shell were stored, and issued -instructions to his own troops that “the use of chloride of lime for -the protection of our own troops against Yellow Cross liquid must not -become known to the enemy. Observation of the strictest secrecy is -a matter of duty just as much now as it was previously. The troops -will be thoroughly instructed in these precautionary measures, but -nothing will be taught them as regards the nature or composition of the -antidote employed.” - -During the present offensive the Germans have used very large -quantities of mustard gas, generally for holding purposes and against -our rear lines, battery positions, communications and reserves. This is -kept up for many hours in order to wear out the patience of our fellows -and weaken them for the coming assault. - -Strong points that the boche does not wish to attack are also swamped -with the gas, and when Armentières were evacuated by the British, -Yellow Cross liquid was actually running down the gutters. But in -places that he intends to assault he will complete the mustard-gas -bombardment against our troops some considerable time before he -advances; otherwise his own troops would run into it and be forced to -don their respirators. - -The quantities of shell used in this preparation are enormous and -supplies of the mustard gas must have been accumulated during the -winter to an unexpected extent and their manufacture proceeded with to -full capacity. - -Take it altogether, Yellow Cross gas is very much more than an -annoyance, but there is no question that good discipline and thorough -appreciation and carrying out of the orders laid down for the -protection of troops have reduced the losses in very much the same -way that the screwed-up discipline reduced the losses after the first -introduction of Green Cross Shell. One of the most objectionable -features of the mustard gas is the continual care that has to be -exercised to prevent casualties. It is so easy for a man whose clothing -is slightly contaminated with gas to enter a dugout and contaminate -the whole of the interior and all its occupants. Sentries also have to -be posted to warn troops passing through or into an area that has been -bombarded with mustard gas, so that respirators can be put on. After a -cold night the officers must be continually on the watch to see whether -the vapours that rise from the warming of the earth by the morning sun -are charged with mustard gas, and to take the necessary precautions on -the slightest detection of the characteristic smell. This smell to my -mind is much more like garlic than mustard, and the use of the term -“mustard gas” is purely the origination of the Tommies themselves. As a -matter of fact, so as not to confuse the Yellow Cross liquid with true -mustard oil, efforts were made at first to prevent the stuff from being -called mustard gas. But once the British Tommy decides on a name for -anything, that name it is bound to have, and as he adopted the name -“mustard gas” for it mustard gas it will remain for all time. - -The other new material that was introduced by the Germans in the -summer of 1917 and which, like mustard gas, has been in use ever -since is the German “sneezing gas.” For a long time high-explosive -bombardments were reported on many occasions to be accompanied with -violent sneezing, which at the time was laid down to the presence in -the air of undecomposed explosive from the shell. As a matter of fact -the sneezing was due to the presence inside the high-explosive shell -of bottles containing chemicals the chief effect of which is to cause -violent sneezing when small quantities get into the air. This sneezing -material, or sternutator, to give it its scientific name, in this -case was a solid which is atomised into tiny particles when the shell -bursts. Chemically speaking, it is called diphenylchlorarsine. This -material is used embedded in the trinitrotoluene of the explosive shell -in most cases, and such shells are called Blue Cross Shell, and are -marked accordingly. This is the third of the present trilogy of the -German coloured-cross gas shell. The sneezing gas is also sometimes -mixed in with the contents of the Green Cross Shell in considerable -proportions. - -The idea underlying the use of this sneezing gas by the Germans was -apparently partly that of getting a gas which they thought might go -through our masks. In this of course they were disappointed, as the -respirator keeps out sneezing gas perfectly well. The other idea -underlying its use was apparently to cause such violent sneezing as to -prevent men from getting their masks quickly adjusted or to cause them -to sneeze them off if they had been put on. - -This and all sorts of other tricks of the gas-shell business have been -tried out at various times by the Germans. While putting over Green -Cross or Blue Cross Shell, or both, they will suddenly accompany them -with violent bursts of shrapnel, the idea being that men will be so -busily occupied in putting on their masks or in sneezing that they will -not take the usual care in finding immediate cover from the shrapnel; -or that, on the other hand, in taking cover from the shrapnel they -will not get their masks on in the minimum time or will displace them -in their efforts to get away. - -The sneezing caused by the Blue Cross Shell is a most peculiar and -violent kind. If you get the smallest dose of this stuff into your -lungs you start sneezing at once. You seem to sneeze from the very -bottom of your stomach upward, and feel as if the whole of your chest -were going to come out with it. This may continue almost continuously -for a short time; but there are apparently no after effects unless the -gas has been very strong indeed, in which case there is very painful -irritation of the whole of the throat and lungs which will produce -bronchitis. - -This is the present stage of development of the German gas shell. -Whether they will add another colour to their lot of Green, Yellow and -Blue Cross Shell we do not know, but we are prepared for it when it -does come, and in the meantime he is getting as good as he gives. - -It will be news to most people to realise how the gas shell are -gradually dominating the field. Some bombardments are composed entirely -of gas shell. As many as a quarter of a million have been fired on -the attacking front during twenty-four hours, and probably at least -one-quarter of all German shell of all calibres are gas shell. - -It must be remembered that there are certain things that gas shell -cannot do. They cannot replace high-explosive shell for the demolition -of fortified works, for example. Nor can they be used for cutting -barbed wire previous to an advance; and the creeping barrage that -preceded the assaulting infantry cannot be made up by gas shell. An -S O S barrage in No Man’s Land, to cut up an attack, also would have -to be shrapnel and H. E. so as not to gas the defending troops. When -all these are cut out it will be realised that the proportion of gas -shell that are used against living targets must be very big indeed. It -is hardly too much to assert that at the present day, of the actual -methods of attacking men direct gas is the most important. It must be -realised also that it can become, and is likely to become, still more -important, and that the fight between the offence and the defence on -both sides will continue until the end of the war. - -Since December of last year the boche has been copying a method -invented by the British for firing a large number of big drums of gas -simultaneously. These drums are used chiefly against the front-line -troops and are generally filled with pure phosgene. As each bomb -contains a gallon and a half of liquid and many hundreds are fired at -the same moment a good high concentration of gas is produced. Warning -is given by the tremendous roar from behind the German lines when the -flock of canister or rum-jar bombs starts on its way. Every man who -hears the noise gets his mask on at once, even before there is any sign -of gas; and if he does this there is little danger, as the respirators -are quite capable of dealing with even the very high concentrations -of phosgene produced. If a man keeps his head and obeys orders there -is little to fear from gas. But discipline must be high. As one Tommy -said: “You must be so well disciplined that when the gas alarm goes you -will even drop the rum ration so as to get your respirator on in time.” -Beyond that it is simply a question of carrying on the work in hand -while wearing a respirator, and this is entirely a matter of practice. - - - - -CHAPTER X - - Liquid Fire--First used by Germans in July, 1915--A great - surprise and success--German hopes from it--Construction of - a flame projector--Flammenwerfer companies--Their perilous - duties and incidents of desertion from them--Improved types of - projectors--Co-operation of machine-gun fire--Failure of liquid - fire--Its short duration and short range--Ease of escape from it. - - -When the German Army entered on its policy of frightfulness there was -none of its new and unprincipled methods which had more immediate and -striking success than the use of liquid fire. And there is now none of -all its methods of frightfulness which has fallen more into disrepute, -and which has had less success when once the first surprise was over. - -A great deal of attention has been drawn in the newspapers to the use -of liquid fire, but the average man, even in the fighting forces, -knows very little about the German methods and the appliances for -its use. Yet Germany still has special troops trained in the use -of liquid fire, and seeks continually to alter and develop the fire -weapons and their tactical employment in order to take advantage of -the undoubtedly terrible appearance and destructive power of the high -temperature flames which can be emitted. This article is intended to -show the stage to which the development has attained and the reasons -for the relatively innocuous character of what is probably the most -terror-inspiring method of modern warfare. - -Throughout 1915 England was pouring new divisions of its National army -into France. As with all new troops the procedure adopted at the time -was to bring these divisions by easy stages to within a short distance -of the front line, and then send them in by companies for a four day -“instructional tour” in the trenches to pick up all the wrinkles and -habits from the seasoned troops holding the line. After the whole -formation had been put through it in this way the division would be -allotted a definite part of the line, taking it over possibly from the -troops with whom it had been in for instruction and allowing the latter -to get out for a much needed rest, or to get “fattened up” for some -impending or progressing show elsewhere. - -One such new division, absolutely fresh from England and with no war -experience whatever, was the target selected by the boche for his -new deviltry. The portion of line allotted to this division was on -the outermost part of the Ypres salient and included the ruins of -the little village of Hooge right at the point of the salient. This -position had always been a hot corner--“unhealthy” in the British army -parlance--and had changed hands several times. The trenches there were -poor as it was almost impossible to get effective work done on them -owing to their exposed position. Indeed there were many parts of the -line where no movement was possible by day and the men on the posts had -to lie “doggo” until night. The two lines were very close together--in -many places less than twenty yards--and it was quite possible to hurl -hand grenades from one set of trenches to the other. It was on this -position of the line, over a front held by two battalions, that the -attack was made. - -After a bombardment of several days, a mine was exploded under the -front line and then immediately afterward, at 3:20 A. M. on the -morning of the 29th of July and without the slightest warning, the -front line troops were enveloped in flames. Where the flames came -from could not be seen. All that the men knew was that they seemed -surrounded by fierce curling flames which were accompanied by a loud -roaring noise and dense clouds of black smoke. Here and there a big -blob of burning oil would fall into a trench or a saphead. Shouts -and yells rent the air as individual men, rising up in the trenches -or attempting to move in the open, felt the force of the flames. The -only way to safety appeared to be to the rear. This direction the men -that were left took. For a short space the flames pursued them, and -the local retirement became a local rout. Then the flames stopped and -machine guns began to take toll of the fugitives. Only one man from the -front trenches is known to have returned. German infantry following up, -poured into the breach in the line, widened it, took our positions as -far back as Sanctuary Wood, and then consolidated. - -Ten days afterward we counter attacked and won back the whole of -the line concerned but at very considerable cost. Incidentally, we -captured two of the German flame projectors, one of them complete, and -they proved to be of the greatest possible use to us subsequently for -educating the army in the new warfare, and for inspection by our own -experts with a view to their duplication for retaliation. - -Any one attempting to blame the troops attacked for their retirement -can hardly appreciate the circumstances, and, I am convinced, -over-estimates his own capacity for resistance. This attack was an -utter surprise--the kind of warfare was unknown and unheard of. Imagine -being faced by a spread of flame exactly similar to that used for the -oil burners under the biggest boilers, but with a jet nearly sixty feet -in length and capable of being sprayed round as one might spray water -with a fire hose. Personally, I am pretty sure, had I been there, that -I should have hopped it if I had not been fried by the heat or frozen -with terror. Later, when we knew the limitations of these things it was -different, though even then it is a pretty good test of a man’s nerve. - -The flame projectors taken by the 14th Division in the counter attack -were simple but very interesting in construction. The main part was -a cylindrical vessel of steel about two feet in height and fifteen -inches in diameter provided with straps so that it could be carried on -a man’s back. At one side about two-thirds of the way up was a filling -hole for oil, closed by a screw cap. Near the top was a pressure gauge -attachment and toward the base was a lock closed by a lever handle and -to which could be attached a long length of flexible hose ending in a -peculiar shaped nozzle. - -On examination it was found that the body of the projector was divided -internally into two compartments which could be connected by opening -another tap. The upper compartment was the compressor and the lower -the oil reservoir. The compressor chamber was filled to a pressure -of twenty-three atmospheres with deoxygenated air or nitrogen. Air -itself cannot be used because of its oxygen content forming an -explosive mixture with the vapours from the oil, and any heating on -compression, or back-flash from the flame or fuse, might make things -very unpleasant for the operator. The nitrogen required for the flame -projectors is carried into the field in large cylinders about 4 feet 6 -inches in length and 6 inches in diameter. Several of these cylinders -have been captured from the enemy since. These cylinders are actually -taken into the trenches and the flame projectors charged from them -there. - -The combustible liquid used in the flame throwers has varied in -source and composition from time to time, but it invariably has one -characteristic which appears to be essential for good results--it must -have light or easily volatile and heavy and less volatile fractions -mixed in carefully graded proportions. The heavy oil has sometimes -been a petroleum product and sometimes a tarry residual oil from the -distillation of wood. The light portion, which insures the jet’s -keeping alight was originally a light gasolene, but at one period, -whether from shortage of petrol or not I do not know, the place of the -latter in the mixture was taken by ordinary commercial ether. - -The lighting device, fixed at the end of the flexible hose, is the -most ingenious part of the whole contrivance and is so made that the -oil ignites spontaneously the minute the jet is turned on, and is -kept alight by a fiercely burning mixture which lasts throughout the -discharge. - -The nozzle is about 9 inches long and detachable so that replacement is -easy. It clips into the end of the tube and is held in position by an -annular ring. When the oil with its twenty-three atmospheres pressure -behind it is rushed out of the jet, it forces up the plunger of a -friction lighter and ignites a core of a fierce burning fuse mixture -which fills the whole of the space between the central tube and an -outer casing. The latter consists of a thick wick soaked in paraffin -wax and fitting loosely into a thin brass case. - -When the nozzle is in position all that is necessary is to turn on the -tap, and the stream of flame issues from the tube and can be directed -at will. - -The official name for this instrument we discovered was the -“_Flammenwerfer_” (flame thrower) and it is now never known in the -British army by anything else than its German name. Indeed this is one -of the very few German words we have adopted as an outcome of the war, -the only others I can remember being “_strafe_” and “_Kamerad_.” - -Flammenwerfer attacks are made by the 3rd and 4th Guard Pioneer -Battalions and by the Guard Reserve Pioneer Regiment--all of which -troops are specially trained in flame tactics. Each battalion is -composed of six companies and each company is equipped with 18 small -or portable projectors similar to that described above, and with 20-22 -large projectors of greater range. The latter larger flammenwerfer are -built on the same principle as the former, but are too heavy to be used -as mobile weapons. They are consequently built in to the trenches at -about 27 yards from the opposing lines, and, if the trenches are not -close enough together for the purpose, special saps are pushed out -and the flammenwerfer installed at the end. The range of these large -projectors is 33-44 yards and they can cover a front of 55 yards with -flames. - -It is probable that in the attack at Hooge that both large and small -flammenwerfer were employed. - -It is possible with the above equipment for a flame company to cover a -total front of 1100-1600 yards. - -Service in the Guard Reserve Pioneers is apparently a form of -punishment. Men convicted of offences in other regiments are -transferred either for a time or permanently, and are forced under -threat of death to engage in the most hazardous enterprises and carry -out the most dangerous work. The following incident will serve to show -how the German soldiers are hounded to their death in these engagements. - -In the summer of last year a small flammenwerfer attack was made -against our line at a point near Monchy, south of Arras. Two boches -armed with flame projectors of a modified pattern were instructed to -attack one of our advanced posts which was at the head of a sap running -out toward the German trenches. In broad daylight and with no covering -fire worth talking about these two poor devils were forced over the top -with revolvers pressed into their backs. One was shot down immediately. -The other managed to get clear of his own barbed wire and then -discarded his apparatus, with the intention of crawling over to us and -deserting. By this time, however, he had been badly shot up--whether -by his own people as well as by us, I cannot say. His left arm and his -right thigh were both smashed, and he had two bullets in his abdomen. -Nevertheless this man managed to crawl into our lines and was taken -care of. He was sent down to a Casualty Clearing Station in a perilous -condition, but despite his terrible injuries I understand the doctors -managed to patch him up, and that he recovered completely. - -The portable flammenwerfer used in the attack just described was -brought in by our patrols the following night, the spot where he -had left it being accurately described by the wounded prisoner. It -was found to be of a new pattern and other specimens of the same -construction have since been captured, chiefly in the neighbourhood of -Lens where they were employed by the boche in the course of abortive -counter attacks against the Canadians. - -In this pattern, which is shown in detail in the photograph, the -compressed nitrogen is contained in a spherical-vessel which is -contained inside a ring-shaped oil container. The whole thing looks -like a life preserver and is mounted on a light frame so that it can -be comfortably carried on the back. For a man who may suddenly have to -get down on his stomach and crawl, the apparatus is much more compact -and better fitting to the body than the original type, but it has no -advantage over the older varieties as regards range or duration. - -The flexible hose which carries the lighting nozzle is made of canvas -and rubber, and enemy documents which have been captured show that only -one tube is provided for each three reservoirs. After the discharge of -one apparatus the long tube is supposed to be fitted with a new nozzle -and handed on to the others in succession. - -The flammenwerfer companies are divided into squads. Following the -German army habit of adopting contractions--a habit presumably forced -on them by their cumbersome word-building language, the squads are -designated _Groftruppe_ or _Kleiftruppe_, according as they are armed -with large or small projectors. The former is a contraction for -_Grosser-flammenwerfertrupp_ (large flame projector squad), and the -latter for _Kleiner-flammenwerfertrupp_ (small flame projector squad). - -In the case of attacks with the large projectors, or a combined attack -with both sizes, the chief thing is secrecy of installation in the -trenches. If it was ascertained or suspected that flammenwerfer were -being put in, our gunners would open on the position in no time and -blow the apparatus sky-high. As it is necessary to sap out to within 27 -yards of our lines in order to get in a “shot,” it can readily be seen -that the possibilities of using the large projectors are very limited, -and as a matter of fact little use has been made of them. - -Attacks with the portable projectors are more possible owing to their -greater mobility. But here again the essential part of the tactics and -the most difficult thing to do is to get near enough the target to -make the shot effective. The range is only fifty to sixty feet. The -German idea is to cover the advance of the “_Kleif_” men by protecting -machine-gun fire. - -In an attack, the advance of the company is covered by machine-gun fire -from each side, converging at a point on the opposing trenches. In the -triangle thus formed the attacking force, the “_Kleiftruppe_” in front, -then a party of bombers, and finally the raiding or attacking party -take up their positions in No Man’s Land and crawl as far forward as -possible in the “protected area.” As soon as the flame projectors are -within range, the machine guns switch outward to each side, the flame -is discharged and the bombers rush in and try their luck in the trench. -If things go well, the infantry follows the bombing party and proceeds -to its objective. - -In an attack of this kind, or a less well-supported attack such as -that at Arras, mentioned above, the attackers suffer from two such -severe disadvantages that against well-disciplined troops they stand -little chance. These disadvantages are (1) the flammenwerfer carriers -have to get so near their objective that they are almost certain to be -shot, and they then become a source of danger to their own side; (2) -men in trenches know they are perfectly safe from frontal flame attack -if they keep well down and hug the parapet side of the trench. The -reason for this is that the flame will not sink down into a trench, -but having little force behind it at the end of its journey is curled -_upward_ by the rising currents of hot air. The result is that any -sort of head cover (unless made of wood) makes perfect protection, and -a man crouching in a trench or even lying prone in a shell hole, is -very unlikely to be more than slightly scorched at the very worst. I -can vouch for this, for I have lain at the bottom of a trench with the -flames playing over my head and have not been injured in the slightest, -though I confess to being very much relieved when the flame stopped. -The only danger in trenches to men who keep their heads is that of -“blobs” of burning oil falling from the end of the fiery stream, but -this is not a very serious chance. - -Another serious disability in the German liquid fire is its very short -duration. The stream of flame from the portable flammenwerfer lasts -rather less than one minute. It is impossible to charge up again on -the spot, and the result is that once the flame stops the whole game -is finished and the operators are at our mercy. Without making the -apparatus of a prohibitive weight, the duration of the flame cannot be -increased. Even the heavy projectors give only a flame lasting at the -best one minute and a quarter. - -It must be realised that it is discipline and coolness (if one may use -the word) which count, and that the moral effect on unsteady troops, -unaware of the fact that the appalling flames have little destructive -value, may be very great indeed. When men have bolted from the trenches -into the open they are an easy prey. - -An enfilade attack, i.e., one made from a flank, would be much more -dangerous were it not for the difficulty of approach and the fact that -the traverses of a fire-trench are as good protection against flame as -the parapet. Only where the “_Kleif_” squad can approach under cover -and get in its shot at an exposed target is the flammenwerfer likely to -have much success nowadays. - -A certain amount of value was obtained from their use in this way in -the attack on Verdun for reducing isolated strong-points, notably -fortified farmhouses and broken down cottages in the ruined villages. -In certain cases the flame projector carriers were enabled to approach -under cover or by crawling among the ruins and heaps of debris, to -within striking distance of the otherwise well protected machine-gun -emplacements and positions. By suddenly playing the fire jet into the -loopholes, enough flame penetrated into the interior of the emplacement -to put the machine-gun and its crew out of action--either temporarily -or permanently. This was the opportunity awaited by the covering party -of bombers who would rush the post the minute the flame ceased, having -made their approach while the projectors were in action. - -But even for special cases like these the circumstances must be so -favourable and the inherent disadvantages are so great that the -flammenwerfer cannot be counted on to attain the required result. - -The low value placed by the Allies on the German flame attack can -be realised from the fact that no special form of cover is provided -against it. There is no special form of fireproof clothing or other -protection issued to the troops, and the instructions for meeting the -attack may be summarised as “Shoot the man carrying the apparatus -before he gets in his shot if possible. If this cannot be done take -cover from the flames and shoot him afterward.” - - - - -TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES: - - - Italicized text is surrounded by underscores: _italics_. - - Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. - - Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized. - - Archaic or variant spelling has been retained. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GAS AND FLAME IN MODERN -WARFARE *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. 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Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/69562-0.zip b/old/69562-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 78184c4..0000000 --- a/old/69562-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69562-h.zip b/old/69562-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9291b9e..0000000 --- a/old/69562-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69562-h/69562-h.htm b/old/69562-h/69562-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 0d74dd5..0000000 --- a/old/69562-h/69562-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6344 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html lang="en"> -<head> - <meta charset="UTF-8"> - <title> - Gas and flame, by S. J. M. Auld—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> - <style> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2 { - text-align: center; - clear: both; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; -} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} - -.tdl {text-align: left; margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em;} -.tdr {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} -.tdc {text-align: center;} - -.pagenum { - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; - text-indent: 0; -} - -.blockquot { - margin-left: 17.5%; - margin-right: 17.5%; -} - -.x-ebookmaker .blockquot { - margin-left: 7.5%; - margin-right: 7.5%; -} - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} - -.nowrap {white-space: nowrap;} - -.ph1 {text-align: center; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;} -.ph2 {text-align: center; font-size: xx-large; font-weight: bold;} -.ph3 {text-align: center; font-size: 130%; font-weight: bold; margin-top: -0.75em;} - -div.titlepage {text-align: center; page-break-before: always; page-break-after: always;} -div.titlepage p {text-align: center; font-weight: bold; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: 2em;} - -.xxxlarge {font-size: 250%;} -.xxlarge {font-size: 175%;} -.large {font-size: 125%;} - -.caption {font-weight: bold; text-align: center;} - -.x-ebookmaker .hide {display: none; visibility: hidden;} - -.illo {margin: auto; font-weight: bold; max-width: 450px;} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - -.hangingindent {text-indent: -1em; } - -.underline {border-bottom: 4px solid;} - -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - margin-left: 17.5%; - margin-right: 17.5%; - padding: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - -</style> -</head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Gas and flame in modern warfare, by S. J. M. Auld</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Gas and flame in modern warfare</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: S. J. M. Auld</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Illustrator: W. G. Thayer</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: December 17, 2022 [eBook #69562]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: deaurider, David E. Brown, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GAS AND FLAME IN MODERN WARFARE ***</div> - -<div class="figcenter hide"><img src="images/coversmall.jpg" width="450" alt=""></div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> -<div class="chapter"> -<h1><span class="underline">GAS AND FLAME</span></h1> -<p class="ph3">MAJOR S. J. M. AULD, M.C.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i_004.jpg" alt=""></div> - -<div class="illo"> -<p>Lieut. W. G. Thayer, of the Gas Defense Division, U. S. Army, -is the artist of the drawing here reproduced which was designed -for the purpose of bringing home the necessity of care in all that -pertains to the use and manufacture of the gas mask.</p> - -<p>In order to impress upon the soldier in training the need of care -and speed in adjusting the mask in case of gas attack, the poster -was printed with this wording:</p> - -<p class="caption"> -KEEP YOUR HEAD; HOLD YOUR BREATH,—<br> -BE QUICK!!<br> -AND THIS WON’T HAPPEN TO YOU</p> - -<p>That the workers engaged in the manufacture of gas masks -might realize the importance of care and flawlessness in their work, -the same poster was placed in the factories with a legend reading:</p> - -<p class="caption">THE FINAL INSPECTOR</p> -</div></div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i_title.jpg" alt=""></div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="titlepage"> -<p><span class="xxxlarge">GAS AND FLAME</span><br> -<span class="xxlarge">IN MODERN WARFARE</span></p> - -<p>BY<br> - -<span class="large">MAJOR S. J. M. AULD, M.C.</span><br> - -ROYAL BERKSHIRE REGIMENT<br> - -<i>Member of the British Military Mission<br> -to the United States</i></p> - -<p>FRONTISPIECE BY<br> - -<span class="large">W. G. THAYER</span></p> - -<p><span class="large">NEW</span> <img src="images/i_titlelogo.jpg" alt=""> <span class="large">YORK</span><br> - -<span class="large">GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY</span></p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center"><i>Copyright, 1918,<br> -By George H. Doran Company</i><br> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<i>Copyright, 1918,<br> -By The Curtis Publishing Company</i><br> -<br> -<i>Copyright, 1918,<br> -By Doubleday, Page & Company</i><br> -<br> -<i>Printed in the United States of America</i></p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span> - -<h2 class="nobreak">PUBLISHER’S NOTE</h2> -</div> -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Need for the education of vast numbers of -men in various branches of Gas Service and -those in camps on the position of Gas Warfare -at the front, has made imperative the publication -of this book, as has also the need of educating -the public, owing to the many misleading -newspaper reports, sometimes merely misinformative, -sometimes distinctly mischievous, appearing -from time to time.</p> - -<p>Major Auld, chemist and teacher before the -war, and as he modestly styled it, “amateur -soldier,” volunteered for service at the front -as a “Territorial,” at the very outset of the -conflict.</p> - -<p>Some months after the first gas attack, he -was taken into the Gas Service, owing to his -training and ability as a chemist, and later became -Chief Gas Officer to Sir Julian Byng’s -Army. He was awarded the Military Cross -after the Battle of the Somme, and was wounded -in an expedition into No Man’s Land to observe -the effect of a British Gas attack. He has therefore -been in touch with gas warfare from the -beginning and knows all phases.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[vi]</span>As the natural consequence of all this, the -Government of the United States welcomed him -as the representative of Great Britain in its -counsel to America on all aspects of gas warfare. -In this official capacity the Major has -been engaged here assisting in organization and -development of training, research and production -aspects of Gas, and lecturing at camps, the -War College, and West Point.</p> - -<p>The American Gas Service has, for all -these reasons, deemed the publication of Major -Auld’s experiences very desirable.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]</span> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER I</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">The first rumours of German gas attacks—Sceptically<br> -received—First attack in 1915—Canadian<br> -pluck under gas—Nernst and Haber the<br> -inventors of German gas—The difficulties of<br> -getting practicable gases—The technic of gas<br> -attacks—A German prisoner’s account</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_9"> 9</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER II</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">The first respirators—First-aid devices—The<br> -smoke helmet—Anti-gas sprayers—Their use<br> -and delicacy—The English chemists set to<br> -work—The task of training the whole army</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26"> 26</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER III</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Popular terror of gas—Necessity for drilling and<br> -early personal experience—Sure defence from<br> -gas possible—The first gas alarms—The prussic<br> -acid scare a myth—The phosgene scare a<br> -reality—The helmet made to combat it—Necessity<br> -for renovating the helmet</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42"> 42</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">The attack of Dec. 1915—The Allies’ good training<br> -tells—The casualties analysed—The new<br> -element of surprise—Evidences of the use of<br> -phosgene—The incident of the bulb—Improved<br> -alarms—The Strombos sirens—Accidents<br> -to the horns—The Tear Gas Shell—Its<br> -chemical analysis—Combated by anti-gas<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span><br> -goggles—Tommies scoff at Tear Gas—The<br> -Germans make it formidable</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_62"> 62</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER V</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Summer of 1916 the highwater mark of the German<br> -gas cloud—Their improved methods—The<br> -need of speed and secrecy—Gas as a rat<br> -exterminator—Causes of Allied casualties—Germans<br> -killed with their own gas—Gas<br> -masks for horses and mules—Reduced Allied<br> -casualties—Humorous incidents</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88"> 88</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">The last German gas cloud sent over August 1916—Its<br> -intensity—“Delayed” cases of phosgene<br> -gassing—Cigarettes as a test of gassing—Dangers<br> -of carelessness—The sprayer abandoned<br> -for Mrs. Ayrton’s fan—Responsibilities<br> -of the divisional gas office—Russian gas victims—The<br> -day of the gas cloud over</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112"> 112</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">The rising importance of the gas shell—The<br> -variety of gases practicable with the shell—The<br> -deadly Green Cross Shell—Risks of<br> -transporting “duds” for chemical analysis—Reduced<br> -Allied casualties—German blunders<br> -in shelling tactics—Importance of universal<br> -discipline </td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_127"> 127</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">The gas-proof dugout—First-aid methods of<br> -alarm—Von Buelow improves German gas<br> -tactics—Popular errors about gas—Effectiveness<br> -of new British respirators—Vomiting gas—Germans<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[ix]</span><br> -speed up their manufacture—Gas<br> -as a neutraliser of artillery fire—As a neutraliser<br> -of work behind the trenches—Raw recruits<br> -ashamed to wear the mask—Casualties<br> -resulting</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_145"> 145</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Mustard or Yellow Cross gas—Not deadly but a<br> -dangerous pest—Its troublesome persistence—Cleaning<br> -it out by fires—Sneezing of Blue<br> -Cross gas—Another pest—Its violent effect—The<br> -limit of gas shell effectiveness—The need<br> -for constant vigilance and disciplinary training</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_169"> 169</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER X</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Liquid fire—First used by Germans in July 1915—A<br> -great surprise and success—German hopes<br> -from it—Construction of a flame projector—Flammenwerfer<br> -companies—Their perilous<br> -duties and incidents of desertion from them—Improved<br> -types of projectors—Co-operation<br> -of machine-gun fire—Failure of liquid fire—Its<br> -short duration and short range—Ease of<br> -escape from it</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_185"> 185</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="ph2">GAS AND FLAME</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span> -<p class="ph2">GAS AND FLAME</p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER I</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<div class="hangingindent"> -<p>The first rumours of German gas attacks—Sceptically received—First -attack in 1915—Canadian pluck under -gas—Nernst and Haber the inventors of German -gas—The difficulties of getting practicable gases—The -technic of gas attacks—A German prisoner’s -account.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the early part of April, 1915, we were -in the trenches opposite Messines. We enjoyed -the usual morning and evening -“hate”; we sniped and were sniped at; we -patrolled and wired and attempted to drain -away the superfluous water, and there was -much mud and humour and expectancy. It -is true there were no Mills grenades or -Stokes mortars or tin hats, but trench warfare -was not so very different then from -what it is now—with one great exception: -There was no gas. And there were consequently -no respirators to carry day and -night. It is almost impossible now to remember<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span> -the time when one did not carry a -respirator in the trenches. Somehow it -makes you feel quite naked to think of it—and -yet there we were, imagining we knew -what war really was like!</p> - -<p>The newspapers we got at that time were -generally a good many days old, and censored -at that, and our chief source of news -about the war in other people’s parts of the -line was a summary of so-called information -issued from headquarters, which percolated -down to the battalion and, like every other -summary before and since, went by the name -of “Comic Cuts.”</p> - -<p>Somewhere about the middle of the month -we heard that in somebody else’s summary -had appeared a paragraph to the effect that -a deserter from the German lines up in the -salient had told a cock-and-bull story of how -they intended to poison us all with a cloud -of gas, and that tanks full of the poison gas -were already installed in their trenches.</p> - -<p>Of course nobody believed him. The statement -was “passed for information for what -it is worth.” And as nobody ever believed -anything that appeared in Comic Cuts in -any case, we were not disposed to get the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span> -wind up about it. And then, about a week -later, on April 22, 1915, was launched the -first gas attack; and another constant horror -was added to an already somewhat unpleasant -war. Details about the attack are still -somewhat meagre, for the simple reason -that the men who could have told much about -it never came back.</p> - -<p>The place chosen for the first gas attack -was in the northeast part of the Ypres salient -at that part of the line where the French -and British lines met, running down from -where the trenches left the canal near Boesinghe. -On the French right was the —— Regiment -of Turcos, and on the British left -were the Canadians.</p> - -<p>Try to imagine the feelings and the condition -of the coloured troops as they saw the -vast cloud of greenish-yellow gas spring out -of the ground and slowly move down wind toward -them, the vapour clinging to the earth, -seeking out every hole and hollow and filling -the trenches and shell holes as it came. First -wonder, then fear; then, as the first fringes -of the cloud enveloped them and left them -choking and agonised in the fight for breath—panic. -Those who could move broke and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span> -ran, trying, generally in vain, to outstrip the -cloud which followed inexorably after them.</p> - -<p>The majority of those in the front line -were killed—some, let us hope, immediately, -but most of them slowly and horribly. It is -not my intention to try to play upon feelings, -but those of us who have seen men -badly gassed can only think with horror of -a battlefield covered with such cases, over -which the Germans subsequently advanced.</p> - -<p>The Canadians on the British left fared -both better and worse than the French -coloured troops. Only their left appears to -have been in the main path of the poison -cloud, but there is little doubt that in the -thickest part those who did not escape either -to a flank or to the rear were killed on the -field. Thousands of those in the support -trenches and reserve lines and in billets behind -the line were suffocated—many to die -later in the field ambulances and casualty -clearing stations.</p> - -<p>Of those on the fringe of the cloud many -saved themselves by burying their faces in -the earth. Others wrapped mufflers round -their mouths and noses or stuffed handkerchiefs -into their mouths. Many of these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span> -men were saved by their presence of mind, -for though gassed at the time they recovered -later, after treatment in the hospitals.</p> - -<p>It is on record that the Canadians, with -handkerchiefs or mufflers tied over their -mouths, continued to engage the Germans -and that a number of them actually charged -back through the gas cloud in an endeavour -to reach the enemy. What became of them -is not known.</p> - -<p>In this way a big gap was made in the Allied -lines, through which the Germans advanced. -But the Canadians quickly formed -a flank on the left and stoutly engaged the -enemy, with such success that they first -slowed up and then brought to a halt the advance -of the Germans. It was this prompt -action and gallant resistance that probably -saved the day.</p> - -<p>Whether the German high command had -underestimated the probable effect of the -gas and had arranged for only a limited objective -past which the local commanders did -not take the initiative to go, or whether the -latter were unaware of the real weakness of -the Canadian line is unknown. The fact -remains that they did not press their advantage<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span> -to the full. They had taken the Allied -front line on a wide front, killed or -captured thousands of men and taken sixty -guns, and seemed to have a clear way -through to Calais; but they were stopped by -the pluck of a handful of Canadians. Reinforcements -of men and guns were rushed -up, and the immediate danger was over.</p> - -<p>It is a matter for surmise how long the -Germans had been planning and preparing -their use of gas. The idea may have been a -pre-war one, but it is difficult to believe that -a project deliberately planned for years -would not have been developed so as to make -it a sure winner—for it could easily have -been that. If, for example, they had made -the attack over a wider front with such -strong gas clouds as are now used nothing -could possibly have stood against them. -Every living thing to a depth of fifteen miles -or more could have been killed.</p> - -<p>On the other hand it is impossible to imagine -the use of poison gas as having been -decided on without better preparation having -been made to meet retaliation, unless it -was assumed either that the use of the gas -would be decisive or that at any rate the war<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span> -would be finished before the Allies could hit -back with the same weapon.</p> - -<p>In any case the preparation must have -been going on for months. All the production -of material, organisation of personnel -and so on takes a long time. This we realised -ourselves later, for though the decision -to retaliate with gas was made in May it was -September before an attack could possibly -be made. If we assume that a like interval -of four months elapsed for the perfecting -of the German arrangements it means that -the decision to use gas was made about -Christmas, 1914.</p> - -<p>The onus of urging the Kaiser’s advisers -to adopt the use of poisonous gases had been -laid at the door of Professor Nernst, professor -of chemistry at the University of -Berlin. Professor Nernst is a noted -chemist, and even before the war was a notorious -Pan-German and Anglophobe—one -of the “professors” who carried too much -weight in Germany and whose arrogance -and shortsightedness helped to lure her to -her downfall. Some time after the use of gas -was started Professor Nernst was made a -count by the Kaiser for his “notable services”—meaning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span> -presumably the use of gas -in warfare.</p> - -<p>The actual carrying out of the gas operations -was intrusted to another professor of -chemistry, this being one Haber, of the -Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Chemical Institute -at Berlin. In 1914, long before the war -started, Professor Haber and his assistants -are known to have been working secretly -with some intensely poisonous arsenic gases -and liquids, and one of the assistants was -killed and another is reported to have had -his arm blown off during the researches.</p> - -<p>Haber’s particular job was to make all -the scientific arrangements in the field; to -decide on the gases to be used, and the -quantity to employ; to study the wind directions -and decide exactly when to make -the attack. In the weeks preceding the -twenty-second of April, Haber was continually -at the Front receiving reports from -the wind observation stations and in close -touch with the men in charge of the cylinders -in the trenches. On several occasions during -this time the attack was fixed for a certain -hour, but was postponed by Haber, owing -to the wind’s being unsuitable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span>The actual arrangements that had to be -made were much more complex than the -carrying out of the attack itself. First of -all, decision had to be come to as to the gas -to be used in the fiendish attempt. Such a -gas had of course to be highly poisonous. -Then it must be cheaply and easily made in -large quantities; it had to be compressible, -so that it could be transported easily; it -must be heavier than air, so that it should -keep close to the ground when first liberated; -and for preference it should not be unstable—that -is, decompose easily and enter into -nonpoisonous combinations with materials, -other than man, that it should come across -in its passage through the air.</p> - -<p>Any chemist to whom such a problem is -put will inform you there are very few gases -that fill the bill. The German choice rested -on that gas well-known to students of chemistry—chlorine. -Chlorine in large quantities -was available from the alkali works in Germany, -and it meets all the other requirements -except that of not easily combining -with other things. This deficiency was -fortunate, for it meant that protective chemicals -were easy to find when it became necessary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span> -to provide respirators to the Allied -troops.</p> - -<p>Then there was the question of transport -and emission. The gas was eventually put -up in steel cylinders, about thirty inches long -and eight inches across and stout enough -to stand a pressure of about ten atmospheres, -the gas being stored in them compressed -to a liquid. On opening such a cylinder -the liquid boils and gives off the gas -again, but this would not do for field work, -because of the intense cold which is produced -by the sudden expansion. This would -freeze up the pipes and slow down the discharge -to such an extent that the gas attack -would be too weak.</p> - -<p>To get over this difficulty the Germans -fitted their cylinders with internal siphon -tubes so that actually liquid chlorine was -forced into the air, where it evaporated without -affecting the gas remaining in the cylinder. -By this means the whole of the gas -in the cylinder, amounting to forty-five -pounds, is emptied into the atmosphere in -less than three minutes. The sudden expansion -of the chlorine in the air also makes -both it and the surrounding air cold and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span> -helps to keep the cloud close to the ground.</p> - -<p>The actual handing of the gas attacks was -allotted to two regiments of pioneers—the -35th and 36th Pioneer Regiments, which -were specially organised for this purpose. -These regiments have the ordinary organisation -of two battalions per regiment, with -three companies and a park or transport -company per battalion. The rank and file -are ordinary pioneers, but the officers are -specially picked and include chemists, mechanical -experts, meteorologists, and other -men with special scientific qualifications.</p> - -<p>The choice of country in which to make a -gas attack was a serious matter to the enemy. -The gas of course will go with the wind, but -it depends largely on what the country is -like where the wind will go. The Germans -themselves say they prefer a flat country -without any marked under features and -sloping gently toward our lines, just as they -had at Ypres. Indeed, they went the length -of saying that a gas attack could not be carried -out in hilly or very broken country; -and they suffered in consequence later on, -through being taken unawares by the -French in just such country in the Vosges<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span> -when retaliation was commenced. But taking -it altogether the Germans were wise in -their choice of position.</p> - -<p>Another thing that had to be considered -was the outline of their own trench system, -so that they would not let off the gas in such -parts of the line that it would float back and -gas their own troops in the neighbouring -trenches. To do this they invented a “factor -of safety,” which represented an angle between -the direction of the wind and the line -of the trenches. No attack was to be made if -the wind direction came within forty degrees -of any trench within gassing distance. -This worked very well.</p> - -<p>Another consideration was the strength -of the wind. The wind must not be too -strong when the gusts disperse the gas -cloud, or it will weaken it so that it loses a -lot of its effect and will be blown over the -enemy too quickly; nor must it be so weak -that it will take a long time to reach the opposing -trenches.</p> - -<p>Another great danger in winds of too low -velocity is that these are just the winds -which change their direction most frequently, -and anything under two miles per<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span> -hour is just as likely to blow the gas back to -the place from which it came. It was disregarding -this principle on one occasion -later on that caused the Germans numerous -casualties from one of their own gas clouds. -In general, however, it may be laid down -that the most favourable winds are those between -four and twelve miles an hour, so that -with a wind of eight miles an hour the cloud -would move just twice as quickly as a man -walking rapidly, and would take only twelve -and a half seconds to cross No Man’s Land -in places where the trenches are fifty yards -apart.</p> - -<p>Let me try to give an account of the procedure -of carrying out gas attacks as it was -told me by a German prisoner taken not so -very long ago. He said:</p> - -<p>“I am not one of the gas pioneers, but being -an engineer by trade and having been in -the trenches for many weeks with the 35th -Regiment of Pioneers I have got to know -their methods fairly well. Indeed I assisted -on one occasion in carrying cylinders into -the trenches for an attack against the British. -Gas is not popular with us; we have -had too many mishaps, and the cylinders are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span> -a nuisance to carry into the trenches. They -weigh ninety pounds and they are always -carried in by the infantry. A gas regiment -does not do that for itself. It is a long carry -and it is really more than a one-man load. -At the most two men are allotted to carry in -each cylinder, whatever the distance.</p> - -<p>“Several thousand of these cylinders must -be taken into the trenches, and then we have -the job of putting them in position. Deep -holes are dug just underneath the parapet -of the trench, and into these holes are placed -the separate cylinders with the tops flush -with the ground. As each cylinder is placed -into position the hole is covered with a -board, on top of which is placed a thing we -call a ‘<i>Salzdecke</i>,’ which is really a kind of -quilt stuffed with peat moss and soaked in -potash solution so as to absorb any of the -gases that may leak out.</p> - -<p>“On top of the <i>Salzdecke</i> are built up -three layers of sandbags, so that there is not -much danger of the cylinders’ being hit by -shell fragments. This also serves to hide -the cylinders in case a raid is made, and the -sandbags form an excellent firing step. In -fact, you would never guess that the gas<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span> -was ready in position to make an attack. All -of this takes a long time to do, and then -we have to wait for a wind that is favourable.</p> - -<p>“It may be weeks before the right time -comes, but all the time the pioneer officers -and <i>Unteroffiziere</i> make observations of the -wind and report back to somebody at headquarters. -On the night fixed for the attack -all the infantry are warned beforehand. If -the wind continues favourable the sandbags -are taken off, the domes removed from the -cylinders, and to each cylinder is attached a -lead pipe which is bent over the top of the -parapet into No Man’s Land, with the end -slightly bent up, so that if any liquid comes -out it is not wasted in the ground but evaporates -in the air. The end of the lead pipe is -weighted with a sandbag, so that it will not -kick when the gas is turned on and blow the -gas back into our own trenches, as happened -in one or two of the earlier attacks. It is -this kind of thing that makes gas unpopular -in the German Army.</p> - -<p>“Eventually the time really does arrive -for the attack, and the pioneers stand by the -cylinders, of which twenty form a battery;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span> -and to each battery there are two pioneers -and one noncommissioned officer waiting to -unscrew the taps. A signal is given by means -of a rocket. All the infantry have been -eagerly waiting for this signal, which -means that they have five minutes to clear -out of the front-line trenches before the gas -is turned on; and I can tell you they do not -waste any time. Everybody makes a rush -to the support trench and leaves the front -line entirely to the pioneers.</p> - -<p>“We all keep our masks ready to put on at -a moment’s notice, because in the earlier attack -the wind on two occasions blew the gas -back again into our own trenches and killed -a lot of the infantry who were unprepared -for its return. According to the length of -time the attack is to last the cylinders are -turned on, from one up to five at a time, in -each battery.</p> - -<p>“As soon as the taps are turned on the -pioneers make for cover, but they have a -good many losses from bursting cylinders, -from leaks, and from the shrapnel and high-explosive -shells which invariably greet the -start of an attack. The promptness with -which this happened at the time I was in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span> -line made us believe that your people had -known all about our gas preparations for -some time. The infantry are all very glad -to be away from the front-line trench when -the cloud is sent over.”</p> - -<p>This method has been practically unaltered -throughout the time the Germans have -made gas attacks. In the first attack they -probably had one gas cylinder on every yard -of front on which gas was installed, but the -number was increased in subsequent attacks.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER II</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<div class="hangingindent"> -<p>The first respirators—First-aid devices—the smoke helmet—Anti-gas -sprayers—Their use and delicacy—The -English chemists set to work—The task of training -the whole army.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> is no need to dwell on the execration -with which the use of gas was met by -the whole civilised world, and I will merely -try to recount how it was taken by the men -in the trenches.</p> - -<p>The British Tommy is a difficult man to -terrify, and the moral effect on the men, -though quite unprotected, was remarkably -small considering the terrors of the game. -For two or three days all we heard about -were the things we should do in the event of -being similarly attacked. It appeared that -great chemists from England had immediately -taken up the question of providing efficient -respirators, and until they came out -were advising people as to emergency measures. -Some of these methods seemed to us -very funny. We were told, for example,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span> -that a respirator could “easily” be made by -knocking the bottom off a bottle, filling the -bottle with earth, and then learning to -breathe with the neck of the bottle stuck in -the mouth. The breath was to be taken in -through the bottle and let out through the -nose; but as bottles were scarce and few of -them survived the attempt to get the bottom -broken off there was not much doing.</p> - -<p>However, we learned that handkerchiefs -filled with earth and kept moist would keep -some of the gas out, and by the time the first -novelty had worn off we were receiving private -respirators from England. These had -all been made in response to an appeal by -Lord Kitchener to the women of England to -make respirators for the troops out of cotton -wool wrapped up in muslin or veiling. The -result of this was that the War Office was -absolutely swamped with millions of these -respirators within a few days, and most fellows -in the trenches had one or two sent out -by post straightaway.</p> - -<p>Besides these, arrangements were made -by the various divisions for respirators to -be made in towns behind the lines; and the -government factories in England got to work<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span> -to turn out a simple type of respirator which -had been devised by the English chemists as -the quickest to make and the simplest to use. -The result was that within about one month -we had four or five different kinds of respirators -issued to us. Most of these were -simple pads of either cotton wool or cotton -waste. The earlier ones were soaked in -washing-soda solution, and the later ones -were moistened with a special solution consisting -of ordinary photographic hypo and -washing soda mixed with a little glycerin.</p> - -<p>One type that we had for a week or two -in the trenches consisted of the usual pad -of cotton waste together with a small wad -of the same material which was kept separate. -The respirators were stored in boxes -let into the paradoses, or rear walls of the -trenches. On the alarm being given each -man in the trench made a dive for a respirator, -stuffed the wad into his mouth as a first -protection, and then bound the pad round -his mouth and nose, the wad being afterward -taken out of his mouth and stuffed round his -nose so as to make a tight fit.</p> - -<p>These practices were popular for once or -twice, but when it began to be realised that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span> -the wads were not always used by the same -man the novelty waned. We thought we -were getting pretty smart at it when we -could get every man in the trench fully protected—that -is, with the tapes tied—in forty -seconds from the word “Go.”</p> - -<p>Later on we had the official “black-veiling -respirator,” which was issued to all the British -troops and which went through two or -three of the earlier attacks as the chief protection.</p> - -<p>It was from one of these attacks delivered -in the salient again, on the twenty-fourth of -May, that the first benefits of good training -in the use of the respirator were seen. One -of the regiments which had been on the flank -of the first attack and had seen the effects of -the gas and what it really meant had taken -the training very seriously, and the officers -had insured that every man had a respirator, -kept it in good condition, and knew how to -use it in the quickest possible time should -occasion rise. Other regiments were not so -good, and it was just this training or lack of -it that made all the difference between heavy -casualties and light casualties in subsequent -attacks.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span>On the twenty-fourth of May the regiment -mentioned above happened to be in the very -thickest part of the cloud, and though the -battalion on either side of it suffered serious -losses they themselves came off almost scot-free. -Instances of losses from insufficient -education in the use of the respirator were -numerous on this occasion. A lot of men -took their respirators off in the middle of -the attack in order to wet them with solution -again; and as they did not wring them out -sufficiently the respirators were difficult to -breathe through and the men thought they -were being gassed and repeated the dose—the -result being that they could not draw air -through the sodden cotton waste, and they -were gassed either from pulling off the -respirators altogether or from the air coming -in at the side.</p> - -<p>One very bad instance was quoted by a -medical officer at an advanced dressing station -which was taking in gas cases as they -came down from the line. Two or three men -from one battalion came in pretty badly -gassed, but still able to walk. The M. O. -asked them if they had respirators issued to -them. They said “Yes.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>“Well, why didn’t you put them on?”</p> - -<p>They said: “We did put them on; we’ve -got them on now.”</p> - -<p>And so they had—strapped across their -chests!</p> - -<p>At that time respirators were generally -carried by the men tied round their caps, -and in some cases could not be removed in -time; and the May twenty-fourth attack -made it apparent that the respirators should -be carried in a position ready for immediate -use. For this purpose a waterproof cover -was provided and the respirator kept in a -small pocket inserted into the jacket, or else -in a pouch slung over the shoulder.</p> - -<p>The other bad feature about the preparations -was the arrangement for dipping the -respirators in solution in the trenches, as referred -to above. During the attack a lot of -the men dipped their respirators in water; -which of course washed the chemicals out of -the respirators and made them ineffectual -much sooner than they should have been. -But all of these matters were remedied before -another gas attack was made.</p> - -<p>After the first emergency respirator had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span> -been issued every effort was made to devise -a more effective form of protection than -that given by the cotton-wool pads, in expectation -of a recurrence of German attacks. -As a matter of fact there were no attacks -between the beginning of June and December, -1915, because the wind was unfavourable -to the Germans. This was another -point that they had apparently overlooked, -because on investigation we found that the -prevailing winds in Flanders blew from west -to east, and that about three-quarters of the -total winds were in our favour and against -the Germans.</p> - -<p>The long interval of the summer of 1915 -gave us a splendid opportunity to develop -the protection against gas which had been -commenced in the spring while attacks were -still being made. The most important of -these developments were the invention of -the celebrated “smoke helmet” and the use -of sprayers for the removing of gas from -the trenches. We also found out the exact -value of certain other devices and methods -which had been suggested for combating the -gas clouds, and a lot of impossible ideas were -consequently turned down.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span>The latter might be discussed first of all. -One suggestion which was made and believed -in by most people at various times—including -the Germans themselves—was that fires -built in the trenches or on the parapet would -cause such an upward draft as to lift up the -gas cloud and carry it safely over our heads. -Experiments showed, however, that this idea -was absolutely false, because though an upward -draft was certainly formed the incoming -air carried with it just as much gas -from the surrounding atmosphere, and nothing -was gained by it. It was a long time -before the Germans tumbled to this, and -even many months later their own instructions -on defence against gas included statements -that showed their reliance on this procedure.</p> - -<p>One suggestion which actually reached the -point of being acted on was that the gas -cloud could be dispersed by an explosion, -and for this purpose we were provided with -wooden boxes filled with black powder and -with fuses attached, which we were supposed -to light at the crucial moment and throw into -an advancing cloud. This heroic procedure -was never actually made use of, however, because<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span> -experiments in the meantime again -showed that such explosions had very little -effect on a cloud of gas.</p> - -<p>Two suggestions which really did turn out -to be winners were those referred to previously—the -smoke helmet and the Vermorel -sprayer for clearing the trenches.</p> - -<p>The idea for a respirator in the form of -a helmet to go right over the head is stated -to have originated from an idea of a sergeant -of the Canadians who was gassed at Ypres, -who stated that he had seen some of the Germans -through the gas cloud with things that -looked like flour bags pulled over their -heads. It was thought that something of -this kind could actually be made use of, and -experiments showed that it was really a practical -idea, because breathing is done through -a very big surface and not only through the -chemicals directly in front of the mouth and -nose, as in the case of the respirator. By -having a big surface it is possible to have -thinner material and there is, therefore, less -resistance to breathing. All that is required -is to tuck the helmet down inside the jacket -and button the latter tightly round it at the -neck, and if this is done there is little possibility<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span> -of gas leaking in. As a matter of -fact there is no evidence that the Germans -ever did use anything of the kind.</p> - -<p>The first types of smoke helmet were made -of flannel and had a window for seeing -through which was made of mica or celluloid. -The helmets were soaked in the same -kind of solution—hypo, carbonate of soda -and glycerin—that had been employed for -the respirators. Helmets of this kind were -capable of standing up against really considerable -concentrations of chlorine, and -they were quickly recognised both by the -troops and by experts as being a very big -improvement on the old respirator.</p> - -<p>These helmets were made and issued to the -troops as quickly as possible and a few of -them were actually used in the attack of May -twenty-fourth. Men unpracticed in their use -were apt to find them hot and stuffy, and, -not realising that the feeling wears off, were -often inclined to think that they were being -suffocated or gassed. As a matter of fact -well-drilled men could do almost anything -while wearing the helmet, the chief difficulty -being that of limited vision. After wearing -the helmet for a short time the celluloid window<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span> -got clouded over from the moisture in -the breath, but this could easily be remedied -by wiping it on the forehead. In many cases -also the windows got cracked or broken from -the rough treatment they were bound to meet -in trenches, and this was a constant danger -until men learned how to fold the helmet -properly so as to protect the celluloid and to -place a small sheet of cardboard or thin wood -over the window before folding.</p> - -<p>The sprayers previously mentioned were -originally suggested for use against the gas -cloud itself, the idea being that chemicals -should be sprayed at the cloud so as to neutralise -the poisonous gas and thereby purify -the air. Nearly everybody with even a nodding -acquaintance with chemistry wrote in -suggesting ammonia for this purpose, oblivious -of the fact that the chemical reaction -between chlorine and ammonia in these circumstances -produces a dense cloud which is -most irritating to the eyes and throat, and -that this together with the excess of ammonia -would be almost as bad as the original -gas.</p> - -<p>In any case it is impossible to deal with -the gas cloud by spraying, because of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span> -enormous amount of chemicals and apparatus -that would be required to neutralise the -attack. A cloud of chlorine from one thousand -cylinders, for example, would require -more than forty tons of the strongest ammonia -solution obtainable to kill all the gas, -even if none of the spray were lost in the -ground. Besides this the spraying might -have to be continued for hours, some of the -attacks having lasted intermittently for -more than three hours.</p> - -<p>It was quickly seen that this was an utter -impossibility, but experiments showed that -a spray of the hypo solution was quite capable -of removing what remained of the gas -cloud out of trenches and shell holes and -from dugouts into which the gas had penetrated. -This of course applied only to -chlorine. Arrangements were therefore -made for supplying a large number of these -sprayers, which are exactly the same as those -used for spraying fruit trees and potatoes -with fungicides, and men were specially -trained in their use so that they could be employed -after an attack was over. These men -were officially known as the “Vermorel -sprayer men,” and were popularly supposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span> -to preface all their operations with the -words “Let us spray.”</p> - -<p>The solution to fill the sprayers was kept -in all the trenches in corked rum jars, and -there were many amusing incidents rising -out of the dual purpose to which these revered -vessels were put. It is stated that a -certain battalion on going into the line for -the first time saw these rum jars safely ensconced -in niches in the parapet and immediately -thought that they contained the rum -ration concerning which they had heard so -much before they came out. Some of the -more adventurous ones surreptitiously tried -out the supposed rum and drank a few -mouthfuls of the nauseous liquid before discovering -their mistake. The real joke lay -in the fact that even after they realised that -the liquid was not rum they continued to -drink it, and by the time they finished their -two days’ tour of instruction there was not -a drop of Vermorel sprayer solution left in -any of the trenches.</p> - -<p>The sprayers were somewhat delicate -pieces of apparatus to keep in good condition -in the trenches, and were apt to get<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span> -crusted with mud and out of order unless -they were well looked after. Like everything -else connected with the defence against -gas, their condition in the trenches varied -with different regiments according as they -were well trained and disciplined or otherwise, -but as a rule the sprayers were well -enough looked after, and proved extraordinarily -useful on many occasions after their -first appearance in the line.</p> - -<p>As stated before, the long interval of the -summer and autumn of 1915 gave the -chemists and the army plenty of opportunity -for thinking about the gas question, developing -organisation and methods to meet -attacks in the future, and making arrangements -for the training of the troops so that -they should be thoroughly prepared when -the next attack should arrive.</p> - -<p>One of the most important things that -was done was to start a big field laboratory -for dealing with questions of gas warfare. -And as it had already been realised that the -whole basis of defence against gas was going -to lie in the hands of the troops themselves -by increasing their steadiness, developing -their discipline, and generally accustoming<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span> -them to the idea that gas was now -an ordinary method of warfare, chemists -and instructors were appointed for attachment -to each of the British armies.</p> - -<p>These men were all chosen from the line. -For the most part they were infantry officers -who could realise the real needs and -limitations of the troops, but they were -picked in each instance because they had, at -any rate, some chemical knowledge and could -translate into practice for the benefit of the -troops various chemical measures which had -been adopted for the latter’s safety. Their -first chief job was to see that respirators and -smoke helmets were issued in sufficient number; -to see that they were in good condition; -and then to arrange for the training of -all the troops in the army in their use. This -was a heroic task, to be accomplished in as -short a time as possible, but by dint of speaking -to large bodies of officers and men at the -same time it was so far completed that all -ranks were given practical instruction in the -use of the helmet.</p> - -<p>When it is realised that each of these officers -had to deal with at least one hundred -thousand troops it will be seen that it was no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span> -mean feat that was accomplished. What -was started then has never been completely -accomplished, partly because of the continual -development of gas warfare and partly -because it is a matter of education—which -is always slow—but very largely also because -of the continually changing personnel and -the enormous numbers of men that have had -to be trained.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER III</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<div class="hangingindent"> -<p>Popular terror of gas—Necessity for drilling and early -personal experience—Sure defence from gas possible—The -first gas alarms—The prussic acid scare a -myth—The phosgene scare a reality—The helmet -made to combat it—Necessity for renovating the -helmet.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> final object in the training of men in -defence against gas is that troops shall be -able to protect themselves completely and as -quickly as possible in all the multitudinous -circumstances in which they may encounter -the poisonous gas in the field. To attain this -it is necessary to inspire confidence by letting them -in as far as possible on the principles -underlying the use of gas and the tactics -which are adopted by the enemy; and, secondly, -to bring their practical proficiency -and discipline up to such a standard that -they make the very best use of the apparatus -that is given to them.</p> - -<p>It must be remembered that one of the -greatest difficulties in talking to people -about gas is the mystery of it. Even educated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span> -people hardly understand the word -“gas” in connection with war and are apt -to think of coal gas and dentists’ gas in consequence. -The result is that the gas of the -Germans was sometimes credited with all -sorts of impossible qualities of movement -and deadliness, and it can hardly be realised -what alarm and distrust may exist in the raw -recruit with regard to gas until he has been -given some instruction. This is even as -great a danger as the over-confidence of the -veteran soldier, who may know just as little -about it.</p> - -<p>Mere drilling and assertion are not sufficient -to inspire confidence and acquire proportion, -and it was realised very early that -personal experience was needed. To gain -this arrangements were made for every man -to see and smell gas in concentrations that -would at any rate produce severe discomfort -if dwelt in for any length of time, and -for each soldier subsequently to be exposed -to gas while wearing a gas helmet in such -a concentration that negligence in obeying -orders or in using the smoke helmet correctly -would lead to real danger to life. By -this means confidence could be inspired in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span> -everybody, though there is always a certain -danger due to recklessness among the more -adventurous types.</p> - -<p>Besides this it was necessary to give as -many men as possible some idea of the common -sense of the operations in which the -army was being drilled. This could only be -done by giving a clear idea of how the gas -is used; how gas travels; where it accumulates; -how it can be removed, and so on; and -under what conditions a respirator or smoke -helmet protects or ceases to protect its -wearer. It was on these lines that instruction -was built up; and to do it thoroughly it -was found that a large number of instructors -were required in order to train the officers -and noncommissioned officers and to -get them to treat their respirators with as -great respect as their rifles and to learn to -carry them through a gas-defence drill in -just as smart a manner as the ordinary arms.</p> - -<p>For this purpose special schools of instruction -were started at each army headquarters, -and as many regimental officers -and noncommissioned officers as possible -were given a four or five days’ course of gas -training, so that they in their turn could go<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span> -back to their regiments and spread the gospel, -as the responsibility for getting things -done must eventually fall upon them. Not -only was it found impossible to provide -specialist officers for each regiment or battalion, -but it was recognised that such a -procedure would have a bad effect on the -gas-defence measures.</p> - -<p>Gas defence was a matter which affected -everybody and was in no way to be regarded -as a specialist’s job; battalions were already -full of specialists. Indeed the colonels were -apt to complain that they had nobody but -specialists to command. There were bombers, -snipers, signalers, machine gunners -and sanitary men; and at that time the -trench-mortar personnel was also a part of -the infantry battalion. With all these things -the feeling was that if a job could be looked -on as being a specialty it should be put on -the specialist officer concerned, and nobody -else worried about it much. Now if gas -defence was to become Lieutenant Snook’s -job, it meant that it was going to be nobody -else’s job, and it was essential that the idea -should grow up in the army that gas defence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span> -was a purely military matter and affected -everybody.</p> - -<p>What was said then is just as true to-day—that -the defensive appliance is a certain -protection if it is used properly and in time. -Defence against gas is thus on an entirely -different footing from defence against shells -and bullets, where protection cannot be assured; -and, to quote instructions on the subject: -“For destructive effects gas must depend -on surprise, on poor discipline or on -defective appliances. Consequently gas -casualties are preventable if the soldier is -trained continually to exercise vigilance and -is well drilled in the use and care of his -respirator.”</p> - -<p>The basis of the whole thing, therefore, -was that every officer should see that the -men under his command were properly instructed -in defensive measures against gas -attacks, and that all orders on the subject -were thoroughly understood. It was then -up to the officers to see that their men could -get their helmets on properly in the minimum -time, and this involved considerable -amount of drill practice. It was pointed out -to the officers that since protection had been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span> -provided, those battalions which had been -carefully instructed had come through practically -unharmed, while those battalions in -which instructions had been neglected suffered -severely.</p> - -<p>It was also up to the officers to explain -to their men as much as they themselves had -learned about gas clouds, and to impress on -them, for example, that by moving to the -rear they would move with the gas, and that -if they got flurried they would breathe more -deeply and would run much more risk of being -gassed.</p> - -<p>Besides these questions of instruction -and drilling a lot of other arrangements had -to be made, so that warning of German gas -attacks should be spread in the quickest possible -time. Arrangements were made to install -alarms of various kinds in the trenches. -Of course no reliance could be placed on any -method of communication which involved -the use of the lungs. A man cannot blow a -bugle or a whistle while he has a helmet on, -and if he waited to give a signal by such a -method before protecting himself he would -be almost certain to be gassed. What was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span> -done was to place bells and gongs made from -shell cases up and down the trenches.</p> - -<p>At first these were rather futile things, the -bells generally being much too small—some -of them merely cow bells. The shell cases -were a bit better and are still used for local -alarms; but the arrangements for giving -warning were not really very good at that -time. The best devices were a number of -motor horns, which were obtained locally, -but the supply was insufficient and there was -no general issue. Later on the alarm arrangements -were tremendously improved. -In some cases signal lights were used, but so -many different kinds of rockets were already -employed for signalling to the rear that there -was great difficulty in finding a light sufficiently -distinctive. There was also the -danger that it could be quickly copied by the -boche, who would thus amuse himself by -giving us all kinds of shocks from false -alarms.</p> - -<p>Quite as important as the provision of signals -was the making of observations to see -when the wind was in a dangerous quarter. -This was done partly at the meteorological -stations at headquarters and partly on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span> -front line itself. The latter was regarded -at the time as the most important, and orders -were given that each unit in the front -line should rig up some kind of wind vane -and learn to ascertain the strength of the -wind, so that they should be immediately -prepared for an attack whenever the wind -was in a dangerous quarter.</p> - -<p>Wind vanes in the trenches were of the -simplest types and a great deal of ingenuity -was displayed in fitting up weathercocks -that would be capable of turning in really -low wind—say, one with a speed of only two -miles an hour. The bearings for the central -rod were the greatest difficulty, but it was -found that by boring out a rifle bullet a -sharp pointed stick or a thick piece of wire -could be got to revolve in the hollow bullet -quite easily, what remained of the lead core -acting as a kind of lubrication.</p> - -<p>The greatest nuisance of these wind vanes -at first was that they were made so generally -obtrusive that they could be seen from the -enemy’s lines, and they nearly always drew -fire from snipers, and sometimes actually -from the artillery. Presumably the enemy -thought that where the wind vanes were installed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span> -company headquarters were probably -situated. The position of the wind -vanes consequently had to be chosen so that -the direction and speed of the wind would -be measured several feet above the ground -without the apparatus being too obvious. -One of the simplest types of vane adopted, -and one which could hardly be seen from any -distance, was a bit of a stick to the end of -which was tied ten to twelve inches of thin -thread with a tiny bit of cotton wool at the -end. When the wind is blowing the direction -taken by the thread shows the line of -the wind fairly exactly, and the behaviour -of the cotton wool in rising and falling indicates -the strength of the wind. The latter, -however, was supposed to be measured -by reference to Beaufort’s scale, which depends -on the movement in wind of natural -objects. Beaufort’s scale, which was devised -long ago by an English admiral of that name, -is as follows:</p> - -<p>Smoke moves straight up, speed of wind -is <i>nil</i>; smoke slants, speed is two miles an -hour; the wind is felt on the face, speed is -five miles; paper, etc., move about, speed is -ten miles; bushes are seen to sway, speed is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span> -fifteen miles; tree tops sway and wavelets -are formed on water, speed is twenty miles; -tree tops sway and whistle, speed is thirty -miles.</p> - -<p>All of these arrangements for training and -equipment of the troops were hurried on as -quickly as possible, but at the same time -sight was not lost of the probability of the -German’s using gases different from the -chlorine which had originally formed their -stand-by. It was felt that a good all-round -protection should be capable of keeping out -not only chlorine and similar gases but also -others which were quite likely to come into -use.</p> - -<p>During the whole of this time we were getting -a lot of information from the intelligence -branch as to materials which the Germans -were making for use against us in -their next gas attacks. Some of this information -was really farcical, but on the other -hand some of it was very good and helped -to confirm the conclusions to which our own -scientists were coming as to the likelihood -or unlikelihood of particular gases. In the -former category may be classed one story -which came to us containing a very circumstantial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span> -description of some experiments -which were stated to have been carried out -in Berlin. These trials were stated to have -been made in what we considered a very -proper place, namely, Hagenbeck’s menagerie, -where, in the presence of a large -number of military representatives, a new -gas was tried out.</p> - -<p>A noncommissioned officer appeared with -a tank of the gas on his back, the spraying -nozzle coming out under his arm. A camel -and an elephant were brought out. The noncommissioned -officer advanced toward them, -and at twenty paces’ distance he pressed -down the lever on the tank and out came -some small black bubbles of gas, which -floated down the wind toward the faded animals. -The bubbles burst, giving off a yellow -vapour, and the minute this vapour came in -contact with the camel and the elephant the -beasts dropped down dead!</p> - -<p>This sounded very terrible, but even in the -conditions we were at the time it was not -taken too seriously, and of course nothing -of this kind has ever made its appearance.</p> - -<p>Another story which commenced to make -its appearance at that time and which we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span> -have heard a great deal about ever since was -that the Germans were busy making prussic -acid in enormous quantities for a huge offensive -which was to finish the war. It was -stated that the Kaiser had at last been persuaded -to use this terrible weapon in order -by its use to finish the war at once and prevent -needless suffering.</p> - -<p>When they first made their appearance -stories with regard to prussic acid had to be -taken a great deal more seriously than those -like the “little black bubbles.” For one -thing we were unprotected against prussic -acid, and for another it was known of course -to be an extremely deadly poison. Indeed -before the war it was regarded as the most -poisonous vapour known, so a great deal of -weight was attached to these statements, and -experiments were at once put on foot to find -protection against prussic acid and to see -exactly how poisonous it was compared with -other gases.</p> - -<p>As a matter of fact prussic acid has not -been used by the Germans simply because -it is not poisonous enough. It is not so -poisonous, for example, as phosgene, and -a lot of captured German documents showing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span> -the relative toxicity of different vapours -always put it on a rather low basis. It was -this and not a desire to avoid utter barbarity -which decided the Germans not to use it. -The ordinary German soldiers, just like ourselves, -still consider prussic acid as the most -dangerous possible material, and whenever -they have a story to tell of a new gas being -invented or being got ready to use against -us they will tell you in awestruck tones that -it is prussic acid.</p> - -<p>The most valuable piece of information -which we got was a complete set of notes of -some very secret lectures given to specially -selected senior officers at a conference in -Germany. We gathered that this conference -was held behind closed doors and triple lines -of sentries, and all that kind of thing, and I -cannot of course indicate how the information -came into our hands, but there it was. -It described a lot of new gases which had -been considered, and stated among other -things that they intended to make a big gas -attack against either the French or ourselves -in Flanders in December, 1915, some time -before Christmas when the wind was favourable. -For this purpose they were going<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span> -to use a mixture of chlorine with another -gas, phosgene—the amount of phosgene to -be twenty per cent of the whole.</p> - -<p>Now phosgene had been realised by our -own chemists as a very likely gas to be used. -I cannot say that it is more poisonous than -chlorine, but it is infinitely more deadly because -it is much more difficult to protect -against and is more insidious in its nature. -For one thing, though it is an asphyxiant -like chlorine it is possible for a man to be -only slightly gassed and think he is all right, -and then, especially if he takes any exercise -in between, to fall dead several hours later -from heart failure.</p> - -<p>The information was so complete that our -arrangements to provide a helmet which -would protect against phosgene were hastened -as much as possible; and it was as well -that they were, for the attack actually did -come off just about the time and place mentioned, -in the Ypres salient.</p> - -<p>It was realised of course that any change -in protection would have to include both -prussic acid and phosgene; and this is not -nearly so easy as it sounds. Phosgene is peculiarly -chemically inert for such an active<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span> -poison, and it was some time before a reasonable -protection was found which could be -incorporated in a smoke helmet. The substance -actually decided upon was a solution -of sodium phenate—that is, carbolic acid dissolved -in caustic soda, the mixture containing -an excess of caustic. This solution is -quite capable of dealing with reasonable -concentrations of phosgene and would successfully -protect against three parts of -phosgene to ten thousand of the air, which -in the circumstances was quite good enough. -The French also altered their protection at -the same time and used sodium sulphanilate -as the basis of protection against phosgene. -The objections against the sodium phenate -were that it could not be absorbed into a flannel -helmet owing to its destruction of the -fabric, and on account of its being strongly -caustic it would tend to burn the faces of the -men it came in contact with. These difficulties -were overcome by making the helmet of -two layers of flannelette instead of one layer -of flannel, and by mixing with the sodium -phenate a large quantity of glycerin. This -kept the fabric moist and prevented the caustic -from exerting its corrosive action.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>It was realised from the start that a smoke -helmet containing free alkali would deteriorate -considerably on exposure to air, -and it was found advantageous to provide a -breathing tube in the mask so that a man -would breathe in through the helmet and out -through an outlet valve; in this way the -breath, which contains a lot of carbonic acid, -would have no bad effect on the chemicals. -The use of an outlet valve was also found to -have the advantage of keeping the air purer -inside the helmet and preventing the stuffy -feeling which accompanied the older types -of helmet.</p> - -<p>This additional complication to the helmet -was not looked upon favourably at first by -the troops, but it was very quickly realised -that only a little practice was required to -make a man breathe quite normally in the -way mentioned above, and that the advantages -accruing from the alteration were -very great indeed. We found that we could -carry on for much longer stretches of time -without being fagged out, and more exact -trials by the scientists showed that a man’s -temperature, pulse and rate of breathing did -not increase nearly so rapidly if he used an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span> -outlet valve as when breathing out and in -through the same material. This is largely -due to what is called “dead space,” which -means the volume of air in between the lungs -and the atmosphere and in which the air is -largely composed of breath exhaled from -the lungs. The smaller this space the easier -it is to breathe.</p> - -<p>This principle of using an outlet valve -has been retained in all the British respirators -which have been invented since and is -regarded as one of the very highest importance.</p> - -<p>Another thing which had to be taken care -of was that the new helmets, which were -called “tube” or “P” helmets, would gradually -deteriorate on exposure to air, and -would consequently have to be withdrawn -from the troops in the line from time to time -in order to redip them in chemicals and make -them as effective as before. For this purpose -large repair factories were started at -the bases and were placed in charge of Englishwomen -who were brought over for the -purpose. These factories were organised -with local labour, helped out by a little military -personnel, and were capable of washing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span> -the helmets returned from the line, redipping -them in new solution, and sending -them back in good condition again.</p> - -<p>This was no small job, as the smoke helmets -which were sent in were generally -filthy dirty, sometimes soaked in mud and -sodden with water, and requiring very careful -handling to be brought back into good -condition. All sorts of things got back with -these helmets to the repair stations, and it -was not an uncommon thing for the satchels -containing the helmets to be found to hold -anything from a live hand grenade to the -photograph of some girl, which had been -stored there for safe keeping. Both then -and later we always had considerable difficulty -in preventing Tommy from using his -helmet satchel, and later on his box respirator -satchel, for these illicit purposes. He -seemed to consider that if he had to carry -another haversack he had a perfect right -to put in it whatever he liked—rations, -knives and forks, ammunition, private -knickknacks of all kinds. This of course -had to be stopped, owing to the damage these -things might do to the respirator and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span> -difficulty they might make in getting it out -quickly.</p> - -<p>During September and October, 1915, -there were several scares as to the imminence -of gas attacks by the Germans, and -on one or two occasions it was definitely -stated that the cylinders were actually in -position in their trenches. This helped to -hasten things up, and the factories in England -and the repair stations in France kept -themselves busy in producing the new type -of helmet. A large number of them were -actually issued to the troops by the time -the Battle of Loos was started, and were -consequently employed by our men when the -first gas attacks were made, in September -of that year.</p> - -<p>It was these helmets which appeared in -so many of the picture papers showing the -charge of some British Territorial infantry -through the gas cloud at the beginning of -the battle, and there is no question about -it that the men had a very fearsome appearance. -With the hood over the head and the -two big goggle eyes, and the outlet valve -sticking out where the nose should be, it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span> -small wonder that the Germans described -them as “devils,” and were so terrified as -not to be able to put up much fight on the -front where the particular charge was made.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IV</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<div class="hangingindent"> -<p>The attack of December, 1915—The Allies’ good training -tells—The casualties analysed—The new element -of surprise—Evidences of the use of phosgene—The -incident of the bulb—Improved alarms—The -Strombos sirens—Accidents to the horns—The Tear -Gas Shell—Its chemical analysis—Combated by anti-gas -goggles—Tommies scoff at Tear Gas—The Germans -make it formidable.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> expected German gas attack was actually -made on December 19, 1915, at about -5:15 <span class="allsmcap">A. M.</span>, just before “Stand to” in the -morning, the venue being the north of the -Ypres salient, from the canal bank at Boesinghe -down to Wieltje, a distance of three -miles. It was preceded by the appearance -of parachute lights of an unusual kind and -by a number of red rocket flares. Almost -immediately afterward gas was smelt in the -front trenches. In some cases a hissing -sound made by the gas’s leaving the cylinders -was heard and was taken as a warning -by the soldiers in the trenches. In other -cases the noise seems to have been deadened -by rifle fire. Taking it altogether, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span> -there was very little warning, as the wind -was favourable and the gas traveled surprisingly -quickly.</p> - -<p>There was absolutely no confusion, and -the men put on their helmets at once and -lined the parapets within a minute. Where -the trenches were close together the men had -some difficulty in getting on their helmets -in time. This was particularly the case in -listening posts where we had patrols out -quite close to the German wire. In the support -and reserve trenches the arrangements -for spreading the warning were not so good -as those in the front line, and a number of -men were caught by the gas before they had -their helmets on. Indeed in a number of -cases, especially in batteries, the gas was -smelt before the receipt of the warning.</p> - -<p>The actual gas wave lasted only about -half or three-quarters of an hour, but in -some places the helmets had to be kept on for -four hours, as the gas hung about in hollows -and dugouts for a long time. This was particularly -noticeable in the neighbourhood of -the canal. The cloud was felt as far back -as Vlamertinghe, eighty-five hundred yards -behind the line, and was still visible at this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span> -point. For at least three miles back behind -the front-line helmets had to be put on everywhere, -and for six miles behind the line the -smoke helmets were generally worn, some -men who did not put them on at this distance -being gassed.</p> - -<p>The actual gas wave was accompanied by -a heavy bombardment of the front line and -of Ypres and the villages behind it, shrapnel -and high-explosive shell and also tear -shell being used, the latter shell being fired -particularly against our artillery. This -bombardment lasted throughout the day and -most of the following night. Though our -wire had been cut in many places by the artillery -fire, the Germans made no serious infantry -attack, and small patrols which left -their trenches in a few places were immediately -shot down, as our fellows were continually -on the alert and had not suffered to -any considerable degree.</p> - -<p>Altogether a large number of troops were -exposed to the gas, but, compared with its -extent, the cloud caused only a small number -of casualties. This was very satisfactory -after our experiences of the spring. -Men who were gassed but not killed were all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span> -subsequently questioned as to the reason for -their being gassed, and in each case a definite -reason was forthcoming. In no single -instance was the fault laid at the door of the -smoke helmet, which apparently had been -quite capable of standing up to the highest -concentrations in any part of the cloud.</p> - -<p>Among the reasons given for the casualties -were things like the following: Some -men in the fire trenches did not get on their -helmets quickly enough owing to the short -distance between the trenches, lack of warning -in the support line and insufficient practice. -Some officers and men sleeping in dugouts -did not have their helmets attached to -them or they were caught away from their -dugouts without helmets. Helmets in many -cases were under the overcoats, which made -it very difficult to get them and put them on -quickly, as it was necessary to undo the overcoat, -the top button of the jacket and the -cardigan waistcoat before the helmet could -be tucked in. One cause of casualties was -that the “P” helmet smelt very strongly of -carbolic, and a lot of men who had not had -this explained to them thought that the peculiar -smell was that of gas coming in and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span> -they took their helmets off with a view to -replacing them with other helmets. This of -course was fatal. One sergeant was gassed -through his helmet’s being holed by a bullet, -though he himself was not wounded. In -some cases wounded men tried to remove -their helmets and were gassed in this way, -and it was found necessary to watch men -who were hit to prevent this.</p> - -<p>In many ways this attack of the Germans -was of the greatest importance, as it displayed -all of the features on which the subsequent -development of the gas cloud was -based. These features were: Increased -concentration; the use of new material; surprise. -These three things are really the -basis of all gas warfare, even at the present -day, whether the attacks are made in the -form of clouds or by the use of gas shells or -other projectiles.</p> - -<p>The increased concentration was obtained -chiefly by the reduction in the time occupied -by the attack. The first attack of all lasted -about one hour and a half. The next attack -lasted about three hours. The one in question -lasted only thirty minutes, so that if the -same amount of gas was used the concentration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span> -of the cloud must obviously have been -increased six times over that of May twenty-fourth, -as there is little doubt that the cylinders -had been installed in approximately -the same numbers—that is, one to a meter of -front.</p> - -<p>Probably the most important feature of -the attack was the introduction of phosgene. -Now there never was any actual chemical -evidence of the poisons of phosgene in the -German gas clouds until some of their -cylinders were captured by us when they retreated -on the Somme in the beginning of -1917. But unfortunately the peculiar effects -of phosgene on our men who were -gassed were only too apparent. There were -a large number of “delayed” cases—men -who thought they were only slightly gassed -but who became ill or even died several hours -or sometimes a day or so later from heart -failure, especially if they had taken any -heavy exercise in between.</p> - -<p>In these cases there was hardly any coughing. -What was really wanted was rest, but -this was not realised at the time, and many -men walked to the dressing stations—sometimes -a mile or more—through deep mud<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span> -and became quite exhausted. One officer of -the Durhams had been slightly gassed at the -beginning of the attack but felt perfectly all -right until about noon, when he became -faint and exhausted, though not apparently -seriously ill. After lying down he felt better, -but in the evening got worse again, and -in walking to the ambulance to go to the -field dressing station he suddenly collapsed -and died. This was fourteen hours after the -attack.</p> - -<p>Another weighty piece of evidence as to -the nature of the gas was given by the smell, -which to trained observers was quite different -from the typical chloride-of-lime smell -of chlorine; and by the peculiar effects on -the taste of tobacco to men who had smelt -the gas. If you take a good smell of dilute -phosgene and then smoke a cigarette the tobacco -tastes like nothing on earth. Tommy’s -nearest description of the taste and smell is -“mouldy hay.” This peculiar effect is quite -typical of phosgene and is known as the “tobacco -reaction.”</p> - -<p>In the hope of getting samples of the German -gas clouds for analysis a large number -of gas vacuum bulbs were distributed up and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span> -down the line, and selected men were taught -how to use them. This was supposed to be -done by nipping off the drawn-out end of -the gas bulb, whereby the contaminated air -would rush in. The end was then to be closed -with a hollow stopper containing wax.</p> - -<p>To get these samples was asking a great -deal. Even when packed in special boxes -glass bulbs are somewhat fragile things for -trench life, and the wooden boxes made excellent -kindling wood, which was always being -sought for. The result is that when the -cloud does come along the vacuum bulbs are -often conspicuous only by their absence. -Even if they are kept whole it is asking rather -a lot of a man to take an accurate scientific -sample during the excitement of a gas -attack which is accompanied by a bombardment -by explosive shells and gas shells.</p> - -<p>For a long time none of the bulbs found -their way back to the field laboratory. Eventually -one did come, carefully packed in -shavings and wadding. I happened to be -present when it was brought in, and there -was a good deal of excitement at the little -prodigal’s return. The bulb was taken out, -but under it was found a leaf from a field-service<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span> -note book, on which was written: -“Danger. This bulb was found in a hedge. -It seems to have been dropped from an aeroplane -and probably contains cholera germs. -Fortunately it has not been broken.”</p> - -<p>The “surprise effect,” which was mentioned -above as being the third fresh feature -of this new-era gas-cloud attack, took the -form of making the attack in the dark and -at a time when men were least prepared—that -is, just before the morning “Stand to,” -the hour before dawn, when all troops in -the trenches stand to arms. By making the -attack at night, or at any rate in the dark, -the boche achieved two objects: First of all, -there were better wind conditions for an -attack, because the night winds tend to -flow down toward the earth and keep the -gas cloud low-lying and thick, whereas in -the day the sun warms the ground and produces -so many upward currents of air that -the cloud gets lifted up and dissipated; in -the second place it was impossible to see the -cloud when it was first liberated, and this -reduced the means of detecting the attack -to only two—the hissing noise of the gas<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span> -escaping from the cylinders and the smell -of the advanced parts of the cloud.</p> - -<p>Later on it was known that the best hours -for all gas attacks, both cloud and shell bombardment, -are in the night; and as a matter -of fact practically all gas warfare is now -carried out at night, but at that time the -significance of this was not grasped, and -many of our casualties were due to lack of -preparedness, numbers of men being caught -“on the hop” and overwhelmed.</p> - -<p>Some most important steps in improving -our protecting measures were taken as a -result of the lessons learned from the attack; -in fact, it may be taken that all measures -in defence against gas have been learned -from bitter experience, and to this extent -the sufferings of the victims may be taken -as having at any rate some compensating -value. In such a new and strange and continually -developing kind of warfare very little -can be done by <i>a priori</i> argument. This -fact we have always tried to impress on the -men—that the gas warfare orders, sometimes -apparently trivial and frequently -wearisome and annoying, have all been made<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span> -as the result of lessons learned from actual -attacks.</p> - -<p>Among the chief things that were done -after the December nineteenth attack was -the improvement of our system of alarms.</p> - -<p>The bells and horns in the front line had -been found quite insufficient, especially for -warning people in the rear; and the telephone -could not be depended on for this -purpose owing to the possibilities of the -wires being cut by shell fire. To protect -them from being cut, all wires would have -to be buried at least six feet deep in the -ground, and this is practically impossible -owing to the work involved.</p> - -<p>It would consequently be fatal to depend -on telephonic communication, especially as -a gas attack is nearly always accompanied -by a pretty heavy bombardment of rear -lines. In one case I knew, during just such -a bombardment, the staff captain at a brigade -headquarters was talking to one of the -battalions when the whole telephone instrument -seemed to burst into a sheet of flame -in his hands, owing to a cut wire. The -battalion concerned was isolated for more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span> -than an hour as a result, and anything -might have happened in the meantime.</p> - -<p>For these reasons it was decided to adopt -for gas alarms sirens worked by compressed -air, which would make a noise sufficiently -loud and distinctive to be heard long distances -away. The type of siren which was -used has been kept in use ever since in continually -increasing numbers and has proved -extraordinarily useful. It is known as the -Strombos horn, and consists of the horn -proper and two iron cylinders of compressed -air charged to a pressure of one hundred -and fifty atmospheres. Only one cylinder -at a time is connected to the horn, the other -being kept as a reserve.</p> - -<p>The Strombos horns are mounted in the -trenches in such a way as to protect them -from shell splinters as far as possible. This -is generally done by packing them round -carefully with sandbags, only the mouth of -the horn being displayed and pointing -toward the rear. Every sentry must know -how and when to sound the horn. All he -has to do when he realises that a gas attack -is being made, or on receiving instructions -from an officer to do so, is to loosen the tap<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span> -on the cylinder one complete turn, when -the horn will sound continuously for more -than a minute. The noise is terrific and in -an enclosed space or in a quiet region it -is absolutely deafening. In the trenches, -however, it is none too loud, and the -distances between the horns in the front -system of trenches are never more than -four or five hundred yards. Farther back -in the chain, toward the rear, the distances -can be increased. Horns are now installed -at battalion, brigade and divisional headquarters. -By turning them on when the -noise of those in front is heard it is possible -to pass the alarm in an incredibly short -space of time and thus forestall the cloud -of gas to such an extent that every man in -the support trenches or in rest billets or the -villages behind the firing line is aware that -an attack is in progress and gets ready to -protect himself.</p> - -<p>Naturally, things don’t always work out -exactly according to schedule. The horns -are frequently damaged. In one place I -was at, just this side of the canal, near -Boesinghe, a heavy German trench mortar -wrecked three of our Strombos horns<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span> -within a week, and another and less suitable -position had to be found for the alarm. -Then there are occasional false alarms. -These sometimes arise from individual men -“getting the wind up” from a bombardment -by gas shell and thinking that a cloud -attack is being made. Others I am afraid -have been more in the nature of experiments -“to see how it works.” After all, it -must be a great temptation to a sentry to -be in charge of a Strombos horn and never -have the pleasure of turning it on.</p> - -<p>False alarms are a great nuisance, however, -and good arrangements have now been -made to prevent their spreading. It is -possible to avoid all the unnecessary disturbance -to which troops are subjected by a -false gas alarm. This disturbance is particularly -objectionable in back areas where -regiments returned from the trenches are -in billets. When the alarm goes everybody -has to turn out—probably in the middle of -the night. Sentries wake the officers and -men in all the billets; messengers have -to be sent post-haste to outlying villages -or farms with which there is no telephonic -communications; respirators are hurriedly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span> -inspected and placed in the alert position; -the gas-proof curtains of cellars and dugouts -are adjusted; the officers move about -in the darkness to see that all their men are -accounted for and ready; every one is in a -state of expectancy—and then the word -comes through that it is a false alarm, and -the men go back, cursing, to their billets. -Not only is an occurrence of this kind -wearying to tired troops, but it has the old -disadvantage of crying “Wolf, wolf!” when -there is no wolf—the consequent determination -on the part of the men not to take the -next alarm so seriously.</p> - -<p>Though it was not realised at the time, -it is almost certain that the Germans started -to use gas in shell almost simultaneously, -and probably actually in the first attack, -with the use of the poisonous gas clouds in -the attacks of April and May, 1915. Many -instances came to notice of men’s eyes being -strongly affected to such an extent that -they could not keep them open. There -seemed to be something in the air which -made an unprotected man weep copiously -if he tried to keep his eyes open, and of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span> -course if he closed them he could not see -what he was doing.</p> - -<p>These effects, and a peculiar smell which -was noticed both during and after the -gas-cloud attacks, gave rise to the belief -that something like formaldehyde was being -used by the Germans mixed with some -chlorine gas. Others described the smell as -being that of chloroform or ether, but nobody -could say definitely what the material -actually was. It was only after a number -of blind shell had been obtained and -examined that it was realised that the -Germans were firing shell filled with liquid -which had a powerful lachrymatory effect.</p> - -<p>It does not appear certain whether the -use of lachrymatory liquids for putting men -out of action by making their eyes water is -in itself contrary to The Hague Convention, -as the vapours need not actually be poisonous. -This was the case with the first -German gas shell, as it was found that the -liquid contained consisted only of a material -known chemically as “xylyl bromide.” The -vapour of this liquid and of many similar -substances has a most powerful effect on -the eyes, like that of onions but much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span> -stronger. Except in very high concentrations -it cannot be regarded as poisonous—at -any rate not in the sense that chlorine is -poisonous.</p> - -<p>Examination of the German lachrymatory -shells showed that the liquid was contained -inside the shell in a sealed lead vessel -so that the material should not come in -contact with the steel of the shell, which -it destroys gradually. Shell of this kind, -though termed gas shell, are not really -such, as the liquid has to be broken up into -fine droplets by the explosive charge of the -shell before the vapour can produce its -effect. The liquid has no pressure of its -own inside the shell and depends entirely -on the bursting charge to get it distributed -into the atmosphere.</p> - -<p>The xylyl bromide used by the Germans -was not pure, but contained a big proportion -of benzyl bromide, showing that it had -been made by the action of bromide on -coal-tar light oil from which most of the -toluene had been removed for the manufacture -of the well-known high explosive, -trinitrotoluene.</p> - -<p>The effect of xylyl bromide on an unprotected<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span> -man is instantaneous and remarkable. -Even such small proportions as one -volume of vapour diluted with one million -volumes of air will at once make a man weep -so copiously that he cannot possible keep -his eyes open.</p> - -<p>Obviously a material of this kind has -great military value, for though it does not -put men out of action permanently by killing -them it neutralises their effectiveness to -such an extent that for the time being they -may be regarded as of no military importance. -In strong concentrations the effect -on the eyes is most powerful. I have walked -into an area which was being bombarded -with lachrymatory shells and suddenly got -the effect just as if I had been hit in the -face. Fortunately the lachrymation has no -lasting effect on the eyes, and a man on -getting into pure air very quickly recovers.</p> - -<p>Throughout the spring and summer of -1915 these lachrymatory shells were used in -considerable numbers, especially in the -vicinity of Ypres, and at times the ramparts -of that much bombarded town reeked of -lachrymatory vapour and nobody could stay -in certain spots for any length of time without<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span> -having his eyes protected by specially -constructed goggles or by wearing a gas helmet -right over his head.</p> - -<p>Taking it altogether we were not troubled -nearly so much by this new type of gas as -were the French, in the southern part of the -line. In much the same way that the gas -cloud was developed by the Germans -against the English the gas shell were developed -chiefly against the French, and -very much larger numbers were employed -against the French positions than we had -to contend with during the first six months -or so. Later on things were more equallised -in this direction. Captured German -documents and statements by prisoners -showed us that the Germans were counting -very considerably on the effect produced by -the lachrymatory shell, and detailed instructions -for their use in various circumstances -were carefully laid down. The lachrymatory -shell was known by the Germans as -“T-Shell,” and the xylyl bromide as -“T-Stoff,” and instructions were laid down -for the use of this material. Another kind -of shell was known as “K-Shell,” which up<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span> -to that time had not been used against us, -or at any rate had not been recognised.</p> - -<p>The T-Shell was particularly to be used -against positions which it was not intended -to occupy immediately, the reason for this -being that T-Stoff hangs about for a long -time. Some of the liquid is apt to be -spread about the ground and gives off -enough vapour to make the neighbourhood -of the shell hole uninhabitable for many -hours, and in favourable condition—for the -enemy—for several days. The K-Shell, on -the other hand, was intended to be used -against infantry positions and strong-points -which it was hoped to assault and capture -within an hour or two of the bombardment -or on areas which it was hoped to traverse -during a big attack.</p> - -<p>The advent of the lachrymatory T-Shell -incommoded us considerably, but, as it was -quickly realised that the gas was not -poisonous, the Tommies were not much -taken back, and the “tear shell,” as they -were quickly called, were not considered by -the rank and file to have importance, which -as a matter of fact they have; but at the -same time we heard rather alarming stories<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span> -of the effects of gas shell as used against -the French.</p> - -<p>It was rumoured, for example, that in -the Crown Prince’s big advance in the -Argonne, in the late spring of 1915, that -such enormous numbers of gas shell had -been used against the French positions that -the infantry occupying them were not only -put out of action by the effect on their eyes -but that the amount of gas used was so -large that the French soldiers were actually -anæsthetised and were taken prisoners by -the Germans while in an unconscious condition.</p> - -<p>Whether this was true or whether it was -exaggerated is not certain, though it is -certainly true that the Crown Prince’s advance -was prefaced by a hurricane bombardment -of gas shell, the tactical effect -of which was considerable.</p> - -<p>Stories of this kind, however, combined -with the effects which we ourselves were -experiencing, made us realise that protection -against tear gas was essential, and for -this purpose arrangements were made to -supply every officer and man in the front -line with a pair of anti-gas goggles. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span> -earliest types of these goggles were very -simple in construction, and we are told -were copied from a French pattern. They -consisted of a waterproof fabric lined with -flannel containing a wire spring for the -nose and fitted with celluloid eyepieces. -By bending the wire to the shape of the -nose it was possible to close the nostrils and -at the same time give a reasonably good fit -to the flannel on the face.</p> - -<p>In some cases the flannel was anointed -with some kind of grease so as to make a -still closer fit, in order to keep out small -traces of gas which are quite sufficient to -produce lachrymation. Later on we had a -much better type of goggle backed with -rubber sponge to make a tight fit to the -face.</p> - -<p>With the small numbers of gas shell -used against us we had no experience of any -effect on the lungs, and it was found also -that the helmet form of respirator was -enough to keep out, at any rate, low concentrations -of the lachrymator; but we got a -rude awakening when the boche began to -use his tear shells in larger numbers. Such -a case happened to us in the beginning of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span> -1916, at the celebrated village of Vermelles, -a little ruined town just behind the lines -near Loos. The enemy tried out an attack -on us over about a mile front for the purpose -of bagging some of our trenches, and -he attempted to keep reinforcements from -coming up to counter attack him by putting -down a tear-shell barrage through -Vermelles and north and south of it over -the roads on which our fellows would have -to advance. He used thousands of his tear -shells and the neighbourhood absolutely -stank of them. Fortunately, it was almost -impossible to put down an effective standing -barrage with gas, and our reserves got -through on two roads that had not been -blocked effectively. The boche attack was -a fizzle, but Vermelles was a little private -hell of its own for that day and most of the -next forty-eight hours as well.</p> - -<p>During and immediately after the bombardment, -troops passing through the village -wore both goggles and gas helmets, but -the concentration of lachrymator was so -great that many of our fellows were sick and -actually vomited inside their helmets. If -you can imagine men going up to a battle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span> -with these flannelette bags over their heads -and then being sick inside them, you can -realise that the boche was not particularly -popular with us at the time.</p> - -<p>Besides this, Vermelles was much used by -troops in reserve and was full of cellars and -dugouts occupied by the waiting infantry -and also by signallers, headquarters of various -kinds, and so on. The vapours—and -some of the shells themselves, for that -matter—got down into these cellars and -made them almost uninhabitable for days, -except in those cases where they had been -properly protected by double lines of blankets -hung at the entrances.</p> - -<p>About the same time in 1916 the enemy -began making surprise bombardments with -a new lachrymator and with the K-Shell -mentioned previously, for the purpose of -assisting in raids. Both of these gases rejoice -in long names, the lachrymator being -bromethylmethylketone, and the K-Shell -gas monochlormethylchloroformate. These -gases are much more poisonous and do not -hang about as long as the old “T” tear -gas.</p> - -<p>One such raid in which they were used<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span> -was carried out at a place called La Boiselle—afterward -famous as a jumping-off point -in the Somme Battle.</p> - -<p>I was not in at the raid, but heard details -of it afterward. The boche rained his -gas shells into the selected area and at the -same time prevented reinforcements from -getting up by putting down a so-called box -barrage with explosive shells round the -trenches to be attacked.</p> - -<p>Our men were taken completely by surprise. -Many of them were badly gassed, all -were temporarily blinded; and then after a -short interval the boche came in. He timed -his arrival so that most of the gas had disappeared. -Then there was some very fierce -fighting—so fierce that a number of our men -died afterward because of the exertion following -on the breathing of the K-gas.</p> - -<p>But gassed and blinded men, however -brave, cannot fight successfully against -others fresh and unaffected, and the enemy -captured a number of prisoners and two -Lewis guns.</p> - -<p>Curiously enough, during the Somme -Battle a few months later we did in properly -the regiment which had carried out the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span> -raid and captured the official report of the -commander of the raiding party. In this -report he said: “... the men of the Royal -Irish Rifles created a fine impression both -as regards their physique and their mode of -repelling an assault. Had it not been for -the use of the gas shells it would have been -impossible to clear the section of trench attacked.”</p> - -<p>Rather a fine tribute—and one thoroughly -deserved!</p> - -<p>Of course surprises of this kind cannot -be pulled off twice, but occurrences like -this and the bombardment at Vermelles let -us see that the enemy intended to develop -his gas-shell industry much more than we -had anticipated, and our protective measures -were taken in hand so as to meet -future eventualities. In fact it was about -this time that the box respirator was being -hurriedly developed so as to protect us -against any further devilment that Fritz -might send along.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER V</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<div class="hangingindent"> -<p>Summer of 1916 the highwater mark of the German gas -cloud—Their improved methods—The need of speed -and secrecy—Gas as a rat exterminator—Causes of -Allied casualties—Germans killed with their own gas—Gas -masks for horses and mules—Reduced Allied -casualties—Humorous incidents.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> great time for the German gas troops -was undoubtedly 1916, and from April to -August of that year they carried out five big -cloud gas attacks on the British alone, not -counting several on the French Front and -a number against the Russians.</p> - -<p>During the interval from the December -attack of the previous year they had obviously -been thinking hard and preparing lots -of gas, for the new attacks showed several -fresh features both as regards extent and -tactics. Along the lines of making the gas -more poisonous, using greater quantities -and higher concentration and the springing -of surprises, everything was done to make -the gas cloud an even more deadly affair -than it had been in previous shows. That<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span> -our own casualties were much less than before, -and that the boche in at least one case -had a lot more killed by his own gas than we -had, were very satisfactory results of all the -labour and research as far as we were concerned.</p> - -<p>For the same reason that the December -attack had been reduced in duration to half -an hour, the new clouds lasted only ten to -fifteen minutes; thus once more multiplying -the concentration by two or three. On top -of this the amount of phosgene was increased -up to at least twenty-five per cent -and probably to about fifty per cent, so that -in this way also the cloud became much more -deadly than before. It is interesting to note -that pure phosgene cannot be used, otherwise -the Germans would undoubtedly have -employed it. Straight phosgene does not -come out of the cylinders satisfactorily—it -must have a big proportion of something like -chlorine mixed with it to force it out and get -it into the air as quickly as may be.</p> - -<p>All of this made the gas cloud a nasty -thing to face. As it became progressively -more deadly it required less and less to kill. -A couple of breaths of the poisoned air became<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span> -enough to kill a man; but as our protection -was good enough, it meant that the -most important thing for the enemy to do -was to take us unawares by getting his gas -over so quickly or deceiving us in some other -way that we should be down and out almost -before we knew it. This is where his surprise -tactics came in.</p> - -<p>These tactics consisted in attempting a -great secrecy in the preparations, in the use -of smoke clouds to put us off the real track -of the gas, and the putting over of a number -of different waves of gas at varying intervals. -The value of the last two will be -more apparent from the accounts of the individual -attacks, but the importance of the -first-mentioned method must be emphasised -a bit.</p> - -<p>It must be remembered that the carrying -in of the gas cylinders is the work of the -infantry and, as we discovered ourselves -when we started retaliation, is a very unpopular -job owing to the difficulties of the -carry. Any carelessness in allowing the -cylinders to clank by bumping against each, -other or against any other metal objects in -the trenches, or metallic sounds made by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span> -rather bored pioneers in unscrewing the -domes or attacking the pipes, are going to -give away the fact to the opposing side that -something unusual is going on. And something -unusual going on or suspected generally -spells g-a-s in the trenches.</p> - -<p>In some cases, too, the opposing trenches -can be seen from observation posts—O. P.’s -or O. Pips, as they are called in British -Army parlance—and in such cases if the -carrying is started or the installation of the -cylinders is continued during the day there -is a good chance of the whole show being -blown on by some watchful observer with a -telescope to his eye a mile or so away. All -this the boche realised and made his arrangements -accordingly. But in at least one -case, in April, in his anxiety to get the cloud -over without diminution of strength and so -that we should have little time for protecting -ourselves and spreading the alarm, he -chose as his venue for the attack a big portion -of the line where the trenches were very -close together—seldom, in fact, more than -fifty yards apart. Of course it is just in -such circumstances that secrecy of preparation -is of the greatest importance—but at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span> -the same time it is of the greatest difficulty -to maintain. As a matter of fact the Germans -overreached themselves by this choice -of position, and little indications spotted by -our watchful sentries and patrols made us -pretty certain that a gas attack was impending, -and our watchfulness and preparedness -were correspondingly increased and a constant -state of “Gas Alert” kept up.</p> - -<p>The first two attacks of the year were -made against the 16th—the Irish Division. -This was the division in which Willie Redmond -was a captain, and it was composed -of some of the best fighting material -in the world—all Nationalist Irishmen -and anxious to get one over at Fritz. -Whether the Irishmen were chosen as a target -with the foolish idea of “putting the -wind up,” or whether it was out of revenge -for their appearance in the British ranks -after all the labour that had been expended -in trying to spread sedition in Ireland, we -do not know. Whatever the idea was it terminated -in most abject failure, for the Irishmen -came through both attacks wonderfully -well and absolutely smashed up the German -infantry advances which were attempted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span> -after the passage of the cloud. Both attacks -were made on that part of the line near -Hulluch running for about two miles south -from Cité St. Elie.</p> - -<p>The Germans opened the ball by letting -our support and reserve lines have a heavy -bombardment of tear shells. Almost immediately -after, in the dim light of the early -dawn, the first gas cloud floated over. It -was very thick and had been largely mixed -with smoke in the hope of leading our fellows -to believe that it was terribly strong. -It was not. But the cloud was so dense that -even at brigade headquarters, three miles -behind the front line, it was impossible to -see across the road. There was enough gas -in this mixed cloud to make it very dangerous -and uncomfortable to unprotected men, -but there were very few casualties. The -alarm was quickly spread, the men remained -cool, and an attempted attack by the enemy -infantry to follow up the cloud was smashed -up without being able to get closer than our -barbed wire.</p> - -<p>After this first wave there was a tendency -among the men to regard the danger as over -and to congratulate themselves on the apparent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span> -and obvious boche failure. As they -were prepared to go through with anything -the boche could put over, there was a natural -tendency to underrate the effects of gas, -seeing it had caused them no losses. It is -undoubtedly true that a number of helmets -were discarded entirely—some of the soldiers -thought they were useless after being -through an attack, and threw them away, -depending entirely on their reserve helmets. -These they omitted to place in the “Alert” -position, pinned up on their chests ready -for immediate use. In one or two cases -which came to my notice officers and men -went off to the latrines or to headquarters -without helmets at all. This of course, was -not general, but it shows how some of our -men fell for the boche ruse, which consisted -of putting over a second wave two hours -later on exactly the same Front.</p> - -<p>The second cloud was a frightfully strong -one, composed entirely of gas in the highest -possible concentration. It was this wave -which caused all our losses on April twenty-seventh, -as it took a number of men completely -by surprise. But even so, the Irishmen -were not a bit dismayed, and when the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span> -Germans again attempted to advance—parties -of their bombers in some cases appearing -immediately behind the gas cloud—they -were met by such a stout resistance that -those who were not shot down retired in disorder -to their own trenches.</p> - -<p>The intensity of the second wave can be -gathered from the fact that buttons and ammunition -were quickly corroded and turned -a villainous green colour. In a few cases -rifles stuck and Lewis guns jammed, owing -to the effects of the gas on the ammunition -and the breach mechanism. One good thing -about the attack was that most of the rats -in the trenches were killed. In some parts -of the line the trench rats are an absolute -plague. They eat any food or candles left -lying about or kept in cardboard boxes. -They swarm in the dugouts and appear in -all sorts of odd corners. They disturb the -little rest one does get; and I have had them -run all over me, even over my face, while -lying in my dugout. All attempts to clear -them out were useless. But what ferrets -and terriers and virus could not accomplish -the boche gas did. Mister Rat cannot stand -up to a strong mixture of chlorine and phosgene<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span> -without a gas mask, and so in this attack, -as in others we experienced, he died by -hundreds; and nobody mourned him.</p> - -<p>Curiously enough two kittens, which inhabited -the dugout of the commanding officer -of one of the battalions of the Scottish -Borderers, who were in reserve, came -through alive. The kittens were badly -gassed and lay breathing rapidly, suffering -from spasms and with profuse salivation. -Possibly their fur helped to absorb some of -the gas, for five hours later the little victims -were almost themselves again, though they -continued to cough occasionally and drank -water continually. The water they took in -preference to milk.</p> - -<p>The effects of the poison on the soldiers -who were gassed were pretty much the same -as has been so frequently described in the -press before. In the lighter cases it was -mostly severe and painful coughing and -bronchitis, with occasional retching and -vomiting. The severe cases had the frothing -at the mouth, the painful fight for -breath and the blue face with staring eyes -which are typical of severe gassing with -chlorine and phosgene. I was told that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span> -there were not many delayed cases—that is, -men being taken seriously ill hours after -the attack, though apparently unscathed -before.</p> - -<p>The casualties were really remarkably -small in the circumstances, and even despite -the surprise tactics, were not as numerous -as those of the December attack. Apart -from the men who were caught without their -respirators, most of the casualties were the -result of some special circumstances. The -helmets themselves when properly inspected -and adjusted gave good protection. In connection -with the laying aside of the respirators -after the first cloud a sergeant told me -that when the second wave came over he had -seen two soldiers trying to get into the same -helmet. The humorous side of this had apparently -appealed to him even in the middle -of the attack.</p> - -<p>Of course with the trenches so close together -a lot of men had difficulty in getting -protection in time. Parties of men in advanced -saps and listening posts had the -greatest difficulty, and numbers of these men -were killed. One pioneer of a tunnelling -company came out of a mine gallery knowing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span> -nothing about what had been happening -aboveground, and walked straight into the -middle of the gas cloud.</p> - -<p>A man in one of the companies of the Irish -Rifles was wounded in the head by shrapnel -through both his steel and gas helmets. In -spite of the wound and the hole in his gas -helmet he held the latter close round his -mouth and nose and was not gassed at all—a -clear case of presence of mind saving his -life.</p> - -<p>One thing which impressed every one with -the need for thorough gas training at home, -and which should be taken to heart by all -men in training at the camps or likely to go -there, was the way in which reinforcements -and men who had recently joined up suffered. -Their casualties were out of all proportion -to their numbers and were due entirely -to the fact that insufficient attention -was given at that time to the gas-defence -training of the recruits. Many of them had -never put on a helmet before, and none of -them had ever smelled gas.</p> - -<p>In one particular instance a batch of -twenty men had come straight over from -England and were in the gas attack the day<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span> -after their arrival in the trenches. The only -training they had had was a lecture from -their own regimental officers, and consequently -they knew little or nothing about -the use of their helmets. Every one of these -men was gassed. It is true that they had -scrambled into their helmets somehow, and -none of them died; but the fact remains that -absence of training at home cost the fighting -line twenty men in one company. In -this company they were the only men gassed. -Largely as a consequence of this, gas-defence -training was taken up very seriously -in the early training of recruits, and -big gas schools were established at all the -camps both in England and at the bases in -France, so as to catch the young soldier -early.</p> - -<p>The boche made another gas attack on the -Irish Division on the same Front two days -later. Once again he let off two waves—this -time with an interval of only a quarter of -an hour. But despite his idea of “mixing -them up” he could not bring off that particular -surprise again.</p> - -<p>The second attack was one of the most interesting -on record, for it was here, near<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span> -Hulluch, that the gas blew back on the Germans -and killed many more of them than -our total gas casualties. The thing happened -in this way: The first gas wave was -loosed off at three-fifty <span class="allsmcap">A. M.</span>, opposite the -celebrated Chalk Pit Wood. Fifteen minutes -later a heavy cloud was discharged on -the Hulluch front. But the wind was too -light and variable. The cloud came over our -line and then the gentle wind first dropped -altogether and then gradually veered round. -The gas hung on No Man’s Land and over -both sets of trenches for a short time, and -then with increasing pace drifted back right -over the German position, just where Fritz -had been seen massing for an attack on the -Hulluch sector. We did not see the confusion -which reigned, but almost simultaneously -with the arrival of his own gas our -barrage came down and the German attack -dispersed.</p> - -<p>All that day our observers reported the -carrying out of German casualties from the -trenches on stretchers and a constant stream -of ambulances coming up and then returning -along the roads to the rear. We surmised -that the boche had swallowed some of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span> -own poison, but it was not until several -months later, from some documents captured -during the Battle of the Somme, that -we were able to appreciate his disaster to the -full.</p> - -<p>The first of these documents was the diary -of a soldier who had been in the neighbouring -trenches. It ran: “... We went -along the trenches to find the headquarters -of the <span class="nowrap">——th.</span> It was awful. Everywhere -lay dead bodies or men gasping for breath -and dying from the gas. Somebody must be -to blame. At first I could not go on. One -almost had to step on them to get through. -I asked an officer of the <span class="nowrap">——th</span> what had -happened. They were going to be relieved....”</p> - -<p>But the other documents were more explicit, -as they happened to be the official report -on the matter from the war office in -Berlin. It appears that the Germans had -eleven hundred deaths from their own gas. -A most rigid enquiry was held and it was -found that many of the men were not carrying -respirators, either in the trenches or in -the area immediately behind the line. But -this did not explain the extent of the disaster,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span> -so eight hundred of the respirators -collected from casualties were sent to Berlin -for examination and report. Even allowing -for those which might have been injured -in transit, there were still thirty-three -per cent of the masks so defective that their -owners were certain to be gassed. To see -whether this applied only to the area affected -a large number of respirators were -collected from up and down the whole Western -Front, and it was found that even among -those as many as eleven and a half per cent -were similarly at fault. It would seem that -there had been very poor inspection of the -respirators both in manufacture and after -issue to the troops. Apart from the joy of -seeing the boche hoist with his own petard -it was rather a relief to find that the efficient -German Army was not so frightfully efficient -after all.</p> - -<p>This matter of inspection is taken very -seriously in the British Army. Besides the -rigorous factory inspection all respirators -are inspected thoroughly every day even in -the trenches, and Tommy is expected to look -after his respirator just as he looks after his -rifle. As an official statement issued after<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span> -the April attack said: “A defective helmet -frequently leads to the death of the wearer. -Inspection of respirators must be frequent -and thorough.” A sergeant who was notorious -for his thorough dealing with recruits -got away with it in even better terms when -addressing a squad on parade. In thundering -tones he said: “If you don’t look for the -’oles in your ’elmet, they’ll soon be looking -for a ’ole for you.”</p> - -<p>Another thing that resulted from the attacks -just described, and from another similar -attack shortly afterward in the salient, -was the putting on the screw with regard to -the carrying of respirators continuously by -every one in the trenches. A very good and -well-known story on the British Army in -this connection is that of a brigadier general -who was proceeding to the line for his daily -inspection when he discovered that he was -minus a gas bag. He stopped the first orderly -he saw, borrowed the man’s helmet -and serenely went his way with a clear conscience. -Arrived in the trenches, one of the -first sights that met his horrified gaze was a -soldier without a gas mask. In virtuous -tones he demanded the reason for its absence,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span> -and then, waving aside the halting -explanation, went on loudly to assert his belief -that the soldier would not know how to -use a respirator even if he had one.</p> - -<p>“Here,” he said, “take mine and show -me whether you can put it on in quick time.”</p> - -<p>The awe-stricken Tommy slung the satchel -over his shoulder, and on the word “Gas!” -from the general thrust his hand into the -haversack and pulled out—a very dirty pair -of army socks.</p> - -<p>The fourth German attack of 1916 was -made on June seventeenth in Flanders, near -Messines; in fact, just north of the Wulverghem-Messines -road. Like those of -April, it was intensely strong, very short, -and sent over in successive waves at intervals -of about twenty minutes. There were -really no fresh features about the show, but -the cloud seems to have been even stronger -than before. I had no personal experience -of this attack, but the cloud must have been -very strong, for it killed animals at “Plugstreet”—the -only name we used in the British -Army for Ploegsteert—three and half -miles away, and was quite distinctly perceptible -even at Béthune. At the “Piggeries”—the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span> -remains of a model farm in rear of -Plugstreet Wood belonging to a notable -French sportsman, a place well-known to so -many British soldiers—a calf was found -dead, after the passage of the cloud, with -the body very much blown out. Dead rats -lay in close proximity.</p> - -<p>Even farther back than this animals were -seriously affected. The army mules in the -line of the gas were seized with fits of coughing -and kicked violently, making them even -more difficult to handle than usual. It is -probably not realised that horse masks are -now issued on a scale sufficient to provide -protection for all horses and mules, such as -those of the first-line transport and the artillery, -which have to approach anywhere -near the lines. The present form of these -respirators is that of a big bag soaked in -chemicals which fits over the animal’s nostrils, -leaving its mouth free so that the use -of the bit is not interfered with. When not -in use the horse respirator folds up very -nicely and neatly into a canvas case which -can be carried on the breastband of the harness -or any place from which it can be -quickly adjusted. Some of the animals take<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span> -to these masks—“Horspirators,” some wag -called them—quite quickly, but others are -strenuous objectors; some of those hardened -sinners, the mules, transforming themselves -into masses of teeth and hoofs whenever an -attempt is made to fix on the gas bags.</p> - -<p>In one case where a horse and a mule in -the same supply column were fitted with -their masks at the same time the difference -was most marked. The horse was dressed -up without much trouble, though he did not -like it. He whinnied and sneezed, breathed -hard and perspired and looked rather pitiable, -but stuck it out. The mule, on the other -hand, had to be roped to get the mask on -at all. Then he danced about, heels in the -air and head down, and tried to rub off the -objectionable appendage against the rope, -and then against a tree. This did not effect -its removal, and for a minute the cunning -animal stood still with his ears cocked at -different angles. Then suddenly he put his -head to the ground and before anything -could be done to prevent it put his foot on -the respirator, pulled his head up smartly -and left the respirator under his hoof.</p> - -<p>These masks have proved of the greatest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span> -value and have saved any number of horses’ -lives. The cavalry are not provided with -them, as it is not anticipated that they will -be near enough to be affected by gas-cloud -attacks, and when the cavalry are mounted -and in action it is unlikely that they will -meet even poison-gas shells in large numbers. -Added to this is the fact that a horse -can stand more gas than a man without being -distressed.</p> - -<p>The casualties in the June attack were -lower than in any one previously. Indeed, -it was a satisfactory feature of the whole -gas business that despite the increasing -deadliness of the German clouds the losses -they caused became less and less. Of course -the proportion of severe cases in those -gassed became greater, for with such strong -clouds it had become a case of hit or miss. -Either a man was protected completely or -he was caught out badly; and this spoke well -for the protection supplied, for otherwise -there would have been a much bigger proportion -of light cases.</p> - -<p>Of the minor effects of these boche gas -clouds, that on vegetation is the most -marked and gives a good idea of the strength<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span> -of the gas. For miles in the track of the -cloud all green stuff is burned up or wilted. -Grass is turned yellow, the leaves of trees -go brown and fall off, and the garden crops -are entirely destroyed. I have seen root -crops in the fields and garden crops of -onions, beans and lettuce quite destroyed. -But curiously enough, farther back, in places -where this still happens to the garden crops, -the cereals and the hedges seem to escape -serious injury.</p> - -<p>Of course over a wide area all metal work -is thickly tarnished, and this might be a -danger in the case of telephone instruments -and other delicate appliances, except that -the exposed parts are always kept slightly -oiled and then cleaned thoroughly after the -attack. The same thing is done with rifles -and machine guns and their ammunition, -and with the clinometres, fuses and breech -mechanism of guns and trench mortars. -Since this war started very little difficulty -has occurred through corrosion, but the -chief thing is to clean off the grease and -reoil all metal parts exposed to the gas immediately -after the attack is finished, otherwise -the greasy surface seems to hold the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span> -gas or the acid it engenders, and allows it -to eat in at its leisure.</p> - -<p>During the attacks of 1916 the alarm -arrangements worked very well, and the -Strombos Horns in particular justified their -use. Even above the noise of machine-gun -fire and the bursting of shells their shrill, -unmistakable note could be heard for long -distances, giving warning to all troops on -the flanks and in the rear. There were very -few instances where they were not let off in -time and the sentries posted over them -apparently knew their jobs better, for instance, -than one man who was questioned -on the subject. This particular sentry was -asked by a noncommissioned officer going -the rounds in the trenches what he would -do in the event of a gas attack being made. -“Oh,” replied the bright boy, “that’s easy. -If any gas comes over it blows the horn and -I call the platoon sergeant and tell him -about it.”</p> - -<p>A much more conscientious sentry over a -Strombos Horn had been told to be particularly -on the lookout for a gas attack, as one -was expected at any time. The officer on -duty, going round about midnight, heard a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span> -suspiciously regular sound coming from one -of the fire bays, and thinking that one of -the sentries was indulging in a stolen forty -winks he cautiously rounded the traverse. -Here he found the sentry lying on the top -of the parapet staring into the darkness and -going sniff, sniff, sniff with his nose.</p> - -<p>Being asked more forcibly than politely -what was the matter with him the man replied: -“I’m sniffing for gas.”</p> - -<p>Sniff, sniff, sniff.</p> - -<p>“Can you smell any?”</p> - -<p>“No, sir; but I want to smell it if it does -come, as I’m a gas sentry and the leftenant -told me always to keep smelling for gas.”</p> - -<p>Sniff, sniff, sniff.</p> - -<p>The job of seeing that the air cylinders of -the Strombos Horns are kept at their full -pressure is intrusted to the divisional gas -noncommissioned officers, who go round -periodically with pressure gauges and test -them out. If they fall below a certain -pressure they are replaced at once by fresh -ones from the divisional store. Some Australians -going up the line one night were -carrying a number of such cylinders for replacement, -when one of them got turned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span> -on accidentally and they didn’t seem able -to stop it.</p> - -<p>A passing officer hearing the hissing noise -called out: “What have you got there?”</p> - -<p>“Air bottles,” was the answer.</p> - -<p>“What for?” persisted the officer.</p> - -<p>A pause, and then out of the darkness: -“Oh, hell! To put the wind up the boche, -of course.”</p> - -<p>This story will probably be appreciated -more by Britishers than Americans, though -I think the latter in many cases already -know the significance of the expressions -“getting the wind up” and “putting the -wind up.” They refer of course to what -official reports or newspaper men would -style as “reduction of morale.”</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VI</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<div class="hangingindent"> -<p>The last German gas cloud sent over August, 1916—Its -intensity—“Delayed” gases of phosgene gassing—Cigarettes -as a test of gassing—Dangers of carelessness—The -sprayer abandoned for Mrs. Ayrton’s fan—Responsibilities -of the divisional gas office—Russian -gas victims—The day of the gas cloud over.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> last German gas cloud to be discharged -against the British Front was in -August, 1916. In every way it was the -greatest test to which our men had been -put. It was the strongest cloud attack -the Germans had made—not only were the -individual waves of only ten minutes’ duration -but the boche had more cylinders in -his line than usual. According to his own -admissions the bottles were put in at the -rate of three every two yards and in some -places two per yard. Added to this he had -brought up the proportion of phosgene to -the maximum that can be used. The circumstances, -too, were very unfavourable to -us. It must be remembered that the Battle -of the Somme was in full swing, and that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span> -for once in its war history the Ypres salient, -where the gas attack took place, was a -“quiet” sector where divisions used up in -the battle went to “rest” and reorganise. -The result was that the divisions attacked -were composed very largely of fresh drafts. -They had lost very heavily in officers and -most of the company noncommissioned gas -officers had been knocked out. Their gas -training was therefore not at the high -standard that it had attained previous to -the battle.</p> - -<p>Added to this, a relief was going on in the -trenches. This, by the way, was the second -time that our fellows were caught by a gas -attack during a relief. Whether it was that -the boche intelligence was particularly good -or whether it was simply that his luck was -in is not certain, but it meant that our -trenches, both the front line and the communication -trenches, had just twice the number -of men in them that they would have had -normally. And every man, both incoming -and outgoing, was carrying his complete -“Christmas Tree” rig—rifle, ammunition, -full pack, haversack, greatcoat, gas masks, -and all the rest of it; in some places hardly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span> -able to squeeze through the trenches in his -bulky marching equipment.</p> - -<p>Into this congestion the boche let off his -gas on the eighth of August about ten -o’clock <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> It says worlds for the steadiness -of our fellows that the total casualties -from the three waves he sent over remained -at the same low ebb that they had reached -in the June attack. Of course but for the -adverse circumstances they would undoubtedly -have been still lower. It is interesting -to note that the position on which the attack -was made—namely, the line between Bellewarde -Lake and the Yser Canal—included -much of the line over which the first attack -of all had been made a year and a half -previously.</p> - -<p>The intensity of the cloud can be realised -from the fact that helmets had to be worn -at a division headquarters nine miles from -the point of discharge, and the gas was -perceptible, though not so dangerous, many -miles beyond this point.</p> - -<p>The most distinctive feature of the whole -affair was the number of men who suffered -from the delayed action of the phosgene -and collapsed several hours after the attack,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span> -especially if they had taken any exercise -or eaten a heavy meal in between. -The latter is not very likely, though it does -occur, for a man even slightly gassed with -phosgene feels very depressed—“fed up” -and not particularly inclined for a hearty -meal. But the getting of the exercise is -only too easy, what with the necessary -work in the trenches and the possible walk -back to the aid post or the march back to -rest billets in the event of a relief. It was -men who had done this kind of thing who -suffered most.</p> - -<p>After the attack we received official orders -that no man suffering from the effects -of the gas should be allowed to walk to the -dressing station, and that if possible after -a gas attack troops in the front trenches -should be relieved of all fatigue and carrying -work for twenty-four hours. It was -also ordered that during the passage of the -gas all movement should be reduced to a -minimum and there should be as little talking -as possible. These were very wise orders, -for there had been too many officers -and noncommissioned officers gassed -through moving up and down to control the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span> -positions of their men and from shouting -orders through their helmets. A certain -amount of talking is necessary, of course, -but too much of it makes a man breathe -more deeply and may be just the added -strain sufficient to affect his heart and -cause his collapse.</p> - -<p>Of course after a gas attack there are -always a certain number of malingerers—“Skrimshankers,” -as we call them—who -affect to be gassed in order to get away from -the line for a bit. These are generally -spotted easily enough by the doctor men. -One medical officer I knew, harassed by the -number of slightly “gassed” cases who -would have to be evacuated, and suspicious -about the genuine character of some of -them, handed round cigarettes. All those -who accepted and smoked their cigarettes -were kept back. Later examination showed -that he was right in every case.</p> - -<p>A similar instance that I heard of, this -time in a practice attack in a camp in England, -concerned a very poor specimen who -pretended to be badly gassed. He was -taken to the orderly room on a stretcher; -but unfortunately for him the medical corps<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span> -sergeant recognised him as a man who had -fallen out during a march a short time before, -and knew all about him.</p> - -<p>Meantime the man was feigning unconsciousness, -but the sergeant winked at the -medical officer and said: “It’s a pity that -order about sick leave prevents men from -going home in a case like this unless they -live in London. What this poor fellow -needs is a couple of weeks in his own home.”</p> - -<p>The corpse thereupon sat up and said: -“That’s all right, sir. I live in Bow. When -can I go?”</p> - -<p>As in all the previous attacks an analysis -of the casualties showed that where the -helmets had been kept in good condition -and had been used properly and in time -they had given perfect protection. The -casualties were all due to preventable causes—some -of them lamentable, others humorous, -had it not been for their tragedy.</p> - -<p>Many men were gassed through taking -off their helmets too soon. It is really up -to the officers and noncommissioned officers -who have attended a course at a gas school -to decide when the atmosphere is safe, and -it is not nearly so risky to do this as it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span> -sounds. All that is necessary is to let a -little air in from the outside by cautiously -opening up the face piece of the mask—or -the skirt of the helmet in the case of the old -gas bag—and sniffing cautiously. Of course -if it is not done cautiously and there happens -to be a lot of gas about, the rash man -suffers.</p> - -<p>A number of men were gassed through -going into unprotected dugouts before they -had been ventilated or through wandering -into pockets of the gas after the attack. -They should have been on the lookout for -these patches, as the gas notoriously keeps -close to the ground at night, and sheltered -places are bound to remain unhealthy for -much longer periods than the open. It is -curious that by some vagary of the wind -the cloud farther back hopped over some -houses that were used as billets and affected -neither the inhabitants nor the unprotected -animals on the ground, whereas -some fowls that were roosting in the trees -and on the tops of the houses were killed.</p> - -<p>One instance that shows how carelessness -spells casualty in gas warfare was that of a -working party of thirty or forty men who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span> -were busy on railway work a mile or two -behind the line. They had taken off their -coats and gas helmets and placed them on -some trucks, but when the alarm was given -and a rush was made for the helmets the -trucks were found to have gone.</p> - -<p>One thing that was done after the August -attack was definitely and finally to withdraw -the Vermorel sprayers for use for -clearing the gas out of the trenches and -dugouts. These instruments, brought up -for the work of spraying fruit trees and -vineyards, had done some first-class fighting -of the German gas, right in the front line, -as long as the gas was chlorine. But with -the introduction of large quantities of phosgene -the work of the sprayers was gone. -They could not touch the phosgene, and consequently -Tommy’s dependence on them -was a snare and made things more dangerous -for him than if they had not been used -at all. For a dugout might be sprayed and -thought, therefore, to be quite healthy to -sleep in and yet contain as much phosgene -as would at any rate cause minor and delayed -effects.</p> - -<p>To clear out the gas recourse was had to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span> -ventilation by means of fires and by specially -constructed canvas fans.</p> - -<p>These fans were the invention of an English -lady named Ayrton—the widow of the -physicist of that name—and were originally -intended by her for fanning back the gas -cloud to the German trenches. Of course -they were quite incapable of doing any such -thing, but during trials with them it was -found that they were quite good, after an -attack, for fanning the gas out of the -trenches or creating such a draft of air into -a dugout or cellar as to force out the impure -air from the interior.</p> - -<p>These anti-gas fans, or flapper fans as -they were called, are made of canvas supported -by braces of cane and attached to a -hickory handle about two feet long. The -blade of the fan, which looks like an immense -fly swat, is hinged in two places and -measures about fifteen inches square. When -the fan is brought down on the ground it -bends over on the back hinge and produces -a sharp puff of air, in just the same way that -the sudden shutting of an open book does.</p> - -<p>By working the fans in series, one man -behind another, it is possible to keep a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span> -current of air going which will ventilate a -room or clear out a trench in remarkably -quick time. In clearing out a trench the -fan is brought back over the shoulder, and -this helps to “shovel” the contaminated air -out of the trench after it has been brought -off the ground by the lower stroke, which is -more like a smart slap.</p> - -<p>These fans are kept as trench stores, -which means that they are handed over on -relief to the incoming unit taking over the -line of trenches. They have proved very -useful, especially in skilful hands their -chief value being that, unlike the sprayers, -they do not distinguish between different -kinds of gases and they will deal as unceremoniously -with tear gas and phosgene as -they do with chlorine.</p> - -<p>By the time of the last gas-cloud attack -the organisation of the British Army for -defence against gas had been brought to a -pretty high state of efficiency. A special -branch of the gas service had been detailed -for the purpose and special gas officers were -appointed to the staffs of the various formations, -from army down to division.</p> - -<p>The position of divisional gas officer is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span> -no sinecure. Besides having the job of -screwing up the gas discipline of his division -and having a general oversight of all -gas-defence training and supplies, he is responsible -to the divisional commander for -the preparedness of the line to meet a German -gas attack. He is the “intelligence” -officer of his general as regards all things -pertaining to gas and has to be a walking -dictionary on the subject. He has to be a -great part of his time in the front trenches -and it is up to him to see that all enemy -blind shells, and so on, are examined and -brought in if they seem to be anything new. -As he must deal direct with the battalion -commanders he must know them and the -senior officers of each regiment personally, -so as to smooth the way in getting things -done. Then if a gas attack or bombardment -is made he must get there quick, so as to find -out all about it from personal experience.</p> - -<p>Altogether he is a very important and -busy person, and to those acquainted with -his work the following incident will appeal. -I happened to overhear part of a conversation -between two Cockney Tommies on -the road:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span>“What’s this ’ere divisional gas officer, -Bill?”</p> - -<p>“Why, he’s the bloke what goes round -and blows up these observation balloons.”</p> - -<p>The divisional gas officer has a number of -specially trained noncommissioned officers -to help him, and each company of infantry -and battery of artillery has at least one -noncommissioned officer. It is the first and -most important job of these noncommissioned -officers to help the commander in -everything pertaining to defence against -German gas. He assists at drills and inspections, -help in the arrangement and fitting -up of alarms, in the taking of wind -readings and the protection of the shelters -and dugouts. In his charge are placed -the gas fans and the sampling apparatus. -A good company gas noncommissioned officer -is a real joy and can polish up the gas -discipline of the company tremendously, as -well as take a lot of responsibility off the -overworked company commander’s shoulders. -A bad noncommissioned gas officer, -on the other hand, can be the direct and -indirect cause of the loss of many lives when -the gas attack does come.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span>This ended the British experience of -German gas-cloud attacks, for though the -35th and 36th Pioneers made three subsequent -visits to the Western Front it was -each time to gas the French. The last -cloud attack of all was made near Nieuport, -at that time in the French lines, on -April 23, 1917.</p> - -<p>Since then the only cloud attacks have -been made against the Russians and the -Italians.</p> - -<p>Probably the chief reason that has caused -the boche to hold back with his cloud attacks -has been his conclusion that they were -unprofitable against well-disciplined, highly -trained and thoroughly protected troops. -With a limited amount of gas available he -naturally chose the method that would give -him the best results. For the cloud attack -his cheapest target was the Russians, who -were incompletely equipped with gas masks -of a modern kind and who for a long time -were badly disciplined in anti-gas measures. -Against such troops the gas cloud is just the -thing, and the Germans have estimated that -ten to fifteen per cent of all troops exposed -to a successful gas cloud would become casualties.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span> -This was probably true on the Russian -Front, but was certainly not true in the -West.</p> - -<p>Then the gas cloud has almost reached -its apparent limit of development. There is -a limit to the number of gases that can be -used from cylinders, and there is a limit to -the number of cylinders that can be discharged -at one time. Besides this the gas -cloud is largely dependent on infantry labour -for carrying and installation, and it is -mighty difficult to bring off a complete surprise -owing to the time it takes to prepare -an attack.</p> - -<p>On top of all this the whole procedure is -wrong as regards efficiency, for it puts up -the highest concentration of gas where the -boche does not want it—just in front of his -own trenches instead of in ours.</p> - -<p>For all these reasons the boche during -the past year has specialised on the development -of his gas shells. Of course he may -come back with the cloud again, and we do -not relax our vigilance or it certainly would -reappear. But unless he discovers something -new in the cloud line, and if we keep<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span> -up a high standard of training, he will not -do much damage, though for that matter -the same thing is true about gas shells and -trench mortar bombs.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VII</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<div class="hangingindent"> -<p>The rising importance of the gas shell—The variety of -gases practicable with the shell—The deadly Green -Cross Shell—Risks of transporting “duds” for chemical -analysis—Reduced Allied casualties—German -blunders in shelling tactics—Importance of universal -discipline.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">One</span> of the most interesting things about -the development of gas warfare has been the -way in which the gas shell, from being the -least important method of poisoning the air, -has become the chief gas weapon in the German -armoury.</p> - -<p>The reasons for this extraordinary development, -though various, are not far to seek. -They lie chiefly in the fact that unlike the -gas cloud we have not even yet approached -the limit of the number or size of the gas -projectiles that can be used. Nor, which is -even more important, is there any limit to -the variety of the poisons that can be used -in gas shell.</p> - -<p>The fact of the matter is that the gas shell<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span> -is not really a gas shell at all. It is nearly -always a “liquid” shell and sometimes even -a “solid” shell. The term “gas shell” is -used because the liquid or solid contents are -atomised by the explosion of the bursting -charge or are distributed round in the form -of such tiny particles or droplets, as the case -may be, that they act almost as a gas. In the -latter case they form what might be described -as a mist or smoke, but with this difference -from ordinary smoke—that the gas -mist or smoke is generally, though not always, -invisible.</p> - -<p>Just imagine what would happen supposing -a shell were filled with water. Burst -such a shell with a sufficiently big charge of -high explosive and all the water would be -distributed into the air in the form of such -finely divided spray that it would form a -mist. This mist would either vapourise into -the atmosphere completely or hang about -like a cloud, according as the air was dry or -moist. In any case, if the burster were big -enough no water would be spread on the -ground; nor would any big drops be formed.</p> - -<p>This is just what happens with any of the -poisonous materials filled into a shell. Indeed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span> -if the burster were big enough and -carefully chosen it would be possible to form -a “gas” with treacle. With a volatile material -like gasoline on the other hand all that -would be needed would be a burster just big -enough to open the shell.</p> - -<p>It can be seen therefore that the choice -of materials for gas shell is practically unlimited -and is governed only by their being -poisonous enough and by the ease of production.</p> - -<p>Another thing in which the gas shell has -the advantage over the cylinder gas is in getting -surprise, which is naturally much easier -to effect with shell. By the way, if the -reader wishes to be counted among those who -knows, he will always speak or write the -plural of shell without adding a final “s.” -To talk of a number of shells is very civilian.</p> - -<p>As I pointed out before, we were expecting -something new to happen in the gas-shell -line during the whole of 1916, and had -an idea that the new arrival would be something -of a cyanide nature—possibly prussic -acid itself. When it did come, however, it -proved to be a liquid filling closely related -chemically to phosgene and to the K-Stoff,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span> -which I have previously described. These -new gas shell were the first of the present -series of German gas shell, which are all distinctly -marked with coloured crosses and -named accordingly. These particular shell -were the Green Cross Shell, a green cross -being painted on the base of the cartridge -or on the side of the shell or sometimes on -both. They made their appearance on the -Somme Front about a fortnight after the -battle had started—that is, about the middle -of July, 1916—though a few of them -had been used against the French on the -Verdun Front sometime in June.</p> - -<p>It was not long before blind or unexploded -shell—“duds,” we call them—were -collected and sent back for examination. -This is one of the disadvantages of using -gas shell—your opponent can always keep -track of what you are doing. Sooner or -later a fuse will not function or a bursting -charge will not explode and your watchful -enemy carefully collects the shell, and -has for examination a considerable amount -of the poison material. I say “carefully -collects,” for it is no child’s play dealing -with shell which may go off in your hands<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span> -on the slightest provocation. However, it -has to be done, and as it is the gas officer’s -pidgin he manfully shoulders his task and -the shell and has it brought in. Very frequently -the fuse fails to act because a powder -pellet holding up the striking needle has -not burned away; but I remember one case -where the gas officer of one of the armies -took back a big dud gas shell. It meant -transporting the weighty souvenir in a not -particularly well sprung car over very -bumpy roads, and he was quite relieved to -arrive at his destination—the field laboratory. -Here it was reverently taken to bits -by the experts. Imagine the gas officer’s -horror to find he had been bumping along -for several hours in the company of a shell -the powder pellet of which had burned away -and whose only safety device was the weakest -of weak creep springs on which the striker -rested. A hard knock or a drop of six -inches would almost certainly have exploded -it.</p> - -<p>The laboratory officers, who are experts -at the game, may have to go up to the Front -themselves to solve important duds which -are regarded as dangerous and require expert<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span> -attention. In one instance the officer -concerned—in civil life a very celebrated -professor at one of the London colleges—went -up to the salient and explored about a -mile and a half of trenches and finally located -his prey—a fine dud 4.2-inch howitzer -gas shell—out in the open.</p> - -<p>Though the place was pretty unhealthy he -“climbed the bags” and made a careful examination -of the shell where it lay, finally -bringing it back in with him. I forget -whether he drew its sting on the spot, but in -any case it was a pretty good effort, especially -for a man no longer in his first youth.</p> - -<p>Chemical analysis of the blind Green -Cross Shell showed the contents to be a colourless -liquid known to chemists by the extensive -name of “trichlormethylcholoroformate.” -Its effects are just as ferocious as -the name implies, and experience showed it -to be very poisonous. Indeed it is as poisonous -as phosgene itself. The Green Cross -Shell gas—“diphosgene,” to give it its short -name—has many effects and symptoms that -make it a dangerous weapon. When dilute -it has a peculiar though not particularly -nauseating smell, a smell variously described<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span> -as “earthy,” “mouldy rhubarb”—whatever -that smells like—and damp hay. -Unlike the shell gases we had encountered -before, it has very little effect on the eyes -and causes practically no lachrymation. -And this was a trap, because we had been -used to lachrymators, so that many men despite -the obvious smell were not particularly -quick in protecting themselves because of -the new symptoms.</p> - -<p>Of course this applies only to such low -concentrations as would take a long time to -gas a man. In the higher concentrations the -Green Cross very quickly asphyxiates—just -as phosgene and chlorine do—and there is -no question of whether it is deadly or not. -The old Army quip about there being only -two kinds of people in gas warfare, namely -“The Quick and the Dead,” certainly applies -if you get a Green Cross Shell bursting -close to you. But even for gas shell -bursting some distance away immediate and -complete protection is necessary because of -the delayed or after effects of the gas, which -are exactly similar to those of phosgene. -Every care that is taken with regard to men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span> -poisoned with phosgene has to be taken for -men poisoned with Green Cross gas.</p> - -<p>Those suffering from the effects of the gas -are not allowed to exert themselves at all or -to take heavy meals. They are kept under -close observation for at least two days, and -are treated, in fact, as casualties even though -they are not apparently ill. Before the need -for this was understood an officer I knew -was slightly gassed with shell gas but -thought nothing of it. Later on he felt a -bit queer, and the regimental medical officer -advised him to go down to the dressing station. -He walked the length of the communication -trench and then mounted a “push -bicycle” for a mile’s ride to the aid post. -The exertion was too much, however, and -he reached the aid post only to fall dead.</p> - -<p>The danger of not treating gassed men as -casualties and resting them for a couple of -days, after which they would probably be fit -for work again, is shown by a case where -forty men were lost to the line for a considerable -time, though fortunately none of them -died. These men were part of a working -party engaged in the construction of dugouts. -They were caught in a surprise bombardment,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span> -but were apparently not much -affected. After completing their night’s -work they marched back to billets and -turned in as usual. The next morning several -of them were so ill—nearly to the point -of collapse—and the remainder were so -visibly affected that the medical officer ordered -the whole party to be sent down to the -casualty clearing station, where they were -evacuated to the base.</p> - -<p>In still another case I remember a sergeant -and twenty men of a wiring party engaged -in the consolidation of a recently captured -position were similarly caught by a -sudden and intense Green Cross bombardment. -A number of the men were gassed -and felt pretty seedy, but continued their -work and then withdrew. The sergeant felt -no ill effects until an hour after turning in, -when he woke with a bad cough and internal -pain and died two hours afterward. One -private went to bed without complaining -at all and was found dead next morning. -Another died soon after getting up. A -third reached headquarters complaining of -shell shock and died three hours later. I -mention these cases so that my reader will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span> -realise why such great care is now taken -with men who have been exposed to poison -gas, and how by looking after them in this -way it has been possible to reduce the number -of delayed cases of death or serious illness -to a minimum.</p> - -<p>Talking of delayed effects of gas shell -reminds me that at least two documents -were captured during the Somme—one of -them I got myself—which were obviously -notes of lectures given to officers at a German -gas school or staff course. In both of -these sets of notes there were references to -the Lusitania, showing that the German -Higher Command was trying to explain that -dastardly act to its own troops by making -out that the Lusitania was sunk because it -was carrying phosgene shell for the Allies. -This lie can easily be nailed to the board, -as not a single drop of phosgene—or any -other poison gas or liquid, for that matter—was -shipped from America before this year, -1918. Both of the paragraphs I refer to -contained a double lie, for they each asserted -that the French started the use of gas -shell. One of them ran as follows: “The -French first started the use of gas shell—with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span> -great hopes, but with little success! -The most striking result was that experienced -by the passengers of the Lusitania, -whose rescued mostly died later.”</p> - -<p>But to return to the Green Cross Shell. -These were used during the Somme Battle -in enormous numbers, far surpassing -anything we had had before in the extent -of the bombardment. There were a great -many new features about these shell quite -apart from the altered nature of the gas. -First of all there was the size. Until then -we had had gas shell of only two sizes—150-millimetre -howitzer shell and the 105-millimetre -howitzer shell. The former contained -from five to eight pints of liquid according -to the construction of the shell, and the latter -about three pints. To these longer shell -were now added shell from the ordinary -field gun, or 77-millimetre gun—quite a -small affair compared with the others and -containing only two-thirds of a pint of -liquid poison. But then, though so small, -it could be fired more rapidly and accurately -and could bring off an initial surprise -in a way that the bigger guns could not do.</p> - -<p>Shell of these three sizes were used then<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span> -on nearly all occasions and in very large -quantities. One thing that made large numbers -possible was the simplicity of the shell -compared with the old pattern. There was -no separate lead container and the “gas” -was filled straight into the body of the shell, -as the new material was unacted on by iron -or steel. The head of the shell was screwed -in and kept in position and perfectly gas-tight -by means of a special cement.</p> - -<p>As very little explosive was needed to -open them up and spread the contents round -the noise made by the burst of the Green -Cross Shell was little more than a pop—at -any rate when compared with the high-explosive -shell or the old tear shell. The -result was that at first men were apt to regard -them as duds and to delay the putting -on of respirators until it was too late.</p> - -<p>These gas shell are supposed to make a -peculiar wobbling noise in the passage -through the air because of the liquid inside -them, and in this way to be recognisable beforehand. -Personally I cannot tell any difference -in the noise compared with H. E. -or shrapnel of the same calibre, though I -have heard thousands of both kinds; but I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span> -dare say some people can, as the belief is -fairly widespread.</p> - -<p>Of course Fritz’s liberality with his gas -shell caused us a lot of casualties, but not -nearly so many as we might have had if he -had known how to use them. The fact was -he had not at that time got hold of the -proper technic—developed later on by the -French—of concentrating his gas shell on -special targets. By now, of course, he has; -but at that time he still clung to the idea of -being able to poison big areas with his shell -gas by putting down a series of barrages -over the country to be attacked. Either he -had not enough shell or he chose his areas -too big, for he did not produce effective concentrations -anywhere but locally. If he had, -our losses might have been tremendous. As -it was it became rather a hit-or-miss proposition, -and I have seen hundreds and hundreds -of these shell drop into absolutely unpopulated -areas of the devastated Somme -battlefield.</p> - -<p>In one case a battery of field guns came -in for its share of one such promiscuous -bombardment while I was there. The number -of shell coming over was so great that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span> -it was like a magnified machine-gun shoot, -but only a very few got on to the battery and -the casualties were only two—both caused -by a direct hit on one of the guns by a gas -shell. If the boche had been able to concentrate -his shell on and round the battery -instead of giving it just the same amount -as the unoccupied surrounding country the -effect might have been very different.</p> - -<p>One possible reason for the promiscuous -and sometimes very casual shooting may -have been the fact that the boche at that -time had practically no air observation. -Our flying fellows had temporarily chased -his planes out of the skies and had shot -down all his observation balloons. This -made it impossible for him to pick his targets, -and he either had to bombard the -countryside or shoot “by the map,” neither -method being particularly conducive to -good results with gas shell.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, one or two places that -he knew were pretty certain to be occupied -by our troops were given their full dose. -One such place was Caterpillar Wood—a -big narrow spinney running off from the -Fricourt Valley and so named because of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span> -its shape and the fact that on the ordnance -maps, on which the woods are colored green, -it looks just like a green caterpillar crawling -over to the shelter of Mametz Wood. -This place was continually shelled with -large numbers of the Green Cross Shell, and -as it stood in the side of a valley the gas -persisted longer there than elsewhere and -built up a tidy concentration which caused -a lot of trouble.</p> - -<p>The gunners were among our chief sufferers -from these gas shell, as their guns -were so frequently placed in sunken roads -and folds in the ground for protection -against explosive shell and aërial observation, -and these were just the kind of places -that held the gas longest. In the open much -less damage was done. I remember one -night the first-line transport of a battalion -of the Black Watch ran into a patch of -country into which the boche was raining -77-millimetre Green Cross Shell, and came -out with only three casualties, two of which -were from a direct hit on one of the wagons, -the driver being killed instantly.</p> - -<p>It seems particularly bad luck to be killed -by a direct hit from a gas shell, for the bits<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span> -of shell that fly about don’t do much damage -in the ordinary way and don’t travel -great distances. Indeed it is remarkable, -even in the biggest gas-shell bombardments, -how very few men are hurt by the fragments.</p> - -<p>The first week or two after the advent of -the Green Cross the toll of gas-shell casualties -was considerable if not alarming, but -steps were immediately taken to get the -situation in hand. It is in a case like this, -where a surprise had been brought off, that -Discipline, with a very big “D,” counts for -so much. Fortunately the gas discipline of -the British Army was pretty good, and it -was not difficult to get new instructions carried -out and orders obeyed. Once they got -going their effect was most apparent and -the gas-shell casualties dropped from week -to week until they approached a minimum.</p> - -<p>Among the important steps that were -taken were a revision of the methods of -spreading the alarm, and the protection and -clearing out of dugouts into which the gas -had penetrated.</p> - -<p>Mention has already been made of the -slight noise caused by the explosion of the -gas shell, and instructions were accordingly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span> -issued that all shell that sounded like duds -were to be regarded as gas shell, and the -respirators adjusted accordingly. This got -over one of the elements of surprise.</p> - -<p>A great many men, especially those in -battery positions, had been gassed in their -dugouts before warning of the gas bombardment -had been spread. Numbers of -these men were actually gassed in their -sleep and were awakened too late by the -choking fumes themselves. What was done -was to post a gas sentry at every battery in -just the same way that it was done in the -trenches. Special local-alarm signals were -arranged so that the sentry could wake -every one in the neighbourhood without having -the alarm spread beyond the limit of the -gassed area. These alarms generally took -the form of bells or of gongs made from big -shell cases; but later on policemen’s large -rattles were found to be the most effective -“weapon” for the purpose, and numbers of -these were distributed up and down the line -and in the battery positions. It was feared -at first that the noise of the rattles would be -mistaken for machine-gun fire and no attention -be paid to it, but this did not materialise<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span> -and the rattles have done good -service.</p> - -<p>The only thing about them is that they -are made of wood—and nicely pickled, easily -burning wood at that. In the trenches -kindling chips of any kind are eagerly -sought after to make a miniature fire to -warm tea or cook an egg. When men will -go the length of shaving the handles of their -entrenching tools to obtain dry wood it -could hardly be expected that policemen’s -rattles would always be respected. I am -afraid a number of them disappeared. -With the artillery things are not so bad as -fuel is easier to obtain and the rattles are -therefore less liable to get lost.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VIII</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<div class="hangingindent"> -<p>The gas-proof dugout—First-aid methods of alarm—Von -Buelow improves German gas tactics—Popular -errors about gas—Effectiveness of new British respirators—Vomiting -gas—Germans speed up their manufacture—Gas -as a neutraliser of artillery fire—As a -neutraliser of work behind the trenches—Raw recruits -ashamed to wear the mask—Casualties resulting.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Probably</span> the most important thing that -was done as the result of the Somme Battle -experience was to insist on there being at -least one protected or gas-proof dugout at -every headquarters, battery position, signal -station, aid post, or wherever gas shell -were particularly likely to drop.</p> - -<p>I have deferred describing these protected -shelters until now, but as a matter of -fact they had been devised and adopted -nearly a year previously, though not many -of them had got into actual use. The -protection consists essentially of a damp -blanket fitting closely over the entrance to -the cellar or dugout or emplacement, whichever<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span> -it may happen to be. The value of the -blanket depends on the fact that if you -prevent the movement of air you prevent -the movement of gas. That is all there is to -it. Stop any possible draft and you will -keep out the gas. In practice the blankets -are kept rolled up out of the way and are -let down only when the alarm is sounded or -when gas is about. In order to get an air-tight -joint the blanket is made to rest on a -sloping framework set into the entrance to -the dugout. To make sure that the blanket -really does remain stretched out over the -frame and does not gape at all, two or three -wooden battens are fastened across it at -intervals.</p> - -<p>Where space is available two such sloping -blankets are used, at least two feet -apart and preferably far enough apart to -allow a stretcher in between. This forms an -“air lock”—you must go into the lock and -close the outer blanket before going through -the inner one—and not only makes protection -of the interior doubly sure but makes -it possible to enter the dugout even in the -middle of an attack or bombardment. In -the old days the blankets used to be sprayed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span> -with the Vermorel sprayer solution, but -anything that will keep them damp and -flexible will do. In the early days, too, the -companies or batteries used to do all their -own work on protecting dugouts, and it was -always possible in cold weather to obtain -an extra supply of blankets on the plea that -they were required for making gas-proof -shelters. Nowadays a close eye is kept on -these supplies, which are doled out by the -engineers, and it is seen that if blanket -material is supplied for protected dugouts -it is going to be used for protected dugouts, -and for nothing else.</p> - -<p>Gradually all dugouts, cellars and buildings -within the gas-shell area—let us say -up to three miles from the front line—are -being provided with blanket protection, -which means a big decrease in casualties, -for once inside such shelters men can sleep -in more or less comfort until they again -have to don their respirators and face their -tour of duty in the poisoned air outside.</p> - -<p>It practically came then to this—that -protection against the poison-gas shell was -a question of gas-proof dugouts on the one -hand and rapidity of spreading the alarm<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span> -and quickness of getting protected on the -other. At the gas schools and in the regiments -and batteries men are trained to be -so quick in their movements that they can -get on their masks in six seconds. They are -also taught on the burst of a gas shell in -their neighbourhood to hold their breath at -once. It sounds easy enough to do this, -but it must come to a man automatically in -any circumstances he may happen to find -himself—and you can find yourself in some -queer circumstances in war—and to assure -this a great deal of training is needed. Anybody, -however, can hold his breath for -thirty seconds, and with practice it is possible -to go well over a minute. During this -time it is possible to make a fool of oneself -in half a dozen different ways in putting on -a respirator, and yet get it on in time in the -end. But drill sergeants will stand for nothing -less than the standard time and the most -meticulous accuracy. God bless these tyrants—they -must have saved a lot of lives! -One of the difficulties we began to encounter -with regard to gas shell was the spreading -of the alarm among men on the march or in -communication trenches where no alarm devices<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span> -are installed. In some battalions it -was the custom to teach men to spread the -glad tidings by taking off their steel helmets -and beating them with their bayonets. This -certainly makes a good old noise, but unfortunately -it is just when gas shell are coming -over that shrapnel is also likely to be in -the air, and to deprive a man of this tin hat -at this time in order to provide him with a -gas alarm is rather robbing Peter to pay -Paul.</p> - -<p>The best way undoubtedly, and the one -now taught throughout the British and -American forces, is to hold the breath, then -put on the respirator, and finally spread the -news to everyone else by shouting “Gas -shell!” as loudly as possible with the mask -on. In this way the information can be -spread throughout a big working party or -from front to rear of a column of infantry -on the march in a remarkably short space of -time. Even in the trenches it is well to give -word-of-mouth warning as well as by means -of the local-alarm devices, for a second or -two of absolutely invaluable time may be -saved in this way. One soldier questioned -by an officer going the rounds as to what he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span> -would do in the event of a gas shell bombardment -replied nervously: “Put on my -gas mask and shout ‘Rattles!’”</p> - -<p>For the remainder of 1916 the boche -treated us with gradually increasing numbers -of Green Cross Shell. His tactics, too, -got a bit better—I mean for him—for he began -to make more concentrated bombardments -on particular targets. Possibly this -was because of special orders that were issued -on the subject. One of these was by -General von Buelow to the artillery of his -army, in which he said: “There have been -many instances of Green Cross Shell being -fired in small quantities. This is a waste of -ammunition, as with all gas shell good effects -are only obtained by using them in -large quantities. The firing of small quantities -of gas shell has also the disadvantage -that the enemy is practiced in the use of his -anti-gas appliances and attains a higher degree -of gas preparedness. For this reason -the effect produced by larger quantities will -be reduced.”</p> - -<p>This showed the increasing interest in the -use of gas shell taken by the German General -Staff, and heavier and more concentrated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span> -bombardments based on the above orders -became more frequent. One of these, -brought off in unusual circumstances, occurred -at Arras in December, 1916. I say -“unusual” because the weather was so cold -at the time that the Green Cross liquid did -not evaporate so quickly as usual but hung -about in some places for long periods. The -bombardment occurred at night and about -three thousand shell must have been fired into -one corner of the town—in fact, all round -the old gateway through which the whole of -the transport from the St. Pol road would -have to pass. The surrounding houses and -cellars got filled with gas, and in such billets, -especially where shell had actually -burst inside a room, the liquid soaked into -the walls and floors and only evaporated the -next morning when the air grew warmer. -A lot of men were gassed in this manner on -the following day, as they naturally thought -the gas had vanished, and were gradually -overcome as things warmed up.</p> - -<p>In the open, gas disappeared more at its -usual rate, though it hung about all during -the bombardment and for several hours after, -thus forcing men in the neighbourhood<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span> -to wear respirators for long periods. Some -of these men, overcome by fatigue, actually -slept in their respirators. I think this was -the first time I had heard of its being done, -though it has been done often enough since.</p> - -<p>By this time the British Army had been -fitted out with the celebrated box respirator—a -respirator of particular interest to -Americans, as it was the type adopted for -and at present in use in the American Army. -A short description of it will not be out of -place. The principle of the respirator is to -have a box filled with chemicals and attached -by a flexible tube to a face piece or mask, -which fits closely to the face. All air -breathed by a man must therefore pass -through the chemicals, and these are so -chosen that they will absorb any and every -poison that may be present in the atmosphere -at the time. In order to keep the air -pure in the mask and to have a double line -of protection a man breathes through a special -mouthpiece and has his nose clipped. -So even if the face piece, which is made of -rubber cloth, should be torn or damaged in -any way the soldier is perfectly safe as long -as he does not attempt to talk—that is, if<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span> -he keeps his nose clipped and does not remove -the mouthpiece from his mouth.</p> - -<p>The respirator is not only active against -a diversity of poisonous gases but it will -keep out very high concentrations of gas for -many hours.</p> - -<p>One of the most misleading statements -made about gas masks—sometimes by newspaper -men and consequently given wide -publicity—is that such and such a mask will -stand up for so many hours against gas. It -is a very natural thing to want to know or -to state how long your respirator will last, -but without stating what concentration of -gas is being talked of it is impossible to give -such definite information about any mask. -It simply depends on the amount of gas -there is in the air. But the box respirator -if kept in good condition and properly used -is guaranteed to keep out German gas continuously -for many hours, even in concentrations -which it is quite impossible for the -boche to maintain in the field. In the American -modification of the box respirator the -absorptive power of the chemicals used is -even greater than in the British box, and -this makes it the best respirator in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span> -world, which is very reassuring for those -who have to make use of it.</p> - -<p>The box respirator is contained in a haversack -and is carried slung on the shoulder until -such time as the soldier comes into the -forward areas, where it must be carried tied -up on the chest ready for instant adjustment -in case of need. As I mentioned before, it -can be put on in six seconds from the word -“go,” and once a man is practiced in wearing -it he can walk, run, shoot, dig, speak or -do anything but eat and smoke in it; and this -for long stretches at a time. I know many -cases where men have been forced to wear -masks literally continuously for more than -eight hours; and much longer periods than -this, with perhaps short intervals of rest in -protected dugouts or in unaffected areas, -are common.</p> - -<p>Of course the soldier has to be practiced -in putting the mask on quickly. It is not -quite so simple as the old “gas bag,” about -which a drill sergeant said to a squad: “You -just whops it out and you whops it on.” But -it does not take long to make men proficient -with the respirator, at any rate on the parade -ground. It is making him proficient under<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span> -conditions of war that counts and all his instruction -is now aimed toward this end.</p> - -<p>With the mask in position and a tin hat on -top of his head a soldier has a peculiar -beetlelike appearance, which is not very improving, -though the following conversation -was reported to have been overheard by an -officer about to enter a dugout:</p> - -<p>“’Ere, mate, take yer gas mask off.”</p> - -<p>“It is off.”</p> - -<p>“Then for Gawd’s sake put it on!”</p> - -<p>The Germans were much interested in our -new respirators and their development, and -apparently had great difficulty in obtaining -specimens for examination. During the -winter of 1916-17 German soldiers were being -offered a reward of ten marks for every -British box respirator that they brought in; -but as we were doing most of the shooting -at that time I can hardly think that Fritz -made a fortune out of his chance.</p> - -<p>But to return to the gas shell. During -1917, it became apparent that the Germans -were placing more and more reliance on the -use of gas shell and were manufacturing -them in enormous numbers. For a whole -year after the introduction of the Green<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span> -Cross there was only one modification of -the chemicals used and that was the admixture -with the diphosgene of a material which -has been called “vomiting gas.” This substance -is a chemical named chloropicrin, and -it certainly lives up to its pet name if you -take a real good breath of it. The boche -mixed it with his diphosgene in order to -make the latter more potent if possible, or -else because he was running short of diphosgene; -but he still calls the mixture -Green Cross and uses the gas for its killing -power.</p> - -<p>The chief development, however, was -rather in the tactics than in the chemicals -used. Gas shell were no longer thrown -away; each target or area was apparently -considered separately and was given enough -shell to make certain of putting up a very -high concentration of gas on it. At this -time the boche divided his gas-shell shoots -into two classes—those for “destructive” effect, -and those for “harassing” purposes.</p> - -<p>The destructive fire was intended to take -on big targets, which were not only definite -but were known to contain living targets—for -example, concentration points where<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span> -troops were bound to be gathered; billeting -areas, including well-known villages or -towns; areas known to have a number of -batteries collected in them, and so on; in the -latter case the batteries themselves would -be taken on individually if their positions -were known.</p> - -<p>Apart from a number of fairly big bombardments, -like that at Arras, mentioned -above, the destructive shoots were chiefly -counter-battery ones, intended if possible to -“neutralise” our artillery while it should -be actively engaged in putting down a barrage, -either to prevent a German attack or -in preparing the way for our own infantry -when we were attacking, which, of course, -was much more frequently the case in 1916 -and the first half of 1917.</p> - -<p>This neutralisation business wants a bit -of explaining. It will have been realised -that the Germans were and still are using -two very distinct kinds of gas shell—those -which kill, like the Green Cross, and those -which only temporarily put a man out of action, -like the lachrymators and nowadays -the mustard gas. Of course, the idea underlying -the use of gas shell in general—and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span> -the whole war for that matter—is to put -men out of action. The most effective way -of doing this is to kill, as that puts a man out -of action for good and he doesn’t return. -But you can kill men with gas only by taking -them by surprise, because of the excellence -of the gas masks.</p> - -<p>After the surprise has been effected the -chief use of the gas shell is to force the opposing -side to continue wearing their gas -masks and in that way to hamper them and -reduce their fighting efficiency for considerable -lengths of time. This is where the -lachrymators and mustard gas and similar -stuffs come in, because they are very persistent, -and a little goes a long way in forcing -a man to keep his respirator on. The -quick-killing gases, like phosgene and the -Green Cross, are not very persistent, and it -would be waste of material to continue shooting -them when you could effect the same -thing with another stuff, which would hang -about for hours or perhaps for days.</p> - -<p>Now see how this affected the German -“fire for effect,” or destructive shooting, -as applied to a battery, and why the gas shell -are so particularly suited for taking on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span> -targets of this kind, which used to be engaged -only by high-explosive shell. Imagine -a battery of, let us say, field howitzers. -Our men are making an attack. The -howitzers are busy pounding the German -trenches to bits, and then they are going to -“lift” on to the support trenches when our -men go in. The whole of the success of the -infantry assault may rest on the guns’ keeping -up to the program with the requisite -amount of fire. The boche business then -is to try to put our guns out of action. If -he can do this he has the infantry—I won’t -say at his mercy, but at any rate at such a -serious disadvantage that their losses will -be tremendous compared with what they -would be under cover of a good barrage -from the guns.</p> - -<p>Now if the enemy uses high-explosive -shell to take on our batteries he can put them -out of action only by registering a direct hit. -If the guns are well dug in in good emplacements -with head cover it will be possible for -high-explosive shell to drop within a dozen -yards without doing anything but scare the -gunners. Not so, however, with the gas shell. -Drop enough gas shell within a dozen or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span> -twenty yards of the battery position and the -gas will float down with the wind and penetrate -every nook and cranny. If the gunners -are not quick some of them may be -gassed; and if, as is sometimes the case, the -gun has been worked short-handed this -alone may throw down the rate of fire to a -very considerable extent. Add to this the -fact that the remainder of the crew will have -to don their respirators in order to fight -their gun at all, and it can be seen that the -rate of fire may be reduced to such a low -limit as to make it of little value for the -time being; or the gun may even be put out -of action completely.</p> - -<p>Once the first surprise is over and no -more immediate killing can be counted on, -the bombardment may be continued with -persistent gas shell, which are just as effective -in making the men wear masks.</p> - -<p>From our point of view it all comes down -to the ability of the gunners to be quick -enough at first in preventing themselves -from being gassed; and then later of their -being capable of carrying on with their firing -while wearing masks. It means that gas -training and discipline are, if possible,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span> -more important for the artillerymen even -than for other branches of the service. This -is realised to the full in all their training and -practice, for if they are not able to respond -to an S O S call from the infantry an otherwise -abortive German attack may be turned -into a disaster. It is like everything else in -this war—a question of training and discipline.</p> - -<p>The neutralisation of the infantry or the -transport is conducted on similar lines, and -though it rarely reaches the point of being -complete a partial neutralisation of reserves -which prevents their getting up in sufficient -numbers or in time, either for reinforcement -or attack, may have most serious consequences -in an operation. The partial neutralisation -is attempted, just as for the artillery, -by killing as many as possible by heavy -surprise bombardments with the lethal shell -and then continuing with persistent gas in -order to force the remainder to wear their -gas masks.</p> - -<p>Let me describe as an example a particular -way in which the infantry may be -partially neutralised if they are not -thoroughly steady, well-disciplined and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span> -trained up to the final dot in gas-defensive -measures and the use of their respirators. -Troops in the front line, whether they are -in settled lines of trenches or merely in temporary -positions, are absolutely dependent -on their supplies. Supplies of ammunition, -barbed wire and, above all, rations must be -brought up to them constantly; otherwise -they cannot continue to fight. All these -things are brought up at night. The motor -lorries of the Army Service Corps take the -supplies up to selected points, where they -are taken over by the first-line transport—that -is, the regimental transport, which consists -of horse or mule drawn general service -or limber wagons.</p> - -<p>As night approaches everything is loaded -up and departure timed so that the trysting -place with the infantry carrying parties is -reached after dark. These meeting places -are very frequently crossroads immediately -below the lines, and in position warfare are -usually situated close to the entrances of -the communication trenches. Pass by such -a place by day and you will find it deserted, -but as soon as darkness has fallen it becomes -a hive of activity—as busy a crossroads as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span> -you might find in the centre of a big city. -There is a constant movement in and out of -men, animals and vehicles. Unloading and -taking over of the supplies alternate with -checking off the goods and the moving off of -the carrying parties. Military policemen -direct the traffic and relieve the ever-threatened -congestion. Altogether it is one -of the busiest and most important phases of -the routine side of war, and anybody there -without a special job is a nuisance and is -not wanted.</p> - -<p>Places like this of course are apt to be -well-known to the boche, and every now and -again he will drop in some high-explosive -shell or put over some shrapnel in the hope -of catching the crossroads at its busy hour. -But even if he is lucky and manages to get -on to the spot it hardly holds up the work -at all. I have seen a big shell drop into -just such a place and make a huge hole in -the road, killing men and horses and smashing -up a wagon. Half an hour later there -was hardly a sign that anything had happened. -The hole had been filled in and the -material debris cleared away. The wounded -of course had been looked after first.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span>Now imagine instead of ordinary shell -that a number of gas shell had been dropped -into this busy centre. On a dark night, -probably very muddy underfoot and with all -the excitement of kicking mules, flares going -up and anything from machine-gun bullets -at long range to shell of every size dropping -in or expected, things are difficult -enough. But with the advent of the gas -shell every man must get himself protected. -It is now that the “hold the breath, and -mask on in six seconds” stunt is going to be -of value. With well-trained troops the -losses from the gas may be negligible, and -it is equally true that they will be heavy if -the discipline is poor. But whether one way -or the other it means that all the frightened -horses and mules must next be fixed with -their respirators and the work in hand must -be proceeded with by everybody while wearing -gas masks. This is the real test.</p> - -<p>If the men are well trained the carrying -parties—perhaps with loads of barbed wire -on their backs—will get away as before and -proceed up the filthy communication trench -to the front line; swearing probably, uncomfortable -certainly, but safe. Similarly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span> -the drivers will be able to get their teams -away from the gassed area as soon as they -are unloaded, and the serving out of the supplies -will go on as before, though at a reduced -rate. But if the soldiers were not -able to carry on in these terrific circumstances—could -not wear masks for long periods -and could not do anything in them—confusion -would undoubtedly supervene and -the work be brought to a standstill. If this -happened the men in the front line next day -would be short of rations, of ammunition, of -wire. They would, in fact, be neutralised.</p> - -<p>It is attempted neutralisation of artillery -and infantry by methods such as these, carried -out over large selected areas and generally -as a preface to an attack—either their -own or ours—which constitutes the German -“fire for effect.” The “harassing fire” is -simply the same thing on a smaller scale and -with no immediate tactical reason at the back -of it except that of killing and general annoyance. -As a rule a sudden burst of a few -shell will be landed on some likely place, -such as the entrance to a communication -trench, a sunken road, a bridge or an observation -post. These small shoots were always<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span> -causing us a few casualties. There -was no warning, or somebody was not quick -enough, or did not get his respirator on, or -took it off too soon. There would always be -some reason—but in the end it would generally -come down to something that the disciplinary -thumbscrew could cure.</p> - -<p>It is almost unbelievable nowadays that -at one time one of the chief sources of these -constantly occurring casualties was shame-facedness -at being seen in a mask. Men -would not protect themselves until absolutely -forced to do so, for fear others would regard -them as being too easily frightened. -This was especially the case with new comers, -who did not want to drop in the estimation -of the older hands.</p> - -<p>One case was reported where a corporal -in charge of a small party of men in passing -along a communication trench ran into some -pockets of gas from a bombardment that had -just stopped. He ordered his party to don -their masks and proceeded up the trench. -A few yards farther on they passed through -the support line, which happened to be fairly -free from gas, and here they were met by -jeers from some of the supporting troops<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span> -who shouted “Hello, got the wind up?” and -in this way induced the corporal, really -against his better judgment, to order masks -off. Not more than twenty or thirty yards -farther along the party ran into a particularly -bad pocket of Green Cross and the corporal -and several of his men were so badly -gassed that they had to be sent to the rear.</p> - -<p>The attitude of the officers is always reflected -in the attitude of the men. At that -time you would sometimes meet young officers -who had either been on the outer fringe -of a gas-shell shoot or had merely smelled -tear gas thinking they knew all about it and -refusing to believe in the extreme deadliness -of the poison gas and the need for enhanced -discipline. They would damn the gas and -the need for taking precautions, and their -men would consequently damn the gas and -the need for taking precautions. This of -course would mean another batch of casualties -when Fritz did treat them to the real -article.</p> - -<p>Just to show how a small matter of indiscipline -may result in disaster I would instance -the case of two men who took off their -respirators in a front-line trench. Their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span> -battalion was going to be relieved that night -and they took off their webbing equipment -for the purpose of fastening on the haversack -and pack. Absolutely against orders -they also removed their box respirators, and -of course it was just that moment that the -boche chose for dropping in half a dozen -small trench-mortar bombs filled with phosgene. -These vicious little guns are very accurate -and most of the shell landed on or -near the parapet and filled the fire bay with -gas. Both men dived at once for their -respirators and in so doing upset three other -men in the bay. All five were gassed and -three of them died later.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IX</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<div class="hangingindent"> -<p>Mustard or Yellow Cross gas—Not deadly but a dangerous -pest—Its troublesome persistence—Cleaning -it out by fires—Sneezing or Blue Cross gas—Another -pest—Its violent effect—The limit of gas shell effectiveness—The -need for constant vigilance and -disciplinary training.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">This</span> was pretty well the position of things -in July of last year, when the German use -of gas shell underwent a radical development -due to the advent of the so-called -mustard gas. So much has been written -about this gas and so many mis-statements -have been made concerning it that it is as -well for the public to understand what -mustard gas is, what it can do and what it -cannot do. On the one hand, it has been -credited with such impossible potency as -would make it wonderful that any Allied -soldiers remain at all. On the other hand, -it should be realised that in mustard gas the -Germans possess a very powerful weapon -of war and one which they are using to a -very considerable extent.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span>In the first place let it be said that mustard -gas is not a killing gas like Green Cross, but -that it is of the persistent type, like the -older lachrymators. Unlike the lachrymators, -however, its effects are not transitory -and a man put out of action by mustard gas -is going to be a casualty for several weeks -and perhaps longer. Mustard gas principally -affects the eyes and the lungs, but in -a very strong vapour or in contact with any -of the actual liquid from the shell a man’s -skin may be burned very severely—even -through his clothes. More attention has been -turned to this blistering effect of the gas -than to anything else, but as a matter of -fact the blistering is of secondary importance -and in itself does not result in the -loss of many men to the line. Of course one -has to be very careful. It is foolish, for example, -to lean up against sandbags that have -been spattered with the liquid or to sit in a -mustard-gas shell crater. Sooner or later -the skin underneath will develop a severe -and possibly extensive blister, which is very -painful and certain to last some time.</p> - -<p>These burns are not dangerous, but they -are most uncomfortable, to say the least,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span> -especially as they are most easily produced -on the more tender parts of the skin.</p> - -<p>Great excitement was caused at first -among the Highland regiments because the -story was spread about that the Scots were -particularly susceptible to the mustard gas -because of their attenuated clothing. As a -matter of fact the kilt doesn’t seem to be a -source of danger at all, and Highlanders are -burned no more frequently than others. -Possibly the continued exposure of their -legs hardens them.</p> - -<p>The chief effects of the mustard gas are -on the eyes and lungs. The first thing you -notice is the smell—which is slightly of garlic -or mustard—and irritation of the nose -and throat. Neither effect is enough to -make you feel gassed, and the chief symptoms -develop later on. When the gas is -strong it is apt to cause sickness and sometimes -actual vomiting. Later on the eyes -inflame and get very sore, the lids swell and -blister, but no permanent injury to the eyes -takes place, though the victim may be temporarily -blinded. The effects developed in -the lungs are equally painful and consist of -severe inflammation and bronchitis, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span> -may take some time to get better and if not -well looked after may develop into pneumonia.</p> - -<p>It will thus be seen that for a persistent -gas, though not deadly poisonous, mustard -gas is a nasty proposition. First the gas -does not of itself force a man to protect himself. -With the old lachrymators a man -either put on his mask or his eyes would -smart and water so badly that he could not -keep them open. With the Green Cross and -similar gases a man either protects himself -or dies. But with the mustard gas, though -the smell and irritation may be perfectly apparent, -the effect is not such as to force a -man to don his mask. Yet if he does not do -so and continues to live in the vapour unprotected -he will certainly become a casualty. -It may take half an hour, it may take -several hours to come on, but come on it will.</p> - -<p>Another particular disadvantage of the -mustard gas is its persistence. It will hang -about in shell holes for many hours and even -for days. If it gets into a dugout it is very -difficult to get rid of it, and as long as there -is enough to produce the faintest smell or irritation -of the nose there is enough to bring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span> -on serious symptoms eventually. This means -that when it is used our fellows are forced to -wear their masks for very long stretches of -time.</p> - -<p>The mustard gas is known officially by the -Germans as Yellow Cross gas, and the shells -are marked on the sides with bright yellow -crosses and bands. The paint used for these -bands changes colour in contact with the -mustard-gas liquid, so that if a shell should -leak it at once becomes apparent and can be -taken away and buried.</p> - -<p>The Yellow Cross gas was first used at -Ypres and bombardments there were quickly -followed by similar ones at Nieuport and -Armentières. Enormous numbers of shell -of all calibres were employed, including a -new and larger size—the 8.3-inch howitzer -shell, which holds nearly three gallons of the -liquid and can be fired a distance of six -miles.</p> - -<p>At Nieuport more than fifty thousand -shell were fired in one night, and equally -large numbers were used in deluging the -other towns. Since then the numbers used -have continually increased, especially when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span> -the boche was preparing for an attack or expecting -one of ours.</p> - -<p>Duds that were collected showed that the -mustard-gas liquid was a chemical called -dichlorethyl sulphide, a liquid that gives off -its vapour only slowly. The shell themselves -were similar to the previous gas shell except -that the small one have a new type of fuse—a -very simple and quick-acting fuse which -bursts the shell before it can get into the -ground, and consequently produces a very -little crater. This of course helps to spread -the gas round more than if a big hole were -formed. The respirators keep out the Yellow -Cross gas completely, and the blanket -protection of dugouts will also keep out the -gas splendidly. Of course if a dugout gets -a direct hit with a mustard shell there is -nothing for it but to leave it empty for some -days, as the liquid cannot be removed by -ventilation with either fans or fires.</p> - -<p>A case that will illustrate what I mean -was one in which a three-inch mustard-gas -shell got a direct hit on a doctor’s dugout and -gassed him and his orderlies. Some time -afterward the remaining orderlies thought -they ought to send the doctor’s things down<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span> -the line and went in and got them out of the -dugout. They noticed a faint smell but did -not worry about it, and soon afterward -found themselves gassed in consequence.</p> - -<p>A fire was then placed in the dugout to -clear it. In the meantime the medical -sergeant secured another dugout by clearing -out some infantrymen. In the evening the -infantry felt soul-sick and wanted somewhere -to sleep, so they went into the original -gassed dugout and slept there. In the morning -they all went down, gassed.</p> - -<p>Where there has been no direct hit and the -mustard-gas vapour gets into the dugout, it -can be cleared out just like ordinary gas, -by ventilation either with fans or by means -of fires. For clearing dugouts a great deal -of reliance is placed nowadays on building -small fires inside. A dugout with two entrances -can be very quickly cleared by means -of fires, as a through draft is produced, -which carries the gas away with it; but difficulty -is frequently found in getting the -necessary fuel for the fire and in keeping -the stuff handy. Bundles of firewood and -kindling material are supposed to be kept -in the dugouts ready for use; but, as has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span> -already been explained, the Tommies are -always on the lookout for combustible materials -for their own fires, and continual inspection -has to be made to see that the special -supplies for ventilation are kept available. -One officer told me that he always had -the supplies of wood, paper and kerosene -kept in an army-biscuit tin which was closed -and sealed; because, as he said, no Tommy -would ever investigate the contents of a biscuit -tin unless absolutely forced to do so -for lack of other food.</p> - -<p>It should be realised, however, that properly -protected dugouts have given perfect -immunity from the mustard gas as long as -the protection has remained intact, and a -great deal of attention is being paid to increasing -the number of the protected shelters -in order to give the men the necessary rest -from wearing their respirators occasioned -by the extensive use by the boche of his Yellow -Cross Shell. In Nieuport a special gas -patrol was instituted for going the round of -the town to see that blanket protection of -cellars and shelters was kept in good condition, -as there was always a chance that they -would not be well looked after or that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span> -blankets had been taken down by some enterprising -Tommy for his own personal use.</p> - -<p>Round about battery positions the most -annoying feature of the mustard gas is the -length of time it persists. In the shell holes -it can at any rate be partly destroyed by -sprinkling with chloride of lime. It is -rather interesting to find that in some captured -German instructions great secrecy -was laid on the use of chloride of lime for -getting rid of the effects of mustard gas. -The boche kept boxes of chloride of lime in -all positions where the gas shell were stored, -and issued instructions to his own troops -that “the use of chloride of lime for the protection -of our own troops against Yellow -Cross liquid must not become known to the -enemy. Observation of the strictest secrecy -is a matter of duty just as much now as it -was previously. The troops will be thoroughly -instructed in these precautionary -measures, but nothing will be taught them as -regards the nature or composition of the -antidote employed.”</p> - -<p>During the present offensive the Germans -have used very large quantities of mustard -gas, generally for holding purposes and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span> -against our rear lines, battery positions, -communications and reserves. This is kept -up for many hours in order to wear out the -patience of our fellows and weaken them for -the coming assault.</p> - -<p>Strong points that the boche does not wish -to attack are also swamped with the gas, and -when Armentières were evacuated by the -British, Yellow Cross liquid was actually -running down the gutters. But in places -that he intends to assault he will complete -the mustard-gas bombardment against our -troops some considerable time before he advances; -otherwise his own troops would run -into it and be forced to don their respirators.</p> - -<p>The quantities of shell used in this preparation -are enormous and supplies of the -mustard gas must have been accumulated -during the winter to an unexpected extent -and their manufacture proceeded with to -full capacity.</p> - -<p>Take it altogether, Yellow Cross gas is -very much more than an annoyance, but -there is no question that good discipline and -thorough appreciation and carrying out of -the orders laid down for the protection of -troops have reduced the losses in very much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span> -the same way that the screwed-up discipline -reduced the losses after the first introduction -of Green Cross Shell. One of the most objectionable -features of the mustard gas is -the continual care that has to be exercised -to prevent casualties. It is so easy for a -man whose clothing is slightly contaminated -with gas to enter a dugout and contaminate -the whole of the interior and all its occupants. -Sentries also have to be posted to -warn troops passing through or into an area -that has been bombarded with mustard gas, -so that respirators can be put on. After a -cold night the officers must be continually on -the watch to see whether the vapours that -rise from the warming of the earth by the -morning sun are charged with mustard -gas, and to take the necessary precautions -on the slightest detection of the characteristic -smell. This smell to my mind is much -more like garlic than mustard, and the use -of the term “mustard gas” is purely the -origination of the Tommies themselves. As -a matter of fact, so as not to confuse the -Yellow Cross liquid with true mustard oil, -efforts were made at first to prevent the -stuff from being called mustard gas. But<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span> -once the British Tommy decides on a name -for anything, that name it is bound to have, -and as he adopted the name “mustard gas” -for it mustard gas it will remain for all time.</p> - -<p>The other new material that was introduced -by the Germans in the summer of -1917 and which, like mustard gas, has been -in use ever since is the German “sneezing -gas.” For a long time high-explosive bombardments -were reported on many occasions -to be accompanied with violent sneezing, -which at the time was laid down to the presence -in the air of undecomposed explosive -from the shell. As a matter of fact the -sneezing was due to the presence inside the -high-explosive shell of bottles containing -chemicals the chief effect of which is to cause -violent sneezing when small quantities get -into the air. This sneezing material, or -sternutator, to give it its scientific name, in -this case was a solid which is atomised into -tiny particles when the shell bursts. -Chemically speaking, it is called diphenylchlorarsine. -This material is used embedded -in the trinitrotoluene of the explosive -shell in most cases, and such shells are called -Blue Cross Shell, and are marked accordingly.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span> -This is the third of the present -trilogy of the German coloured-cross gas -shell. The sneezing gas is also sometimes -mixed in with the contents of the Green -Cross Shell in considerable proportions.</p> - -<p>The idea underlying the use of this sneezing -gas by the Germans was apparently -partly that of getting a gas which they -thought might go through our masks. In -this of course they were disappointed, as the -respirator keeps out sneezing gas perfectly -well. The other idea underlying its use was -apparently to cause such violent sneezing as -to prevent men from getting their masks -quickly adjusted or to cause them to sneeze -them off if they had been put on.</p> - -<p>This and all sorts of other tricks of the -gas-shell business have been tried out at -various times by the Germans. While putting -over Green Cross or Blue Cross Shell, -or both, they will suddenly accompany them -with violent bursts of shrapnel, the idea being -that men will be so busily occupied in -putting on their masks or in sneezing that -they will not take the usual care in finding -immediate cover from the shrapnel; or that, -on the other hand, in taking cover from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span> -shrapnel they will not get their masks on in -the minimum time or will displace them in -their efforts to get away.</p> - -<p>The sneezing caused by the Blue Cross -Shell is a most peculiar and violent kind. If -you get the smallest dose of this stuff into -your lungs you start sneezing at once. You -seem to sneeze from the very bottom of your -stomach upward, and feel as if the whole of -your chest were going to come out with it. -This may continue almost continuously for -a short time; but there are apparently no -after effects unless the gas has been very -strong indeed, in which case there is very -painful irritation of the whole of the throat -and lungs which will produce bronchitis.</p> - -<p>This is the present stage of development -of the German gas shell. Whether they -will add another colour to their lot of Green, -Yellow and Blue Cross Shell we do not know, -but we are prepared for it when it does come, -and in the meantime he is getting as good as -he gives.</p> - -<p>It will be news to most people to realise -how the gas shell are gradually dominating -the field. Some bombardments are composed -entirely of gas shell. As many as a quarter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span> -of a million have been fired on the attacking -front during twenty-four hours, and -probably at least one-quarter of all German -shell of all calibres are gas shell.</p> - -<p>It must be remembered that there are certain -things that gas shell cannot do. They -cannot replace high-explosive shell for the -demolition of fortified works, for example. -Nor can they be used for cutting barbed wire -previous to an advance; and the creeping -barrage that preceded the assaulting infantry -cannot be made up by gas shell. An -S O S barrage in No Man’s Land, to cut up -an attack, also would have to be shrapnel and -H. E. so as not to gas the defending troops. -When all these are cut out it will be realised -that the proportion of gas shell that are used -against living targets must be very big indeed. -It is hardly too much to assert that -at the present day, of the actual methods -of attacking men direct gas is the most important. -It must be realised also that it can -become, and is likely to become, still more -important, and that the fight between the -offence and the defence on both sides will -continue until the end of the war.</p> - -<p>Since December of last year the boche has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span> -been copying a method invented by the -British for firing a large number of big -drums of gas simultaneously. These drums -are used chiefly against the front-line troops -and are generally filled with pure phosgene. -As each bomb contains a gallon and a half of -liquid and many hundreds are fired at the -same moment a good high concentration of -gas is produced. Warning is given by the -tremendous roar from behind the German -lines when the flock of canister or rum-jar -bombs starts on its way. Every man who -hears the noise gets his mask on at once, -even before there is any sign of gas; and if -he does this there is little danger, as the -respirators are quite capable of dealing -with even the very high concentrations of -phosgene produced. If a man keeps his -head and obeys orders there is little to fear -from gas. But discipline must be high. As -one Tommy said: “You must be so well disciplined -that when the gas alarm goes you -will even drop the rum ration so as to get -your respirator on in time.” Beyond that it -is simply a question of carrying on the work -in hand while wearing a respirator, and this -is entirely a matter of practice.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER X</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<div class="hangingindent"> -<p>Liquid Fire—First used by Germans in July, 1915—A -great surprise and success—German hopes from it—Construction -of a flame projector—Flammenwerfer -companies—Their perilous duties and incidents of -desertion from them—Improved types of projectors—Co-operation -of machine-gun fire—Failure of -liquid fire—Its short duration and short range—Ease -of escape from it.</p> -</div></div> - -<p><span class="smcap">When</span> the German Army entered on its -policy of frightfulness there was none of its -new and unprincipled methods which had -more immediate and striking success than -the use of liquid fire. And there is now -none of all its methods of frightfulness -which has fallen more into disrepute, and -which has had less success when once the -first surprise was over.</p> - -<p>A great deal of attention has been drawn -in the newspapers to the use of liquid fire, -but the average man, even in the fighting -forces, knows very little about the German -methods and the appliances for its use. Yet -Germany still has special troops trained in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span> -the use of liquid fire, and seeks continually -to alter and develop the fire weapons and -their tactical employment in order to take -advantage of the undoubtedly terrible appearance -and destructive power of the high -temperature flames which can be emitted. -This article is intended to show the stage -to which the development has attained and -the reasons for the relatively innocuous -character of what is probably the most terror-inspiring -method of modern warfare.</p> - -<p>Throughout 1915 England was pouring -new divisions of its National army into -France. As with all new troops the procedure -adopted at the time was to bring -these divisions by easy stages to within a -short distance of the front line, and then -send them in by companies for a four day -“instructional tour” in the trenches to pick -up all the wrinkles and habits from the seasoned -troops holding the line. After the -whole formation had been put through it in -this way the division would be allotted a -definite part of the line, taking it over possibly -from the troops with whom it had been -in for instruction and allowing the latter to -get out for a much needed rest, or to get<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span> -“fattened up” for some impending or progressing -show elsewhere.</p> - -<p>One such new division, absolutely fresh -from England and with no war experience -whatever, was the target selected by the -boche for his new deviltry. The portion of -line allotted to this division was on the outermost -part of the Ypres salient and included -the ruins of the little village of Hooge right -at the point of the salient. This position had -always been a hot corner—“unhealthy” in -the British army parlance—and had changed -hands several times. The trenches there -were poor as it was almost impossible to get -effective work done on them owing to their -exposed position. Indeed there were many -parts of the line where no movement was -possible by day and the men on the posts -had to lie “doggo” until night. The two -lines were very close together—in many -places less than twenty yards—and it was -quite possible to hurl hand grenades from -one set of trenches to the other. It was on -this position of the line, over a front held -by two battalions, that the attack was made.</p> - -<p>After a bombardment of several days, a -mine was exploded under the front line and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span> -then immediately afterward, at 3:20 <span class="allsmcap">A. M.</span> -on the morning of the 29th of July and without -the slightest warning, the front line -troops were enveloped in flames. Where the -flames came from could not be seen. All that -the men knew was that they seemed surrounded -by fierce curling flames which were -accompanied by a loud roaring noise and -dense clouds of black smoke. Here and -there a big blob of burning oil would fall -into a trench or a saphead. Shouts and -yells rent the air as individual men, rising -up in the trenches or attempting to move in -the open, felt the force of the flames. The -only way to safety appeared to be to the rear. -This direction the men that were left took. -For a short space the flames pursued them, -and the local retirement became a local rout. -Then the flames stopped and machine guns -began to take toll of the fugitives. Only one -man from the front trenches is known to -have returned. German infantry following -up, poured into the breach in the line, -widened it, took our positions as far back -as Sanctuary Wood, and then consolidated.</p> - -<p>Ten days afterward we counter attacked -and won back the whole of the line concerned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span> -but at very considerable cost. Incidentally, -we captured two of the German flame projectors, -one of them complete, and they -proved to be of the greatest possible use to -us subsequently for educating the army in -the new warfare, and for inspection by our -own experts with a view to their duplication -for retaliation.</p> - -<p>Any one attempting to blame the troops -attacked for their retirement can hardly appreciate -the circumstances, and, I am convinced, -over-estimates his own capacity for -resistance. This attack was an utter surprise—the -kind of warfare was unknown and -unheard of. Imagine being faced by -a spread of flame exactly similar to that -used for the oil burners under the biggest -boilers, but with a jet nearly sixty feet in -length and capable of being sprayed round -as one might spray water with a fire hose. -Personally, I am pretty sure, had I been -there, that I should have hopped it if I had -not been fried by the heat or frozen with -terror. Later, when we knew the limitations -of these things it was different, though -even then it is a pretty good test of a man’s -nerve.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span>The flame projectors taken by the 14th -Division in the counter attack were simple -but very interesting in construction. The -main part was a cylindrical vessel of steel -about two feet in height and fifteen inches in -diameter provided with straps so that it -could be carried on a man’s back. At one -side about two-thirds of the way up was a -filling hole for oil, closed by a screw cap. -Near the top was a pressure gauge attachment -and toward the base was a lock closed -by a lever handle and to which could be attached -a long length of flexible hose ending -in a peculiar shaped nozzle.</p> - -<p>On examination it was found that the -body of the projector was divided internally -into two compartments which could be connected -by opening another tap. The upper -compartment was the compressor and the -lower the oil reservoir. The compressor -chamber was filled to a pressure of twenty-three -atmospheres with deoxygenated air or -nitrogen. Air itself cannot be used because -of its oxygen content forming an explosive -mixture with the vapours from the oil, and -any heating on compression, or back-flash -from the flame or fuse, might make things<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span> -very unpleasant for the operator. The nitrogen -required for the flame projectors is -carried into the field in large cylinders about -4 feet 6 inches in length and 6 inches in diameter. -Several of these cylinders have -been captured from the enemy since. These -cylinders are actually taken into the trenches -and the flame projectors charged from them -there.</p> - -<p>The combustible liquid used in the flame -throwers has varied in source and composition -from time to time, but it invariably has -one characteristic which appears to be essential -for good results—it must have light -or easily volatile and heavy and less volatile -fractions mixed in carefully graded proportions. -The heavy oil has sometimes been a -petroleum product and sometimes a tarry -residual oil from the distillation of wood. -The light portion, which insures the jet’s -keeping alight was originally a light gasolene, -but at one period, whether from shortage -of petrol or not I do not know, the place -of the latter in the mixture was taken by -ordinary commercial ether.</p> - -<p>The lighting device, fixed at the end of -the flexible hose, is the most ingenious part<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span> -of the whole contrivance and is so made that -the oil ignites spontaneously the minute the -jet is turned on, and is kept alight by a -fiercely burning mixture which lasts -throughout the discharge.</p> - -<p>The nozzle is about 9 inches long and detachable -so that replacement is easy. It -clips into the end of the tube and is held in -position by an annular ring. When the oil -with its twenty-three atmospheres pressure -behind it is rushed out of the jet, it forces -up the plunger of a friction lighter and ignites -a core of a fierce burning fuse mixture -which fills the whole of the space between -the central tube and an outer casing. The -latter consists of a thick wick soaked in paraffin -wax and fitting loosely into a thin brass -case.</p> - -<p>When the nozzle is in position all that is -necessary is to turn on the tap, and the -stream of flame issues from the tube and -can be directed at will.</p> - -<p>The official name for this instrument we -discovered was the “<i>Flammenwerfer</i>” -(flame thrower) and it is now never known -in the British army by anything else than -its German name. Indeed this is one of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span> -very few German words we have adopted -as an outcome of the war, the only others I -can remember being “<i>strafe</i>” and “<i>Kamerad</i>.”</p> - -<p>Flammenwerfer attacks are made by the -3rd and 4th Guard Pioneer Battalions and -by the Guard Reserve Pioneer Regiment—all -of which troops are specially trained in -flame tactics. Each battalion is composed -of six companies and each company is -equipped with 18 small or portable projectors -similar to that described above, and -with 20-22 large projectors of greater range. -The latter larger flammenwerfer are built -on the same principle as the former, but are -too heavy to be used as mobile weapons. -They are consequently built in to the -trenches at about 27 yards from the opposing -lines, and, if the trenches are not close -enough together for the purpose, special saps -are pushed out and the flammenwerfer installed -at the end. The range of these large -projectors is 33-44 yards and they can cover -a front of 55 yards with flames.</p> - -<p>It is probable that in the attack at Hooge -that both large and small flammenwerfer -were employed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span>It is possible with the above equipment for -a flame company to cover a total front of -1100-1600 yards.</p> - -<p>Service in the Guard Reserve Pioneers is -apparently a form of punishment. Men convicted -of offences in other regiments are -transferred either for a time or permanently, -and are forced under threat of death to engage -in the most hazardous enterprises and -carry out the most dangerous work. The -following incident will serve to show how -the German soldiers are hounded to their -death in these engagements.</p> - -<p>In the summer of last year a small flammenwerfer -attack was made against our -line at a point near Monchy, south of Arras. -Two boches armed with flame projectors of -a modified pattern were instructed to attack -one of our advanced posts which was at the -head of a sap running out toward the German -trenches. In broad daylight and with -no covering fire worth talking about these -two poor devils were forced over the top with -revolvers pressed into their backs. One was -shot down immediately. The other managed -to get clear of his own barbed wire and then -discarded his apparatus, with the intention<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span> -of crawling over to us and deserting. By -this time, however, he had been badly shot -up—whether by his own people as well as -by us, I cannot say. His left arm and his -right thigh were both smashed, and he had -two bullets in his abdomen. Nevertheless -this man managed to crawl into our lines -and was taken care of. He was sent down -to a Casualty Clearing Station in a perilous -condition, but despite his terrible injuries I -understand the doctors managed to patch -him up, and that he recovered completely.</p> - -<p>The portable flammenwerfer used in the -attack just described was brought in by our -patrols the following night, the spot where -he had left it being accurately described by -the wounded prisoner. It was found to be -of a new pattern and other specimens of -the same construction have since been captured, -chiefly in the neighbourhood of Lens -where they were employed by the boche in -the course of abortive counter attacks -against the Canadians.</p> - -<p>In this pattern, which is shown in detail -in the photograph, the compressed nitrogen -is contained in a spherical-vessel which is -contained inside a ring-shaped oil container.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span> -The whole thing looks like a life preserver -and is mounted on a light frame so that it -can be comfortably carried on the back. For -a man who may suddenly have to get down -on his stomach and crawl, the apparatus is -much more compact and better fitting to the -body than the original type, but it has no -advantage over the older varieties as regards -range or duration.</p> - -<p>The flexible hose which carries the lighting -nozzle is made of canvas and rubber, -and enemy documents which have been captured -show that only one tube is provided -for each three reservoirs. After the discharge -of one apparatus the long tube is -supposed to be fitted with a new nozzle and -handed on to the others in succession.</p> - -<p>The flammenwerfer companies are divided -into squads. Following the German -army habit of adopting contractions—a -habit presumably forced on them by their -cumbersome word-building language, the -squads are designated <i>Groftruppe</i> or <i>Kleiftruppe</i>, -according as they are armed with -large or small projectors. The former is a -contraction for <i>Grosser-flammenwerfertrupp</i> -(large flame projector squad), and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span> -latter for <i>Kleiner-flammenwerfertrupp</i> -(small flame projector squad).</p> - -<p>In the case of attacks with the large projectors, -or a combined attack with both sizes, -the chief thing is secrecy of installation in -the trenches. If it was ascertained or suspected -that flammenwerfer were being put -in, our gunners would open on the position -in no time and blow the apparatus sky-high. -As it is necessary to sap out to within 27 -yards of our lines in order to get in a “shot,” -it can readily be seen that the possibilities -of using the large projectors are very -limited, and as a matter of fact little use has -been made of them.</p> - -<p>Attacks with the portable projectors are -more possible owing to their greater mobility. -But here again the essential part -of the tactics and the most difficult thing -to do is to get near enough the target to -make the shot effective. The range is only -fifty to sixty feet. The German idea is to -cover the advance of the “<i>Kleif</i>” men by -protecting machine-gun fire.</p> - -<p>In an attack, the advance of the company -is covered by machine-gun fire from each -side, converging at a point on the opposing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span> -trenches. In the triangle thus formed the -attacking force, the “<i>Kleiftruppe</i>” in front, -then a party of bombers, and finally the -raiding or attacking party take up their positions -in No Man’s Land and crawl as far -forward as possible in the “protected area.” -As soon as the flame projectors are within -range, the machine guns switch outward to -each side, the flame is discharged and the -bombers rush in and try their luck in the -trench. If things go well, the infantry follows -the bombing party and proceeds to its -objective.</p> - -<p>In an attack of this kind, or a less well-supported -attack such as that at Arras, -mentioned above, the attackers suffer from -two such severe disadvantages that against -well-disciplined troops they stand little -chance. These disadvantages are (1) the -flammenwerfer carriers have to get so near -their objective that they are almost certain -to be shot, and they then become a source of -danger to their own side; (2) men in -trenches know they are perfectly safe from -frontal flame attack if they keep well down -and hug the parapet side of the trench. The -reason for this is that the flame will not sink<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span> -down into a trench, but having little force -behind it at the end of its journey is curled -<i>upward</i> by the rising currents of hot air. -The result is that any sort of head cover -(unless made of wood) makes perfect protection, -and a man crouching in a trench or -even lying prone in a shell hole, is very -unlikely to be more than slightly scorched -at the very worst. I can vouch for this, for -I have lain at the bottom of a trench with -the flames playing over my head and have -not been injured in the slightest, though I -confess to being very much relieved when -the flame stopped. The only danger in -trenches to men who keep their heads is that -of “blobs” of burning oil falling from the -end of the fiery stream, but this is not a very -serious chance.</p> - -<p>Another serious disability in the German -liquid fire is its very short duration. The -stream of flame from the portable flammenwerfer -lasts rather less than one minute. It -is impossible to charge up again on the spot, -and the result is that once the flame stops -the whole game is finished and the operators -are at our mercy. Without making the apparatus -of a prohibitive weight, the duration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span> -of the flame cannot be increased. Even the -heavy projectors give only a flame lasting -at the best one minute and a quarter.</p> - -<p>It must be realised that it is discipline and -coolness (if one may use the word) which -count, and that the moral effect on unsteady -troops, unaware of the fact that the appalling -flames have little destructive value, may -be very great indeed. When men have -bolted from the trenches into the open they -are an easy prey.</p> - -<p>An enfilade attack, i.e., one made from a -flank, would be much more dangerous were -it not for the difficulty of approach and the -fact that the traverses of a fire-trench are -as good protection against flame as the parapet. -Only where the “<i>Kleif</i>” squad can approach -under cover and get in its shot at -an exposed target is the flammenwerfer -likely to have much success nowadays.</p> - -<p>A certain amount of value was obtained -from their use in this way in the attack on -Verdun for reducing isolated strong-points, -notably fortified farmhouses and broken -down cottages in the ruined villages. In -certain cases the flame projector carriers -were enabled to approach under cover or by -crawling among the ruins and heaps of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span> -debris, to within striking distance of the -otherwise well protected machine-gun emplacements -and positions. By suddenly -playing the fire jet into the loopholes, enough -flame penetrated into the interior of the emplacement -to put the machine-gun and its -crew out of action—either temporarily or -permanently. This was the opportunity -awaited by the covering party of bombers -who would rush the post the minute the flame -ceased, having made their approach while -the projectors were in action.</p> - -<p>But even for special cases like these the -circumstances must be so favourable and the -inherent disadvantages are so great that the -flammenwerfer cannot be counted on to attain -the required result.</p> - -<p>The low value placed by the Allies on the -German flame attack can be realised from -the fact that no special form of cover is -provided against it. There is no special -form of fireproof clothing or other protection -issued to the troops, and the instructions -for meeting the attack may be summarised -as “Shoot the man carrying the apparatus -before he gets in his shot if possible. -If this cannot be done take cover from the -flames and shoot him afterward.”</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="transnote"> -<p class="ph1">TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:</p> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.</p> - -<p>Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized.</p> - -<p>Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.</p> -</div></div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GAS AND FLAME IN MODERN WARFARE ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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