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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..123b44e --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #69560 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69560) diff --git a/old/69560-0.txt b/old/69560-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0aa4ad4..0000000 --- a/old/69560-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11730 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Leisure hours among the gems, by -Augustus C. Hamlin - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Leisure hours among the gems - -Author: Augustus C. Hamlin - -Release Date: December 16, 2022 [eBook #69560] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from - images generously made available by The Internet - Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEISURE HOURS AMONG THE -GEMS *** - - - - - - LEISURE HOURS AMONG THE GEMS - - [Illustration: CRYSTAL OF SAPPHIRE - - CEYLON - - Exact size. - - HAMLIN COLLECTION] - - - - - LEISURE HOURS AMONG - THE GEMS - - - BY - - AUGUSTUS C. HAMLIN - - AUTHOR OF A TREATISE ON THE TOURMALINE - FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE - MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF NORTHERN EUROPE - CHEVALIER OF ST. ANNE, ETC. - - “Now in matter of the knowledge of the works of nature, I would - have thee give thyself curiously; so that there be no sea, river, - nor fountain of which thou dost not know the fishes; all the fowls - of the air; all the metals that are hid within the bowels of the - earth; together with the precious stones that are to be seen in the - east and south of the world. Let nothing of all these be unknown to - thee.”--RABELAIS. - - BOSTON AND NEW YORK - HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY - The Riverside Press, Cambridge - 1891 - - - - - _Copyright, 1884_, - BY AUGUSTUS C. HAMLIN. - - _All rights reserved._ - - - _The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass., U. S. A._ - Printed by H. O. Houghton & Company. - - - - - DEDICATION. - - [Illustration] - - - _Whatever of interest or value there is to be found in these - pages is earnestly inscribed_ - - To the Memory - - OF - - JEAN ANDRÉ DE PEYSONNEL, - -_who ventured to announce to the men of science of the Royal Academies - of Europe in the eighteenth century that the_ CORAL _was the product - of animal life, and not of vegetable growth. In answer to his simple - discovery and honest declaration, the naturalist was met with a storm -of contempt and derision that eventually wrecked his happiness and his - life._ - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - THE DIAMOND 13 - - THE EMERALD 285 - - THE OPAL 335 - - THE SAPPHIRE 367 - - - - - THE DIAMOND. - - - - - Le diamant: c’est l’art des choses idéales - Et ces rayons d’argent, d’or, de pourpre, et d’azur - Ne cessent de lancer les deux lueurs égales - De pensers les plus beaux, de l’amour le plus pur. - Il porte du génie et transmet les empruntes, - Oui, de ce qui survit aux nations éteintes, - C’est lui le plus brillant trésor et le plus dur. - - ALFRED DE VIGNY. - - - - - LEISURE HOURS AMONG THE GEMS. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - - THE DIAMOND. - - -The advice of Rabelais quoted on our titlepage indicates sound -judgment, if not a glimmer of prophetic feeling; but we doubt very much -whether the quaint philosopher had any conception of its extent and -scope when he gave it. Could the queer, sceptical old fellow return -to earth again after his long quiet sleep of almost four centuries, -how astonished would he appear at the revelations of the students -who have followed his suggestion during the last century even! And -yet in reality how little has been revealed to the limited vision of -man, compared with the vast resources of nature still unexplored and -shrouded in mystery. In enumerating the precious stones among the -works of nature worthy of the contemplation and earnest study of man, -Rabelais not only exhibited a prophetic discernment, but he disclosed -the fancies which invested these mineral objects in his day and in -earlier times, and which have in a measure descended to the present -era, and still exert some influence. - -The study of the gems is one of the most interesting of all the -objects of natural history; and although the field of research appears -somewhat limited at first glance, the scene expands as we advance, -and we are soon lost in the beauty and mystery of the subject, which -as yet no man has been fully able to comprehend and explain. It is -commonly understood that this study is simply a matter of commerce, -or belonging to the province of the jeweller or the mineralogist. But -the subject is really of far greater importance. Several of the ablest -of our philosophers have been deeply interested in this pursuit, and -have revealed to us startling phenomena, many of which have been turned -greatly to the aid of science and the comfort of mankind. After so many -years of study and research, the field of observation and discovery is -by no means exhausted. - -We may take another view of the subject solely with the artistic eye, -and find much for enjoyment and contemplation. In the art of ancient -times the precious stones played an important part, and by means of the -engraved gems we are enabled to form an idea of the wonderful skill -of the artists of those periods. By means of these engraved stones -the portraits of many of the illustrious characters of antiquity have -been preserved, and also representations of some of the masterpieces -of sculpture, which have since been destroyed by time or the hand of -barbarism. If the reader, exercising a little credulity and patience, -will kindly follow me through the observations of many years here -condensed and recorded, he may in a slight degree partake of some of -the enthusiasm and interest of the author. - -But, before we proceed very far on the pleasant and seductive journey, -let us understand each other, and, above all, allow the author to -confess that his knowledge of the subject is decidedly imperfect, and -perhaps somewhat visionary at times. - -We will consider first the diamond, not because we regard it the -foremost in interest among minerals, but because it is to-day reckoned -commercially, as it was in the time of the Latin philosopher, Pliny, -nearly two thousand years ago, “Maximum in rebus humanis,”--“The most -costly of human possessions.” But we must, however, slightly modify -the remark, and now apply it to the rare colored varieties of the gem, -since commerce and refined taste rank the red sapphire far above the -colorless diamond in value, and sometimes even the emerald and rare -blue sapphires exceed it in price. It is interesting, and at times -amusing, to read the views of the ancient gem-writers, and even those -of mediæval times, relating to this remarkable mineral, and compare -them with the accepted opinions of the present day. The ancients were -completely ignorant of the nature of the stone, and called it “adamas,” -or the invincible, from the mistaken idea that it could resist all -external violence, and was also perfectly indestructible. Modern -science, however, has disclosed the fact that the gem is not only quite -delicate in its structure, but that it is also utterly perishable in -its nature. The revelations of chemistry have clearly demonstrated that -the glittering stone, known as the diamond, is simply crystallized -carbon, and one of the allotropic forms of that protean element which, -by the aid of some mysterious agency, can deposit its substance in -the shape of a sooty blackness, as in the coal, or in the transparent -crystal of diamond, which may be regarded as the very emblem of light. -Furthermore, the gem is not only the concentrated embodiment of human -valuation, but it is also the standard of hardness among all mineral -substances; and yet, strange to say, plumbago, which apparently is of -the same composition, is exactly the reverse, and quite as soft as talc. - -Here, then, we may behold one of the strangest antitheses to be seen -in the whole mineral kingdom, for we have a simple and singular -mineral composed of the meanest of elements, yet whose different forms -illustrate the extremes of hardness, and may also be considered to -represent the antipodes of material treasures. - -The crystallized and transparent variety, when it occurs in its -greatest perfection, and especially with the rare colors of red, blue, -and green, forms indeed the most beautiful of all the decorative stones -yet known to man. For it not only far exceeds all others in degree of -hardness, but it also surpasses them in its extraordinary brilliancy -and the wonderful display of the prismatic colors, especially by -artificial light, which charm it alone possesses of all the gems and -precious stones. - -Although it is widely distributed over the world, and has been known -to man for many centuries, yet its distribution, its deposition, its -geological age, are not only puzzling themes to the mineralogist, but -they are yet subjects of startling interest to the philosopher. - -The origin of the stone has long been a subject of inquiry among -experimentalists, and it has received more attention from them than -all the other gems reckoned together. As for our humble opinion, after -long consideration of this multitude of hypotheses, we are inclined -to assert the diamond to be the product of decomposition of vegetable -material, and derived from one of the numerous chemical compounds of -carbon and hydrogen. We find some of these forms generated wherever -vegetable matter is decomposed under water, and in the gem strata of -the diamond placers we may observe abundant evidence of material for -metamorphosis. If we admit the origin of the gem to be from vegetable -matter, or derived from any transformations of organic débris, we then -reduce the history of the diamond to a simple problem; for it is quite -easy to explain, or rather imagine, the required chemical change under -the action of electricity or telluric magnetism, and all along the true -gem formations the phenomena of the earth’s vitality in this respect -are remarkable. - -Carbon is commonly mentioned as the meanest of elements, yet, when -we come to consider its bearing in the mineral kingdom, and its -vast relations in human industry, or its effect in the progress of -civilization, it deserves a higher rank, or certainly a more generous -classification among the constituents of the earth. For it not only -occurs in various states in the air, the sea, and the more solid -portions of the earth, but we find it an essential ingredient in the -structure of all animal and vegetable life. It is really one of the -most interesting and important of the elementary bodies, and may -present itself in a variety of allotropic forms of remarkable and -striking character. To its combination in the mineral substance known -as coal the world owes its greatest blessing, save the golden grains -Triptolemus gave to mankind. From its purest and crystallized form art -derives its richest and most dazzling object of ornamentation. Without -it the globe would soon become desolate and all organic life cease to -exist. - -In contemplating the transcendent beauties of the purest of its states, -the observer can hardly realize that between the sparkling diamond and -the black, lustreless mineral known as graphite, there is only the -difference in the arrangement of their invisible atoms. Yet, so far -as we know at the present day, the two objects are apparently of the -same composition, differing only in their system of crystallization. -The first we recognize as the perfection of natural beauty, the -concentration of brilliancy, and the standard of limpidity, while the -other is directly the opposite in its effects and relations. The -diamond, when exposed to sufficient heat, parts with its wonderful -beauty and disappears, leaving only a minute trace of seemingly -carbonized matter. - -It often perplexes the student in chemistry to explain the varied -forms and the different properties of substances having apparently -the same composition. It is not especially in the mineral kingdom -that he meets with these strange anomalies, but his mystery becomes -intensified when attempting to solve the problems of organic life. For -instance, in seeking to explain the odors of vegetable substances, -he finds that ten parts of carbon and sixteen of hydrogen appear to -form the sole constituents of many perfumes,--like the oil of lemons, -lavender, turpentine, etc. And yet, with the elements known, he not -only finds himself unable to combine them artificially so as to produce -the perfumes, or explain satisfactorily why bodies possessing the same -constituent parts exhale odors so different. - -Among all these investigations and reasonings the question comes -forcibly to the mind, why was the gem created, and has the day gone by -when the conditions required for its formation no longer exist? With -due respect to the phenomena connected with the crystallization and -deposition of metals and minerals at the present time, we cannot answer -this inquiry hastily. - -We may affirm, perhaps, that nature possesses the power to form the -diamond to-day, but are the conditions requisite for its evolution -present and complete? We will not now attempt to discuss the arguments -bearing upon this interesting theme; but we will, however, modestly -state that it is our belief that the diamond is the last gem placed -upon the earth, and that the period of its deposition was subsequent -to the introduction of some of the higher forms of animal life on the -globe, and, possibly, since the appearance even of man. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - - ANTIQUITY OF THE DIAMOND AS A GEM. - - -It is quite certain that the diamond is not one of the earliest gems -known to man, and the facts of the stone not having been found among -the ruins of Nineveh or Bassora, the Etruscan sepulchres, or the -jewels of the ancient tombs of the Phœnicians of the island of Cyprus, -recently explored by Di Cesnola, afford strong presumptive evidence -that its discovery dates within historic times. As the gem in its -natural state is not often finely crystallized with smooth planes -and perfect transparency, like the limpid crystals of quartz, it was -probably long overlooked by man, and its adoption in the decorative -arts preceded by the bright-colored and softer stones. The rough -crystals are not attractive when placed in comparison with many other -gems, and their degree of hardness, coupled with their rarity, probably -gave them their value among the ancients. We are inclined to think that -their use was governed by the fancy of the rich and powerful nobles, -and that the emerald and the blue and red stones took precedence in the -selection of gems until the art of polishing was discovered. - -In the time of Pliny the stone was acquired only by the richest of -kings; and in the days of Alexander Severus, in the third century, it -was remarkable for its price, while the emerald was estimated for its -beauty. Lollia, at the Banquet of Caligula, glittering with the spoils -of Asia Minor, of fabulous value, did not wear the diamond, so far as -we can ascertain. - -There is evidence to lead to the presumption that the gem was regarded -in the early periods more of a curiosity possessing talismanic powers -than as an ornamental stone. The famous crown of Chosroes, made in the -latter part of the sixth century, and brought to light by Shah Abbas -after a thousand years of concealment in an obscure fortress among the -mountains of Lauristan, does not contain diamonds among its ornaments, -but is incrusted with pearls and rubies. - -The absence of the stone in this royal tiara, constructed at this early -period of time, is certainly significant, and indicates that it was not -high in estimation, or that the art of polishing in a definite manner, -so as to reveal the hidden splendors of the gem, had not then been -discovered. - -The early practice of polishing the natural faces of the crystal did -not reward the patient lapidary by a corresponding increase of beauty. -Hence we can explain the setting of rough diamonds in mediæval times -long after the process of polishing had been discovered and put in -practice by the Orientals. - -The crown of the Khan of the Tatars, captured on the Oxus by the -Persians in the fifth century, is described as being ornamented with -several thousand pearls, but there is no allusion to any stones -resembling diamonds; yet the Tatars had undoubted access to the -commercial marts of India. - -The cup of Chosroes I., of the seventh monarchy of Persia, and which -is still extant, is composed of small disks of colored glass united -by a gold setting, and having at the bottom a crystal engraved with -the figure of the monarch. This royal relic is destitute of diamonds. -When the treasures of the Persian palace of Dastagherd were captured -in the seventh century, no mention of the diamond was made in the -enumeration of the articles. Among them were the famous throne of gold -called “Takdis,” supported on feet composed of rubies; also the crown -formed of a thousand huge pearls. If diamonds were abundant at this -period, why do we not find them among the decorations of the royal -jewels? Macondi, however, says that the Sassanian king had nine seals -of office, the first of which was a diamond with a ruby centre, bearing -the portrait, name, and titles of the monarch. - -The sacred standard of Persia, the famous “durn-foh-Kawani,” or -leathern apron of the blacksmith Kawak, which was eighteen feet long -by twelve feet broad, was richly adorned with silk and the finest -gems when it was captured by the Arabs in 636, at the great battle of -Cadesia. Its value was then estimated at $150,000, but the diamond is -not mentioned among its ornaments, and if it had been abundant we -might expect to see it prominently displayed among the decorations. -However, we must admit that many of these historical descriptions -are very incorrect, and often partake largely of the nature of the -fabulous. And so, in the description of the capture of Ctesiphon by the -Arabs in the seventh century, the historian states that vast quantities -of gems and precious stones and treasures of wondrous beauty, of more -than one hundred millions of dollars in value were obtained. Among the -descriptions of the articles comprised in this immense booty we fail to -find any allusion to the diamond, and yet we know that the gem was not -unknown to Persians at that time. - -To give the reader an idea of the magnificent tastes of the Persian -nobles at that period, we will mention some of the articles captured at -this time by the freebooters of the desert. - -A wonderful carpet woven of white brocade is described as being one of -the marvels of the world. It was four hundred and fifty feet long by -ninety feet in breadth, and exhibited a border worked in with precious -stones of various hues to represent a garden of all kinds of beautiful -flowers. The leaves were formed of emeralds and other green colored -stones, while the buds and blossoms were composed of pearls, rubies, -sapphires, and other gems of immense value. - -The captured robe of state was thickly embroidered with the most -beautiful rubies and pearls. The arms, helmets, and scimetars found -in the royal treasury fairly flashed with the gleams of the rarest -precious stones, so thickly were they incrusted over the metal. -At a later period of the monarchy the Sassanian kings adorned the -paraphernalia of their courts to a degree of magnificence which is -almost incredible. Some of the coins and sculptures yet extant have -preserved faithful representations of their luxury in dress. Many of -the robes were beautifully embroidered and covered with gems and pearls. - -The royal crown at this period, it appears, was not worn by the -monarch, but was suspended from the ceiling in the throne-room directly -over the king’s head when seated on the throne. - -Theophrastus, a Greek writer living three centuries before the -Christian era, does not mention the gem in a clear and distinct manner. -It is true he alludes to adamas, but it is now thought by several -mineralogists that this term was then applied to steel and some of the -varieties of corundum. The descriptions of the splendid fêtes given -by the army of Alexander at this period, when the wealth of India and -Persia was brought forth to deck the Persian maidens, do not mention -the diamond. - -At this period, and even in later times, the royal insignia and the -emblems of Persian authority were such as wreaths and vines of pure -gold laden with flowers and clusters composed chiefly of emeralds, -rubies, carbuncles, and other bright-colored gems, but not including -the adamas. Of like description were those famous canopies under which -the ancient potentates of Persia sat and gave their audiences. - -Pliny, three centuries later, was the first to describe the gem in -unmistakable terms, but even then but very little of a definite -character was known of it. - -The Romans had access at an early period to the gem-producing -countries. Ceylon and India had long been known to the Roman merchants, -and their caravans traversed entire Asia from the coast of Syria to -the Chinese ocean in two hundred and forty-three days. Their fleets -sailed regularly in the time of Claudian from the Red Sea to Ceylon, -Coromandel, and Malabar. Ceylon was then famous for its luminous -carbuncles and the lustre of its pearls. The famous fairs of Armenia -and Nisbis, which attracted the merchants of Asia, also furnished the -Romans with many of their luxuries. There certainly were no serious -obstacles to the introduction of the gem into the bazaars of the -wealthy nations of the Mediterranean in early times and subsequent -periods if it was then an article of commerce. - -With the ancient history of the gem there is also a remarkable fact to -be considered in its study,--its diminutive size. It is believed by -many antiquaries that the diamonds known or used by the Romans were -well-defined octahedral crystals, of not over four or four and a half -karats weight. It may be stated in reply that the exportation of larger -gems may have been forbidden by the Hindoo rulers, as we have seen in -later times concerning the rubies found in Burmah. But we place but -little confidence in this objection. Large and fine gems, had they been -known in the days of Roman prosperity and luxury, would surely have -found their way from time to time to the wealthy marts of the empire. - -There is other evidence to found the belief that most, if not all, of -the diamonds of antiquity were of small size. The celebrated traveller -and diamond merchant Tavernier boldly asserted in his day, that prior -to the sixteenth century the largest diamonds seen in India were about -ten to twelve karats weight. Tavernier was well informed of the history -of the gem, and had visited several times the most famous mines of -India. We are inclined to support the views of the French traveller, -and believe that the famous diamonds known as the paragons are of -modern discovery, or since the sixteenth century. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - - DIAMOND LOCALITIES. - - -The diamond is widely dispersed over the earth, and undoubtedly occurs -in countries where its existence is not now suspected. The difficulty -of detection has restricted its geographical area in history, yet -enough is known to regard its deposition as almost universal, or at -least quite as frequent as that of gold. In some countries the deposits -are very limited, while in others, like those of Africa, Brazil, and -India, they stretch away over immense distances. - -We will proceed to give brief descriptions of the well-known diamond -districts, and mention others but little known to commerce or the -mineralogists. For more extended accounts of the historical mines we -must refer the reader to the works of the authors quoted in our text. -We will commence with those of Asia. - -The diamond fields in India are very extensive, and occur everywhere -among the hills of the great range that extends from Cape Comorin -through the whole of Bengal for a distance of several hundred miles and -with an average breadth of fifty miles. - -How long these mines have been known to man must always remain a matter -of conjecture; but it is nevertheless certain that the famous mines -have been discovered within the past thousand years, and probably a -much less period of time. It is stated that many of the gem districts -along this range have not been explored carefully, and that the -kingdoms of Golconda and Visapour alone have supplied most of the gems -known in India. And it is also related that none of these localities -have been scientifically mined or surveyed with a view to thorough -development. - -The most ancient of the diamond mines in India are supposed to be those -of Soumelpour, near the river Gonet, a tributary of the Ganges; but the -celebrated mines of Golconda and Raolconda have been known only since -the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. - -The richest mine of India, and the most extraordinary of any yet -discovered in the world, is that known by the name of Gani, or Couleur. -It is situated under a plain at the foot of a mountain about seven -days’ journey west of Golconda, and was discovered by accident about -the middle of the sixteenth century. - -A native digging the earth to sow millet threw up a bright, clear -crystal of twenty-five karats. It was soon recognized to be a diamond, -and crowds of Hindoos flocked to the fields to reap the most wonderful -harvest of gems yet known. A vast number of large gems were obtained, -and among them the Great Mogul, which weighed in its rough condition -seven hundred and ninety-three karats. The gems of this mine were -remarkable for their large size, but they were not of the clearest and -purest water, the color and lustre of the stone seeming to partake of -the quality of the earth composing the matrix. - -This idea, which prevails among the miners in other gem districts in -India and also in other countries, lends support to the belief that -the diamonds were formed in the strata of gravel where they are now -found, and not in the hard crystalline rocks and afterwards set free by -disintegration. - -The matrix of these mines, as well as of all the others in different -parts of the world, is essentially the same; and consists of rolled or -broken masses of quartz, mixed or united with sand or earth impregnated -with a ferruginous oxide. Amongst this conglomerate, or immediately -below it, mixed with clay, the diamonds are found, and generally -unattached to any substance. - -The earliest and best accounts of the mines of Golconda are to be -found in the narrative of Tavernier, who visited them in the middle -of the seventeenth century. At this time they were in prosperous -condition and furnished occupation to many thousand men. There were -but four mines then worked in Hindostan, and more than sixty thousand -miners were employed at the mine of Gani, or Couleur, alone. About -thirty years after the last visit of Tavernier, the Earl Marshal of -England, who had previously examined the diamond mines on the coast -of Coromandel, visited those in Bengal. He found that diamond mines -occurred everywhere along the slope of the hills extending through the -country; but that very few of them were worked, and that nearly all of -the diamonds then supplied to commerce were obtained from the kingdoms -of Golconda and Visapour. He gives descriptions of twenty-three mines -in Golconda and fifteen in Visapour. - -The most famous of these at that time was called Currure, and was -worked by the king for his own use. Several very large gems are said -to have been found at this locality. It is related that a Portuguese -gentleman from Goa, having received permission to explore a part of -this mine, had the good fortune to discover a diamond of two hundred -and six karats, which so overjoyed him that he erected a large stone -over the spot with an inscription in Hindoo commemorative of the event. - -Near this place there was another famous mine which yielded stones -of fine form and water, occurring in black earth, which is regarded -in India as a singular formation. In all the mines of Visapour the -diamonds are found in red and yellow earth, and this is generally the -color of the matrix elsewhere. - -William Methold visited the mines of Golconda at a later period, and -relates that at that time they gave employment to about thirty thousand -laborers. The means for exploration were then exceedingly simple, -and no mechanical contrivances were adopted for excavating the pits -or bailing out the water. Shafts were rudely sunk in the earth to the -depth of sixty or seventy feet, and the cascalho found at even that -depth. It appeared to be reddish, mixed with white and yellow chalk, -and was rich in diamonds. Rarely, stones of one hundred and twenty to -two hundred karats were found, while those of ten to fifteen karats -were quite abundant; but by far the greater number were so minute that -it required from eight to twenty of them to weigh a karat. - -Within the present century Dr. Buchanan and Mr. Voysey visited the -mines of India, and have left interesting and accurate descriptions of -their examinations and observations. - -The famous mine of Pannah was examined in 1813, and found to be -situated in a table-land of great extent a thousand feet or more above -the Gangetic plain. The whole plain, wherever the gravelly formation -appeared, afforded diamonds at various depths ranging from six feet -to twenty-four. Many mines were worked in beds or borders of rivers -because they were easy of access, and the lazy natives lacked the -ability and means to explore the adjacent plains, which abounded in -diamonds, but were destitute of the water required for washing the -gravel. - -The effect of the Brazilian discovery and its yield of several tons of -diamonds was severely felt in Hindostan, and many of its mines were -stopped in consequence. Yet there is abundant virgin territory left in -India for future successful exploration, if conducted scientifically -and with ample means. - -The natives, with their rude methods of mining, generally ceased -operations when the deposit required the removal of twenty-four feet of -superincumbent soil. Hindoo labor, also, though apparently very cheap, -is in reality costly when we come to compare their slow and feeble -results to the efforts of well organized and conducted operations. -Hence the diamond has always been a costly gem in Hindostan, and it is -worth more in that country at the present time than in Europe. - -Concerning the widespread idea of the reproduction of diamonds in India -we will make only a brief allusion at the present time. - -This theory does not seem to be of a very recent date, for the -Portuguese traveller Garcias, who had been physician to the Viceroy at -Goa in the early part of the sixteenth century, and who visited the -mines, has left in his treatise published in 1565, some curious notes -on the rapid generation of diamonds at that time. And he affirms that -the soil a few feet below the surface will, in the interval of two -or three years, produce diamonds again; but he also admits that the -largest gems are only found at much greater depths. - -Mr. Voysey, who examined the principal mines in Southern India in 1821, -was also assured by the miners of this reproduction; and from his -investigations he was led to adopt similar views. - -Dr. Buchanan in 1813 visited the famous Pannah mine, and these views -then prevailed at that locality. He examined the diamond-bearing earth, -but observed nothing very peculiar in its formation. It seemed to be -very red, and characterized by pebbles stained by iron and a great -variety of quartz in broken fragments, chiefly white in color, or -stained red in places, or dotted with black spots. - -The miners who were then operating the mines assured the Doctor “that -the generation of diamonds is always going forward, and that they -have just as much chance of success in searching earth which has been -fourteen or fifteen years unexamined as in digging in what has never -been disturbed; and in fact,” he says, “I saw them digging up earth -which had evidently been before examined, as it was lying in irregular -heaps as thrown out after examination.” - -Borneo is thought to be rich in diamonds, but concerning the extent -and productiveness of the placers but little definitely is known. The -island has long been known as abounding in the gem, but travellers -and mineralogists have been prevented from exploring it by a variety -of causes, chiefly arising from opposition of the native rulers and -difficulty in penetrating into the interior of the country where the -mines are found. - -Tavernier was desirous of visiting these mines, but was dissuaded from -going by these supposed or fancied difficulties, and the fact that the -Queen at that time forbade the exportation of the gem. Therefore we -have to regret the absence of the report which this able and truthful -traveller would have made if he had visited those regions. - -The Borneo diamonds are reported to be the best in the world, and to -owe their excellence to a faint steel-like tinge and a very vivid -adamantine flash. We are inclined to think, however, that diamonds of -this description may be found in various countries, and that commerce -assigns their locality to Borneo as a matter of convenience and trade. - -Borneo is yet a _terra incognita_, and its features have not yet been -made known to geography or even commerce. The second island in size in -the world, and itself almost a continent, it presents a vast field to -the explorer, with its broad prairies, immeasurable forests, deep and -impenetrable jungles, interspersed with lofty ridges of mountains. Its -mineral wealth is undetermined, but enough is known to found the belief -that the island is one of the richest in this respect on the globe. - -Concerning the diamond mines we have but imperfect accounts and none -of very recent dates. However, it is known that the character of the -mines is the same as that of India and elsewhere, and that the gems -are found in a gravelly stratum at various depths below the surface. -The best of these mines are said to be situated along the river Lavi, -near Sukkademia, and to be worked in a rude manner by the Malays -and Chinese. Mines on the northwest coast of the island have been -worked extensively, but it is reported that no large diamonds have -been discovered there. The Colonial Secretary, Mr. Low, states that -the gems are found in the greatest quantities in Sango, Landak, and -Banjarmassin, and that the stones, although of small size, are of the -purest water. - -The quantity of diamonds afforded by Borneo is not exactly known, but -a recent writer in the Journal of the Geographical Society of London -gives it as about two thousand karats annually. It is also stated by -various authorities that the mines of the island have never yet yielded -a diamond of thirty-six karats in weight. - -If these reports are correct, how can we explain the accounts of the -great diamond belonging to the Sultan of Mattan, which may be found in -the History of Java, by Sir Stamford Raffles, and also in the Memoirs -of the Batavian Society? - -The famous mines of Brazil, which gave rise to a new era in the -commerce and history of diamonds, were discovered by accident. And -we are not aware of an instance of the discovery of a single diamond -district or region of country, with the exception of the Urals, which -can be ascribed to the results of scientific research. Even the -wonderfully rich mines of the Province of Bahia in Brazil were first -made known by a slave who noticed the similarity of the soil to that -of the diamond mines of Minas Geraes, where he had formerly worked. - -In 1727 a Portuguese by the name of Lobo, while visiting the gold mines -of the Sierra do Frio, a desolate country about four hundred miles -north of Rio Janeiro, noticed some bright crystals of stone which the -ignorant miners picked up from time to time and treasured as trifles. -Gathering a number of them, he submitted them to some Dutch traders, -who informed him as to their valuable character. The Dutch at once -contracted with the Brazilian Government for all of the rough diamonds -that might be found, and for a long time controlled the trade. The -mines where the gems were first discovered were situated in the midst -of a desolate country destitute of vegetation and of considerable -elevation above the level of the sea. Since this period other mining -districts have been discovered, and it is now ascertained that the -whole of the vast territory situated between the twelfth and twentieth -parallels of latitude and extending even to Matto Grosso, a thousand -miles distant, belongs to the gem-bearing formation. - -This vast space of territory has not been examined scientifically, -and but little is known of its condition except that it is diamond -yielding. Since their discovery the mines have been worked with more -or less activity with slave labor under the direction of companies of -large capital. Skilled labor with the modern appliances of science has -not yet been employed in these mining districts. And the condition -of the country, its laws, and the controlling power of the diamond -corporations, will render the application of scientific skill a -difficult and hazardous task. The explorations are conducted in a -primitive manner during the dry season, which lasts from April to -October. They are made generally in the beds of the streams which have -been dried up by the summer’s drouth. Rivers are sometimes diverted -from their natural course, and their gravelly beds completely removed -to sheds on the banks to await the rainy season, when water, which is -required for washing, will be in abundance. The cascalho, a name given -to the peculiar gravel, composed of quartz fragments mixed with sand -and clay united with a ferruginous cement, which contains the diamonds, -is then placed in shallow troughs, and a stream of water directed upon -it until it is well cleansed, when it is removed and dried in the sun. -The dried residue is then carefully searched for diamonds, and it is -not always easy to distinguish them among a great variety of pebbles, -of which the _débris_ is chiefly composed. - -Some of the diamond mines were of great extent and required many -laborers to conduct the operations. That of Mandanga employed twelve -hundred slaves in its excavations alone, besides many free persons -engaged in other duties. The yield of the Brazilian mines at first was -enormous, and one thousand one hundred and forty-six ounces of the -precious gem were shipped to Lisbon in one year. The vast quantities -of the gem thrown upon the markets brought the price of them down to -five dollars per karat. - -Consternation speedily spread among the diamond dealers all over the -world; and many of them, believing that the gems would soon be as -common as transparent quartz, declined to invest largely, even at -these low prices. But a panic was checked by the prompt action of -the Brazilian Government, in claiming the working of the mines as a -royal monopoly, and also regulating the supply. In this condition of -affairs the working of the mines and the trade remain at the present -day; but the African discoveries and free explorations may change -this restriction and monopoly if the Cape fields continue to yield -their present supply. According to the estimates of Baron d’Eschwège, -the quantity of diamonds obtained from the Brazilian mines under the -Government restrictions averaged between 1730 and 1814 thirty-six -thousand karats annually, the cost of which amounted to nearly four -dollars per karat. - -From a variety of causes the supply gradually diminished until about -the year 1830, when the diminution was so great, coupled with the -increased cost of exploration, that the rough stones cost eight dollars -per karat. In 1843 the discovery of the Bahia mines increased greatly -the yearly supply, which was then about thirty thousand karats. For two -years after the discovery of the Sincora mines the supply amounted to -six hundred thousand karats. But the great distance of the mines from -the large towns and the coast, the fearful malaria which prevailed -in the district, together with the difficulty of obtaining supplies, -have prevented the working of the mines to any great extent; and in -consequence the supply in 1852 sank to one hundred and thirty thousand -karats. In 1732 the price of the rough gem was five dollars per karat, -but in three years after it rose to about eight dollars per karat, and -remained at that figure as late as 1742. - -The Brazilian diamonds are generally very small compared with those -yielded by some of the India mines, like that of Gani, which produced a -great many gems of ten to forty karats weight. Of the Brazilian yield -it was found by Professor Tennant that out of one thousand diamonds, -one half weighed less than half a karat; three hundred, less than one -karat; eighty, one and a half karats; one hundred and nineteen varied -from two to twenty karats, and only one reached twenty-four karats. - -Brazil still exports annually diamonds to the value of several millions -of dollars, but the exploration has probably been checked by the influx -from South Africa and the consequent fall in prices. - -Out of the immense number of gems yielded by these mines,--the district -of Minas Geraes is said to have produced two tons in weight,--it is -strange that more large gems have not been found. - -Quite a number of diamonds exceeding fifty karats have been -discovered, and several over one hundred karats, the largest being -known as the Star of the South, which weighed two hundred and -fifty-four karats. This fine gem was found in 1853 in the mines of -Begagem by a negress. It was in the form of a dodecahedral crystal. -Another fine gem, called the Abaethe, was found in 1797 in the alluvium -of the river Abaethe. Three convicts, banished into the interior of the -savage country, wandered about from thicket to thicket and mountain -to mountain, in hope of discovering some treasure that would restore -them again to their friends. After six years of weary wanderings and -severe privations they at length stumbled upon a diamond of one hundred -and five karats in the bed of the river above named. They ventured -to return to the inhabited regions and confided their good fortune -to a priest. He took them at once to the Governor of Villa-Rica, who -suspended the sentence of the convicts and sent the priest to Rio -Janeiro with the gem. - -A frigate was despatched with the treasure and the clergyman to Lisbon. -The King, delighted with his acquisition, fully pardoned the convicts -and advanced the priest to a high rank in his profession. - -Many attempts have been made to trace the diamonds of Minas Geraes to -primitive and unbroken rocks on the more elevated plateaux or even -among the more distant mountains. And sometimes the gems have been -found in cascalho at a great elevation, or perhaps in crevices of the -sandstones; and hence the idea has arisen that the solid matrix has -been found. The cascalho is the true matrix, whether found in the -lowlands or on the mountain peaks. The color of this conglomerate is -not uniform and varies in many districts. At the rich St. Antonio’s -mine it is of a dark gray; at the Veneno it is of a light ochre with -lumps cemented with ferruginous oxide; in the Pitanga mine it is of -a light gray and almost white, and contains but few diamonds, but of -the finest quality. The observer is sometimes led to believe that the -abundance of the ferruginous oxide is evidence of the abundance of -gems, and this fact is also noticed in the famous mines of Ceylon, -where, however, the diamond does not occur. - -Concerning the accounts of finding the diamonds in Brazil in their -native rock, as described by Claussen and later still by Redington, -we are not yet willing to give full credence any more than to the -stories of diamonds having been found in the “old rock” in India. We -have no doubt of the gem having been found in what appears to be a -soft sandstone, but which is in reality a secondary product like the -heterogeneous cascalho. And we can conceive this sandstone-like deposit -to be formed at the bottom of lagoons under like conditions which gave -origin to the conglomerate. - -Claussen published in the Bulletins of the Academy of Sciences and -Belles-lettres at Brussels, in 1841, an interesting account of his -observations while searching for a matrix of the diamond. - -He affirms that the gems are found at the mines of Grammagon in beds -of a soft sandstone, which he calls a psammite sandstone, and which -resembles the itacolumite, which is much harder. He also describes -several specimens in which the gems are embedded in the sandstone, -but admits that they are not very common. The same writer mentions -instances where they are said to have occurred between plates of mica -like the flattened garnets. Furthermore, he states that the crystals -found in the itacolumite are rounded octahedrons and those found in -psammite sandstone are perfect octahedrons. - -Claussen, although he believed the itacolumite to be the matrix of -the gem, was unable to explain its total absence in places where the -itacolumite was greatly developed. He was also forced, when tracing -the origin of the cascalho, to admit the existence of a secondary -itacolumite posterior to the transition formation. - -It is interesting as well as perplexing to follow the multitude of -views expressed by mineralogists when attempting to explain the -formation of the diamond. Most of them are determined to give the -gem an ancient origin, and insist upon the action of plutonic forces -upon dioritic veins. Humboldt maintained that the gems of the Ural -Mountains had a geological relation to the carboniferous dolomite of -Adolfskoi as well as to augitic porphyry. But Verneuil and Murchison, -examining the mines, found the alluvia which contained the diamonds -had no carbon; therefore the hypothesis was incorrect, and the matrix -of the stone must be sought in another direction. The mines of Brazil -have been examined during a century past by a number of geologists and -amateurs like Mawe, Martins, St. Hilaire, Claussen, Eschwège, Burton, -Hartt, and others; and to their works we must refer the reader for -extended descriptions of the geological features of the country and the -peculiarities of the gem mines. - -In the recent exploration of the diamond fields by Professor Hartt, the -Professor decidedly opposes the views of Claussen by saying, “I do not -believe that the diamond ever occurs in the true palaeozoic itacolumite -in Brazil, but that it is derived from the tertiary sandstones.” -After casual examination of the diamond-bearing sands of the mines -in Bahia, he is also led to believe that they have resulted from the -disintegration of Chapada sandstones; and he regrets that they have -never been critically examined, for he thinks that the mystery of the -origin of the diamond may be solved from their study. - -However, from the multitude of hypotheses to which the study of the -subject has given rise, we find nothing to shake our confidence in the -belief of the formation of the diamond in the secondary gravel beds -where they are now found. - -Shortly after the opening of the Bahia mines, black, brown, and even -clay-colored pebbles were found associated with the transparent -diamonds in the cascalho. These pebbles were of various sizes, -generally quite small, but sometimes appearing in masses as large as -one thousand karats. Their nature was not at first recognized, and they -were thrown aside with all other stones of little or no value. Finally -a quantity was gathered and sent to a merchant in Paris, where they -were seen by Count de Douhet. The Count in 1867 presented a notice -of them to the Academy of Sciences and pronounced them to be massive -carbon, and a variety of the diamond. The exact localities in Brazil -where it occurs we are unable to describe, but believe them to be -situated in the Province of Bahia. As to the quantity gathered we are -also unable to give a definite opinion, but have reason to think that -it is quite limited; and, moreover, we have yet to learn that it occurs -in any other diamond mines in the world. - -The color of the carbon, or carbonado, as it is called by the -Brazilians, is generally black, but it may be light-brown or of a -greenish gray color, when diluted with clay. It is always opaque, but -is not always compact, being sometimes quite porous, like pumice-stone. -It never crystallizes, but generally appears in angular pieces in lumps -or concretionary masses whose specific gravity is 3 to 3.4, while that -of the transparent diamond is 3.5. - -The black and perfectly crystallized diamond, which is very rare, is -not to be confounded with this variety. - -The hardness of the carbon is equal to that of the transparent diamond, -and probably some of the purest and most compact specimens are harder -even than the limpid variety; for the black gems are generally harder -than the light-colored, and we have for instances the deep-blue -sapphire, the black tourmaline, etc. - -At first this newly discovered mineral was pulverized, and its powdered -dust used to polish diamonds and other gems, and was then sold for a -few francs the karat. Lately, however, science has applied its use to -new inventions; and the demand for it in its application to the drill -and the saw has increased its value to several dollars the karat, and -the price is still increasing. Its advantages over the crystallized -varieties are very decided, and it is as hard and has no cleavage -planes, and is therefore far better able to resist the effects of shock. - -The only diamond known to have been found in modern times in Western -Europe is that picked up in a brook in the County of Fermanagh in -Ireland. Its weight was not given, but it was stated to be of a reddish -cast and valued by Mr. Rundell at twenty guineas. Some mineralogists -have maintained that the stone in question was not in place and was -probably brought in the crop of some bird of passage from Brazil or the -tropical countries of America. - -To us, however, a more plausible and probable theory would be that the -stone was in place, and that its presence is no more remarkable than -the gold nuggets found in the same country. In fact, this instance -is no more strange than the finding of the great American diamond -in Virginia, which was also a solitaire and many miles below the -auriferous fields whence it is supposed to have drifted. We shall not -be surprised to learn of the occurrence of diamonds in other parts -of Europe. Pliny ends his chapter on the diamond by stating on the -authority of Scepsius that diamonds are found in Germany and in the -island of Basilia along with amber. - -Eastern Russia was long ago suspected of being diamondiferous; and as -early as 1826 Maurice Englehardt pointed out the resemblance of the -Ural districts to those of Brazil. It was, however, left to Humboldt -and his companions to make known the actual occurrence of these gems -in this country. For in 1829, during their visit to Siberia, they -discovered several diamonds on the estates of Count Porlier, about one -hundred and sixty miles west of Perm, on the western declivity of the -Ural Mountains. Active search having been instituted, forty diamonds -were found in the detritus on the banks of the Adolfskoi. Strange to -relate, they were discovered in the gold-bearing alluvium twenty feet -above the stratum containing bones of mammoths and rhinoceroses. Since -this period they have also been found at several other places along the -Uralian chain. - -In commenting upon the occurrence of these diamonds of the Adolfskoi -which are preserved in the collection of Prince Butera, some of our -best geologists have come to a startling conclusion. - -Humboldt, Sir Roderick Murchison, and M. Verneuil, obtaining -information from different points in Siberia, have been led to the -belief that the diamond in these localities was formed at a date -subsequent to the destruction of the mammoths. - -Since this period Colonel Helmersen has made known other points along -the Uralian chain of mountains where the gem has been found, as -Ekaterinsburg, Kushvinsk, and Versch-Urak. But we have no information -of “placers” of any considerable extent having been discovered, or -the finding of the gem in sufficient numbers to warrant systematic -explorations. - -Future research may reveal other localities in Siberia where this gem -occurs, for the country was known to the ancients as furnishing the -adamas. - -Amnian in the fourth century mentions the region of Agathyrsi as one of -the gem-bearing countries; and this country included the Ural Mountains -and part of Siberia. It is not at all strange that the exact localities -should have been forgotten during the long intervening space of time -and the many political convulsions that have interrupted commercial -intercourse with those far-off regions. - -It was well known that Scythia furnished the ancients with gold for -centuries; but in modern times all trace of the localities was lost -until revealed by the researches of German miners exploring for copper -and iron. Stranger still, the locality of the gold mines in Spain, so -famous in ancient times, is unknown at the present day. - -The gold fields of the Southern States of North America have been -known to be diamond-bearing for forty years or more, but as yet no -earnest or well-directed search has been made for the gems. During -this period of time more than thirty diamonds have been picked up by -accident along the gold belt which extends from the central and eastern -portion of Alabama, through Georgia, North and South Carolina, even -to the interior of Virginia. All along this auriferous formation the -itacolumite appears in the gravel beds or in ledges or even in large -mountains in some localities. - -In Alabama, where the itacolumite is abundant, several fine diamonds of -three or four karats weight have been found. - -The northeastern portion of Georgia has also yielded some beautiful -stones to the miners while washing for gold. Some of these we have -seen and found them to be of the purest water. The Glade mines, a few -miles north of Gainesville, have yielded several fine diamonds, some -of which have been cut in London. They were found by accident in the -riffles of the gold-washing machines, and were preserved by the miners -simply as curiosities. At the Horshaw gold mines, a few miles farther -to the northeast, a large diamond was picked up, but unfortunately -destroyed by the ignorance of the laborers, who unluckily reasoned -like the ancients concerning its destructibility, and therefore tried -the effects of a heavy sledge upon it while placed on an anvil. An -examination of this last deposit in 1866 convinced the writer that it -was a true diamond field; and search was rewarded with the finding of -two small but well-crystallized diamonds. So far as we can ascertain, -all the diamonds thus far discovered in these regions have been finely -crystallized. - -North Carolina has also yielded some fine specimens of three and four -karats weight; but the largest diamond thus far found in the United -States and preserved was picked up in 1856 on the banks of the James -River, opposite the city of Richmond in Virginia. The spring floods -had probably washed it down from the gold fields which are situated a -few miles above. The stone was a well-defined octahedral crystal. Its -weight, while in the rough state, was about twenty-five karats, and -its color was of a faint greenish white tinge. Its transparency was -perfect, but its refractions were somewhat impaired by a flaw or a -speck in the interior. - -The American diamond-cutting establishment of Morse, Crosby, & Foss, of -Boston, cut this gem very successfully at the cost of about $1,300. The -stone was purchased by a distinguished American athlete in New York, -and worn by him in a breast-pin for many years. - -None of these diamond fields have been examined systematically by -experienced miners with a view to their development, and in fact no -definite idea of their limit or their value can be given. But we have -the impression that they are far more extensive than has been imagined -by mineralogists. The returning gem-seekers who have been educated -in the diamond mines of South Africa may investigate ere long these -unknown districts and settle the question beyond further inquiry. In -California, a few diamonds are reported to have been found here and -there among the gold fields, but nothing like a gem placer has yet -been revealed. The geological formations of Arizona and New Mexico are -more promising than any part of the United States, and explorations -may disclose extensive and valuable gem deposits in those regions. -The originators of the famous diamond swindle in Arizona chose their -locality with more than ordinary sagacity. - -The account of this daring scheme reads more like romance than reality, -and it was more than ordinary boldness that prompted the perpetrators -to visit foreign lands, purchase quantities of rough diamonds and then -plant them in a distant, desolate, and hostile country to entrap the -wary speculator. The success of this piracy was fortunately checked -by the sagacity of one of the United States geologists exploring the -adjacent territory, who quickly disclosed the fraud, but not in time -to prevent the swindlers from pocketing large sums of money from -speculators in California. - -Pliny mentioned Arabia as one of the localities of the gem; but modern -investigators believe that he founded his views on the facts of the -diamonds being obtained from Arabian merchants, and that they really -came from other countries. - -This probably is the true version of the commerce of the Arabians -in those days; but we see no objection to the belief that Arabia -may have been a diamond-bearing country in early times, and may -possess undeveloped fields at the present day. Northern Africa was -also asserted to be diamond yielding, and modern investigators have -established the truth of the assertion. - -In the year 1867 the attention of gem-seekers was turned to vague -reports of the discovery of rich diamond fields in South Africa, and -the pages of history were examined closely to prove that in ancient -times this continent was known as a diamond country. It is undoubtedly -true that Africa yielded diamonds to the ancients, for within thirty -years several have been found in Algiers, and are now preserved in -the collections of Paris. They were discovered in the auriferous -sands of the river Goumal, in the Province of Constantine, by natives -while washing for gold. They were small in size but of unmistakable -character. This discovery strengthens the ancient report of the -Carthaginians’ procuring the gems from the Etrurians, who brought them -from the interior of Africa. - -In 1867 a diamond was discovered by accident in the soil several -hundred miles north of the Cape of Good Hope. The report was not -credited, and it was not until a number had been found and tested that -the attention of adventurous men was fairly aroused. Success soon -rewarded the labors of the first bands of gem-seekers; and the news, -widespread over the world, soon brought thousands of determined and -hardy men, who are even yet earnestly exploring the gem districts and -also revolutionizing the country. - -The gem mines now under process of exploration are situated on the -Vaal River and its tributaries, the best of them being found near the -junction of the Vaal and Orange Rivers and from five to six hundred -miles north of the Cape. The locality known as Du Toits Pan soon -became famous and yielded a great number of diamonds, some of them -over 100 karats and one reaching the great weight of 288³⁄₄ karats. -The topography of the country around these mines is characterized by -low, flat-topped hills, which strike the observer at once by their -singularity. The storm clouds, their frequency, their dull gray hue, -their constant commotion, and the nearness of their approach to the -earth are also quickly noticed by the new-comer, so strangely different -are they from the ordinary atmospheric changes. - -Five miles to the north of Du Toits occurs one of the most remarkable -mines yet discovered in any part of the world. It is called Colesberg -Kopje, and although one of the richest spots of the globe, it is also -one of the meanest places on God’s earth. Several thousand men have -been actively engaged upon it for a number of years past, and many -thousand diamonds have been taken from it. So rich has been its yield -that it is stated that four thousand have been obtained in a single day. - -The extent of the excavation is enormous, and yet all has been done by -simple and even rude means. But little advantage has been taken of the -use of machinery and skilled labor, and most of the operations have -been conducted in a primitive manner. The distance to the coast and the -great expense of transportation is perhaps the principal reason why -different and more satisfactory arrangements have not been made. - -The photographs of the appearance of this field and its excavations -strike one with amazement. The countless array of tents in the distance -on the borders of the deposit; the thousands of busy miners; the huge -and deep ditches stretching across the plain, vast enough to float a -fleet of men-of-war; the lofty mounds of thrown-up earth,--all together -present a startling picture never to be forgotten. - -The depths of these enormous ditches vary from ten to more than one -hundred feet. - -All this herculean labor has been performed in less than twenty years -under the stimulus of extraordinary prosperity, and it indicates a -determination to explore the country thoroughly. - -As yet there has been no complete survey of these regions, and the -extent of the diamond fields is still unknown. Sufficient evidence, -however, has been received to indicate that they cover an area of one -thousand square miles, and are situated principally in the Orange -River Free State, but also extend into the Transvaal Republic and Cape -Colony. These districts alone will afford remunerative labor for some -time to come, and we have little doubt but that other fields of even -greater extent will before long be discovered in other parts of Africa. - -For a long time past we have been led to regard this continent as -containing the most extensive and richest diamond deposits on the -globe. A great portion of Africa belongs to the geological conditions -which produce the diamonds, and the present explorations will educate -a host of gem-seekers, who will not only investigate other parts of -Africa, but will also explore other countries. Therefore we may expect -the diamond trade to receive a strong impetus for some years to come, -and that new mines may for a time reduce the present prices of the gem. - -The largest diamond yet afforded by the South Africa mines is that -called the Stewart. It was found at Waldeck’s plant, in November, 1872, -by a man named Antonies. Its form was that of a modified octahedron, -beautifully crystallized, and exhibiting a faint tinge of yellow. -On the outside of the crystal were a few specks and flaws, but the -interior appears to be free from imperfections. Its original weight was -288³⁄₈ karats. - -A vast number of the diamonds found in these fields are tinged with a -faint hue, generally yellow or faint brown. This peculiarity was also -noticed with the yield of the Brazilian mines. - -It is quite impossible to give a correct account of the quantity -afforded by these mines up to the present time. It amounts to many -millions of dollars, and is sufficiently large to produce a marked -effect upon the market, but nothing like the panic which followed the -discovery of the Brazilian mines. The value of the diamonds exported at -Cape Town in 1871 is said to have been $7,500,000, but it was probably -much greater. - -Australia has afforded to the gold miners quite a number of small -diamond crystals, and gem fields undoubtedly occur within its -borders. Among the auriferous sands of the Maguarie River minute -crystals have been picked by the careless miner from time to time, -and other localities have also afforded specimens of the mineral, but -no systematic search has yet been made for them. A number of these -specimens of diamonds, although of minute form, were exhibited at -Melbourne in 1865. - -The islands of Java and Sumatra yield diamonds among their mineral -treasures, but, strange to say, the island of Ceylon, which is the -most remarkable gem deposit in the world, does not produce a single -specimen. The island is not far distant from the gem districts of lower -Bengal. The formation appears to be of the same character, but it is -evident that the geological conditions which deposited the sapphire, -the zircon, spinel, etc., differed from those required by the diamond. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - - ORIGIN OF THE DIAMOND. - - -The origin of this precious stone has been a favorite study with man -from the earliest times of its history; and, as we have already stated, -it has given birth to a multitude of hypotheses. - -The peculiar fascination which attends the contemplation of the gems -arises partly from their commercial distinction, as well as from -certain mysterious properties with which they have been invested not -only by tradition but even by scientific research. - -We will not, however, venture to affirm that they are more wonderful or -deserving of a higher place in the estimation of man than the beautiful -and more transient flowers of vegetation. Both are indeed objects of -our highest consideration. - -The transparent diamonds always occur in crystalline forms, although -they sometimes appear almost amorphous or even cylindrical or globular. -Its primitive form, however, is the octahedron. - -They are found generally in limited deposits, which are often as -shallow and well defined as the gold fields, which are termed placers; -and therefore we will also call the diamond fields “diamond placers.” - -In some “placers” the shapes of the crystals are perfectly regular, -while in others they are greatly modified and rendered indistinct. In -some mines they occur in fine octahedrons with beautifully truncated -edges, but in other districts the rare form of the regular cube may -abound. Every section of the diamond-bearing countries seems to have -some peculiarity either in color, form, or arrangement of crystal. It -is indeed true that experts, from an examination of the rough specimen, -are sometimes able to detect the locality whence the diamond was -obtained. The same facility may be applied to the natural crystals of -other gems, but it cannot be established as a fixed or general rule. -The diamond “placers,” distinct and well defined, are far more numerous -on the earth’s crust than is generally believed. - -A thousand plausible and often ingenious theories on the geological -character of the diamond have been advanced in modern times or within -a century past; and a great variety of rocks or mineral substances -extending from itacolumite to xanthophyllite have been affirmed to be -the parent mineral. The real matrix, or such as we believe it to be, -of the diamond is the same all over the world. The associate minerals -which form the conglomerate in which it is generally found may vary -somewhat, but the character of the deposit is but little changed. This -matrix is a secondary product, and consists of a conglomerate gravel -which once abounded in remains of animal and vegetable life. - -The keen eye of Buffon early detected the formation of the true gem -strata; and believing that the gems were produced in these peculiar -beds by the solar forces, he boldly asserted that they were formed in -the superficial strata from _débris_ of older formations, mineral, -animal, and vegetable. “On ne peut leur donner d’autre origine, d’autre -matrice que la terre limoneuse qui rassemblant les debris des autres -matieres.” - -This matrix is a well-defined conglomerate, which is found generally -on elevated plateaux, and which corresponds to the bottoms of shallow -lagoons or lakes of inconsiderable depth. In the earthy portion, which -is composed of a variety of _débris_, occur the diamonds, interspersed -among the quartz or rock pebbles, and in a marked and continuous layer. -These formations are well known to the geologist, for they occur in -almost every country on the globe. - -In various parts of the earth’s structure we find solid strata -of conglomerate and sandstone, which have been formed at distant -and different periods of the world’s history. In other places we -may observe the loose materials of the same formation awaiting -transformation when exposed to the action of water highly charged with -iron, lime, or silica, and we may even see the process taking place at -the present day. For example, we will take the broad tracts of level -country known in the south of France as the “Landes.” Here we have an -excellent illustration of the formation of the gem beds, lacking, -however, the precious stones. Below the surface of these plains, and -generally at the depth of about three feet, a conglomerate called -“allios” has formed, and is still in the process of forming. This stony -layer, which is composed of quartz pebbles mixed with sand, has been -cemented strongly together by the vegetable and organic matter which -has trickled down from the surface of the earth during indefinite -periods of time. The action of this organic _débris_ soon renders the -conglomerate quite impervious to water, and retards its passing into -the sand beds or other strata below. In consequence thereof these broad -tracts of level lands become stagnant lagoons of water during the rainy -seasons, and all the remains of vegetable and other organic life sink -down into these layers of stone, gradually filling up the interstices -among the rocks and lesser pebbles. - -This collection of decayed various organic substances is generally -of a gray or blackish color, or may be of a rusty yellow-hue like -ferruginous sandstone. Its cementing power has given a special name -to the formation it has caused; and to the gold-miner it is known as -hard-pan, to the gem-seeker as cascalho or “mellan.” Its peculiar hue, -together with the metallic fracture of its layers, has given rise to -the belief that it was composed chiefly of a ferruginous oxide. Recent -analysis, however, of the “allios” has shown that this idea is partly -erroneous, and that the color and the substance of the formation -in reality arises from the juice and _débris_ of plants loaded with -tannin and other matter. Iron, it seems from these investigations, is -present only in small quantities, and also is afforded by the secretion -of vegetable life. However, the quantity of iron in the conglomerate -varies considerably in different localities, but most of it seems to be -acquired from the action of vegetable vitality. - -These conglomerates of the Landes have been a long time in process of -formation; but in other localities, like those of the Cape de Verde, -to which the waves of the sea have had access, we may witness the -transformation going on with rapidity. No great time is required by -nature for this production, but rather the application or conjunction -of certain materials exposed to the action of chemical changes and -telluric forces. - -It has been asserted that the diamond has been found embedded in -the singular quartzite to which Count D’Eschwège gave the name of -itacolumite, but we are inclined from examination of one of these -specimens to think that its presence is quite accidental. - -In the State of Georgia there are immense beds of itacolumite, -appearing, also, here and there along the auriferous formation which -extends from Virginia to central Alabama; and they afford ample fields -for proof of the statement that the mineral is really the true matrix -of the gem. But, after careful examination of some of these exposed -rocks, we are led to regard the itacolumite as an associate mineral -to the diamond, and that any farther connection with the gem is very -distant. Fragments of this rock are quite often found together with -quartz in the conglomerate; but we do not regard their presence -as essential as that of a ferruginous oxide, which is one of the -distinguishing features of all gem mines, and especially of the famous -deposits of Ceylon, where the diamond is never found. - -The best and most characteristic mines of India, Brazil, and Africa are -situated on elevated plateaux, where there is at present but little -vegetation. - -To give the reader an idea of the formation, we will describe one -of the districts of South Africa, which may serve to illustrate all -others. At Pnict Kopje, in the Vaal region, the diamonds are found -on an elevated plateau one hundred and fifty feet above the river -bed; and many of them have been discovered but two or three feet -below the surface, in company with fossil wood and even bones. In the -Orange River Republic they occur frequently in peculiar isolated and -circumscribed spots, called by the miners “pans.” These are basin-like -hollows which are filled with water during the wet seasons. In these -pans none of the diamonds exhibit signs of abrasion caused by shock -or attrition, although the quartz pebbles forming the gravel and -conglomerate show in their rounded angles evidences of aqueous action. -The gems are not only found in the shallow edges of these hollows, -but are taken from depths of one hundred feet and more. And they are -always found in their peculiar and connected conglomerate, which seems -to have formed at the bottom of some pool or lake. Hence we may explain -the superficial depth of the cascalho at the shores of the extinct -pond, and the increased depth at central parts of the fields. If motion -had taken place among the pebbles forming the conglomerate after the -deposition of the diamond, we might properly look for worn surfaces on -the gems from shock with contact with loose rocks; for slight blows -will mar the surface of the diamond, even if its edges scratch all -other minerals with perfect ease. - -In these pans the diamonds are natural in form, indicating that they -have not moved since the time they were deposited. But in the beds of -the rivers which have in later times worn deep ravines in the face of -the country we find diamonds with abraded surfaces, having been rolled -about by the torrents for indefinite periods of time. Whence come the -alluvial soils and the gravel beds which cover the gem strata and -completely fill up the lake depression, especially when there are no -surrounding elevations to furnish disintegrated material? - -This serious question will naturally arise in the minds of all -observers; and to answer it clearly will be a difficult task. Sometimes -the thought occurs to us that much of the quartz gravel has formed in -these pools at subsequent periods and has been broken up and rolled -about by the waves until another stratum of alluvium has formed above -it; but we will not venture to assert an opinion to this effect. -Still, it is a great mystery to ascertain whence some of the quartz -pebbles came from in the present elevated condition of the placers and -the absence of similar rocks in the vicinity. There is another fact -connected with the diamond placers which deserves consideration, and -that is their great elevation above the sea level. - -The mines of India, Africa, and Brazil are situated at a considerable -altitude above the ocean. Those of India are generally a thousand feet -above the sea level; while the wonderful gem mines of the adjacent -island of Ceylon, which are also true placers, occur but few feet above -the line of the tides, but do not yield the diamond. It is certainly -remarkable that Ceylon does not afford this gem among the great number -of other precious stones. At first thought the idea occurs to the -observer that as flora and fauna have their distribution according to -certain elevations a similar rule may be applied to the deposition of -minerals. But there are too many exceptions known to oppose this view, -however pleasing the theory may be. - -One of the strongest arguments in favor of the theory of the recent -deposition of the gem is connected with its discovery in the gold mines -of the Adolfskoi in Siberia. Here they were found in alluvial strata -twenty feet above those deposits which contained the bones of the -mammoth and the rhinoceros. Hence Humboldt, Murchison, and Verneuil -were led to the conclusion that they had been deposited there since the -introduction of animal life. There are also some remarkable evidences -to sustain the view that these gems were formed in the conglomerate -and earth where they are now found. In some of the mines of India they -have been taken out of red earth with the earth clinging to their -sides as if it had become attached to them, while the crystals were -of a soft, glutinous substance. In the Museum of Rio Janeiro there is -a large rounded diamond which has very distinct impressions of grains -of sand upon its sides. The British Museum contains an octahedral -crystal attached to alluvial gold, and Dr. Nello Franka mentions -another which enclosed a leaf of gold. A number of specimens have been -observed containing splinters of ferruginous quartz and crystals of -other substances. The microscope often reveals in the interior of these -stones germs of fungi and even vegetable fibres of higher organization, -some of which resemble the moss-like appearance seen in the moss agates. - -It was from the study of these conditions, connected with the fact -that the stone becomes black when strongly heated, that Goppert was -led to assert that it could not be of igneous origin. It was also -from investigation of the refractive powers of the gem that Sir David -Brewster was induced to assume the hypothesis that it was, or that -it might be, a congealed secretion of a vegetable production. This -distinguished philosopher was seeking a perfect lens for microscopic -use; and discovered that the diamond, notwithstanding its immense -refractive power, was of very doubtful character in its adaptation -to this purpose, and that its laminæ were sometimes of different -shades and even arranged in a series of stratification. They not only -differed from each other in color and purity, but did not exhibit a -common focus. Therefore, Brewster was led to infer from these and other -phenomena that the mineral was of vegetable origin, and that its parts -must have been held in solution before crystallization took place. - -There is nothing very startling in this hypothesis, no more so than -in the case of the amber, which is now admitted to be a fossil resin, -and which is, in its refractive powers, second only to the diamond. -Therefore we cannot object to the theory of vegetable origin on account -of the property of brilliancy. - -Tavernier observed that the color of the diamonds in India -often partook of the color of the gravel in which they were -deposited,--white, reddish, blackish, or greenish, according to the -color and purity of the matrix. This fact has also been noticed in -Brazil; and it lends support to the view that the gems have been -deposited under stagnant water, and have received some tinge from its -color. - -The diamond is admitted by microscopists to be one of the foulest gems -known to them; and specimens are rare that do not exhibit cavities, -imperfections, or foreign matter in their interior. A painstaking -microscopist, after examining the large collection of rough crystals -of the East India Company in London, which numbered several hundred -specimens, came to the following conclusion: “It seems to be a general -truth that there are comparatively few diamonds without cavities and -flaws, and that the diamond is a fouler stone than any other used in -jewelry.” - -Berzelius first called attention to a black substance which he found in -a diamond belonging to the collection of Countess Porlier; and since -then many other examples have been observed. Frequently black specks -resembling anthracite have been noticed in the Brazilian diamonds. -Tavernier saw in India a large diamond of one hundred and four karats, -whose central portion was so foul as to render the stone worthless. -When it was cut open the cavity yielded about eight karats of filth, -resembling that of a rotten weed. - -The diamond is now recognized by the chemist as a crystalline form -of pure carbon. Newton, in 1675, with the wonderful penetration of -his genius, and reasoning from the high refractive power of the gem, -which so far exceeded the degree due its density, believed it to be -combustible. More than a century later the experimentalists of the -Academy of Florence strengthened this view by destroying it in the -focus of powerful burning mirrors. Lavoisier, however, dispelled -all doubts concerning its combustibility by burning it under a -receiver filled with oxygen gas. It has since been ascertained that -a temperature of 14° Wedgewood completely volatilizes the diamond, -producing carbonic acid gas. An English experimentalist, however, has -recently declared that the gem may be consumed at a red heat, and -maintains that he has accomplished this result by enveloping the stone -in certain alkalies. - -It has been admitted by eminent geologists that the diamond proceeded -from the slow decomposition of vegetable material, and even animal -matter, as the requisite carbon could be obtained from either source. -But they have also strenuously maintained that the gem was formed -under the same conditions of heat as produced the metamorphism of -argillaceous and arenaceous schists, these schists being supposed -to have once been altered from shales impregnated with carbonaceous -substances of organic origin. To this theory the revelations of the -microscope offer decisive objections, since this instrument shows that -there has been no action of heat in the formation of the stone, for the -vegetable remains often detected in the interior of the mineral forbid -the development of any considerable degree of caloric. Therefore, as -there is no evidence of the influence or effect of heat upon these -organic matters within the diamond, the theory must be abandoned. - -Geologists have been, perhaps, too tenacious in their views of the -origin of many of the rocks that compose the earth’s crust, and -especially in maintaining that many crystalline rocks are as old -as the dawn of creation. We know that some of these minerals may be -produced artificially at the present day, and that the forces that -arranged all rocks of a high molecular organization are still in force. - -We sometimes speak of old crystalline rocks with the inference that -their age is beyond comparison, and therefore undetermined. Yet -the microscope is constantly lessening the force of these views by -revealing prodigious numbers of minute and animal forms in fossil -condition in various kinds of crystalline rocks. - -We also observe that various forms of silex have been deposited on the -earth in recent periods of its history, and even since the appearance -of animal life, for we find their remains transformed into agate. Thus -it is evident that nature still possesses the power to deposit certain -forms of mineral substances. - -Arago and Biot, reasoning from the energy of the refractive power of -the diamond, were inclined to believe that it contained hydrogen. Sir -Humphrey Davy suspected the presence of oxygen, but sought for it in -vain after many careful experiments. Chaucourtois, however, deriving -a theory from chemical results, came to the view that the stone is -derived by the humid process from a hydrocarburet. Reasoning from the -process of forming sulphur from hydro-sulphuretted emanations, he -believed that in the humid oxidation of a carburetted hydrogen the -hydrogen is oxidized, while part of the carbon becomes carbonic acid, -and the rest remains as carbon and may crystallize into diamond. - -Supposing this hypothesis to be correct, where do you find the required -materials for the formation of the diamond? the reader may ask. At -the bottom of these lagoons the decomposition of organic matter -furnished abundant means for the production of the gem. Carbonic acid -is everywhere produced from the decomposition of animal and vegetable -matter. It is constantly evolved from the earth, and has the property -of decomposing many of the hardest rocks. It is the cause of that -mysterious decay which Dolomieu called “La maladie du granite.” - -In carburetted hydrogen we have the united force of two of the most -active substances known as organogens, or generators of organic bodies. -But of the vast range of their properties, their affinities, and their -interior changes we are still profoundly ignorant. We may, however, -easily recognize the fact that their combinations and also almost every -other chemical compound may be decomposed by electricity or galvanism. - -Here then we have a clew, though perhaps distant, to the formation -of the gem. Is not the production of drops of water by passing the -electric spark through a mixture of hydrogen and atmospheric oxygen -suggestive of the manner in which the diamond might be formed from -carburetted hydrogen? It is true this experiment in the laboratory -has failed to produce the transparent and crystalline form of carbon, -although it has thrown down the element in an amorphous state. This -failure is by no means decisive, for many of the simple acts of nature -are beyond the imitative power of man. - -And then again the chemist may exclaim, “How is it possible for the gem -to be produced in this manner, when the combination of these elementary -bodies is always or nearly always attended with the development of a -considerable degree of heat, while the diamond contains at times germs -of organic matter? Would not these organic remains be destroyed during -this process? On the contrary, they do not exhibit the least trace of -the effect of combustion or even heat, and are as well defined as the -insects in the fossil resins.” In reply we will point to the formation -of fulgurites through the agency of the lightning without the evolution -of heat. - -History presents some almost incredible examples of the stupidity and -obstinacy of mankind in the explanation of natural phenomena. It seems -quite impossible that when the German philosopher Chladni, less than -a century ago, asserted that meteorites were extra-terranean bodies, -the Academies of Europe laughed at him in scorn. Several meteoric -showers falling in Europe shortly after did not convince the bigoted -philosophers. And when Pictet in 1802 read a paper before the French -Institute in favor of the theory, he was insulted by his learned -audience. It was not until a year afterwards, when the great meteoric -shower occurred in Normandy, that Biot, deputized by the French -Government, succeeded in convincing the most sceptical. Yet only a few -years previous De Luc, the first meteorologist of Europe, the founder -of geology, declared that he would not believe it even if a stone -should fall at his feet from the skies. In 1751, Peysonnel presented -to the Academy of Sciences at Naples an elaborate memoir in which he -very plainly proved that the coral belonged to the animal and not -the vegetable kingdom. But his admirable paper was hooted at by the -European naturalists; and even the distinguished philosopher Reaumur -declared that the idea which was advanced was really too absurd to be -discussed. - -When we come to review the hypotheses of science during the last -century, we shall feel more inclined to be generous and flexible in our -views of natural phenomena. - - “There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, - Than are dreamt of in your philosophy.” - -The nodular or globular forms of the gem present no serious objection -to the idea of vegetable or animal origin; and we may refer for -argument to the calcareous nodules of the old red sandstone. These -concretionary and radiated masses are merely sarcophagi of animal -remains; and their arrangement plainly shows the chemical influences -of decaying animal matter and also the multiple and varied effect -of crystalline attraction and electric force. Can we say that the -crystallized diamonds occurring in well-defined placers are any -more remarkable than the little globular petrifactions found in the -cretaceous formation and known as the _Coscinopora globularis_, and -which nature provided with a perforation so that ancient man adopted -them as ornaments in place of beads? - -We are often reminded by the antiquary of the remarkable foresight or -acuteness of the ancient poet Lucretius in his explanation of certain -natural phenomena which have since been verified by modern science. But -of all the heaven-inspired dreamers none have come nearer the truth in -terrestrial matters than the Arabian poet Fizee, who wrote:-- - - “The sun from whom the seven seas obtain pearls, - The black stone from his rays obtains the jewel, - The mine from the correcting influence of his beams obtains gold.” - -Plato believed that the gems were produced by a sort of vivifying -spirit descending from the stars. It is undoubtedly from the influence -of the solar forces and the magnetic and electric currents which are -constantly playing through the crust of the earth that the gems derive -their origin. - -These phenomena of the earth’s vitality are manifested in their -greatest force along certain elliptics, which may be traced over the -true gem districts of Asia, Africa, and Brazil, and in marked contrast -to adjacent territories. The miners in South Africa, disturbed by the -severe whirlwinds and frequent thunder-storms, soon began to imagine -that the excessive electric action had something to do with the -creation of the gems they sought. Mr. Voysey, Geologist to the India -Survey, also observed the very marked telluric action in the diamond -formations of India, and moreover that the process of crystallization -took place there with wonderful rapidity. So convinced was this -keen observer of the present reproduction of gems in the alluvial -soil or conglomerate that he commenced to collect the proofs of -recrystallization. Unfortunately for science, Mr. Voysey died shortly -after he adopted these views. Dr. Buchanan, another traveller who -visited many of the mines of India, was impressed with this idea; and -he was assured by the miners all over India that the regeneration of -diamonds is always going on in the peculiar gravel. In proof of their -statements, many men were then engaged in working over the _débris_ -that had been examined many years before. An interval of fifteen years -was sufficient in their estimation to reproduce new gems, at least to a -certain extent. This reproduction, or rather, we will say, assertion of -a reproduction, reminds one of the mysterious action of the nitre beds, -which yield rich returns after a rest of a few years, and especially -those which occur among rocks which are destitute of potash. - -It is to the learned Abbé Haüy we owe the theory that crystals are -made up of an assemblage of minute parts or molecules, each having the -same definite form. To the diamond especially this hypothesis may be -applied, since it is composed of thin laminæ covering or concealing -its primary form. With the aid of the skill of the artisan we can -remove these coverings one after the other, until the definite and -elementary form of the crystal be revealed. In the time of Louis -XIV. it was thought that the size of diamonds might be increased by -placing them in certain solutions, as crystals of salt are enlarged by -immersing them in solutions of the same substance. But the difficulty -then was to find the required liquid; and even at the present day we -have not yet succeeded in discovering the composition of the water of -crystallization of crystals of quartz or topaz, although Nature has -shown the fluid to us in the cavities of certain crystals. - -These curious speculations which were discussed in the days of the -“Grand Monarque” are again revived by the theory that gold nuggets are -not only deposited from aqueous solutions, but are actually increasing -in size under certain influences and conditions. - -But where does this metal come from? the inquirer may ask. From a -variety of sources, we may reply. Does not the water of the ocean -contain it in appreciable quantities, and did not M. Sage extract -it from the ashes of certain burned vegetable substances? We also -know for a certainty that iron is produced by vegetable vitality, but -we will not attempt to explain the manner or whence the material is -primarily derived. Cosmic dust or the invisible atoms of the atmosphere -may be the source. The origin of the gold nuggets and the particles of -gold-dust in the well-defined placers, as advanced in the hypotheses of -Raymond and Murray within the past few years, is connected very closely -with the theory of the recent formation of diamonds in similar placers. - -In connection with this theme, it is proper to make a digression in -explanation of the condition and formation of the gold placers, as they -seem to be highly suggestive of the depositions of the diamond placers. -Gold is often found in the same strata with the diamonds, and the -presence of the one sometimes indicates the deposition of the other. -But this is not invariably the fact. Yet the peculiar formation in -which the metal and the gem occur leads the geologist to similar trains -of reasoning when seeking to explain their presence in the tertiary -strata of very recent times. It has been generally supposed that all -alluvial gold is the result of disintegration of the old crystalline -rocks. But we now distinguish placer gold into two kinds, as the -alluvial and that which results from decomposition of quartz reefs. -The distinction between these two qualities of the same metal arises -from differences which are quite strongly marked. The alluvial gold is -generally much purer than the reef gold; and the reefs rarely, if ever, -contain nuggets. The appearance of the nuggets and particles from the -true placers, in comparison with the gold-dust evidently set free by -aqueous action, is suggestive of a theory that they have been deposited -by different agencies. - -It has been suggested by Mr. Selwyn, the Government Geologist of -Victoria, while studying these differences, that the gold nuggets found -in the drift may have been deposited from solutions containing gold by -means of electric and chemical agencies. Mr. Skey, analyst to the New -Zealand Geological Survey, has recently come to similar conclusions -from his researches on the subject. The theory is well illustrated by -the formation of crystals and masses of iron pyrites from solutions of -that metal; and as gold is often found associated, free and uncombined, -in these pyritiferous depositions, there is sufficient evidence to -believe there may be some connection in the manner of formation. - -From the results of certain chemical experiments in the laboratory, -it would appear that organic matter is one of the necessary chemical -agents for the decomposition of some of the solutions of gold. -Therefore, if we assume this hypothesis to have a positive bearing -upon this question, the abundance of organic matter occurring in the -gravel beds adds to its weight as an argument. Selwyn found in the -gold-bearing drifts of Australia quantities of fragments of wood, -roots of trees, and other organic _débris_ to serve as nuclei, or as -reagents for the reduction of mineral solutions. We may introduce as -evidence the formation of iron pyrites in crystalline forms, which is -taking place at the present day under the action of sea-water. The -metal in these instances replaces the organic structure of wood, or -assumes definite forms with a particle of organic matter as a nucleus. - -The formation of gold nuggets from solutions of the metal is by no -means as wonderful or difficult of explanation as some other phenomena -witnessed in metallurgy. The strange play of pseudomorphism is well -defined in some instances, if not well understood. Here we observe -that the peculiarity of form may be rigidly adhered to, while the -composition is completely changed. In the waters of certain copper -mines, drills, rings, and bars of iron that have accidentally been left -have in course of time become transformed into pure copper. The iron -of the implements has changed places with the atoms of copper held in -solution. - -In connection with this interesting theory, there are some puzzling -facts to be deduced from the phenomena of the auriferous sand beds -of some of the rivers of Europe. The gold placers along the coast -of the Danube and the Rhine are situated far from the mountains, -the supposed sources of the metal, and there are also wide barren -districts intervening. The river Tesino affords no gold in its sands -until its waters have passed through and beyond Lake Maggiore. From -these and other examples, it is quite evident that the gold which -appears in these river beds has been derived from the placers through -which the rivers have passed, and not from quartz reefs in the distant -mountainous regions. The situation of these placers, with the evenness -and regularity of their deposits, also the absence of auriferous ledges -among the contiguous rocks, permit the observer to indulge in the idea -that the gold may have been deposited from solutions and not from -the decomposition of crystalline rocks. We certainly have sufficient -evidence to object to that final explanation which ascribes all these -depositions to aqueous action in distant times, and to the abrasion -of primitive mountains, the evidence of whose existence is alone and -doubtfully afforded by the _débris_ which form the strata of the gold -and diamond placers. The ancients long ago noticed the deposition of -gold in the beds of rivers; hence the phrase “The gold-breeding sands -of Pactolus.” - -It has been a favorite theory with many persons of a philosophic turn -of mind that all organic forms were created upon the earth not by -mere chance or hap-hazard, nor by what have been called by the early -geologists “freaks of nature,” but, on the contrary, with some definite -intent on the part of the Creator, and perhaps for the welfare of -mankind. Some of these far-sighted thinkers have advanced their views -so far as to maintain that even obscure animal and vegetable forms -may have some indirect or distant effect upon the well-being of man. -We all must admit that it is indeed a beautiful hypothesis, even if -it be contested by stern and savage arguments. But if we indulge in -this manner of reasoning, there seems to be hardly a limit in natural -philosophy in which we may not seek for evidence. - -Can we not include the subject of our treatise among those things -which are supposed to have some influence upon the moulding of human -character? Certainly its geological age, its origin, the beauties and -wonders of its physical properties, and their application to art and -science as well as to the wants of society, furnish evidence to sustain -an inference. - -But how can a cold, inanimate object like a gem influence the condition -or expansion of the human intellect? the rigid materialist may say. The -gems, he will maintain, apply only to the superficial wants of man, and -directly tend to degrade rather than elevate our natural morals; that -they are articles of commerce, and that commerce debases our natural -instincts. - -On the contrary, we may say that the beautiful in nature of whatever -degree is calculated to assist in the development of mental culture; -and without these beautiful lessons and examples constantly spread -out before us, man would always have remained in a state of utter -barbarism. As we look back upon the history of life, how many of the -triumphs of human architecture may be traced to the suggestions arising -from the observance of the varied forms of nature! Nearly all of the -beauties of the Gothic or Grecian styles may be found existing in the -fossil relics of by-gone ages or even in the multiple forms of existing -vegetation. What grand deductions Newton derived from his studies of -the glories of the opal and the iridescent gleams of the soap-bubble! - -Let us follow our theme a little longer. In reviewing the fragmentary -remains of the early periods of the earth’s history, the observer -will admit that there has been a marked progress in even vegetable -life as well as in the animal. For in the primitive ages we find the -non-flowering plants were more numerous than the flowering species. -Therefore, in contemplating the precedence of succession of animal -and vegetable life, the thought naturally occurs to us that perhaps -the most delicate and beautiful of all our flowers elate from recent -geological periods. - -We may also apply this hypothesis to the gems, and perhaps maintain -that they too have arrived at perfection by progressive stages. The -corundum, for instance, in the primitive rocks is never so pure and -perfect as the nodules and crystals found in the true gem strata of -recent formations. The emerald of the limestone is also incomparably -above the beryls of the granites. The spinels, the chrysoberyls, the -zircons, and the topazes of the gem beds are generally far superior -to those found in the old crystalline rocks. There are, however, some -plain exceptions to this plausible theory; and the finest of the -tourmalines are found in cavities in granite ledges that appear to be -of an early age. - -We are also sometimes inclined to think that color in the early ages -of terrestrial life was wanting in the rich hues which now deck -animate nature. For of all the relics of the old geologic forms that -are preserved to us their colors are either greatly faded or were at -first faintly painted. Even in the tertiary division the hues are -not beautiful. The shells, however, exhibit a trace of the pearly -hue of the nacre, which may once have shone as brightly as in the -modern mollusca. Some of the fossil fishes display a gleam of the -silver tints that now glisten on the sides of the living species. -Fossil corals preserved in the marble, however, have retained the -beauty of form but lost all delicacy of hue, if they ever possessed -any. Still, absence of bright and glowing colors of the animals in -a fossil state is by no means conclusive evidence that nature was -then devoid of external decoration. For we may see on every side -how the beautiful hues of animal and vegetable life may fade and -disappear altogether on the suspension of vital activity; and also -how the process of solidification and petrifaction may modify or even -obliterate all traces of organic color. It is, however, a fact that the -richest-colored gems and minerals are found near the surface of the -earth, as though they required the direct influence of the solar rays, -like the finest varieties of colored coral and the gorgeous flowers of -vegetation. - -In reflecting upon these phenomena, and in seeking for the causes that -led to the creation of the diamond, and sifting down the evidence -that science has patiently brought to light, we are naturally led to -philosophic musings. It is a singular reflection that much of our -commercial greatness is derived from luxuriant vegetations of early -ages of the earth’s history. How much pleasure, how many of the -comforts of civilization and even the necessities of life, do we owe -to the extinct fauna of by-gone ages! Even invalid man, seeking to -restore the exhausted fountains of his shattered nature in the waters -of some of the sulphur springs, quaffs the life-restoring principles -from the mineral and animal _débris_ of the lower ocean of the old -red sandstone. Here, then, is a happy adaptation of the vague and -empty theory of transmigration of the ancients,--the metempsychosis of -Empedocles. Certain elements imprisoned in the earth for ages return -again at last to reanimate exhausted man and improve his social life. -The same agency in recent times, and by natural though mysterious laws, -has produced from similar materials the gem, which seems to be quite as -necessary for the superficial wants of mankind as gold or silver. - -In studying the earth’s history and examining the successive phases -of its development, we are insensibly led to the idea that all these -stages, seemingly progressive, never retrograde, were for a definite -purpose, if not for the exclusive benefit of mankind. For it is only -just before the introduction of man that some of the highest orders -of vegetation, such as the _Rosaceæ_, appear on the earth. There is -certainly a marked intent in the appearance of the pear, the apple, -plum, cherry, peach, and other fruits, with the true grasses, late in -the tertiary period. - -We may also trace this suggestive progression in the development -of even insect life. In the Silurian age the hum of the insect was -unheard; and it was not until the oölitic period that this form of -animal life appeared. A fossil gem--the amber--reveals the time of the -birth of the insect dearest to man; and it was not until the eocene -change that the earth heard for the first time - - “The soft murmur of the vagrant bee.” - -May we not also place in the same category of possible intents the late -deposition of the diamond? It is not so very strange, after all, when -we come to consider the vast field that lies within the range of the -argument. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - - PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, ETC. - - -Before explaining, or rather attempting to explain, the phenomena -of some of the prominent physical properties of the mineral, it is -proper that we should give a description of its forms and its natural -appearance as it is taken from the mines, so that our reader may become -more familiar with the subject. We will not, however, venture very far -among the dry details of crystallography, even if it be a subject of -great interest to the student in science. The stone which so readily -attracts the eye by its dazzling splendors after it has received a -definite form and polish from art, is seldom attractive to the view -unless it occurs in a rare and perfect form of crystallization. Even -then, in this primitive state it exhibits none of the rainbow play -of color which makes the stone so celebrated and so beautiful. In -reality, in these rare conditions it is seldom if ever so lustrous and -pleasing to the sight as crystals of many other minerals. In general, -the diamond is so obscure in its attractions that practised eyes are -required for its search. - -Recently the distinguished savant Von Tschudi, in visiting some of -the diamond mines of Brazil, was unable to distinguish readily the -gems as they lay in the washed cascalho, while the trained eyes of the -negro miners picked them out with ease. It has been stated that the -diamonds are always or nearly always covered with an earthy crust of -various hues, especially greenish or yellowish, which is hardly the -fact; for what appears to be a crust is often caused by the salient -edges of the laminæ, among which a little earthy or coloring matter -has been introduced. These extraneous colors generally disappear when -the surface of the stone is removed; and, in fact, the degree of their -intensity is very much modified when the rough gem is placed in alcohol -or in any fluid of high refraction. - -The dull, whitish appearance seen in the natural diamonds is also -produced by the action of fire, which raises the edges of the laminæ, -producing a faint milky aspect. - -The primitive form of the mineral is the octahedron, and many irregular -masses may be reduced by cleavage to that of a double pyramid. -These octahedral crystals are sometimes as perfect in outline as a -mathematical model, with clean-cut angles and smooth faces. In some -specimens the edges may be truncated, that is, as if they had been -flattened or ground off by mechanical means. Generally, however, the -crystals are of the form of the octahedrons with rounded faces. The -dodecahedrons, with their twelve faces, and the cubes, with their -four sides, may also be reduced by cleavage to the primitive form of -the double pyramid. Sometimes two crystals are united, forming what -are called hemitrope or twin crystals. Then, again, a number may be -grouped together, assuming on the whole a globular-like mass. But they -are decidedly different from the globular, which in their form of -crystallization radiate from the centre of the crystal. - -The variety of diamond called boart, or bort, deriving its name from -the supposed abortive attempt of nature to form a perfect crystal, -is also quite deficient in cleavage, or its laminæ are so irregular -as to render splitting quite impossible and the cutting of the stone -equally so. The transparency of these forms is also affected by the -arrangement of crystallization; hence they are generally crushed into -powder for polishing material or used for various purposes in the -arts. The specific gravity of these varieties seems to be influenced -by the manner of crystallization. For instances, we find that the fine -transparent crystals have a specific gravity of 3.55 (water being -considered the standard as 1), while the bort is somewhat less; and the -massive variety called the carbonado varies from 3 to 3.4, according to -the amount of earthy matter it may contain. It has also been asserted -that the blue, the green, the orange, and the red varieties are heavier -than the white. The phenomena of electricity observed in the diamond -are not remarkable, and are inferior to most of the gems. Some of the -precious stones when excited retain their electrical properties for -hours or even days, but the diamond loses it almost immediately. It -exhibits vitreous electricity when rubbed. - -Much has been said and written concerning the artificial -phosphorescence exhibited by the diamond when removed to a dark room -after having been exposed for a short time to the sun’s rays. We are -not able to verify this statement, and feel inclined to doubt its -correctness, although we have been assured by experimenters of the fact. - -One of the most remarkable properties of the diamond is its extreme -hardness, in which it far exceeds all known substances in the mineral -kingdom. This peculiarity is due to the substance itself, but appears -to be modified by its color and its form of crystallization like some -other minerals. - -The more perfectly the crystal is formed, the easier its laminæ become -detached, and the softer the substance appears to be. In the globular -forms, which are quite deficient in cleavage planes, the hardness -is excessive, and often resists the most determined efforts of the -lapidary. Even in fine crystals we shall find that certain angles are -harder than others; and we may observe the same relative degree among -crystals of other minerals, like those of the topaz. In the large -transparent diamonds of irregular form, spots of excessive hardness are -often found. These are called by the lapidaries “knots,” and appear to -be due to a change in the process of crystallization. The coloring -matter, or the mode of its formation, seems to affect the degree of -hardness in many minerals; and in respect to the diamond, the rare -crystallized black form is harder than the limpid or lighter colored. - -Some years ago a black diamond from Borneo was placed in the hand -of Gallais the lapidary, to be experimented upon at the expense of -the French Institute. The chief object of the test was to ascertain -the relative degree of hardness in comparison with some of the other -varieties of diamond. In this trial the lapidary wore out his steel -wheel and a large quantity of ordinary diamond dust without making -the least impression on the surface of the black diamond. Although -heavily loaded with weights, it lost none of its roughness, and was -heated almost to whiteness by the friction of the wheel, which revolved -with great velocity. During the period of this extreme velocity it is -reported that a shower of sparks was emitted; but how shall we account -for this scintillation, when the ordinary transparent diamond does not -give forth sparks when struck by steel? - -The carbonado, which is amorphous and without cleavage, is also -extremely hard. The term “adamas,” which the ancients bestowed upon it -as denoting an invincible infrangibility, is not quite appropriate; for -although it is far superior in hardness to all other known substances, -it is in reality very fragile. And in the power to resist the effect -of shock it is also inferior to some of the other gems, and especially -the sapphire. Therefore several mineralogists have thought that the -ancients really applied the term to steel or to some of the varieties -of corundum, like the ruby and the sapphire, and not the diamond. -It is curious that this property should be ascribed erroneously to -the diamond for so many ages, when a trifling experiment would have -disclosed the real condition of things. In the days of the poet -Lucretius the gem was believed to be able to resist violent blows. - - ----“adamantina saxa - Prima acie constant, ictus contemnere sueta.” - -Pliny entertained the same idea, and also that its infrangibility -could be overcome only by first steeping it in goats’ blood. Even in -mediæval times Ben Mansur, the Persian mineralogist, gravely states -that a diamond laid upon the anvil and struck by a hammer would not -be broken, but would be driven by the violence of the blow into the -substance of the anvil. This stupid but wide-spread idea has prevailed -even in modern times; and many a gem has been sacrificed by the -ignorant in testing the character of the stone. The brittleness of the -gem is partly due to its singular cleavage, which in regular crystals -is so perfect and uniform as to permit the lapidary to remove the -laminæ so as to entirely demolish the structure of the crystal. But -when once accomplished, no artisan, however skilful, can replace them -again. The facility with which the stone may be separated was known in -ancient times among the Hindoos, and probably in Europe as early as the -sixteenth century, as De Boot knew of a physician who could divide the -diamond into thin scales like a piece of talc; but it was forgotten -until Wollaston not many years ago stumbled upon the secret of cleavage -and made it known to modern science. - -The real charm and value of the diamond lie in its remarkable -brilliancy, and in the wonderful prismatic display of the bright and -beautiful colors, which are constantly fugitive, but perpetually -returning, as the learned Abbé Haüy elegantly expresses it. When a -ray of light is reflected from the surface of a body, a particular -impression is conveyed to the eye, which we may properly term the -eclat. This impression is often so decided and so varied in its -effects, that we are able to distinguish certain substances at a -glance; and the reflection from the diamond exhibits a peculiarity -which is seen only in a very few substances. This is known as the -adamantine flash, and none of the gems display it to any marked degree -except the rare zircon. We witness the perfection of this property in -the black and opaque but crystallized diamond, when faceted by art; and -also in some few minerals of which we shall soon make mention. When -the rays of light are refracted, after passing through the transparent -diamond after it has been cut in a certain manner, and its facets -are arranged in an exact relation to each other, then we obtain -the remarkable exhibition of color which is known as the prismatic -display. This singular property is seen in perfection, or even to any -considerable degree, only in the diamond, among all the gems thus -far known. But art, however, has succeeded in imitating it in one -of her productions of glass, and so admirably, that under favorable -circumstances it is quite impossible for the eye alone to distinguish -the artificial from the real gem. Some of the theories relating to the -causes of these phenomena we will discuss hereafter, and at the present -will only say that it is to modern science the diamond owes the full -development of its latent beauty; and that the result was not attained -until Newton demonstrated the laws that govern the refraction of light. -It is only in the brilliant and rose-cut forms, or their modifications, -when made with mathematical precision, that the brilliancy and beauty -of the stone is displayed in perfection. The ancients, therefore, were -not acquainted with the full splendors of the gem. For, being ignorant -of the laws of refraction of light, they polished the stone chiefly -with the view of preserving its greatest weight; and, at the same time, -producing perfect transparency. Hence most of the specimens of ancient -and barbaric art are rudely cut, and therefore do not exhibit the -degree of beauty which is latent in the mineral. This is also one of -the reasons why the luxurious Romans preferred the opal to the diamond, -since the polished, or even the rude specimens of opal exhibited their -glorious reflections of wondrous hues, both by day and in artificial -light by night; while the diamond, with its natural or polished faces, -gave forth no prismatic display in the daylight, and but a slight -degree comparatively in artificial light at night. - -Whence arises this remarkable brilliancy, and to what particular cause -is the property due? This inquiry has afforded a fruitful theme of -speculation among philosophers, but at the present time we are content -to say that the refractive power of the gem is due to the nature of its -substance. This is somewhat indefinite, it is true, but what else can -we say? - -Under the general belief that the harder the gem the higher its -refractive powers would be, it has been maintained that the brilliancy -of the diamond arose from the simple property of its excessive -hardness. Investigation, however, does not sustain this widespread -view. Hardness, indeed, may have considerable relation with the -arrangement and form of the molecules composing the gem, for in the -same crystal it is not uniform,--some faces and angles being harder -than others,--but it does not determine the degree of brilliancy. To -strengthen this statement we will take for instances the soft minerals, -crocroisite, the chromate of lead; the Greenockite, the sulphuret of -cadmium; and the octahedrite, the oxide of titanium, which exceed even -the diamond in brilliancy. There are also other decided examples among -the transparent minerals to sustain this view; the most remarkable -of which perhaps may be found in the zircon, a gem which is soft -as quartz; yet it ranks next to the diamond in brightness, and far -surpasses in eclat every other gem, even the sapphire, which is next -to the diamond in hardness. Density does not seem to have anything to -do with the determination of the refractive power of gems, for the -garnet, spinel, sapphire, and zircon are much heavier than the diamond, -and are yet far inferior in brilliancy. The topaz is exactly of the -same specific gravity as the diamond (3.55), but nevertheless its -refractive powers have but little more than one half the energy of the -diamond. The relative brilliancy of the diamond to that of the purest -limpid quartz is 8 to 3; but the relative density is only as 4 to 3. -All diamonds do not exhibit the same degree of brilliancy, because -they do not possess alike the same quality of purity or perfection of -crystallization. - -We often observe among the minerals that the most perfect specimens -are found of a diminutive size; and we shall also find that the finest -and purest types of the diamond occur in stones of little weight. The -larger crystals, or amorphous masses, seem to be wanting in purity -and brightness as compared with the lesser; and this peculiarity may -be observed well marked in some of the other gems. Here, then, we may -find material for the argument that the degree of brilliancy is in a -measure due to the perfection of the crystallization of the stone; -and, therefore, the larger and coarser the laminæ of the crystal the -less will be its brightness. One thing, however, is certain; that the -most brilliant gems are obtained from stones of no great weight, and -which also seem, from their form, to indicate a nodular arrangement of -particles in their formation; or, in other words, a certain concentric -manner of crystallization. This form of deposition is not peculiar -to the diamond, but is clearly shown in the sapphires, topazes, -chrysoberyls, tourmalines; and the finest specimens of these gems are -cut from these nodular forms. We think we are correct in stating that -the greatest brilliancy and the most beautiful prismatic display may -be observed in diamonds of less than ten karats in weight. In fact, -the diminution of brilliancy in the gem, when above twenty karats, -is easily discerned by the eye alone, as compared with the vivid and -adamantine flash of a pure and perfect four or eight karat stone. The -same peculiarity may be observed in the little globular masses of the -chrysoberyl, which are seldom larger than a pea in size, but which, -when cut, exhibit flashes of fire which are only equalled or excelled -by the diamond, or the rarer zircon. We can hardly realize that the -little rounded pebbles of white topaz, known as _gouttes d’eau_, “drops -of water,” will yield gems of such lustre as to be often exhibited, -and even sold for the diamond. Yet the larger irregular masses, or -finely crystallized specimens of the same mineral, do not afford gems -of unusual brilliancy. In these instances we may affirm that the form -or mode of crystallization has something to do with the degree of -brilliancy. - -The prismatic play of color which this gem alone possesses to any -considerable degree constitutes its chief charm, and its cause has -been a matter of earnest study among opticians. A plausible theory has -lately been advanced by an English philosopher that the colored rays -are produced by the relation of the high refractive to its very low -dispersive power. For instance, this refractive power in the diamond, -or, in other words, its property of bending a ray of light falling -obliquely upon its surface, is 2.439, while that of water is only -1.336, and that of glass 1.500. But its power of dispersing a ray of -white light, or, in other words, of separating it into its compound -colors in reference to its refractive power, is only 0.038, while -that of glass is 0.052. Hence it is surmised that this inferiority -of dispersive power is required for the production of the splendid -colored reflections which constitute the glory of the gem. It is also -maintained that this high refractive power separates the red and the -blue rays more than a high dispersive power would in other transparent -bodies, and to such degree as to allow each color of the spectrum its -full force. As example, the zircon, with its inferior reflections, is -offered, its refraction being 1.99 on the established scale, while its -dispersive power is as high as 0.044. The relations of the spinel are -also as 1.81 to 0.040, and neither does the gem display the rainbow -hues. This theory is certainly ingenious, and if correct the test -may be applied to other transparent minerals possessing similar -relations. We may, therefore, expect the white garnet to exhibit the -property of prismatic display, as it has a refractive power of 1.81 and -a dispersive power of 0.033. But, unfortunately, perfectly pure and -transparent white garnets are unknown, and we must therefore turn to -other minerals for comparison. - -To the white tourmaline, then, we will apply the test, since this -mineral has a refractive power of 1.66, with a dispersive power of -only 0.028. Here, then, we have nearly the same relation as observed -in the diamond; and, if the theory be correct, we may reasonably -expect the exhibition of the same phenomena. But, upon examination of -several perfectly white and transparent tourmalines from Mt. Mica, -cut into regular brilliants, we have failed to detect an increase of -prismatic display, or even discover any evidence to lend support to -the plausibility of the hypothesis. We, therefore, reluctantly turn to -other arguments for a solution of this most interesting problem. - -The snow-white diamond displays the rainbow hues in the greatest -perfection; and this is the reason why this quality is sought for in -preference to the light buff or deeper yellow, which are in reality -more brilliant. The deeper the hue of the gem, the less becomes the -prismatic display; and when the diamond becomes of deep and decided -hue, the colored reflections cease altogether. It is somewhat -singular that the colored gems are generally more brilliant than the -pure white, that is, if the color is not so deep as to affect the -transparency of the stone. For examples, we shall find that the white -sapphire has an index of refraction equal to 1.768, while the blue has -1.794, and the red 1.779. The refractive of the white topaz is 1.610, -while the yellow is 1.632. - -The brilliancy and rainbow play of the diamond is not so apparent by -daylight as by certain kinds of artificial light, when all its latent -beauties are called forth as if by magic. The light of the camp-fire in -the obscurity of night produces a marvellous effect upon the polished -stone; and it is no wonder that the savage heart of the Russian -General, Suvaroff, was fascinated by the vivid gleams of his treasured -diamonds when viewed at night in the flickering beams of his bivouac -fire. It may seem singular that the brilliant white light of gas does -not display the qualities of the diamond as the duller flame of the wax -candle. The secret lies, perhaps, in the difference in their spectra. -Nevertheless, there is a great difference in their effects upon the -gem, and it is a fact that the wax candle far exceeds the gaslight in -calling forth the latent splendors of the gem. Therefore, we can assert -that the brilliancy of toilets where the diamond is much worn depends -greatly upon the manner of illuminating the apartment. - -We now come to another interesting problem in the study of the nature -of the diamond. We refer to the various colors of the gem. As we have -maintained that the mineral is of vegetable origin we may be expected -to explain the phenomena of its color upon this hypothesis, and also -account for the various changes of the gem when exposed to the effects -of heat or the fire test. But we must admit with candor that our views -concerning this physical property are decidedly unsatisfactory, and -shall refer the reader to one of the chapters in our treatise on the -Tourmaline, in which are grouped some of the theories relating to the -subject. In fact, we may repeat the remarks of Huyghens, who said at -the end of the seventeenth century: “In spite of the labors of Newton, -no one has yet fully discovered the cause of the color of bodies.” -“We must, then,” says M. Babinet, “admire, without penetrating their -secret, the unparalleled red of the Oriental ruby, the pure yellow of -the topaz, the unmingled greenness of the emerald, the soft blue of the -sapphire, and the rich violet of the amethyst. This is not the only -thing the discovery of which we shall leave to posterity.” - -The color-suite of the mineral is much more extensive and varied than -has been generally admitted by mineralogists. We are led to infer from -their works that white is the prevailing hue of the gem; but Beudant -declares that perfect limpidity and whiteness is rare comparatively, -and that the stone is generally affected with yellowish or brownish -tints. But what becomes of the vast numbers of these clouded or tinged -and inferior gems, if the mines yield so many of them in comparison -with the snow-white? Are they consumed in polishing others, or -expended in the arts, or have the lapidaries secret processes by which -these objectionable tints are expunged from the stone? - -Barbot, the French jeweller, declares that, by means of certain -particular and energetic agents, aided by a proper degree of heat, he -is able to remove the greens of all shades, the light-red, and the -yellow, when the coloring matter is superficial, or even situated -between the external laminæ. We are inclined to believe Barbot in this -particular reference, especially as he admits that he is unable to -change much the deep-yellow, the brown, and the smoky-tinted stones. -Of the yellow tints, the diamond affords the most beautiful examples, -and far surpasses in variety all the other gems, with the exception -perhaps of quartz. To the yellow topaz it is decidedly superior in its -range of shades, and in some of its chrome-like tints it is without -an equal among the gems. This hue of chrome mixed with a faint tinge -of green is a delicate, yet gorgeous, shade, and is not often seen. -Stones of a canary-yellow are quite common, and perfect resemblances to -the Brazilian topaz are not rare. From these hues they pass insensibly -into brown and black. The transparent light-brown stones are often -modified in hue when exposed to the action of heat, and some of them -exhibit remarkable changes of color. M. Halpen, in 1866, exhibited to -the French Academy of Sciences a singular diamond of this description. -It was a stone of sixty grains weight, and of a whitish hue tinged -slightly with brown. But when it was exposed to the action of heat it -changed its tint to a fine rose-color, and retained it for six or eight -days, when it gradually returned to its natural hue. This remarkable -effect was not an accidental result, but was tried five times at the -Academy with success and without injury to the stone. In other colored -diamonds the action of fire often produces permanent effects, and -sometimes a brownish hue is converted into a decided red color. Buckman -saw a diamond with a large brown spot in its interior change to a -beautiful red, like that of the Balais ruby, after the stone had been -placed in borax and exposed to a red heat. Another stone, however, of -similar appearance, likewise exposed, changed to a permanent black, -to the great injury of the gem and dismay of the experimenter. The -red varieties of this mineral are rarely of deep tints, but when they -exhibit a decided red color they form the most gorgeous of gems. The -largest and finest of this description known is the ten-karat stone -purchased by the Emperor Paul of Russia for one hundred thousand -roubles. This gem may be considered the marvel of the mineral kingdom. -The princely collection of the late Mr. Hope possessed one of a -blood-red garnet shade, also a fine twelve and a half karat stone of an -apricot hue, besides several others of a beautiful hyacinth red, or of -a lilac pink. - -The celebrated cabinet of gems belonging to the late Marquis de Drée -contained a large and beautiful rose-colored diamond. Prince Riccia, -of Naples, acquired in 1830 a very fine rose-colored brilliant of -fifteen karats weight. M. Halpen, in 1838, exhibited a magnificent -gem of this description of twenty-two and a half karats. Among the -crown jewels of France there are several splendid brilliants of a -peach-blossom hue, and there are also quite a number to be seen among -the princely caskets of Europe. It is, however, somewhat remarkable -that this gem, although possessing several shades of red, never, or -very rarely, occurs of a decided violet or purple color. Diamonds of a -light aqua-marine of greenish and bluish tints are not rare, but those -of a positive grass-green color are uncommon. Perfect stones of decided -green form the most magnificent gems of this color. The velvety green -flashed forth by the extraordinary power of the stone surpasses beyond -comparison the finest emeralds with their duller reflections. In fact, -we may term the splendid green diamond of forty karats, now in the -Green Vaults at Dresden, as being one of the five paragons among all -the gems of the world. - -In the Museum of Natural History in Paris there are some small diamonds -of very fine shades of green, which were collected by the celebrated -Werner. Some of the diamonds which have a slight milky hue, when cut -so as to allow the play of light within the stone, present a very -beautiful appearance. The varied flashes of colored rays, in contrast -with the duller hues of the stone, appear like the charming effects of -the finest specimens of Siberian adularia, and are therefore entitled -to the name of aventurine diamonds. - -The asterism, or star-like form of six rays, which is so beautifully -displayed by the sapphire when it assumes a certain form of internal -arrangement of crystallization, is sometimes, though very rarely, -witnessed in the diamond. There is one of this description to be seen -in the Museum of the _Jardin des Plantes_ in Paris. - -The diamond is rarely found of a perfect shade of blue; but there are -now in Europe several magnificent gems of this description. Foremost of -all of them stood the famous blue diamond of 67²⁄₁₆ karats, belonging -to the French crown. This marvel of Nature’s work, with two other -diamonds of paler hue and lesser weight,--thirty-one and ten karats -respectively,--disappeared on that fatal night of September, 1792, -and have never since been discovered. At the present day, the finest -known is that which belongs to the princely collection of the late Mr. -Hope, and weighs 44¹⁄₄ karats. It is of a fine blue; but exhibits that -steel-like tint which is so often seen in sapphires. The next in value -and beauty is that which is preserved at Munich. It is a magnificent -gem of thirty-six karats weight, and of superb color. - -The crystallized black diamond is a very rare stone; and, when -polished, it forms a unique gem, since it exhibits a remarkable -brilliancy, proceeding, as it were, from darkness itself. We do not now -refer to the compact variety, known as carbon or carbonado, which is -never found except in the amorphous form, but the crystalline variety, -which is of greater density and more homogeneous. The famous collector, -Dogni, possessed a very fine specimen of this kind which had been cut -with small facets, and exhibited a vivid eclat. It afterwards came into -the possession of Mr. Bapst, who disposed of it to Louis XVIII. for -the sum of twenty-four thousand francs. A large and unique diamond, -almost black, formerly belonged to the late Duke of York. Several of -the European mineralogical cabinets have interesting and valuable -collections of colored diamonds; but the finest is to be seen in the -Imperial Cabinet of Minerals at Vienna. This beautiful and complete -series, which illustrates the great range of the color-suite of the -gem, was the life-long labor of a Tyrolese gentleman, by the name of -Helmreicher. This enthusiastic amateur went to Brazil, and passed most -of his life in the mines, searching for the gems. - -We will not fatigue our readers with long quotations of authors and -philosophers concerning the spiritual properties of this gem; but we -will briefly say, that a well-selected compilation of all these views -and speculations, extending back to very early times, would form a -chapter by itself, and quite as interesting as absurd. Even the good -sense of the Latin philosopher Pliny was affected so far as to indulge -in the belief that the gem was not only an antidote to poison, but also -freed the mind from vain fears. Late in mediæval times, the adamas -was invested with supernatural powers, and regarded as a spiritual -creation. And even in the commencement of the seventeenth century -Boetius de Boot, in his treatise on gems, asserts that the diamond -possesses wonderful metaphysical properties; but remarks that they do -not reside in the stone _per se_, but belong to the angelic spirits -whom it has pleased the Almighty to connect, in a mysterious manner, -with certain substances in nature. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE TURKISH CASKET AND ANCIENT GEMS. - - -The Sultan of Turkey is said to possess many wonderful diamonds -and other gems among the regalia and ornaments treasured up in the -strongholds of the Seraglio; but very little is known, definitely and -positively, concerning them. - -In 1840 the Sultan granted a firman to the Duke of Devonshire and a -party of friends, permitting them to examine the court-jewels. One -of this party, my illustrious kinsman Dr. Cyrus Hamlin, has recently -described to me the impression they made upon his memory, more than -thirty years ago. The number of articles was too great, and their -effect too dazzling, for the memory to be able to particularize them -after so long an interval of time. He remembers that in two strongly -built rooms, and displayed on mats, or cushions of velvet, were a -vast number of decorations and insignia, crescents, tiaras, clasps, -and necklaces, etc. Among the latter was one of wondrous beauty and -perfection, which the Sultan wished to present to the Princess of -Wales on her visit to Stamboul. The beautiful Princess wore it at the -reception she gave the Sultan and his cabinet, but for various reasons -was obliged to return the magnificent gift. - -Among the arms of former Sultans were the swords of Al-u-deen, and -Solyman the Magnificent. Besides their historical renown, they -were interesting on account of their superb workmanship, and their -decorations with gems of wonderful beauty. - -In 1880 an American traveller was admitted to a view of some of the -rooms in the Treasury of the Seraglio, and from memory of what he saw -there wrote the following description:-- - - “In the centre of the first room is a throne. It is a platform - about two and one half feet square, with a cushion of cloth-of-gold - embroidered with pearls, rubies, and diamonds. Around three sides of - the cushion is a low rail supported by miniature columns, and standing - about eight inches high. The whole body of the throne is overlaid - with plates of gold, and the rail is studded with clusters of rubies - symmetrically arranged. The first thought that strikes one on seeing - this throne is the surpassing value of its jewels, and the second is - the superlative discomfort of the concern viewed as a resting-place. - The rail, which answers for arms and back, is perpendicular and - rectangular, and could rest neither the arms nor the back of the - enthroned Sultan. Uneasy the man that sits the throne, must be the - Turkish equivalent of the proverb concerning the wearer of the crown. - In one corner of the room is another throne, said to be the throne - of Nadir Shah, of Persia. It is of some dark wood, delicately inlaid - with ivory and pearl, and has a canopy of the same materials, from the - centre of which hangs a great gold ball decorated with precious stones. - - “In one of the cabinets is the cradle of the imperial babies. It - stands low on its rockers, like the cradles now in use in Turkey. The - two ends rise a foot above the mattress, and are connected at the top - by a bar which runs lengthwise of the cradle. The whole is of solid - gold, and the outside of the cradle is crusted with pearls, diamonds, - rubies, and turquoises. - - “In one of the galleries are the effigies of all the Sultans of - Turkey down to Mahmoud the Reformer. The figures are dressed in what - professes to be the state robes actually worn by the Sultans whom - they represent. The costumes are all different, and differ very - much in cut, indicating the changes of fashion during the last five - hundred years. But all these dresses agree in the feature of richness. - Cloth-of-gold and silk brocade are the materials, and many of the - figures are weighed down with jewels. The swords or daggers which all - of the figures wear are especially magnificent in their display of - precious stones. The dagger of Sultan Mahomet II., the conqueror of - Constantinople, has in its handle an emerald full two inches long and - an inch thick. I use the adjective ‘thick’ advisedly, for solidity of - splendor is the impression left on the mind by that emerald. All of - these gentlemen wore large turbans, and bedecked their turbans with - diamonds. The only exceptions are seen in the case of the boy Sultan, - Osman II., who was killed by his janissaries before he had attained - man’s estate, and in the case of Sultan Mahmoud, the Reformer, - who alone of all his kinsmen appears in European broadcloth. His - head-dress is the fez cap, with a plume of bird-of-paradise feathers - fastened in place by a great spray of diamonds. - - “But there is no such thing as describing in detail the splendors - of these rooms. There are antique arms and armor heavy with gold - and jewels; there are innumerable horse-trappings and saddles, - covered with plates of gold and studded with emeralds, rubies, - topazes, diamonds, and pearls; there are saddle-cloths embroidered - with precious stones. Several sofa-covers hang in the cabinets as - background to the smaller articles. They are worth $150,000 apiece, - and are heavy cloth-of-gold embroidered with seed pearls. In one of - the cabinets are three uncut emeralds, the largest being the size of - a man’s fist, and the smallest larger than a hen’s egg. The birds of - the palace realized the experience of dwelling in cages of gold, for - here they hang,--these ancient cages of gold wire. Some of the cages - have a clock in the bottom, face downward, so that the royal household - might see the time of day as they lolled on the divans beneath. The - Imperial Princes appear to have gone to school in childhood, for here - are the satchels in which they carried their books,--bags of velvet - embroidered with gold and pearls and diamonds. In another place you - see many mottoes from the Koran, embroidered in diamonds on red - velvet. There are amber mouthpieces for pipes, studded with diamonds - and rubies. There are coffee-sets and tea-sets of all degrees of - magnificence; and vases of crystal and agate and onyx,--some of these - profusely bejewelled. There are inkstands and snuff-boxes innumerable, - all glittering with priceless gems. There are royal knives and forks - and spoons of solid gold, with jewels on their handles. There is an - immense array of clocks. One would suppose that every Sultan had his - private clock, which ceased to tick when his heart stopped beating. - - “Among the articles in this imperial treasure-house are many - which must be regarded simply as toys. Of such is a tea-set of - tortoise-shell as thin as paper. Another toy is a lady’s parasol of - white silk exquisitely embroidered with gold, the staff of which is - a single branch of coral so long and true and well adapted to its - purpose that one might search years and fail to find its like. There - are also very many fans of varying degrees of splendor. Another one of - the toys is a figure of a sultan seated on his throne under a golden - canopy ribbed with alternate rubies and emeralds. The whole structure - is, perhaps, six inches high. The body of the figure is a single - huge pearl, the lower extremities are carved from a blue turquoise, - and the turban is a solid mass of diamonds. There is literally no - end to the marvels of this place. After every conceivable use has - been made of jewels, the surplus unmounted stones are gathered by - handfuls into crystal bowls at one end of the cabinets in the second - room. The spoils of all the empires which preceded the Ottoman Empire - are heaped up in these two dingy stone rooms in the old Seraglio at - Constantinople. - - “It requires some time fully to realize the enormous wealth of this - treasure-house. But slowly one becomes convinced that these treasures - can only be the accumulation of centuries, and represent the heritage - of the Ottomans from all their predecessors. Once assured of this, - the traveller will find a peculiar fitness in the aspect and attitude - of the guards of the place. They stand, dressed in spotless black - broadcloth, four or five feet apart, in line along the cabinets, - perfectly motionless. And they are solemn of countenance, as if - standing by the catafalque of some deceased monarch lying in state for - the homage of his subjects. - - “I first visited this place shortly after the late war with Russia. - The Turkish Government was in sore straits for the means of daily - existence. The Sultan had just sent his gold and silver plate to the - mint to be coined in order to buy up the depreciated paper currency. - The people of whole districts were at the verge of starvation because - the $80,000,000 of paper money in circulation had lost its purchasing - power. I was naturally incredulous as to the reality of what I had - seen. If these jewels were real, their value must be sufficient to pay - off the dishonored bonds of Turkey. It did not seem reasonable that - the Turkish Government could have passed through such straits as those - to which it had been reduced by the war without having recourse to - their treasure-house. Multitudes of articles in those rooms have an - immense antique and artistic value entirely aside from their intrinsic - value. - - “I spoke in this strain to one of the officers of the Imperial Ottoman - Bank, and he replied that the jewels were unquestionably genuine. - He said that during the war the Turks borrowed $30,000,000 from - the bank. The loan was to be secured by pledge of jewels from this - treasure-house, and the bank officials were told to help themselves - from its riches. They selected enough of the jewels to guarantee them - amply against loss. These jewels were packed in three small boxes and - removed to the vaults of the bank. But their removal left no gap in - the great accumulation. Afterward I asked a Turk why the Government - did not sell this treasure and be at ease. ‘Sell it?’ said the Turk; - ‘why, it is the treasure of all the Sultans! It cannot be sold.’ - - “So there is this treasure-house to-day--a grand relic of ancient - splendor--in the hands of the broken, ruined remnant of the house of - Osman. The possession of this enormous wealth must be a terrible - temptation at times to the worn man who wears the Sacred Sword of - Turkey. But he clings to it through all his adversity, for it is the - only relic left to the Empire of the glory of its past.” - -Two of the oldest authenticated diamonds in Europe belong to the -Sultan. One of them, a beautiful stone of twenty-four karats, and -which adorns the aigrette of the Imperial plume on days of parade, was -found in Constantinople in the time of Mahomet IV. It was picked up -by a poor man upon a heap of dirt not far from the gate of Egrikapon. -The finder had no idea of the value of his treasure, and sold it for a -trifle. Passing through the hands of several purchasers, the gem was -finally brought to the notice of the guild of goldsmiths, when its true -character was made known. It was then seized by the Grand Vizier and -annexed to the Imperial treasures by an edict. The other diamond, which -is of greater beauty and weight, was found by a child playing in the -Haiwanserai, or the Hebdomon, during the reign of Mahomet II., or about -the middle of the fifteenth century. It was believed by the antiquaries -that these gems belonged to the treasures of ancient Byzantium, and -that the last may have adorned the crown of the Byzantine emperors. -This jewel was lost by the fault of the masters of the wardrobe on the -place of the Hebdomon during a triumphal march in the twenty-second -year of the reign of Justinian, or 548 A.D. We can learn nothing more -concerning the condition of these diamonds when found, but infer that -they were polished, otherwise they probably would not have attracted -the notice of the finders. - -Lamartine and other historians of the Ottoman Empire allude to its -treasury as in reality a wonderful museum of art, whose wealth is -unknown and perhaps incalculable. They state that in four vast -apartments beneath the Seraglio, vaulted subterraneously to shelter -them from the ravages of fire, are collected the sacred relics, the -jewels, the gems, and a great variety of objects of value that have -accumulated since the origin of the monarchy. The antiquary may well -say in viewing this collection of treasure, “The spoils of the universe -are here represented.” For whatever of value and historic worth was -saved from the wreck of Rome or preserved from the accumulations of -the Greek conquests was gathered at Byzantium. In this fatal Acropolis -at the extreme point of the continent of Europe, the Greek Empire -had indeed collected all its monuments, all its masterpieces, all -its riches, as if to tempt fate and render the prize all the more -glittering to the eyes of the Ottomans. - -Many, if not the most, of these priceless relics and treasures fell -into the clutches of the Turks when Constantinople was won. Nothing -escaped at that time. There is no doubt but that many remarkable gems -were captured at this period, but concerning their nature and their -value history has left us but little more than conjecture. - -However, the historians speak definitely of the Greek emperors during -their prosperity as displaying a magnificence worthy of the luxurious -periods of Rome. The costumes of these rulers are described as marvels -of art, and their jewels as of inestimable price. The accounts remind -the reader of the descriptions left by Claudian of the treasures of -Theodosius:-- - - “Sidonian mantles rich with purple fold, - Belts bossed with pearls, robes stiff with gems and gold, - And breastplates shining green with emeralds bright, - And helmets rich with precious sapphires dight.” - -That diamonds were then used as gems and held in high estimation may -be inferred from the single remark of the indignant historian, “One -man buys entire Syria with the diamonds of his wife.” Perhaps the word -diamond was thus used figuratively, and the expression referred to gems -and jewels in general. - -Besides these accumulations of the Greeks, much of the spoil collected -by Timour in his merciless sack of India and Persia came afterwards -into the possession of the Emirs of Asiatic Turkey, and eventually -drifted to Constantinople. What these treasures were may be imagined -from the glowing descriptions given by the historians of the last -scenes of the life and reign of the great Tatar conqueror. The -magnificent fêtes given by Timour on his return to Samarcand after the -conquest of Arabia and Eastern Turkey, surpassed in historic splendor -even the descriptions of Oriental fable. In the gigantic palace -erected by him during the days of leisure between his conquests, and -which was one of the marvels of the architectural world, he celebrated -in a single day the marriage of six of his grandsons. The spoils of the -universe were displayed in the decorations of the marriage feasts. The -wealth of the Indies had been transferred to the home of the Tatar. -Pearls, sapphires, and diamonds were showered in profusion upon the -married pairs. Nine times did they change their apparel, and, arrayed -in different solid cinctures of a tissue of pearls and diamonds, -present themselves to the view of Timour,--the last festivities of the -great Tatar chieftain. - -This wonderful display of mediæval times recalls to the mind of -the antiquary the magnificent marriage feasts of Alexander and his -eighty lieutenants with their beautiful Persian brides. This historic -festivity took place in Persia 324 B. C., when the Greek army returned -from India, and continued for five days. Like that of Timour, it -displayed in its magnificence the gems and art treasures of conquered -Asia. The diamond, however, does not appear. Art evidently had not -then acquired the process by which the natural and rough crystal is -developed into a gem of sparkling and lustrous beauty. And the selected -brides, to enhance their natural charms, wore pearls, emeralds, rubies, -and turquoises wreathed among their tresses of hair, or in their -necklaces, amulets, anklets, and bracelets. - -Among the treasures supposed to be gathered in these catacombs, of -an Empire’s wealth at Constantinople, there is one especially dear -to the _dilettante_,--the wondrous ring of Ahmed. Vanquished in the -long, bloody, and desperate battle fought upon the slopes of Olympus -when entire Turkey was the prize, Ahmed offered to his victorious -brother Selim I. a single gem to purchase the honors of a tomb. This -precious stone was set in a ring richly chased in gold, and was the -gift of Bajazet II. to the most beloved of his children. It was as -dear as the ring Solomon wore, and which was gifted with wonderful -powers extending even to the invisible world. But it was as fatal as -that which Polycrates cast into the sea as an offering to the gods for -his long-continued prosperity. History does not mention the nature of -this remarkable treasure, nor relate whether it was diamond, sapphire, -or emerald. However, we may glean some idea as to its rarity and -beauty from the statement that the Genoese jewellers who were then the -gem-venders of the world placed its value at a year’s revenue of all -Asia Minor. - -The antiquary may also find among these dusty and forgotten collections -some of the lost gems and beautiful works of art of ancient Rome, or, -perhaps, the rich ornaments brought home by the Macedonian soldiers -from their Eastern triumphs, or the holy relics which the Arabs removed -from the Gothic treasury at Toledo, and concealed in their fortresses -and fastnesses of Syria. In mediæval times the precious stones and all -that was marvellous in decorative art that fell into the hands of the -Genoese and Venetian merchants went to Constantinople to adorn the -magnificence of the Turkish nobles. Whatever the Mamelukes had gathered -together in their treasury in Egypt, rescued from the dust of the -catacombs, or wrested from the isolated strongholds of Western Africa, -was seized by one fell swoop of the Turkish horsemen and transferred to -the Bosphorus. - -The extravagance of the Turkish nobility during some of the brilliant -reigns of the Empire was extreme, and seems to belong to the golden -age of fable rather than to the truthful periods of history. We can -form some idea of the wealth of these favorites of the Sultans from the -glowing descriptions left by the Ottoman historians. - -Sinan-Pasha, the Turkish Marius, seven times exiled and seven times -consul, yet dying at last at eighty while conducting the army -to Hungary, left a heritage worthy of a king. Among his immense -possessions the historian enumerates thirty-two cuirasses incrusted -with rubies, fifteen strings of huge pearls, sixty bushels of fine -pearls, seven tablecloths bespangled with diamonds, all accumulated -during campaigns in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Another potentate, -the Grand Vizier Sokolli, exhibited a love of magnificence worthy -of the most reckless Roman profligates. His garden, near Tokat, was -the wonder of Asia Minor, and was called the garden of Paradise, -“Djennet-bagni.” Its parterres, instead of being covered with natural -flowers, sparkled with rubies and precious stones imitating the form -of flowers and surpassing them in splendor. This unique display of art -was finally destroyed by the victorious barbarian hordes from Asia, -and the beautiful imitations of flowering vegetation were borne off -to the distant steppes to be transferred into ornaments for arms and -horse-gear. - -In forming a conjecture of the value of the treasures of the Turkish -Seraglio, the antiquary naturally and justly recalls to memory the -magnificence of early history and the numerous spoliations of ancient -nations that eventually fell into the grasp of the Greek and Roman -Emperors. Let us follow briefly the historian among some of the -fragments of history which relate to this subject, and seem to indicate -that the treasures of the earth gathered during the last two thousand -years in reality drifted in course of time and by the fortunes of war -to the Greek Capitol. It is the sad epitome of man’s greatness and his -insignificance. For the pillage which graced the triumphs of the Greek -and Roman arms not only represented the peaceful industry of nations, -but they were also often the memorials of the destruction of the -earth’s fairest hopes. - -Rome, in the height of her glory, displayed a magnificence worthy of -the valor of her arms and the magnitude of her conquests. Her temples -were profusely decorated with gems, and her nobles vied with each other -in the possession of the rare and the beautiful. At times the Coliseum -exhibited the wealth of the nation and the liberality of its rulers. -The poet who describes the games of Carinus affirms that the porticos -of the immense edifice were gilded, and the extensive circles which -divided the ranks of spectators from each other were studded with a -precious mosaic of beautiful stones,-- - - “Balteus in gemmis in lita portico aureo - Certatim radiant,” etc. - -In the triumphs of Rome the spoils of the last conquest were not only -displayed, but the accumulated riches of the Empire were ostentatiously -exhibited to view at the same time. - -To give the reader an idea of the magnificence of these celebrations, -we will describe the triumphal entry into the eternal city by Aurelian -when returning from the conquest of Palmyra and the nations situated -along the great commercial highways to Asia. This was one of the -greatest of the Roman triumphs, and spread a dazzling glory over the -name of the conqueror. The pomp was opened by the stately procession of -twenty enormous elephants, followed by four royal tigers and more than -two hundred of the most curious animals from all parts of the world. -Then came a fierce and haughty band of sixteen hundred gladiators, -selected for their beauty, strength, and skill. The wealth of Asia -followed this vanguard of brute strength. Displayed in charming -arrangement or carelessly heaped in immense piles, the spectators -witnessed the arms, ensigns, and a vast collection of the objects of -value and luxury of many conquered nations. Among the articles of -gold were exhibited the numerous crowns of Aurelian, together with -the magnificent plate and wardrobe of the Syrian queen. Amidst this -glittering array appeared the embassies of foreign and distant nations; -and the ambassadors of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, India, and China, -with their brilliant or picturesque costumes, added greatly to the -interest and splendor of the scene. Following these came long trains -of captives from various nations,--Goths, Vandals, Sarmatians, Gauls, -Syrians, etc.,--with the ill-fated emperor, Tetricus, and his son, -dressed in Gallic costume. But the most attractive figure of all to -the Roman populace was the beauteous form of the celebrated queen of -the Syrian deserts. Zenobia was on foot and alone. As if in mockery of -human ambition, she preceded the magnificent chariot in which she once -hoped to have entered Rome. Her elegant figure was shackled with solid -chains of gold, while she tottered under the weight of the inestimable -jewels which adorned her natural graces. In the rear appeared the still -more sumptuous chariots of Odenatus and of the Persian monarch. The -triumphal car which carried Aurelian was resplendent with gems, and was -drawn by four stags. - -One of the most magnificent exhibitions of extravagance and luxury of -ancient times was displayed on the march of Tiridates and his Parthian -nobles, when they went to Rome to receive the nominal crown from the -hand of Nero. Four thousand selected Parthian cavalry, clothed in rich -apparel, escorted the King. The entire expense of the journey, which -lasted several months and amounted to more than thirty thousand dollars -a day, was paid by the Romans. The triumphal procession traversed Asia -Minor, crossed the Hellespont, passed through upper Greece, around the -Adriatic, and then down the peninsula to Rome. - -It was a great day for Rome when the Parthians approached its walls. -The city was illuminated, and decorated with garlands and the movable -wealth of the Empire. The Roman nobles were clad in white; and the -splendid Pretorian guards, glittering with their arms and decorations, -were drawn up in two lines stretching from the end of the Forum to the -Rostra. Through these lines of steel, flanked by a vast assemblage -of citizens, Tiridates and his proud nobles marched to the Rostra, -and received from the hands of Nero the promised diadem. The Empire -impoverished herself in this barbaric display and attempt to awe and -charm her haughtiest foe. The accumulated spoils of three hundred -triumphs at Rome formed a glittering prize to the minds of Alaric and -his devoted Goths. - -But six years before the capture of the city, Rome displayed her -magnificence and her wealth in the ovation given to St. Melania on -her return. The extent of the decoration of the temples and their -shrines may be inferred from the quotations of the historians. Serena, -the wife of the Roman general, Stilicho, on great occasions wore a -magnificent necklace which she borrowed from the statue of Vesta. But -the protection of the goddess could not protect the unfortunate woman -from being strangled by the Romans during the siege by the Goths. - -The fame of these treasures had spread all over the known world. -And to the Goths the beauty of gems and the delights of luxuries -were not entirely unknown. For, in previous times, they had invaded -the coasts of the Euxine Sea and sacked many of the rich cities, -like Trebizond. In the pillage of the city by the Goths, Alaric is -said to have protected the consecrated plate and ornaments of the -temples; but he undoubtedly confiscated the most valuable and notable -of the treasures. The booty of the army was immense; and when the -victorious soldiers took their departure the roads were incumbered -with the rich and weighty spoils. The haughty victors, clad in the -vestments of unexpected luxury, might have been seen resting by the -wayside, waited on by their captives,--the sons and daughters of Roman -senators,--drinking the wine of Italy in golden goblets, decorated with -gems. - -The treasures obtained by the Goths in the conquest and sack of Italy -were borne away with them to Gaul. Besides these, the Gothic chieftains -are said to have possessed many valuable gifts from other nations. The -record of these wonderful works of art has been lost; but a few scraps -of history, here and there, give glimpses of marvellous treasures. -When the Franks pillaged the palace at Narbonne in France, in the -sixth century, they found many curious and costly ornaments of gold. - -But most of the treasures and choice works were undoubtedly carried -along with the army into Spain, and deposited in the Gothic treasury -at Toledo. These were eventually captured by the Saracens and sent -to Damascus. Thus, by the singular fortunes of war, these remarkable -and beautiful relics returned to the Holy Land whence some of them -had been taken centuries before. Among these articles was the famous -“Missorium,” or great dish for the service of the table, weighing five -hundred pounds. It was formed of solid gold of exquisite workmanship, -richly inlaid with gems, and was the pride of the Goths. - -The wonderful emerald table, which has been so enthusiastically -described by the Arabian writers, was also seized at the same time. The -transparent top of this table was encircled with three rows of fine -pearls, supported on three hundred and sixty-five feet, formed of gold -and gems. This superb piece of workmanship was valued at five hundred -thousand pieces of gold. - -The marriage feast of Adolphus, the successor of Alaric, with Placidia, -the daughter of the great Theodosius, was a memorable occasion in -ancient history. It was celebrated at Narbonne, and displayed the -prodigality and magnificence of the Goths. The ceremony was performed -according to the lavish fashion of the Romans and the rude customs -of the victors. Adolphus offered to his bride, in accordance with -the manner of his nation, the spoils of her country. Fifty beautiful -youths, attired in silken robes, presented the happy maiden with one -hundred basins, one half of which were filled with gold, and the rest -were heaped with gems of an inestimable price. Such was the inconstancy -of fortune in those days, and such the cruelty of the times, that only -a year after this grand event the beautiful woman, the daughter of a -Roman emperor, and the wife of the Gothic chieftain, might have been -seen marching on foot with a crowd of vulgar captives, in front of the -horse of the assassin of her beloved husband. However, a few short days -after the usurpation, the Gothic army, struck with pity and indignation -at the sufferings of Placidia, attacked and slew her barbarous master. - -Genseric, with his Moors and Vandals, fiercer in their pillage than the -Goths of Alaric, ravaged Rome for fourteen days and nights. Everything -of value, sacred or profane, was seized and borne away to the galleys -of the invaders. Even the Empress Eudoxia was rudely stripped of her -ornaments; and the holy relics, brought from Jerusalem by Titus and -spared by Alaric, were taken from the temples and transferred to -Carthage. One of the vessels, containing a part of the sacred utensils -and other treasures, was shipwrecked on the same shore which a thousand -years later swallowed up the wonderful and blood-stained emeralds -which Cortez wrested from Mexico and carried with him when wrecked -with the Admiral of Castile. The remainder were saved to swell the -ponderous pile of booty when Carthage fell before the arms and genius -of Belisarius. All these treasures, the collections of the Moor and the -Vandal, were transported to the Bosphorus to enrich the city of the -conquerors. - -To the successful army and its general a triumph was decreed; and it -was the first Byzantium had ever seen. The display on this historic -occasion was worthy of the army and its hero. The wealth of nations was -brought forth to heighten the splendor of the scene. Rich armor, golden -thrones, chariots, varied forms of sculpture and furniture, statues, -vases, and other objects of art, together with the holy relics of the -Jewish Temple, were displayed in the procession. - -But the grandest object of all was presented by the noble and majestic -form of Belisarius, marching on foot at the head of a band of his -bravest officers. Later in life, at the capture of Ravenna, Belisarius -obtained the treasures of the Gothic army, which had been collected -in that stronghold. These were transferred to the Byzantine palace; -but the deserving general was deprived of his hard-won triumph, for -Justinian had now become envious of the glory of his subject. The -magnificent spectacle of the booty was not exhibited to the populace; -but shown only to the flattering and subservient senate. - -The results of the Persian conquests largely increased the number, -variety, and value of the art and gem collections at Constantinople. -The Persian monarch, Chosroes, to arrange and preserve the treasures -gathered by rapine or tribute, constructed an elegant palace at -Dastagherd beyond the Tigris. In this stronghold, protected in a -hundred vaults, were deposited most of the gold, silver, gems, silks, -aromatics, and other objects collected from Persia and other countries -of Asia. All these fell into the bold hands of the Roman Emperor -Heraclius; but a part of them, during an unlucky tempest, were lost -in the waves of the Euxine Sea. In the capture of Tauris, Heraclius -obtained what were supposed to have been the spoils of Crœsus, which -had been transported by Cyrus from the citadel of Sardes. - -Once only, before the coming of the Turk, was Constantinople, during -its many centuries of varied prosperity and adversity, subjected to -serious pillage. Hostile armies had again and again surged up to its -almost impregnable walls, only to retire in discomfiture; and it seemed -as though the grand old city was protected by some invisible agency -from external violence. Internal dissension, however, was the bane of -the capital, and was the true cause of the success of the Latins, and -finally that of the Turks. The successful attack by the combined forces -of the Latins and Venetians was one of the results of the Crusades. It -took place in the commencement of the thirteenth century. - -The city, however, remained under the Latin power for only fifty-seven -years, when it was recaptured by a bold stroke of the Greeks. Injured -by the pillage of the Latins, and many of its beautiful edifices -destroyed by fire during the siege or subsequent occupation, the -Greek capital not only lost its prestige of divine protection, but it -has never recovered its former splendor. How much of the spoils were -removed by the captors is a matter of conjecture. The historians of the -Greeks and Latins--the spoiled and spoiler--undoubtedly exaggerate the -injury of the conquest and the quantity of booty obtained. - -Two of the Emperors, succeeding by usurpation, fled from the city -with much treasure before it was finally captured. Even then one -quarter of the accepted plunder was reserved for the elected ruler -of Constantinople. And as to the remainder, which is said to have -been divided equally between the French and Venetians, and valued at -11,125,000 marks of silver, or $11,000,000, there is no record extant -of the articles. We know that the bronze horses of the Hippodrome -were transferred to Saint Mark’s Palace, and the crown of thorns -to the Sainte Chapelle at Paris. We also learn that many gems-the -adamas, emerald, jacinth, ruby, sapphire--were among the spoils; but -if the sack was complete, why did Venice years afterwards offer ten -thousand ducats for the seamless vesture of the Redeemer, which was -then among the sacred reliquaries of Constantinople? If these spoils -were divided between the conquerors, how explain the fact recorded in -French history, that the sacred relics sent to Paris and placed in -the church erected to receive them were purchased? It is a matter of -history that the crown of thorns, with the piece of the true cross, the -antique gems, and other relics that were deposited in Sainte Chapelle, -together with the construction of the building, cost Saint Louis of -Baldwin, Emperor of Constantinople, a sum of money equal to 2,800,000 -francs. This fact, coupled with the offer of the Venetians for the -holy vestment, renders the accounts of the sack of the city still more -obscure. The historian Yriarte declares that the only monuments of art -deemed by the Venetians as worthy of transporting to their capital were -the famous bronze horses. If this statement is correct, the Venetians -must have been sadly deficient in taste, or history has wrongfully -accused the founders of Constantinople of spoliation. - -According to the early accounts, Constantine, in the reconstruction -of Byzantium, despoiled the cities of Asia and Greece of their most -valuable ornaments, the trophies of memorable wars, the objects of -religious veneration, the most finished statues of the gods and heroes, -of the sages and poets, of ancient times. The most celebrated works -of the age of Pericles and Alexander were remorselessly seized by -the Emperor and transferred to his capital to enhance its beauty and -its renown. So many statues and architectural masterpieces had been -transported to the Bosphorus that the historian Cedrenus ironically -said, “Nothing in this great city was wanting except the souls of -the illustrious men whom those admirable monuments were intended to -represent.” - -In the reign of Justinian the city was decorated by the best of living -artists. In the construction of the public edifices, the richest -materials were sought for and used with lavish hand. The bright hues, -the primitive lustre, of many of the stones of which the buildings were -composed were so remarkable as to form the theme of a poet. Distant -countries were explored for choice materials. The costly marbles of -Asia, Gaul, Greece, and Africa were transported to the Bosphorus. -Among the rare stones used by the Greek architects, one may recognize -in the ruins of the present day, the emerald-green marble of Laconia, -the golden-hued of Mauritania, the black of Gaul, and the purple and -red, with intersecting veins of sea-green, of Phrygia. The shrine which -stood in the Mosque of Saint Sophia a thousand years ago or more must -have been of marvellous beauty. The wealth and energy of the ancient -world was expended upon it; and we can form some picture of it in our -imagination from the fact that the Emperor Justinian, on beholding it -after its completion, exclaimed, with outstretched arms, “Solomon, I -have surpassed thee.” - -The magnificence displayed by the wealthy houses of Byzantium in their -internal arrangements must have been of an extraordinary character -if we can judge correctly from the invectives of Chrysostom; and -the utensils of silver and gold were in massiveness far beyond the -prodigality of modern times. Ramusio, the Venetian historian, dazzles -the reader with his glittering descriptions of the acquisitions of his -countrymen. He mentions with preciseness the vases whose forms were as -grotesque and varied as the caprice of man,--the murrhines Pompey won -in his triumphs over Mithridates and Tigranes; chalices decked with -gems or formed of turquoise, jasper, and amethyst; crowns of gold, -studded with pearls; unnumbered emeralds, sapphires, topazes, jacinths, -and other gems; also the matchless carbuncles which afterwards adorned -the altar at Saint Mark’s, and which were believed by the superstitious -to have the power of dissipating the darkness by their refulgent beams -of light. - -Constantinople, with its remaining works of art, again fell into the -power of the Greeks and was retained by them until captured by the -Turks. To describe the treasures of the Greek capital before its -capture, and correctly estimate the character and value of the objects -removed, and those secreted and again brought to light, will be a -difficult task for some restless antiquary. We are, however, inclined -to believe the Greeks successfully secreted many of their choicest -gems. All through the pages of early and mediæval history, the reader -will observe that by a strange caprice of fortune many of the richest -and rarest works of art and nature passed into the possession of the -rulers of Byzantium, Constantinople, or Stamboul. These three names, -distinct in their meaning, yet relate to one and the same city, which, -during its existence of more than a thousand years, passed successively -under the sway of the Roman, the Greek, and the Turk. Stamboul is still -the Mecca of the antiquary. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - - RUSSIAN REGALIA. - - -The empire of Russia has the most splendid collection of diamonds of -any country in the world, with the exception, perhaps, of Persia. In -the Kremlin at Moscow, and the Winter Palace at St. Petersburg, are -preserved a multitude of gems of the highest perfection and beauty, -and also many interesting ornaments formed or captured by the early -rulers of Russia. Possessing many of the avenues of approach and trade -with the countries of Central and Southern Asia, this country has long -enjoyed excellent facilities for obtaining the gems from Upper India -and Persia. The enormous quantity the treasury still possesses, added -to the great number given away in past times by various sovereigns, -naturally gives rise to the inquiry, whence this great abundance of -precious stones came. We may say that this grand accumulation commenced -in the earliest days of the Russian dynasty, and has been steadily -increasing by direct intercourse with the gem-producing countries. - -Many of the fine gems that fell into the hands of the Turks in their -various conquests, have indirectly passed, by purchase or otherwise, -into the possession of the Russians. - -Some others recall the times of the incursions of the Cossacks of the -tenth century, when the fearless hordes of the North marched even to -the gates of Constantinople, and imposed menaces and ransoms upon the -Greek emperors. - -The crafty policy of the Russian dates back from those distant times. -“Let us be content,” said the old Russian chieftain to his impetuous -warriors complaining of treaties and tributes; “is it not better to -obtain, without fighting, the gold, the silver, the silk, the precious -stones of these people?” - -The still earlier Scythians, with their light active horse, performed -incredible journeys even into Illyricum and Thrace. The river Danube -offered but a slight barrier to these fearless riders; and they boldly -traversed flood, forest, and plain, sweeping, with impunity and menace, -even up to the walls of Byzantium. They pillaged, without remorse, the -rich towns and country palaces of the nobles, and returned to their -forest wilds accompanied by thousands of captives, and laden with booty -of immense value. - -We are also reminded by the historian, that a part of Russia, -especially Poland, was the Sarmatia of the ancients, whence issued -the fearless swarms of invincible Huns and Goths and Sclavonians, who -spread desolation at various times over nearly the whole of Europe. -Although these fierce hordes seldom returned to their native plains, -preferring the sunnier portions of the conquered countries, yet they -did not abandon all communication with the land of their birth. Many of -their incursions into the Roman provinces were rewarded with immense -booty of captives, and a variety of plunder. For fifteen hundred years -the customs of the Poles were but little changed. The love of nomadic -life, of magnificence, of arms, dress, ornaments, was a predominating -trait until a very recent period. The famous political assemblies of -the Poles on the plain of Volo were among the grandest displays of -barbaric splendors of any age; and sometimes one hundred thousand Poles -were assembled in conclave. - -The chivalry, the wealth of the country, was represented there. All -the nobles and citizens of note attended, mounted upon the finest -horses, and caparisoned and decorated in the most lavish manner. As the -historian says, “The children of the desert strove to hide the furs and -skins in which they were clothed, under chains of gold and the glitter -of jewels. Their bonnets were composed of panther skin; plumes of -eagles or herons surmounted them; on their front were the most splendid -precious stones. Their robes of sable or ermine were bound with -velvet or silver; their girdles studded with jewels; over all their -furs were suspended chains of diamonds. One hand of each nobleman was -without a glove; on it was the splendid ring on which the arms of his -family were engraved,--the mark, as in ancient Rome, of the equestrian -order,--another proof of the intimate connection between the race, the -customs, the traditions of the Northern tribes, and the founders of the -Eternal City.” But nothing in this rivalry of magnificence could equal -the splendor of their arms: double poniards, double scimetars set with -brilliants; bucklers of costly workmanship; battle-axes enriched in -silver and glittering with emeralds and sapphires. - -After reviewing the history of ancient and mediæval Poland, we are -not surprised at the accumulation of gems in Russia, nor at the fact -that some of the fine gems now in the modern cabinets of Europe were -obtained from that country. For instance, the splendid green diamond of -Dresden came from Warsaw. - -The grand repository of the Empire is in the towers of the Kremlin; -and here are preserved the sacred relics and the almost innumerable -treasures of the Empire. In the galleries of this ancient castle of -the Muscovites are gathered such an accumulation of wonders that the -visitor is fairly dazzled, and is forcibly reminded of the tales of -Eastern romance, of the munificence of the store-house of the Caliph -Haroun-Al-Raschid, and the wells of Aboul Kasem. - -Diamonds, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, topazes, and other gems, of -large size and wondrous beauty, flash from every side of the apartment; -and their profusion astonishes the mineralogist, who has been -accustomed to regard these natural treasures as rare. It will be quite -impossible to enumerate or explain properly the glittering arrangement -of these marvellous works of art and nature. The sceptres, the crowns, -the caskets, the reliquaries, the globes, thrones, and the insignia -of religion and royalty collected here, fairly dazzle the eye by the -reflections from the immense number of gems which decorate them. The -scene reminds one of the prismatic effect of the rays of the morning or -evening sun upon the numberless raindrops on the grass, after a shower -has passed. - -Here we shall find the crowns of the Muscovite Czars, together with the -captured diadems and regalia of the countries that form a part of this -vast realm. Among them may be seen, in all of their original quaintness -and splendor, the crowns of Siberia, Novgorod, Kazan, Moscow, Poland, -and the Crimea. To this imperial display we may expect to see added, at -no distant day, the jewels of the Southern countries, which seem to be -the inevitable heirlooms of the sagacious Cossack. - -To describe correctly, and in a proper manner, the works of ancient, -mediæval, and modern art collected here, would require a large volume -by itself. We will, however, attempt to give a brief description -of some of the beautiful crowns, which, though generally of rude -workmanship, are yet studded with gems of an immense value, and are -also objects of great historic interest. - -Foremost of all, appears the magnificent diadem worn by the former -Empress Anna Ivanovna, and which is, perhaps, one of the most splendid -jewels of its kind in the world. It is well proportioned, and lightly -formed of open gold work, incrusted with a vast number of exquisite -gems, and among them 2,536 diamonds of great perfection. On its top, -serving as a base to a slender cross of pearls, is placed the immense -and wonderful ruby, which the Russian ambassador purchased at Pekin, at -the price of 120,000 roubles. - -The crown of Vladimir, which is used at the crowning of the heir to -the throne, is composed of filigree gold-work, surmounted by a cross -of plain gold, with a large pearl on each arm. It is surrounded at its -base by a band of sable fur, and is ornamented with 4 fine emeralds, 2 -rubies, and 25 pearls. - -This crown was a gift from the Emperor Alexis Comnenus, and was brought -with ceremony from Constantinople, by a Greek embassy, in the year 1116. - -This circumstance recalls to memory the history and fate of the last of -the Comnenuses, the self-styled Emperor of Trebizond, and who afforded -so many themes of ridicule to the knights and troubadours of the -fifteenth century. - -In connection with our subject, it may be proper to give a sketch of -the appearance of this potentate when he gave an audience to foreign -ambassadors. - -His dress was a tight gown of scarlet silk; around his neck, down the -front of his gown, and around the bottom of it, were bands of gold -about four inches wide; these were edged with pearls, and ornamented -with large rubies and emeralds in rows down the centre of each band -of gold. On his arms, above the elbows, were golden armlets, and -around his wrists gold bracelets, all set with precious stones of -various colors. His girdle was of the same pattern, about three inches -wide, and had a hanging end about two feet long, which the Byzantine -emperors, for some undiscovered reason, always carried over the left -arm. In his right hand he bore a golden sceptre about three feet long, -with a large cross at the top, set with enormous pearls. On his head he -wore a close golden crown, of which the top was arranged in metal like -a helmet. From this crown a fillet set with pearls hung down on each -side of his face as far as his beard, which was of considerable length. -Scarlet silk hose and golden sandals completed the Imperial costume, -except two round ornaments of gold, each of the size of a plate, which -were affixed to his robe on the outside of his thigh. - -Such was the appearance of this vain ruler when he gave audience to -the envoys of Mahomet II., the conqueror of Constantinople. The plain -steel-clad warriors of the Sultan briefly said, “Wilt thou secure thy -treasures and thy life by resigning thy kingdom; or wilt thou rather -forfeit thy kingdom, thy treasures, and thy life?” - -The sceptre of Vladimir is also preserved here. It is about three feet -long, and contains among its ornaments 268 diamonds, 360 rubies, and 15 -emeralds. The enamel covering of the rest of the surface, unadorned -by the gems, represents religious subjects, painted and treated in the -Byzantine style. - -The tiara of Astrakhan is far more complex in its construction, and is -very rich in barbaric taste. It is now known as the gold Imperial Crown -of the First Order of the Czar; and is a tall, imposing structure, -covered with brilliant gems. Among them are many fine rubies, emeralds, -pearls, and an enormous sapphire of great value. - -The crown of Kazan, captured in 1553 by John IV., is a very interesting -specimen of mediæval workmanship, and shows the influence of Persian -art in its arrangement. It is of gold filigree-work, intermixed with -black, and is adorned with splendid rubies, turquoises, and pearls. On -the summit is placed a very large ruby, surmounted with two pearls. - -The ornament known as the diamond cap of the Czar is a singular -combination of the rude and the beautiful in art. It is profusely -garnished with 817 diamonds of the first water, besides 4 magnificent -rubies and 8 emeralds. This is also surmounted with an enormous ruby, -which sustains on its summit a solid Greek cross, composed of gems and -pearls set in gold. - -We have not space to describe the remaining diadems of ancient rulers, -or those of recent times, nor the rich breast-crosses, the sceptres, -and the various regalia used in the coronation of the Russian Emperors, -but will mention the Grand Imperial Orb, before proceeding to the -description of the ancient and curious thrones. - -The Orb is an immense globe of gold, heavily chased and richly -incrusted with large and beautiful gems. It is surmounted with a tall -Greek cross, also studded with precious stones of the purest water and -color. It is of Byzantine workmanship, as early as the tenth century, -and is said to have served as model for several other ornaments of this -character, made at Venice in later times. The upper portion of the -exterior of the globe is arranged in four triangular spaces, whereon -are enamelled in color scenes from the life of David. Among the gems -which are set in enamelled gold are 58 diamonds, 89 rubies, 23 blue -gems(?), 50 emeralds, and 38 pearls. - -The three unique chairs used as thrones in the coronations of the -rulers of Russia are objects of historical interest and are of great -value intrinsically. The smallest of the three, designated as the -Stool, is the most ancient of all, having been presented in 1605 by -Shah Abbas of Persia to the Czar Boris Godunoff. It is completely -covered with polished sheets of beaten gold decorated with pearls and -precious stones. The second seat is in the form of a high-back chair -of rude workmanship, and is intended for the reigning Empress, and -is called the Golden Throne. Although its proportions are uncouth, a -mine of wealth has been expended in its decorations, and it is inlaid -with 1,500 rubies, 8,000 turquoises, 2 magnificent topazes, and 4 rare -amethysts. The third chair, of rude construction, was made as early as -1660, and is intended for the Emperor, and designated as the Diamond -Throne. It is literally a mass of sparkling diamonds; and every portion -of the chair is aglow with brilliant colored flashes of the diamonds, -so profusely is this gem used in its decoration. The rude and imperfect -cutting of these beautiful stones indicates their Oriental origin as -well as their antiquity. - -The Priests’ Treasury in the Kremlin is a wonderful accumulation of -wealth. We will attempt to describe but one of the articles to be -seen there. In a golden casket studded with the finest gems may be -seen some ancient holy relics given by one of the Greek Emperors of -Constantinople. Among them there is a fragment of stone from the tomb -of Christ, and a bit of wood from the cross. The elegance and richness -of the casket will remind the antiquary of the receptacle of the tooth -of Buddha, which was formerly preserved at Kandy, the capital of Ceylon. - -This relic was kept in a golden casket incrusted with the finest -gems. This was also encased in four other boxes, all of which were -studded with precious stones of enormous value, and forming together a -priceless reliquary to which none of the shrines of civilized countries -could offer an equal in comparison, not excepting that of the famous -Virgin of Loretto in Italy. - -In the great hall devoted to the collection of arms and armor may be -seen a great number of articles highly interesting to the antiquary -and historian. Arms and armor of all periods from Europe and Asia are -represented here,--the plain steel-clad vestments of the Crusader; -the richly chased and inlaid coats of mail of the knights of mediæval -times; the light defences of the Persian and Saracen horsemen, -glittering with those gems which were supposed to possess the power of -averting fatal missiles; the casques of the Circassian mountaineers, -brilliant with barbaric decorations; scimetars, bucklers, scabbards, -and a great variety of other arms, resplendent with the most beautiful -of the rarest and most precious stones. - -There is also a most costly and unique collection of saddles and -horse-gear to be seen. These are mostly presents of Emperors of -Constantinople in early times, and from Grand Turks and Persian Shahs -of later periods. Some of these are of great value and contain gems of -historic interest. Their decorations are profuse; and the bits, curbs, -bridles, headstalls, and, in fact, all portions of the trappings that -will admit of the setting of precious stones, are literally incrusted -with splendid gems, forming stars, suns, and various ornaments of -grotesque shapes. - -In one of the rooms of the Winter Palace at St. Petersburg are -deposited many of the jewels of the Empire, and especially those -required in the court ceremonies. - -Among them may be seen the beautiful crowns and coronets of the late -Emperor and Empress. The crown of the Emperor is of magnificent -workmanship, and dazzles the eye with the splendor of its gems. In -outline it resembles the dome-formed patriarchal mitre, which was a -favorite shape among the Byzantines. Upon the summit appears a cross -formed of five beautiful diamonds, which is also supported by a large -spinel ruby, polished, but not faceted. This ruby and cross are -supported by a foliated arch composed of eleven great diamonds and -rising from the back and front of the base of the crown. On either -side of this central arch is attached a hoop formed of thirty-eight -large and perfect pearls. The spaces on either side of these arches -are filled with leaf-work and ornaments in silver, incrusted with -diamonds underlaid with the richest purple velvet. The band which forms -the base of the crown is of gold, and is ornamented with twenty-eight -magnificent diamonds. - -The coronet of the Empress is thought to be the most beautiful -collection of diamonds ever presented to the view in a single ornament. -It is composed of four very large diamonds of the purest water, and -eighteen others of slightly smaller size, together with a multitude of -lesser diamonds of exquisite water. The flash of these beautiful gems -reminds the observer of a collection of rainbows. - -Among the other regalia of this collection may be seen the most -remarkable necklace of diamonds in Europe. In the links which form the -chain are twenty-two huge brilliants of great value, and, as pendants -to the connecting chain, fifteen other diamonds of surprising size -appear, forming an ornament of great beauty. - -In this room may also be seen the plume of Russia’s great general, -Suvaroff. It is an aigrette composed entirely of diamonds of wonderful -lustre, and was the gift of the Sultan of Turkey. - -Among the curiosities preserved here are the Order of Saint Andrew, -mounted with five pink diamonds; also two of the famous Siberian -beryls,--one green, the other blue,--surrounded in their settings with -diamonds. - -In the museum of the Hermitage, adjoining the Winter Palace, may be -seen one of the finest and largest collections of gems in the world. -It is composed of choice selections from some of the most celebrated -cabinets that have been formed in Europe during the past two centuries, -and comprises the better portions of those known as the collection of -the Duke of Orleans (Philippe Egalité), that of the famous Strozzi, and -that of the Beverly, which had been formed under the direction of the -learned antiquary Dutens. The cabinet is not only extremely valuable in -its art treasures, in the form of engraved gems and cameos, ancient, -mediæval, and modern, but it is a noble monument of the good taste and -liberality of the sovereigns of Russia. The description of these alone -would require a ponderous volume. - -In another gallery in the same palace may be seen the plume of Prince -Potemkin, glittering with gems of the purest ray, presented to him by -the Sultan of Turkey; also the two magnificent bouquets of artificial -flowers composed of the finest colored diamonds, topazes, pearls, -sapphires, rubies, and other gems, which rival in their hues the most -beautiful of the productions of the vegetable kingdom; the identical -parrot which was carved from a single emerald, and given by King Pedro -II. of Portugal, to his bride, the Princess of Savoy; together with a -vast number of priceless objects of virtu of various ages, many of them -profusely decorated with interesting and valuable gems. The Hermitage, -like the Green Vaults at Dresden, is one of the jewel-boxes of the -civilized world. - -In the museum of the School of Mines at St. Petersburg may be seen the -finest collection of the gems in their natural and rough condition -in the world, not even excepting the magnificent collections of the -British Museum, or that of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. The -glittering treasures of Siberia are here displayed in lavish profusion. -Natural crystals of diamond, of chrysoberyl, of topaz, beryl, and -emerald attest, by their beautiful forms, the great mineral wealth of -that vast country. The crystals of emerald are enormous and exceed -in size all others in the world. The topazes are unsurpassed in -their beauty and variety of tints. The collection of beryls is truly -wonderful, and contains specimens of exquisite color and of great -value. They may be seen not only of green, blue, white, and yellow, -but even pink, which is an exceedingly rare hue for this mineral. The -cabinet of tourmalines is superb, and nobly illustrates the beauty and -variety of colors and forms of that wonderful mineral. - -In the arsenal of the Alexander Palace may be seen a curious and -valuable collection of arms and armor of all ages, and among them -many ornaments beautifully worked in precious stones. Prominent among -them are the two sets of horse-gear which came as presents from the -Sultan of Turkey. The first is a souvenir of the conclusion of that -peace which was signed at Adrianople when the Cossacks had passed the -barriers of the Balkan Mountains and almost clutched the long-coveted -prize of Istamboul in their grasp. It is superb in its construction, -with its mountings and stirrups of gold, and its velvet trappings -studded with flashing diamonds. But the second saddle is even far -superior in its ornaments and its effects to the first. It is indeed a -glorious specimen of Persian handicraft and ornamentation, and worthy -of one of the heroes of the Arabian Nights. It fairly glitters with the -multitude of diamonds of which it is composed, and some of which are of -great size and wondrous lustre. It is indeed a barbaric mine of wealth. - -This costly present was given to the Czar by the Sultan after the -fatal battle of Konieh, when the Porte supplicated Russia to send an -auxiliary force to defend a tottering throne against the attacks of a -rebellious vassal. - -Many of the cathedrals, convents, and monasteries of Russia are -richly endowed with gems and jewels of great beauty and value. In the -Kazan Cathedral at St. Petersburg may be seen the miraculous image of -the Virgin brought from Kazan in 1579. It is covered with gold, and -incrusted with diamonds and other gems. The sacristy of the Monastery -of Solovetsk is one of the richest in the realm, and is filled with -jewels and gems which have been presented in times past by kings, -princes, and nobles. - -In the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael, in Moscow, there are some -ancient reliquaries adorned with gems of remarkable beauty. The -diamonds, however, are surpassed by the magnificent emeralds. - -In the sacristy of the Holy Synod in Moscow are preserved some -wonderful sacerdotal robes and ornaments. One of the sakkos of crimson -velvet is so heavily laden with diamonds, rubies, pearls, emeralds, -etc., that its weight amounts to fifty-four pounds. The great mitre -is also so studded with gems, such as the finest diamonds, rubies, -emeralds, pearls, and sapphires, that it weighs five and a half pounds. -The decoration of these sacred objects has been made by lavish hands -and from an abundance of the most costly materials. - -The famous Convent of Troitza possesses rare and beautiful gems and -jewels among its gifts and reliquaries, which are well worthy of -examination by _dilettanti_. From a great variety of sources these -riches have accumulated. The shrine has been famous for many centuries -past; and czars, princes, boyars, and peasants have deposited their -offerings both in ostentation as well as with the hope of divine -dispensation. - -Its treasury is indeed a colossal jewel-box, whose wealth must amount -to many millions in value, and which rivals, if it does not surpass -in richness, the famous shrine of Loretto in Italy. The variety of -articles decorated with gems exhibited here is marvellous. Art has made -use of the precious stones in her decorations with lavish hand. Some of -the frames in which are set sacred pictures are literally composed of -gems of the largest size and also costly in price. Even the robes of -the Madonnas are spangled with diamonds, rubies, sapphires, topazes, -and emeralds, forming the richest mosaics. - -It is impossible, from the imperfect information we have received from -travellers concerning this wonderful museum of ancient and mediæval -art, to give an accurate account of its treasures; but we hope some of -the learned antiquaries of Western Europe may be induced to examine -them, and make known their history. Among the great numbers of engraved -gems, skilled search may reveal some of the most beautiful forms of -ancient art, and supply some of the missing links in glyptic history. - -According to these vague accounts a volume might be written on the -description of the _armoires_, among which are comprised Bibles, -Gospels, liturgical books, bound with covers of silver gilt and -incrusted with precious stones, such as the onyx, sardonyx, agate, -chrysoprase, aqua-marinas, lapis lazuli, malachite, turquoise. The -clasps of these volumes are made of gold or silver, in which antique -cameos are set. Among the sacred utensils and relics are described -chalices of gold belted with rows of diamonds, and a great variety of -vessels richly ornamented; also crosses studded with beautiful emeralds -and rubies; sapphire rings; vases and chandeliers of silver; dalmatics -of brocade embroidered with flowers composed of gems, and with legends -in old Sclavonic, written in pearls; enamelled censers; triptychs -storied with countless figures. Besides these articles we have -enumerated, the museum contains a great number of others, including -images of saints and Madonnas richly decorated, masses of precious -metals, and heaps of precious stones in their natural state. What a -glorious field of study for the amateur and the historian is presented -here! - -Among the paragons possessed by the Crown is the diamond known as -the Orloff, which derives its name from one of the counts of that -celebrated family, who purchased it for the Empress Catherine. It is -one of the finest gems in the world, and is the largest in Europe. It -rivals in beauty the famous Regent of the French regalia, which it -surpasses in size. The weight of this diamond is 194³⁄₄ karats, and it -is exactly of the form of the famous diamond described by Tavernier as -the Great Mogul. In shape it is ovoid, or rather, in gem nomenclature, -of a high-crowned rose-pattern. It is possible that this gem is the -long-lost Mogul. Were it not for the remarkable accuracy of the -distinguished French traveller, we should at once pronounce the Orloff -to be the missing Mogul. Hence the question arises, may not Tavernier -have made an error in his calculation of weight? It is certainly very -remarkable that two rare stones of such great weight, and such unusual -form, should possess so great and so many degrees of resemblance. And -it may be possible that the Mogul diamond is concealed in some of the -obscure fastnesses of Persia, and may appear again to the world, like -the crown of Chosroes, after a thousand years of concealment. - -The Orloff disputes with the Regent the claim of being the finest -known gem in the universe. Both have their ardent admirers. The Regent -owes much of its fancied superiority to the regularity and perfection -of its form, which is that of a perfect brilliant, and may therefore -be regarded as the type of the style. The Orloff, likewise, may be -selected as the perfected model of the form known as the rose-cut. -Therefore, either gem may be considered as the perfection of the -brilliant or the rose-style of cutting. The brilliant is certainly -the most symmetrical of all the forms; but does it enable the gem to -exhibit to a full degree its powers of refraction? It may exhibit -the prismatic play of color in greater perfection; but does not the -rose-cut project brighter beams of light in a more extensive proportion -than the brilliant? Let the opticians decide. - -The Orloff now adorns the Russian sceptre, being placed in the top, -just under the golden eagle. - -Concerning the history of the Orloff there is considerable obscurity, -even in that which relates to the time and the manner in which it came -into possession of the Russians. At all events, there is no doubt but -it formed a part of the spoils of Delhi, and was brought to Persia, -along with the Koh-i-noor and other gems, by the conqueror, Nadir Shah. -Its subsequent history, however, is somewhat mixed up with other gems. -Dutens relates a romantic story of its having formed one of the eyes -of the great idol at Seringapatam, and having been stolen by a French -deserter, who managed to be installed as a priest and attached to the -temple. Pallas, however, gives a totally different version, which he -is said to have derived from the son of the Armenian who sold the gem -to the Russians. This Armenian purchased the diamond from one of the -Afghan generals, who formerly served with Nadir, and who received it as -his share of the booty. But so far as we can learn, the gem was brought -to Europe by the Earl of Effingham, who obtained it when Governor -General of India. It frequently changed owners before it fell into the -possession of the Greek merchant who took it to St. Petersburg and sold -it to Prince Orloff. The price said to have been paid for it is given -at $450,000, besides an annuity of $20,000 and a patent of nobility. - -The Shah is a remarkably irregular prism of slab of diamond, partially -faceted by art. Tradition has associated with it adventures of a -startling and bloody character. - -It was one of the gems possessed by Nadir Shah, and at the time of his -death was received as booty and secreted by one of the assassins. Long -after the event, an Afghan visited an Armenian by the name of Shafras, -who lived at Bassora with his two brothers, and offered him a large -diamond, an emerald, a ruby of fabulous size, a sapphire of wonderful -beauty, together with a hundred other stones of less value. The -stranger asked an insignificant price for these valuable gems, but the -Armenian was not at the time able to furnish the means of purchase, and -entreated the Afghan to return at another time with his treasures. But -suspicious of the good faith of the jeweller, the mountaineer departed -and disappeared. Several years afterward the Armenian met, by chance, -the Afghan at Bagdad, where the gems were sold to a Jew for 65,000 -piastres. Shafras summoned his two brothers, and they assassinated -the stranger and the Jew, and flung their bodies into the Euphrates. -The brothers fled to the desert, and while attempting to divide their -spoils fell into dispute. In the depths of night the elder brother slew -his two companions in crime, and fled to Constantinople. From thence -he passed to Holland, and informed several of the Courts of Europe -of his treasures. Catherine is said to have invited him to Russia, -but would not accede to his terms of purchase. The Armenian, while at -St. Petersburg, was induced by some of the courtiers to lead a life -of dissipation, with the view of ultimately obtaining his treasures. -But, soon perceiving the intentions of his associates, he secretly -quitted the country, and was heard of no more for ten years, when by -accident it was discovered that he was living quietly at Astrakhan. New -overtures were at once made to him by the Russians, but he would not -consent to meet the negotiators, except at Smyrna. At this city the -purchase was finally made, and the Shah passed into the possession of -the Muscovites for an immense sum of money,--said to be $650,000. - -Unfortunately for this romantic story, only the outlines of which we -have here given, it is now reported that Chosroes, the son of Abbas -Mirza, presented the gem to the Emperor of Russia. Another account -states that it was purchased of Chosroes by the Russian Government. At -all events, no matter what its true history may be since the death of -Nadir, it is a gem of the most perfect purity of color and freedom from -blemish. Upon one of its sides an inscription in the Persian language -has been engraved by some lapidary of extraordinary patience. Its -weight is ninety-five karats. - -Many of the Russian nobles possess fine diamonds, which are not well -known to the public. We know that the Princess Yassopouff owns the fine -brilliant of forty karats called the Polar Star; but what has become of -the fine gem of ninety karats, which was cut for Russia by the French -lapidary Jarlet, at the close of the seventeenth century? - -While we are speaking of lost gems, we will call the attention of -the reader to the large pear-shaped diamond of 157¹⁄₄ karats, which -Tavernier bought at Amadabad in India, and brought to Europe on his -return. This gem also has disappeared from history, and thus far evaded -all attempts for its recovery. The history of all the large and famous -diamonds brought to Europe would form a most interesting chapter, if -some tireless antiquary could be induced to take up the subject and -clear away the obscure wanderings of some of them. - -The history of Potemkin, as related by a recent writer, reveals an -extravagance unequalled since the days of the Roman follies; and it -reads in these sober times more like romance than reality. The Prince, -when fully attired, wore a collar of the Order of Saint Alexander, -which was the gift of the Empress, and profusely ornamented with -diamonds of the value of 60,000 roubles. A laurel wreath, which he wore -on state occasions, also the gift of Catherine, was beautifully wrought -in gold, and set with superb emeralds and diamonds which were estimated -as worth 150,000 roubles. - -The picture presented by this bold favorite in his sunniest days, -when, for instance, he assisted the Empress to alight from her -carriage, surpasses the display of Prince Esterhazy in later times. -Orloff was then dressed in a scarlet coat, over which hung a long cloak -of gold lace extravagantly ornamented with precious stones of enormous -value. In fact, his dress was completely covered with beautiful -gems; and his hat was so heavily laden with precious stones, that an -_aide-de-camp_ carried it for him when not in use. - -Catherine was not only passionately fond of belles-lettres and the -arts, but she had a generous heart withal, as evinced by the numerous -gifts she bestowed upon her friends. The value of the gems and the -jewels she gave to her favorites exceeds almost the bounds of belief, -and far surpasses the munificence of any of the sovereigns of history. -The total estimate of the worth of these gifts amounts to the enormous -sum of 88,820,000 roubles. We will enumerate some of them. To Zoritz -she gave diamonds of the value of 200,000 roubles. To Plato Zouboff, -gems worth 100,000 roubles. To Zawadoffsky, to Lanskoi, to Zermoloff, -she presented caskets of diamonds of the value of 80,000 roubles each. -Wasulitschikoff and Kozzakoff each received presents of the same -precious stone, costing 60,000 and 50,000 roubles. The five brothers of -the Orloff family, and especially Potemkin, received gifts amounting in -value to many millions of roubles. To the famous house of Bariatinsky -Catherine gave many beautiful gems which are still preserved among the -treasures of the family. Among them is a splendid solitaire diamond -with a pendant, which was given to one of the Princes at his baptism. - -Some of these jewels are of unique patterns and workmanship, and of -immense value. Among them is a necklace of solitaires, each stone -as large as the end of the thumb, with large pear-shaped pendants -attached. There is also a bracelet of rude Persian art, made of beaten -gold, and set with uncut crystals of diamonds, thus indicating a very -ancient origin, or singular caprice on the part of the maker. - -There are still preserved among the princely families of Russia, as -well as in the Royal casket, many diamonds yet in their rough and -crystallized forms, or imperfectly cut in the Oriental and ancient -manner. - -The remarkable soldier, Suvaroff, although careless of his dress and -his personal appearance, was passionately fond of jewels. And the -allied sovereigns of Europe, learning of his love of the beautiful, -sent him several superb gems, among which was a large diamond of great -beauty, from the Empress Catherine. - -Like Charles _le Temeraire_, the terrible Cossack carried his gem -treasures with him during his campaigns; and he took infinite delight -in examining their charms, in times of danger and fatigue. They were of -various kinds and of great value; but the one he prized the most was -the gift of the Czarina. This splendid gem he always reserved for the -last look, after toying with the others; and seemed fascinated with the -strange gleams of the prismatic display, as the stone was viewed in the -dim and flickering light of the camp-fire. - -What a picture is presented of the grim and fearless veteran, deriving -a gleam of comfort from his treasures during that lonely bivouac on the -summit of the high Alps, in Switzerland, on that fearful night in 1799, -when the victorious French, under Lecourbe, forced the Tatar general, -with his twenty-four thousand desperate soldiers, and with terrible -losses, over the desolate and rarely trodden pass of the Kenzig Culm! - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - FRENCH REGALIA. - - -Previous to the time of the French Revolution, and commencing from -periods dating back beyond mediæval days, France had accumulated a -casket of gems and jewels of extraordinary richness and value. The -amateur may form an idea of their beauty and magnificence, from the -famous report made to the French Assembly by M. Delattre in 1791. In -this list there were enumerated with special care, 9,547 diamonds, 506 -pearls, 230 rubies, 134 sapphires, 150 emeralds, 71 topazes, 3 Oriental -amethysts, 8 Syrian garnets, and 8 other stones not designated. - -The estimated value of these treasures, together with the bijou and -mounted parures belonging to the Crown, amounted to nearly thirty -million francs. From this carefully arranged inventory, we have made -the following selection, which will be interesting to the reader at the -present day, as not only showing the estimated worth of the gems at -that time, but also describing some of the fine gems whose history has -since been lost. - - +-----------------------------------------------+----------+----------+ - | | Weight. | Value. | - | +----------+----------+ - | | k. | fr. | - | | | | - | 1 A brilliant diamond called Le Regent | 136¹⁴⁄₁₆ |12,000,000| - | 2 A diamond cut in facets, perfect in lustre | | | - | and brilliancy, called Le Sancy | 33¹²⁄₁₆ |1,000,000 | - | 3 Diamond cut in facets | 28⁶⁄₁₆ | 250,000 | - | 4 A brilliant diamond | 26¹²⁄₁₆ | 150,000 | - | 5 A pear-shaped diamond, of a peach-blossom | | | - | hue | 24¹³⁄₁₆ | 200,000 | - | 6 A diamond called the Mirror of Portugal | 21²⁄₁₆ | 250,000 | - | 7 Pear-shaped diamond, of a yellowish cast | 20¹⁴⁄₁₆ | 65,000 | - | 8 Rose-colored diamond, with flaws | 20¹²⁄₁₆ | 48,000 | - | 9 An olive-shaped diamond, clear | 18¹³⁄₁₆ | 85,000 | - | 10 A brilliant, of a greenish cast, and flawed| 18¹¹⁄₁₆ | 20,000 | - | 11 A pale wine-colored brilliant | 18⁹⁄₁₆ | 75,000 | - | 12 A steel-colored brilliant | 17⁷⁄₁₆ | 18,000 | - | 13 Brilliant, cloudy | 17 | 50,000 | - | 14 The 10th Mazarin, cloudy | 16 | 50,000 | - | 15 A brilliant, of peach-blossom hue | 14¹⁴⁄₁₆ | 25,000 | - | 16 A fine white brilliant | 14¹⁴⁄₁₆ | 150,000 | - | 17 A brilliant, of peach-blossom hue | 14¹²⁄₁₆ | 30,000 | - | 18 Brilliant | 13¹⁰⁄₁₆ | 60,000 | - | 19 A brilliant, of brownish hue | 13⁸⁄₁₆ | 35,000 | - | 20 A brilliant, of yellowish hue | 11¹⁰⁄₁₆ | 15,000 | - | 21 A brilliant, of brownish hue | 11¹⁰⁄₁₆ | 10,000 | - | 22 Brilliant, of yellowish cast | 11⁶⁄₁₆ | 15,000 | - | 23 Brilliant, of peach-blossom hue | 11²⁄₁₆ | 10,000 | - | 24 Pale-blue brilliant | 10⁷⁄₁₆ | 30,000 | - | 25 Brilliant, of brownish hue | 10⁴⁄₁₆ | 25,000 | - | 26 White brilliant | 10 | 30,000 | - | 27 15 brilliants (of unknown weight) | ...... | 833,000 | - | 28 54 brilliants, each from | 5 to 10 | 756,000 | - | 29 227 brilliants, each from | 1 to 5 | 332,700 | - | 30 1,631 small diamonds, together | 425 | 77,228 | - | 31 12 diamonds, rose-cut and flawed | 84 | 82,700 | - | | | | - | ROYAL STATE DRESS, WHITE PARURE. | | | - | | | | - | 32 12 brilliants, each from | | | - | and 163 smaller ones | 2 to 20| 413,000 | - | 33 The Order of St. Esprit, 9 brilliants, | | | - | each from, and 286 smaller ones | 7 to 14 | 324,000 | - | 34 The Epaulette, composed of 12 brilliants, | | | - | each | 3 to 19 | 306,000 | - | 35 The Croix du Cordon, 6 large brilliants | | | - | and 143 smaller diamonds | ...... | 200,000 | - | | | | - | COLORED PARURE. | | | - | | | | - | 36 A rich sky-blue brilliant | 67²⁄₁₆ |3,000,000 | - | 37 Pale-blue brilliant | 31¹²⁄₁₆ | 300,000 | - | 38 Croix du Cordon, 13 large brilliants, | | | - | 362 smaller | ...... | 10,000 | - | 39 Epaulette, 9 large brilliants, 197 smaller | ...... | 47,000 | - | 40 Epée de diamonds, 2,189 rose-cut diamonds | 400 | 329,075 | - | 41 Diamond buttons, large and small | 552 | 294,851 | - | 42 Other diamonds of various qualities | ...... | 315,000 | - +-----------------------------------------------+----------+----------+ - -This magnificent and matchless collection was mysteriously stolen in -September, 1792, and many of the fine gems have not been recovered. -Neither has time yet divulged the authors of this bold theft, nor -explained clearly the motives that led to the act. The circumstances -connected with this celebrated robbery are interesting although -obscure. They are as follows:-- - -After the fearful and bloody scenes of the 10th of August and the -2d of September, fears were entertained by the Republican chiefs -concerning the safety of the public treasures. Therefore the building -which contained the gems was closed to the public; and the Commune of -Paris, representing the domain of the State, placed its seals upon -the apartments wherein were placed the crown, sceptre, the golden -wreath left by Cardinal Richelieu to Louis XIII., and a great number -of gems and bijou. On the morning of the 17th of September M. Sergent -and two other Commissioners of the Police perceived that during the -night thieves had entered the halls of the Garde Meuble by scaling the -colonnade from the side of the Place Louis XV., and opening the windows -on that side. They had broken the seals, picked the locks, and, after -removing many of the inestimable treasures, had disappeared, without -leaving a trace of their flight. - -The city was thrown into consternation at the boldness of the act -and the magnitude of the robbery. Active and untiring search was at -once made, but not a trace of the plunder nor the least clew to the -perpetrators could be obtained. - -Not long after, however, an anonymous letter revealed the information -that a part of the spoil was then secreted in a ditch beside one of the -alleys of the Champs d’Elysées. Sergent, with his colleagues, hastened -to the spot indicated, and found there the Regent diamond and the -magnificent agate cup then known as the Chalice of Abbé Suger. - -Search was thus stimulated to further exertions, but without avail and -twelve years passed without affording the least clew to the robbers. At -this time a forgery was committed upon the Bank of France, and several -persons were arrested for the act. Among them was a veteran soldier who -had formerly served in the Pandours, and who was called by his comrades -“Baba.” - -When arraigned before the court, Baba made the following singular -confession after betraying his accomplices in the forgery: “This is -not the first time,” he exclaimed in an excited manner, “that my -confessions have been useful to society; and if you condemn me I shall -implore the clemency of the Emperor. Without me Napoleon would not -be on the throne, for it is to me alone the success of the battle of -Marengo is due. I was one of the robbers of the Garde Meuble. I aided -my accomplices to bury in the ditch in the Champs d’Elysées the Regent -and the other objects which, being easily recognized, would have led -to detection. Upon the consideration of a promise which has been -perfectly kept, I revealed this hiding-place. The Regent was found; -and, gentlemen of the court, you are not ignorant of the fact that the -magnificent diamond was placed in the hands of the Dutch by the First -Consul to procure the funds which were so much needed after the 18th -Brumaire.” - -Baba was nevertheless condemned to the galleys, but the sentence was -not enforced, and shortly afterwards he was sent to the prison in the -Bicêtre, where he remained until he died. Nothing further than this was -ever made known publicly, but suspicions of complicity in the robbery -were directed towards the Orleans family. - -Napoleon, when crowned as Emperor, and with the wealth of Europe at -his command, made great efforts to restore the National regalia to -their former beauty and value. The various countries of Europe were -ransacked for the lost gems; and it is stated that a number of them -were recovered. Great numbers of other gems were also bought and added -to the Regalia; so that in 1810 the inventory of the Crown exhibited a -list of 37,393 precious stones. - -The changes of the one hundred days and the Restoration left the -National property untouched. Under the reigns of Louis XVIII. and -Charles X. additions were made, and the casket contained 64,812 gems -and precious stones of all kinds. The inventory of 1849 presented -the same number of articles, with a total valuation of over twenty -millions of francs, without estimating the value of the bijou. - -There must have been a large augmentation during this time, for the -present which Louis XVIII. ordered to be made deducted from the -collection diamonds of the value of three quarters of a million of -francs. This costly present was in the form of the Order of Saint -Esprit and constructed of superb diamonds. - -Of the robbery of 1792, the Sancy diamond and the unique blue one of -sixty-seven karats have never been recovered. Since the inventory of -1810 two beautiful gems have also disappeared. One of these was the -magnificent opal which Josephine wore, and which was known as the -Burning of Troy. The other was the beautiful brilliant of thirty-four -karats which was obtained by M. Elias for Napoleon. This was the -much-loved gem which the Emperor is said to have carried with him on -his person, and which was asserted to have been lost in the rout at -Waterloo. - -The magnificent blue diamond, which was regarded as one of the marvels -of the mineral kingdom, has never been recovered. Its early history -has also been lost, but the gem is believed to be the identical stone -which Tavernier brought from India and sold to Louis XIV. At that time -it was described as a gem of a beautiful violet hue, but of a bad form, -being flat and thin. Its weight in this condition was 112³⁄₁₆ karats, -which would probably afford a fine brilliant of the size of the missing -stone, 67²⁄₁₆ karats. History has failed to trace the wanderings of -this gem since its departure from the Louvre, but suspicion rests upon -the superb blue diamond which was in the possession of the English -banker, the late Mr. Hope. However, the English diamond weighs but -44¹⁄₂ karats. Therefore a loss of quite 22 karats was incurred in -recutting the stone in order to escape detection. - -The Regent diamond, which was found uninjured in the ditch of the -Champs d’Elysées, is in reality the most beautiful diamond yet known -in the world. It is not the largest, but it is the most perfect of all -the paragons, being almost faultless in its transparency and purity, as -well as in its exact and symmetrical form. - -It derives its name from the fact that it was purchased and added to -the French casket by the Regent of France. This magnificent gem was -found in the diamond mines of Puteal, about one hundred and thirty-five -miles from the city of Golconda. It weighed in its natural condition -four hundred and ten karats, but during the process of cutting it -was reduced to 136¹⁴⁄₁₆ karats. A Parsee merchant by the name of -Jamcund, who was a famous collector of diamonds, obtained possession -of the stone and brought it to Madras, where he sold it to the English -Governor, William Pitt, for $60,000. Pitt brought the stone safely -to London, and, after having had it cut, offered it for sale. The -Royal House of England declined to invest in the gem; but after long -negotiations the Duke of Orleans, Regent of France during the minority -of Louis XV., purchased it in 1717 for the sum of 3,375,000 francs. -Seventy-four years afterwards a commission of experts reckoned its -value at 12,000,000 francs, and even this enormous sum is exceeded by -the valuation of the present day. - -Napoleon, after establishing his fortunes, redeemed the Regent from -the Dutch bankers, and had it set in the handle of the sword of state. -Since then it has been removed and so arranged in its setting as to be -placed at will either in the crown or used separately. - -To the historian this beautiful gem is singularly interesting, for -it has indirectly exercised a mighty influence upon the destinies of -Europe and the progress of civilization. It was of infinite aid to -Napoleon after the 18th Brumaire; and probably without the help of -the little glittering pebble as a collateral for the Dutch loan, the -decisive battle of Marengo never would have been fought. And it is no -less certain that William Pitt, England’s Premier, never would have -been the leading statesman of Europe had not his grandfather acquired -the diamond in India and established the prosperity of his family by -its sale. Pitt was the master of European politics; and even after -his life was crushed out by the defeat at Austerlitz, the heritage of -his genius and his hate was apparent in every coalition, every blow, -against Napoleon that finally culminated at Waterloo. Therefore, in -reviewing the history of the Regent diamond, the philosopher might be -tempted to say that it was to the same gem, by a singular fatality or -caprice of fortune, the “Great Captain” indirectly owed his success and -his downfall. - -The jewels belonging to the Crown of France, as collected and restored -by Napoleon, and increased by the good taste of the succeeding rulers -of the country, are of great beauty and value. It is, indeed, one of -the finest collections of Europe. The casket, at the present time, -contains sixty perfect diamonds, varying in weight from 25 to 28 -karats, besides the splendid and matchless Regent. The actual crown -displays eight great diamonds of the purest water, weighing from 19 to -28 karats each, besides the Regent, which may be adapted at will. - -During the Universal Exposition at Paris, in 1855, the jewels of the -Crown were displayed to the public. Many of the gems were mounted for -the occasion in new parures; and the arrangement presented one of the -most charming exhibitions ever seen in civilized countries. - -We will now turn to the history of one of the lost diamonds of the -Crown, and relate the facts and hypotheses concerning it as fully as we -have been able to collect them. They form, indeed, a perplexing theme. - -The beautiful diamond inventoried as the Sancy, and of the weight -of 33¹²⁄₁₆ karats and valued at 1,000,000 francs, was also stolen -and never recovered. This gem has been associated with the fortunes -of the redoubtable Burgundian warrior, Charles the Bold; and its -history has done more to perpetuate his name than the record of all -his misdeeds and his desperate battles. To prove, however, that this -is the identical gem lost to the Swiss will be a difficult task; for -the antiquaries have unearthed more Sancy diamonds than there were -“Richmonds in the field.” The name of Sancy has, indeed, become famous -by embracing in one story the fortunes of three distinct gems. - -The erudite King has patiently traced out the traditions connected with -the name of Sancy, and appears to prove that three stories instead of -one are included in the history of Baron Sancy. But the stone that was -stolen from the French casket in 1792 is inventoried at the weight of -33¹²⁄₁₆ karats, while the gem that has lately gone back to India, and -is supposed to be the stolen gem, weighs quite 54 karats. Here is a -new mystery for the antiquaries to clear away; or did Delattre and his -associates, who made out this inventory with exceeding care, write 33 -instead of 53? - -The histories of these diamonds are so interesting that we will attempt -to repeat them here, following, in part, the views of Mr. King. Not -long after the invention, by Berquen, of diamond-cutting by the process -of abrasion, Charles the Bold, then in the full blaze of martial glory, -submitted to him three large rough diamonds. The native of Bruges -succeeded so well in polishing them, that Charles presented him with -the princely sum of 3,000 ducats. - -One of these gems Charles gave to Pope Sextus IV., and it was mounted -in the Tiara, where it is said to remain. The second was presented to -Louis XI. of France; while the third was reserved by the Burgundian -hero, and set in a grotesque manner to be worn as a personal ornament. - -This jewel, of true barbaric design, was formed of a triangular shape, -with the newly cut diamond in the centre. This diamond was ⁵⁄₈ of an -inch in its widest diameter, and was shaped as a pyramid, with the apex -cut into a four-rayed star in relief. Around the gem were set three -large Balais rubies and four magnificent pearls, each more than half an -inch in diameter. - -One of the Fugger family, in 1555, made a careful drawing of the jewel, -with a written description of it, and these were afterwards published -by Lambeccius in his Bibliotheca Cæsarea; so there can be no doubt -about the appearance of the original diamond of Charles the Bold in its -early days. - -When the Duke led his band of freebooters into Switzerland on his -long-projected foray, he took most of his gems along with him, not -dreaming of disaster, and probably loving to view his treasures even -amid the hardships of a campaign. Rough soldiers are sometimes as -fond of the beautiful in art and nature as more delicate and refined -organizations; and Charles the Bold and Suvaroff are not the only -examples. - -The terrific onslaught of the Swiss at Grandson crushed the Burgundian -ranks so quickly that Charles had only time to escape with his sword, -leaving all his cherished treasures in the hands of the dauntless -mountaineers. - -In the sack of the camp which speedily followed the rout, a soldier -found the golden box in which the famous pendant was kept, but -regarding the jewel as a gaudy and worthless bauble, he tossed it away -under a wagon, and retained the box only. Shortly afterwards he began -to suspect that the contents of so beautiful a box must have some -relative value, and returning to the place he recovered the despised -jewel. He did not long retain his treasure, but sold it to a priest -for one florin. The priest also did not appear to have a high regard -for his purchase, for he disposed of it to the magistrates of his own -canton for three francs. - -When it became known that the Bernese Government had possession of -the Duke’s famous jewels, Jacob Fugger, one of the members of the -celebrated Nuremberg family, went to Bern and negotiated for their -purchase. The famous pendant, together with the Duke’s cap, which was -made of silk covered with pearls and Balais rubies, and a plume case -set with diamonds, pearls, and Balais rubies, were bought for the sum -of 47,000 francs. Fugger retained the pendant in his possession at -Nuremberg for many years, indulging in the hope, it has been said, that -the Duke’s great-grandson, the Emperor Charles V., would purchase it -as a family relic. When the celebrated capitalist died the ornament was -still in his possession; but his great-nephew, who inherited the jewel, -sold it to Henry VIII. of England. After the death of this monarch, -his daughter presented the diamond to her bridegroom; and thus, by a -remarkable coincidence, and after an absence of seventy-six years, the -royal gem is again restored to the rightful heir of its original owner. -So far the history of Sancy No. 1 can be clearly traced. - -Now for the stories relating to the Sancy diamond No. 2. But, before -proceeding further in this interesting and misty search, we will -explain the history of the nobleman who has inseparably connected his -name with so many gems. - -Nicolas Harlai, Seigneur de Sancy, was of French descent, and the -treasurer and intimate friend of King Henry IV. He had filled several -positions of high responsibility, and served as ambassador to several -of the Courts of Europe. He was also known as a man of culture, a lover -of the fine arts, and an amateur in gems. - -In the year 1589, Baron Sancy is said to have obtained a large diamond -from the Pretender to the Crown of Portugal, as security for a loan -of one hundred thousand livres. The antiquaries have thus far failed -to ascertain whence this gem was obtained; but it cannot be supposed -that it was the identical jewel Philip II. of Spain had received from -the English Princess, for the Spaniard was then the bitterest foe of -Don Antonio. Furthermore, Philip, when dying, in 1598, ten years later -than the above-mentioned period, gave to the Infanta a diamond of great -beauty saying that it once belonged to Queen Mary of England. At all -events, it is quite certain that the French Baron had in his hands a -large and valuable diamond. - -Not long after this acquisition, Henry IV. wished to engage the -services of a select body of Swiss soldiers, to serve in his army; and -as security for the pay of these hirelings, he sent the gem by a trusty -servant to Harlai, who was then in Switzerland. The faithful valet, -whilst on his way to Bern, was beset by robbers in the forests that -conceal the entrance to the pass of the Dôle, one of the mountains of -the Jura. He managed to swallow the diamond without being perceived by -the bandits, before he was stripped and assassinated. - -The Baron, on learning the fate of his envoy, mistrusted that he had -resorted to this expedient of concealing his treasure. He therefore -sent a party of soldiers to the place, disinterred the body, and -recovered the gem. It was immediately placed in the hands of the Jews -of Metz, as security for a large sum of money; and it is also related -that the gem was never redeemed. Here ends the history of the second -Sancy; and no further account of it can be found. - -Concerning the history of Sancy No. 3, it is related that when Baron -Sancy returned from Constantinople, where he had been as ambassador, -he exhibited a large and beautiful diamond, which he had acquired for -the sum of $120,000. This statement is somewhat obscure, from the fact -that the ambassador was not Harlai de Sancy, but his son Achille, who -was also sent on various missions by Richelieu during the years 1626 -to 1635. However, it is certain that a new diamond was imported into -France by one of the Sancys, and that it was a remarkable gem. It was -described as being of the form of an almond, faceted all over its -surface with small facets, after the manner practised in India. The -weight of this gem has been variously stated; and these conflicting -statements have served to increase the mystery concerning the Sancy -gems. The weight of the diamond has been given as high as one hundred -and twenty-six karats; but Delisle assured Dutens that he saw M. -Jacquemin, the Crown jeweller, weigh the gem, and that it did not -exceed fifty-four karats. Nevertheless, the famous inventory of the -French gems in 1792 gives 33¹²⁄₁₆ karats as the true weight of the -famous Sancy diamond. How shall we explain this wide discrepancy? - -Forty-two years after the death of the Baron, the diamond passed -into the hands of Henrietta Maria, the queen-dowager of England, and -subsequently into the possession of James II. The unfortunate king, -while in exile, sold the gem to Louis IV. for the sum of $125,000; and -here its history ends. - -During the latter part of the seventeenth century, Robert de Berquen, -a descendant of the famous lapidary, wrote his “Merveilles des Indes,” -and therein he describes the diamond brought from India by Baron Sancy, -as then in possession of the Queen of England, and being almond-like -in form, faceted on both sides, and of fifty-four karats in weight. -This account agrees with those of the French jewellers, and serves to -connect the history of the gem up to this period. - -Not many years after the bold robbery of 1792, a large diamond was -acquired, by some mysterious means, by the widow of Charles IV. of -Spain, who gave it to the notorious Prince of Peace Godoy. In 1838, -Princess Paul Demidoff is said to have purchased it for half a million -of roubles; and it is also certain that the Demidoff family sold it in -1865, to the Parsee millionnaire, Sir Jansetjee Jejeebhoy of Bombay, -for $100,000. - -Now the question arises, which was the true Sancy? And to settle the -inquiry satisfactorily, will be a difficult task. From all these -accounts, the reader may infer that there are three distinct diamonds -included under the history of Sancy. The first is the diamond of the -Duke of Burgundy, weighing, from its description, about thirty-three -karats, and of a well-marked form. This gem is clearly traced to Philip -II. of Spain. The second, which was of unknown weight, was last noticed -in the hands of the Jews at Metz. The third was of the form of a -brilliolette, and of fifty-four karats weight, and has lately returned -to the land of its birth, with the honors of the name of Sancy. Which -of these gems deserves the name of the Sancy diamond? - -Madame de Pompadour, in the bright days of her prosperity, possessed -some rare gems, but we can learn but little concerning them. Her will -indicates that the beautiful ring containing white and rose-colored -diamonds was given to the Duke de Goutaud, and also that the rare -diamond of an aqua marine tint went to the Duke de Choiseul. - -After having referred to the political importance of the Regent -diamond, it may be proper for us to briefly mention the famous affair -of the diamond necklace, which unjustly cast a stain upon the prestige -of royalty in France, and ultimately exerted a certain influence, among -other causes, that led to the downfall of the monarchy, and the fearful -scenes that followed. The details of this daring scheme read more like -romance than reality; yet they are well substantiated in history. - -It appears that Böhmer, a jeweller of Paris, had collected, in 1784, a -large number of beautiful diamonds, with which he formed a magnificent -necklace valued at 1,600,000 francs. The jewel had been offered to the -Queen Marie Antoinette; but she had declined the purchase as beyond her -means at the time. Her regrets at her inability to obtain the splendid -decoration reached the ears of Prince Cardinal de Rohan, who was then -living at Paris, in disgrace, for having divulged some court secrets -while he was ambassador at Vienna. The Prince was not only handsome -and conceited, but he was notorious for his gallantry and his follies. -Unfortunately for himself and the court, he sought at this time to -regain the favor of the Queen, and made it the grand object of his life. - -He had among his intimate acquaintances a bold, dashing woman by the -name of Madame de la Motte, who pretended to be a countess of the -family of Valois. She had married a man by the name of La Motte, who -was intimate with the notorious quacks Villette and Cagliostro, who -were then in the zenith of their fame. The Countess was well known -in Paris as a woman of immorality and deeply versed in the arts of -intrigue. - -She became acquainted with the facts of the Queen’s admiration for the -necklace and the infatuation of Rohan for the Queen; and upon these -she arranged her scheme for duping the Prince and obtaining possession -of the property. She soon won the confidence of Rohan, and represented -to him the Queen’s intense longing for the necklace, and the favor he -would gain in loaning the means which would enable her to obtain the -coveted jewel and pay for it at her leisure. She promised, furthermore, -through the aid of Cagliostro, to obtain an interview with the Queen on -this subject. The promised interview took place one night in August, -1784, in the garden of Versailles; but the Queen was represented by a -low character by the name of D’Oliva, who was almost a counterpart of -Marie Antoinette. - -Rohan was completely deceived, and agreed to purchase the necklace; -which he did not long after, giving his notes for half-yearly payments, -and receiving as security a bond from the pretended Queen, which, -however, was forged by La Motte’s husband. The Prince Cardinal then -intrusted the jewel to the Countess for conveyance to the Queen; -but she passed it over to her husband, who lost no time in hurrying -to London, where he immediately converted its gems into money. The -Countess, however, did not hasten to join her husband, but remained at -Paris, rejoicing in her audacity and good fortune, and with the hope of -plucking more feathers from her princely victim. Nearly a year passed -away before the secret was discovered. - -Böhmer, anxious for his pay, approached the King; and the fraud was -at once discovered. The Cardinal Prince was arrested just as he was -about to perform mass before the court, and sent to the Bastile. -After a short imprisonment, he was tried by a court of justice, but -acquitted of criminal offence. However, he was sent in disgrace to -reside at an abbey of his in Auvergne. Madame la Motte paid dearly for -her crime and her dalliance in Paris after the prize had been secured, -for she was sentenced to be branded on the shoulders, scourged in -public, and condemned to perpetual imprisonment. She bore her trials -with fortitude, and had the good fortune to escape from her prison -in less than a year after her sentence. She joined her husband in -London, and there published a bitter pamphlet against the French Court, -and especially the Queen. It is generally supposed that the Countess -died in London in 1791, either from a fever or the result of an -accident caused by a drunken debauch. But a startling story comes from -Russia, giving another account of the last moments of this celebrated -adventuress. - -It appears that the Emperor Alexander, disgusted with the conduct -of three lady reformers who attempted to establish a revolution in -religious opinion at St. Petersburg, banished them to the Crimea. They -were Princess Galitzin, Madame de Krudener, and a mysterious personage -who went by the name of Countess Gauchin. After death, which occurred -during her banishment to the Crimea, the strange Countess proved to -be the notorious De la Motte, who many years before had been publicly -branded on the Place de la Grève in Paris. - -It would appear from statements in mediæval history that necklaces were -not much known in France, or at least were not in fashion, until the -times of Charles VIII. For one of the earliest known in that country -was that given by the above-named monarch to the beautiful Agnes -Sorel. The uncut gems, which were of great beauty and value, weighed -heavily upon the delicate neck and bosom of the fair creature; and she -complained of it to her lover as being an instrument of torture as well -as a decoration. The King, fascinated with the charming effect of the -gems, together with the natural entrancing beauty of the maiden, begged -her to wear it, saying, with a supplicating smile, “One might surely -bear some little inconvenience to please those we love.” - -The late Madame Thiers possessed a rare jewel, which came to her by -inheritance, and which she wisely bequeathed to the Louvre collection. -This jewel is a necklace of precious stones of the sixteenth century -workmanship, and is regarded as without a rival in Europe except among -the regalia preserved at St. Petersburg. - -There are a great many diamonds owned in France among the nobility, the -landed proprietors, and the successful merchants. Paris has been for a -long time the chief market in the world for the sale of the gem; and -most of the stones cut at Amsterdam find their way, primarily, to the -Parisian bazaars. Many of these are taken as securities by the rich; -but the most of them are absorbed by the requirements of fashion and -the love of display. - -Adventurers, during the tide of success, prefer to invest their gains -in gems, and especially diamonds, rather than in lands or bonds. There -is a twofold reason for this preference. Great wealth can be concealed -in a handful of gems which can be easily transported; and the glitter -of the stones adds vastly to the fascinations of the investment. -Disastrous wars and commercial panics generally betray hoards of this -description; and new sources of the precious stones are thus opened to -commerce. It is reported that the Bonaparte family, since the disaster -at Sedan, have thrown upon the market diamonds to the value of several -millions of dollars. - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - - THE REGALIA AND OTHER GEMS OF ENGLAND. - - -The casket of gems belonging to the English Crown is not of -ancient date, for the followers of Cromwell--iconoclasts and -economists--ordered all the ancient regalia to be sold. However, some -of the finest of the gems were recovered not long after, and were used -in the decorations of the coronation of Charles II. - -The present crown of England was made by English artisans, in 1838, -with gems taken from old diadems and others bought by Victoria. It is -described by Professor Tennant as follows:-- - - “The imperial state crown of Her Majesty, Queen Victoria, was made - in the year 1838, by Messrs. Rundell and Bridge, with jewels taken - from old crowns, and others furnished by command of Her Majesty. It - consists of diamonds, pearls, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds, set in - silver and gold; it has a crimson-velvet cap with ermine border, and - is lined with white silk. Its gross weight is 39 oz. 5 dwts. Troy. - - “The lower part of the band above the ermine border consists of a - row of 129 pearls; and the upper part of the band, of a row of 112 - pearls; between which, in the front of the crown, is a large sapphire - [partly drilled] purchased for the crown by His Majesty, King George - IV. At the back is a sapphire of smaller size and 6 other sapphires, - 3 on each side, between which are 8 emeralds. Above and below the 7 - sapphires are 14 diamonds, and around the 8 emeralds 128 diamonds. - Between the emeralds and sapphires are 16 trefoil ornaments containing - 160 diamonds. Above the band are 8 sapphires surmounted by 8 diamonds, - between which are 8 festoons, consisting of 148 diamonds. In the - front of the crown, and in the centre of a diamond Maltese cross, is - the famous ruby said to have been given to Edward, Prince of Wales, - the Black Prince, by Don Pedro, King of Castile, after the battle of - Najara, near Vittoria, A.D. 1367. This ruby was worn in the helmet of - Henry V. at the battle of Agincourt, A.D. 1415. It is pierced quite - through, after the Eastern custom, the upper part of the piercing - being filled up by a small ruby. Around this ruby, to form the cross, - are 75 brilliant-diamonds. Three other Maltese crosses, forming the - two sides and back of the crown, have emerald centres, and contain - respectively 132, 124, and 130 brilliant-diamonds. Between the 4 - Maltese crosses are 4 ornaments, in the form of French _fleurs de - lis_, with 4 rubies in their centres, and surrounded by rose-diamonds, - containing respectively, 84, 86, 86, 87 rose-diamonds. From the - Maltese crosses issue 4 imperial arches composed of oak-leaves and - acorns; the leaves containing 728 rose, table, and brilliant diamonds; - 32 pearls forming the acorns, set in cups, containing 54 rose-diamonds - and 1 table-diamond. The total number of diamonds in the arches and - acorns is 108 brilliant, 116 table, and 559 rose diamonds. From the - upper part of the arches are suspended 4 large pendent pear-shaped - pearls with rose-diamond cups, containing 12 rose-diamonds, and - stems, containing 24 very small rose-diamonds. Above the arch stands - the Mound, containing in the lower hemisphere 304 brilliants, and - in the upper 244 brilliants; the zone and arc being composed of 33 - rose-diamonds. The cross on the summit has a rose-cut sapphire in the - centre, surrounded by 4 large brilliants and 108 smaller brilliants.” - -The value of this beautiful ornament has been estimated by Barbot, the -French jeweller, at the sum of $600,000, which, however, is probably -very far below its real value. - -The great prize and boast of the English treasures is the diamond -called the Koh-i-noor, one of the spoils of the East India loot. - -From the many descriptions given of it and its real and supposed -history, it is better known to the English reader than any other -gem; yet there are in Europe several diamonds of greater size and -perfection, and a number of gems of greater beauty, and certainly of -a higher value. The Koh-i-noor is said to have been discovered in the -mine of Gani, near Golconda, about the middle of the sixteenth century. -It is thought by some to be a portion of the Great Mogul diamond; but -of the correctness of this view there is considerable doubt. - -The form in which it was found by the English at the time of capture -certainly conveys the idea that it may have been cleft from a larger -specimen; but, according to Tavernier, the Great Mogul was ground down -and not rifted by means of its cleavage planes at all. At all events, -the gem, when it reached England, weighed one hundred and eighty-six -karats, and its sides were polished and faceted in the Oriental -manner, without regard to a symmetrical form. In this condition it was -uncouth, it is true, but it was supposed to be the famous Koh-i-noor, -“the mountain of light,” of Eastern romance and history. Now, in its -new shape, it is no longer one of the giants of its species, and the -prestige which the Hindoos bestowed upon it has also vanished. The -recutting of this gem, and the attempt to reduce its irregular form -into the shape of a brilliant, was most unfortunate. It is now only a -brilliant in name, and it is far too thin in substance to exhibit the -beautiful and natural refractive powers of the mineral. - -In reality, the form of the brilliant should be cut according to -mathematical laws; and its depth and breadth must be of a certain fixed -ratio to call forth the natural brilliancy and prismatic display of the -stone. This relative degree of form and its wonderful results is well -exemplified in the gems cut by Ralph Potter at the commencement of this -century, who was, without doubt, the best diamond-cutter the world has -seen. It is also laid down as a mathematical problem in the scale which -Jeffries has prepared. - -The Koh-i-noor, before cutting, weighed one hundred and eighty-six -karats; and was the second diamond in Europe. It is now reduced -to 102¹⁄₄ karats, with its splendors but little increased; and is -reckoned as the fifth in size among the European diamonds; and, to -our view, is inferior in value to many of the diamonds of less size, -and especially the green diamond of Dresden, or the blue of the Hope -collection. In fact, it is far exceeded in beauty and splendor by the -imitations of art. The prestige has been injured, if not destroyed, by -cutting; and its position among the great gems of the world reduced to -a comparatively low degree, notwithstanding its great weight. - -No amateur will say that the gem has gained any advantage in cutting, -when he sums up the arguments in favor of and against the operation. He -will not say the Koh-i-noor, exhibited in the London exhibition, was -superior in all respects to the time-honored gem displayed among the -crown jewels of the Tower of London a few years before. In reality, -its appearance in the Crystal Palace was inferior to that of its glass -models; and a comparison of its form with the examples offered by -Jeffries will at once show its imperfections. - -In its spread, as compared with that of a properly proportioned -one-hundred-karat brilliant, it is quite one third too large; or, in -plainer language, it is now a badly shaped stone, and cannot display -its latent splendors unless surrounded by a great number of wax candles. - -A comparison with the outlines of the Regent will at once show the -want of harmony in its shape so far as development of brilliancy and -prismatic display are concerned; and to obtain the display of these -properties, without which the diamond is not much better than common -limpid quartz, the form of the gem must be invariably of a certain -size and depth. A lustreless mass of diamond, no matter how large it -may be, is not a choice example of the mineral, in comparison with a -smaller stone, radiant with its natural, or rather developed, beauties. -Size alone, without special excellence, brings no charm with it, but -rather places it among mineralogical curiosities. Therefore, we regret -exceedingly the recent cutting of the Koh-i-noor, which has injured its -prestige, and reduced its value incomparably. - -Had the lapidaries adopted the form of the Sancy, that is, the shape -of the almond, with small facets all over it, a far greater brilliancy -would have been obtained. Such is the opinion of Babinet and other -connoisseurs, who are able to judge on this subject. The Koh-i-noor, -before cutting, was submitted by Prince Albert to the examination -of several eminent men, amongst whom was Sir David Brewster; and a -variety of opinions were expressed upon the subject. It is generally -believed that ideas of fashion directed the shape of the stone to -be adopted; and that if its form had been left to Coster, the model -of the brilliolette would have been copied, and but little of the -stone sacrificed in the cutting. However, it is too late to lament -the accident or the error; but we hope that the experience acquired -will preserve other specimens for the admiration of art, although it -availed nought in the case of the Star of the South, another stone -admirably adapted for the exhibition of the beauty of the brilliolette -model. This form, with numerous small facets, in both instances would -have given more luminous points, and therefore produced more splendid -effects. - -Babinet properly exclaims against the mode of cutting the large gems -with large facets, as thereby much of the glory of the gem is lost. Had -the Regent, even, been cut with smaller and more numerous facets, its -splendors would have been greater. As we have previously stated, the -most vivid play of light and color is exhibited in diamonds of about -ten karats or less; we may, perhaps, attribute the difference to the -violation of some law in optics, as well as to the difference in the -laminæ or substance of the larger stones. - -Babinet, in defence of his remarks on this interesting subject, states -that the beautiful rainbow hues are produced by the light entering -the upper surfaces of the gem, and, being reflected backwards from -the bottom surfaces, is then refracted, after traversing the side -facets. The white light is then decomposed into every variety of hue, -the perfection of which depends upon the condition of reflection and -refraction. If the facets are too large and the light too voluminous -there is danger of neutralization of these colors, and that white light -be reproduced. - -We doubt very much if this historic gem has been known to history for -more than five hundred years. If it is, as it has been alleged, a part -of the Great Mogul, its appearance among mankind dates from 1550. -Had it been known in the times when Timour so mercilessly attacked -India, it could hardly have escaped the rapacity of the Tatar. And -the history of this conquest, in the latter part of the fourteenth -century, leads us to believe that all, or nearly all, of the great -diamonds of Bengal have been discovered since that time. Had this gem -been added to the Mogul treasury at Delhi in 1304, from the conquest -of Malwa by Ala-ud-deen, it probably would have been known to Timour. -The last Tatar invasion, in 1736, under Nadir Shah, found the gem set -in the turban of the Great Mogul, and it was carried away to Khorasan -by the victorious host, together with all the fabulous wealth which -had been garnered up during nearly four centuries of prosperity. From -Nadir it was wrested by assassination, and passed from ruler to ruler, -with strange vicissitudes, until the Sikh power succumbed to the arms -of England; when it passed, in 1850, with other treasures, from the -stronghold of Lahore to the jewel-chamber of Windsor Castle. - -Ill fortune has always attended the possession of this gem, it is -said; and certainly the reduction of the stone in the blind attempt -to improve its brilliancy may be classed in this category. The -Hindoos have always maintained that it inevitably brought ruin to -its possessor; and surely, the history of the Mogul Empire, the reign -of Nadir Shah, its conqueror, the Dooranee dynasty, and the rule of -the Sikhs give strength to the plausibility of the tradition. In the -chapter on the gems of Asia we shall again refer to this stone. - -England has had the opportunity, during her Indian conquests, of -collecting the most magnificent parure of gems the world has seen. The -pride of the French Crown, the matchless Regent, was brought to London -by the English Governor, Pitt, and offered to the Royal House; the -great Orloff, the boast of the Russian regalia, was brought from India -by an Englishman, Earl Effingham; and many other fine diamonds and -gems from Hindostan have been brought within the reach of the English -Crown before being offered elsewhere for disposition. The neglect to -secure these beautiful and matchless treasures is inexcusable even in a -commercial view, for a gem paragon is “an empire made portable.” - -Among the diamonds brought from India by Englishmen, the Pigott and the -Nassac deserve some mention. - -The Pigott was a splendid gem of 47¹⁄₂ karats, and derived its name -from its importer. In 1801 it was placed in a lottery in London, and -valued at $150,000. The lucky drawer of the prize was content to part -with it for $30,000 to an English jeweller, who afterwards sold it to -Ali Pacha of Egypt. The Egyptian prince conceived a strange attachment -to the gem. He did not display it among the ornaments on his person; -but concealed it in a silken bag which he attached to his girdle. The -story goes that when Ali was mortally wounded by Reschid Pacha he -gave orders to have his favorite wife, Vasilika, strangled, and also -commanded Captain D’Anglas to crush the diamond in his presence. A -single blow of the hammer crushed to atoms this beautiful gem, which -was really one of the finest in Europe on account of the perfection of -its form and the absolute purity of its water. The model alone remains. -The fascinating Vasilika by some means managed to escape the sentence -of death. - -The Nassac diamond was brought from India by the Marquis of Hastings, -and formed a part of the Deccan booty. After passing through several -ownerships it was finally purchased by the Marquis of Westminster for -about fifty thousand dollars. It has since been recut into a triangular -form, and its original weight reduced from eighty-nine to about -seventy-eight karats. In its new form it has gained vastly in lustre -and brilliancy. - -The famous blue diamond known as the Hope diamond, from the fact that -it belonged to one of the distinguished family of bankers of that name, -is really one of the most valuable diamonds in Europe, for it is indeed -one of the marvels of the mineral kingdom. Its weight is 44¹⁄₂ karats, -but its history is unknown; and this obscurity leads to the suspicion -it may be the lost gem of the French casket since reduced in size. It -is now mounted as a medallion with a border of rose-cut diamonds and -twenty brilliants, each of one karat weight and of the finest water. - -This beautiful gem was shown to the public at the great Exhibition of -1851 in London, and the description given of it by Mr. Hertz is worth -repeating here. It is “a most magnificent and rare brilliant of a -deep sapphire-blue, of the greatest purity and most beautifully cut: -it is of true proportions, not too thick nor too wide-spread. This -matchless gem combines the beautiful color of the sapphire with the -prismatic fire and brilliancy of the diamond; and on account of its -extraordinary color, great size, and other fine qualities, it certainly -may be called unique, as we may presume that there exists no cabinet -nor any collection of crown jewels in the world which can boast of the -possession of so curious and fine a gem.” - -The value of this wonderful specimen of Nature’s work has been -variously estimated. It is understood that Mr. Hope paid but $65,000 -for it, which is a mere bagatelle to its comparative worth. To our -view this matchless gem should be valued as highly as any of the fine -paragon diamonds of the world, and we do not include the Koh-i-noor as -among this number. In this estimate we refer only to the comparison of -actual merits and qualities, unbiassed by the whims of royalty or of -fashion. - -A hundred years ago and more the citizens of London, transported with -joy over the victory at Culloden by the Duke of Cumberland, hailed the -soldier as a hero and a deliverer, and presented him with a beautiful -diamond. It was a splendid gem of thirty-two karats weight, and cost -the city the sum of $50,000. Not many years ago, however, the House of -Hanover laid claim to the gem by reason of certain laws of inheritance; -and we are informed that Queen Victoria, after investigating the claim, -ordered the gem to be given up to the claimant. - -Mr. Hertz, of London, in the course of his long experience collected a -very costly, as well as unique and beautiful, collection of gems. His -cabinet of diamonds, embracing almost every shade and color, rivalled -in excellence the celebrated Wernerian cabinet at Freiburg, and that of -Abbé Haüy at the Jardin des Plantes at Paris; but was surpassed by that -of Helmreicher now preserved in the Imperial Museum at Vienna. - -As the reader may be interested in the tastes of the English nobility -in the good old times, we will look over a few of the pages of English -history, and relate some of the incidents of court life, and describe -the appearance of some of the distinguished characters of different -reigns. - -Eleanor of Provence exhibited great extravagance at her coronation -as Queen of King Henry III., who was called the greatest fop of his -time (1236). It was probably Eleanor who established the fashion of -wearing chaplets of gold and gems over the hair. On the occasion of -her coronation she had on no less than nine garlands or wreaths formed -of gold and clusters of colored precious stones. She had, also, among -her regalia, a great crown glorious with gems, and girdles radiant -with the most beautiful specimens of the mineral kingdom. The wedding -present from her sister, Queen Marguerite of France, was a large silver -peacock, whose train was set with sapphires and pearls and other -precious stones. It was used as a reservoir for perfumed waters. - -It seems that the old Crusaders were wont to deck themselves with -gems; and Provençal traditions declare that the first intimation Queen -Berengaria had of the seizure of Richard Cœur de Lion was the sale of a -belt adorned with gems, which she knew he wore and would not part with -except by violence. - -The coronation of Henry VIII. was attended with extraordinary splendor, -and the King was arrayed with the finest gems that could be obtained. - -At the famous Tournament of the Cloth of Gold, the English and French -nobility attempted to outshine each other in the magnificence of their -dresses and decorations. And the vanity of the festival caused the -financial distress or ruin of many a gallant knight. - -At the banquet at this time King Henry gave Anne Boleyn a beautiful -jewel valued at 15,000 crowns. - -When Bluff King Hal went to meet his bride, Anne of Cleves, he was -arrayed so magnificently as to be likened by the wits of the time to -the “king of diamonds.” He wore a coat of purple velvet curiously -embroidered with gold and lace. “The sleeves were cut, and lined with -cloth of gold, and clasped with great buttons of diamonds, rubies, -and Orient pearls; his sword and girdle set with stones and special -emeralds; his cap garnished with stones, but his bonnet was so rich of -jewels that few men could value them. Besides all this he wore a collar -of such Balais rubies and pearls that few men ever saw the like.” - -Henry demanded of Francis I. of France, the gems and jewels which -had belonged to his sister Mary, who had married Louis XII. Among -them were a ruby two inches and a half long, some great pearls, and -large diamonds, forming together a casket which the Earl of Worcester -describes as the “goodliest and richest sight of jewels he ever saw.” -But they were never returned; and Francis refused to allow the claim on -account of the loss of the fine diamond known as the Mirror of Naples, -and which he valued at 30,000 crowns. What this diamond really was, and -its subsequent history, is still a matter of historical conjecture. - -Mary Queen of Scots, when married to the Dauphin of France in 1558, -was decked in a marvellous manner with all that art could afford at -the time. Her crown was of exquisite workmanship, and was composed of -gold, with diamonds, pearls, rubies, and emeralds of immense value, -having a huge carbuncle suspended in the middle valued at half a -million crowns. Around her neck was hung the esteemed jewel known in -Scottish history as the “Great Harry.” The inventories of her property -show that she possessed a large number of valuable gems. It seems that -she lavished upon Bothwell, before they parted at Carberry Hill, jewels -of more than $30,000 in value. - -One of the most magnificent pageants known in English history was -that celebrated by the wealth of England and illustrated with the -poetry of Ben Jonson, and which was the occasion of investing the -eldest son of Queen Anne with the rights of the Prince of Wales, in -1609. The “Glorious Masque,” which took place at this time, has never -been excelled in England. The whole court of England and all the -aristocratic beauties of the day were engaged in the event. The palace -of Whitehall was transformed into a scene of enchantment under the -hands of the best artists of the time, guided by the taste of Inigo -Jones. This magnificent festival, characterized by so many beautiful -and dazzling scenes, was the happiest in the life of Queen Anne of -Denmark. - -A few years after this glorious celebration, which lingered in the -memory of the participants like a golden dream, Queen Anne died; and -the King, on opening her coffers and cabinets, discovered that all of -her beautiful gems and jewels had disappeared; and notwithstanding the -Queen’s maid and attendants were arrested, and diligent search made in -all directions, there is no evidence that even a trace was ever found -of the missing treasure. No vestige was ever obtained of the jewels -which Herrick made for her, and which were worth nearly $200,000. - -When the Duke of Buckingham was sent to Paris, in 1625, to bring over -to England Queen Henrietta Maria, he carried with him twenty-seven rich -suits of clothing, as beautiful and valuable as the invention of the -times could make them. The suit arranged for his entry into Paris was -reckoned of a value of more than a quarter of a million of dollars. It -was made of white satin and uncut velvet, set all over with diamonds. -His spurs, hat-band, feather, girdle, and sword were all covered with -diamonds. For the wedding day, at Paris, he had a suit of purple -satin, embroidered all over with Orient pearls, and a cloak to match, -made after the Spanish fashion, all of the value of about one hundred -thousand dollars. - -Charles I. had many fine gems and jewels at his disposal; and, -according to the documents still extant, he made free use of them. The -very first year of his reign, he examined the contents of the jewel -house, with a view of pledging them in the future; and it is said that -his queen, Henrietta, raised in one year ten millions of dollars on the -royal jewels. The great collar of rubies was sold in Holland. - -Charles, in the days of his prosperity, was an eager purchaser of gems -and jewelry; and a record is preserved which shows that he bought in a -year and a half, a quarter of a million dollars’ worth of jewelry, and -chiefly to use as gifts. It is also related that he bought the great -diamond which Sir Paul Pindar brought home from Constantinople, and -which he valued at $150,000. The subsequent history of this rare gem is -to be placed among the mysterious things of the past. - -The queen of James II. was ornamented for the coronation in a manner -that would have startled even Lollia Paulina; and a half million -dollars were expended in dressing her up. The diadem also was a -wondrous piece of extravagance for the times, and cost more than five -hundred and fifty thousand dollars. The historian of the times states -that “the jewels she had on were reckoned at a million’s worth, which -made her shine like an angel.” The exiled Queen, in the after years of -her widowhood, said to the nuns of Chaillot, “My dress and royal mantle -were covered with precious stones; and it took all the jewels that the -goldsmiths of London could procure to decorate my crown.” - -When Queen Caroline was crowned as consort of George II., she made use -of all the material she could find in London. And Lord Hervey exclaims -that “the appearance and the truth of her finery was a mixture of -magnificence and meanness not unlike the eclat of royalty in many other -particulars, when it comes to be nicely considered, and its source -traced to what money hires and flattery lends.” For it is stated that -she used upon her head all the pearls and necklaces she could borrow -from the ladies of quality; and that she placed upon her petticoat all -the diamonds she could hire of the Jews and jewellers in town. - -When Philip of Spain went to England to receive his bride, Queen Mary, -the ceremonies on the occasion were conducted with great splendor. The -King was accompanied by sixty of the most distinguished grandees of -Spain, clad in royal array. He was dressed in a robe of rich brocade -bordered with large pearls and diamonds. His trunk hose were of white -satin worked with silver. He wore a collar of beaten gold full of -inestimable diamonds, and from which hung the jewel of the Golden -Fleece. Around his knee was the Garter, studded with beautiful gems of -various colors. - -The daughter of Henry VIII. inherited her father’s love for ornamental -display; and at the time of her marriage with Philip of Spain, she -appeared magnificently arrayed. She is described as wearing a robe -whose ample train was bordered with pearls and diamonds of immense size -and value. The large sleeves were ornamented with clusters of gold set -with pearls and diamonds. Her coif was bordered with two rows of large -diamonds; and she wore on her breast a splendid diamond of inestimable -value, which Philip had sent her as a gift. Mary, on her death-bed, -sent the most of her jewels to her sister Elizabeth of England; and -King Philip added to them a casket of very beautiful gems. - -Elizabeth, when she became Queen of England, gradually acquired a -passion for jewelry, which finally became absurd and grotesque. She -possessed at one time two thousand dresses and an immense quantity of -gems. The portrait of Queen Elizabeth at Henham Hall represents her -in a blaze of jewels. She appears with an enormous ruff, which rose -as a bird-like structure behind the fabric of jewels which adorned -her head, until it overtopped the cross of her regal diadem. A rich -collar of gold, woven in delicate filigree work, set with pearls, -rubies, and amethysts, adorned her neck. The bodice of her dress was -also ornamented with gold filigree set with many gems; and the sleeves -were profusely ornamented to match the bodice. Horace Walpole, in -describing her portraits, says, “There is not one that can be called -beautiful. The profusion of ornaments with which they are loaded are -marks of her continual fondness for dress; while they entirely exclude -all grace, and leave no more room for a painter’s genius, than if he -had been employed to copy an Indian idol, totally composed of hands and -necklaces. A pale Roman nose; a head of hair loaded with crowns, and -powdered with diamonds; a vast ruff, a vaster fardingale, and a bushel -of pearls,--are features by which everybody knows at once the picture -of Elizabeth.” - -Sir Walter Raleigh dressed himself in a gorgeous manner, and was -profusely decorated with gems. On court days, even his shoes wore gems -of the value of more than $30,000 (£6,600). His armor was of solid -silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. - -The Duke of Buckingham, the favorite of King James, wore his diamonds -loosely attached, so that he might shake off a few at pleasure. His -cloaks were trimmed with great diamond buttons; his hat-bands were of -diamonds; also his cockades. Among his many rich suits was one of white -uncut velvet, set all over with diamonds, to the value of £80,000; -besides a great feather bespangled with diamonds, as well as his sword, -girdle, hat, and spurs. - -In olden times the shrine of Thomas à Becket was famous throughout -England and attracted countless devotees from all parts of the realm. -One hundred thousand persons of all ranks are said to have visited it -in one year, offering a vast variety of gifts. In the twelfth century -Louis VII. of France, disguised as a common pilgrim in the meanest -garb, visited the shrine and presented it with a famous precious -stone, called the Regale of France, and as large as a bird’s egg. Not -a fragment of this glittering and splendid shrine--a mass of gold and -jewels--remains at the present day to interest the antiquary; and its -treasures have been scattered to the winds, leaving no trace behind. - -The churches of England, as well as France and Spain, were at one time -enormously rich in precious stones and ecclesiastical ornaments of the -jewellers’ art; but wars and insurrections are fatal to collections of -the rare and the beautiful; and the fury and cupidity of the Leaguers, -the iconoclasts, and the revolutionists have destroyed these treasures -of art and nature, or dispersed them so that their identity is lost. - -The magnificence of the English clergy led Pope Innocent III. to -exclaim, “O England, thou garden of delights! Thou art truly an -inexhaustible fount of riches. From thy abundance much may be exacted.” - - - - - CHAPTER X. - - ASIATIC GEMS. - - -To Asia we naturally turn for the history of the diamond, and a -solution of some of the phenomena connected with the mineral. But -here we have to contend with vexations at all points; and instead of -clearness, we have obscurity, disconnected histories, conflicting -traditions, and superstitious fancies. However, from the mass of -fragments which have been preserved, the patient antiquary eventually -may be able to arrange an interesting story relating to the gem in the -early days of its discovery and its adoption in ornamentation. - -We will now proceed to mention some of the celebrated stones whose -history has been more or less clearly defined; and regret to say that -there are a large number of others of great interest and value, but of -which we are unable to give a correct description. - -The Hindoos prize diamonds greatly on account of their supposed -spiritual properties, and they reluctantly part with them unless -compelled by dire necessity, or induced by the hope of greater -gain. Many of the fine diamonds brought to Europe from Asia have -blood-stained histories, and some of them are connected with appalling -atrocities. Therefore we may with propriety say that few of the noble -gems would have found their way to Europe had the free will of their -rightful owners been consulted. - -The foremost gem in the history of the diamond was that which was -called the Great Mogul. This was the largest of all known diamonds, -and was found in the rich mines of Gani about the year 1650, or nearly -a century after their discovery. It became the property of Vizier -Mirgimola, who, although a Persian by birth, had by ability and tact -risen to the honor of general and vizier to the King of Golconda. By -means of his rapacity in war, and his success in working the diamond -mines, he became enormously wealthy, and accumulated immense numbers of -gems. The King finally became jealous of the wealth and power of his -favorite, and resolved to destroy him. But Mirgimola, warned of his -danger in time, succeeded in escaping with all his treasures to the -capital of Shah Jehan, the Great Mogul. The wily Persian gained the -favor and protection of the Hindoo monarch by magnificent presents of -gems, the chief of which was the immense diamond which has since been -called the Great Mogul. - -The original weight of this mammoth gem is said to have been 787¹⁄₂ -karats; but during the process of cutting it was reduced to 279 karats. -Tavernier relates that the work had been intrusted to a Venetian -lapidary by the name of Hortensio Borghis, who, ignorant of the duties -of his task, removed the flaws and external imperfections by grinding -the surface of the stone away. The labor required by this operation -seems almost incredible when we come to consider the hardness of the -stone, and estimate the difficulty of polishing it, especially with -the rude means then in use by the Oriental lapidaries. The cutting -of the Pitt diamond (now the Regent) required two years’ time, with -the aid of modern appliances and the facilities afforded by means of -cleavage, by which large fragments were removed and utilized. Therefore -the statement that this stone was reduced solely by grinding from -787¹⁄₂ karats to 279 karats is likely to meet with disbelief among the -lapidaries; for the operation must have required more than the fifteen -years which had elapsed from the discovery of the gem to the time -Tavernier examined it. Tavernier says distinctly that cleavage was not -resorted to in facilitating the reduction of the stone. We quote: “Had -the Sieur Hortensio been well acquainted with his profession he might -have obtained from this great stone some good pieces without doing -any injury to the King, and without having taken so much trouble in -grinding it away; but he was not a very skilful diamond-cutter.” This -statement establishes the fact that the secret of reducing diamonds by -cleavage was known at that time. - -Fifteen years after the discovery Tavernier saw the gem in the hands -of Aurungzeb, who was then Mogul, Shah Jehan having been deposed and -placed in confinement. The distinguished traveller was allowed to -examine the gem, weigh it, and make a drawing of it. It was then of -the form of half an egg, and very high-crowned, and had been cut with -many facets, quite regularly arranged over its superior surfaces. It -was also of fine water, and disfigured by only one crack on its lower -border, and a little flaw in the interior. - -The French traveller gives an account of the ceremony of his -examination as conducted with great precision and the utmost solemnity, -as though the gems were the crystallizations or the embodiments of -departed spirits. The gems were brought in upon two lacquered trays -covered with brocade, and were counted over thrice, and three lists -made of them by different scribes. This process was not particularly -flattering to the pride of the guest, but it serves to illustrate or -establish the fact that the Hindoo character for deception and theft -was quite as marked then as now. - -Since this period no further mention has been made of the gem by -any authentic writer; but it is supposed to have formed a part of -the plunder of Delhi, when Nadir Shah captured all the treasures -accumulated during four hundred years of prosperity, and which were -valued at from $150,000,000 to $350,000,000. - -The next largest diamond shown to Tavernier was one of only 54¹⁄₂ -karats, and all the rest were much inferior. Hence it is surmised that -the Koh-i-noor, the Shah, and the Daria-i-noor were then unknown, and -were discovered at a later period. But it is stated that the former -Mogul, who was still in confinement, retained many of the gems of -his own collecting, and that they may have been among them. Or they -may have been in possession of Mirgimola. At all events, the Mogul -disappeared with the last Tatar invasion; and new paragons, like the -Koh-i-noor, became known to the world. After the assassination of Nadir -Shah his treasures were scattered among many chieftains, and all record -of many of them has been lost. - -The fate of the Mogul is shrouded in mystery. The famous gem preserved -in the Persian treasury and called Daria-i-noor, “the ocean of lustre,” -which Forbes saw and described, is not the lost stone. By some it is -believed to be hidden away in some obscure fortress, to appear at -some future day when the possessor may display his hidden treasure in -safety. This view is certainly warranted by the discovery of the large -flat diamond of one hundred and thirty karats among the jewels taken -from the harem of Reeza Kooli at the capture of Coocha by the Persian -army in 1832. Also the finding of the celebrated crown of Chosroes by -Abbas in the treasury of one of the Princes in the Lauristan Mountains -near the Persian Gulf, where it had lain concealed for a thousand years. - -Were it not for the general accuracy and truthfulness of Tavernier, -and the drawing he has left of the diamond, we might claim the Orloff -as the missing Mogul. Certainly the resemblance in form is very -remarkable; and the location of the flaws, with the rare circumstance -of shape, are facts very strongly in favor of the Orloff. The question -now arises, did Tavernier make an error in his weight and draw the -outlines carelessly or from memory? We have seen how confused history -has become regarding the identity of the Sancy diamond. - -The real Koh-i-noor of Hindoo history is probably the great Mogul -or the Orloff; and the name would be appropriately applied to the -dome-like shape of both of the stones, with their flashing beams of -light, rather than to the flattened form of the English stone now -called the Koh-i-noor, and which exhibited but little lustre. It -is highly probable that the diamond of Runjeet Sing, the English -Koh-i-noor, was one of the magnificent diamonds surrendered to Nadir -Shah by Mohammed Shah at the sack of Delhi in 1739, but there is no -positive proof of his obtaining the great heirloom of the descendants -of Aurungzeb. - -In reviewing the history of the Great Mogul gems, from the time of -Tavernier down to the present day, we are inclined to regard the term -Koh-i-noor, or “mountain of light,” as a misnomer, and that the gem -received this distinction only after its arrival at Kabul, or came -into the possession of Runjeet Sing; neither have we any evidence to -prove that the Koh-i-noor was the Great Mogul; for that appellation is -not given to it by the early writers. But it is not probable that the -term, so superlative of excellence and superiority, would be applied -to an inferior gem, while the great diamond of the Mogul, weighing two -hundred and eighty karats, was in existence. - -The history of all these great diamonds is very obscure; and as the -value of the Indian weights and measures varies so much at different -places and at different times, it is quite impossible to follow with -precision the fragments of history that relate to them. - -Several accounts have been given of the manner in which the Koh-i-noor -fell into the clutches of Runjeet; but that of Dr. Wilson, as published -in the official catalogue of the great Exhibition at London, is -probably correct. It is as follows:-- - - “When Shah Soujah was driven from Kabul, he became the nominal guest - and actual prisoner of Runjeet Sing, who spared neither opportunity - nor menace until, in 1813, he compelled the fugitive monarch to resign - the precious gem, presenting him on the occasion, it is said, with a - lakh of rupees, or about £12,000 sterling. - - “According to Shah Soujah’s own account, however, he assigned to - him the revenues of three villages, not one rupee of which he ever - realized. Runjeet was highly elated by the acquisition of the diamond, - and wore it as an armlet at all public festivals. - - “When he was dying, an attempt was made by persons about him to - persuade him to make the diamond a present to Juggernaut; and it is - said he intimated by an inclination of the head his assent. The - treasurer, however, in whose charge it was, refused to give it up - without some better warrant; and Runjeet dying before a written order - could be signed by him, the Koh-i-noor was preserved for a while - for his successors. It was occasionally worn by Khurruk Sing and - Shir Sing. After the murder of the latter it remained in the Lahore - Treasury until the supersession of Dhulip Sing and the annexation of - the Punjaub by the British Government, when the civil authorities took - possession of the Lahore Treasury, under the stipulation previously - made, that all the property of the State should be confiscated to the - East India Company, in part payment of the debt due by the Lahore - Government, and of the expenses of the war. It was at the same time - stipulated that the Koh-i-noor should be surrendered to the Queen of - England. - - “The diamond was conveyed to Bombay by Governor General the Earl of - Dalhousie, whom ill health had compelled to repair to the coast, and - was then given in charge to Lieutenant-Colonel Mackeson, C. B., and - Captain T. Ramsay, the Military Secretary to the Governor General, - to take to England. These officers embarked on board Her Majesty’s - steamship ‘Medea,’ and left Bombay on the 6th of April, 1850. They - arrived at Portsmouth on the 30th of June; and two days afterwards - relinquished their charge to the Chairman and Deputy-chairman of the - Court of Directors, by whom, in company with the President of the - Board of Control, the Koh-i-noor was delivered to her Majesty on - the 3d of July,--an appropriate and honorable close to its eventful - career.” - -We are led to infer from the accounts of history that some of the -Indian rulers collected enormous quantities of the precious stones. -It is stated that Mahmoud, in his campaign in India about the eleventh -century, captured the temple Bheen, which, according to Ferishta, -contained a greater quantity of precious stones and pearls “than was -ever collected in the royal treasury of any prince on earth.” They were -carried off to Ghizna. - -In another campaign the idol at Sumnat, fifteen feet high, was -captured, which being broken open yielded great quantities of rubies, -diamonds, and pearls which had been concealed in it. These were -carried to Ghizna. Ferishta says Ala-ud-deen obtained from the Raja of -Mahrattas fifty pounds of diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and sapphires, -and also one hundred and seventy-five pounds of pearls. - -In the middle of the sixteenth century Acber of India gave a splendid -banquet in honor of his birthday; and, if the reports concerning it are -correct, it was one of the most magnificent entertainments ever given -on the earth. Acres of land were covered with silken and flaxen tents, -and the horses and elephants were bespangled with gold and gems. The -tents of the Nabob were not only exquisitely made and adorned, but even -the carpets which covered the earth were richly embroidered with gold, -pearls, and precious stones. In describing the beauty and magnificence -of the Hindoo nobles, the historian states that they were adorned with -diamonds that “sparkled like the firmament.” - -Shah Jehan, the greatest of Mogul sovereigns since Timour, collected -the wealth of India around him, and lavished it in a manner that reads -more like a chapter in the “Arabian Nights” than a page of historic -reality. At his death the treasury contained $150,000,000; and his -palace, with its embellishments and ornaments, was the most beautiful -the world has ever seen. The Peacock Throne was valued at $30,000,000, -and his crown at $12,000,000. The diadem had twelve points, each tipped -with a diamond of large size and the purest water. In the centre was -embedded a huge pearl, and the rest of the crown was a glittering mass -of rubies, diamonds, and other gems. - -The dress of the Emperor was in keeping with his extravagance: around -his neck he wore three strings of immense pearls; his arms were covered -with armlets of diamonds and bracelets of other gems; his sword and -buckler were incrusted with diamonds and rubies; and his sceptre was -entwined with a chain of pearls, rubies, and diamonds. Besides his -crown, he had a rich turban plumed with long heron feathers; on one -side was a huge ruby, on the other a diamond, while an immense emerald -decorated the front. - -The famous Peacock Throne of Indian history is no myth; for Tavernier -examined it with care, and has left a description of it so clear, that -its reality and its value are matters of fact. It was so called from -the figures of two peacocks with expanded tails standing behind it as -large as life. These figures were constructed of gold and precious -stones of all varieties, and so arranged as to represent the natural -colors of the birds. The beautiful hues of the feathers were closely -imitated by the arrangement of fine rubies, diamonds, sapphires, -emeralds, and other gems. - -The throne was six feet long and four feet wide, and was constructed -of solid gold, inlaid with diamonds, emeralds, and rubies. Steps of -silver were placed in front of it; while a canopy of gold, fringed with -pearls, supported by twelve pillars emblazoned with flashing gems, -surmounted the whole. Between the peacocks stood a representation of -the parrot, carved from emerald or some green stone. On each side of -the throne was placed one of the sacred umbrellas, called chattars, -made of richly embroidered crimson velvet fringed with pearls. Their -handles were of solid gold, about eight feet long, and studded with -diamonds. This was the most costly and superb work of art of its kind -ever invented. - -Its rival was the Cerulean Throne of the House of Bhamenee in the -Nizam. It was constructed in the seventeenth century, and, according to -the description of Ferishta, the Persian historian, was nine feet long -by three feet wide, made of ebony, covered with plates of gold, and -incrusted with gems. Its value was estimated at quite twenty millions -of dollars. At the sack of Delhi, the Peacock Throne, with many other -priceless relics, fell into the hands of Nadir Shah and his ravenous -followers, and was carried off by them, and broken up. - -We may form an idea of the magnificent costumes worn by the Eastern -monarchs, from the description given by Mr. Elphinstone, the British -envoy to the King of Kabul, in 1808. At the reception given to the -embassy, the king was literally covered with gems. At first sight, he -appeared to be clothed with an armor composed of jewels; but, on close -inspection, his dress was found to consist of a green tunic covered -with large flowers in gold and precious stones. Over these a large -breastplate of diamonds shaped like two flattened _fleurs de lis_ was -worn. Upon each thigh, ornaments fashioned after the same manner were -placed; while large emerald bracelets appeared on the arms, and many -other jewels were adjusted to different parts of the body. In one -of these bracelets flashed the Koh-i-noor, then regarded as one of -the largest diamonds in the world. Over the chest were arranged some -strings of very large pearls, like loose cross-belts. The crown was -about nine inches high, and formed entirely of precious stones, like -the wonderful plumes of Prince Esterhazy. It seemed to be radiated, -like the ancient crowns; and behind the rays appeared peaks of purple -velvet. Several small branches with pendants apparently projected from -the crown; but the ornament was so complicated and so dazzling, that it -was difficult for the spectators to understand it, and quite impossible -to describe it. - -Other famous diamonds besides the Mogul are missing; and modern history -is unable to account for them. What has become of the splendid flat -diamond weighing two hundred and forty-two karats, which Tavernier -examined in Golconda; or the immense Agrah of six hundred and -forty-five karats, in the rough, which the same traveller saw in India? -Were they also gathered by the followers of Nadir, and divided in the -spoliation of the property of the conqueror? We know that Persia, -enriched by the last conquest of India, is immensely rich in precious -stones of all descriptions; but the number, the character, and the -value of them, are as shadowy as those of Turkey. However, we have a -ray of intelligence from Bernier, who hastily estimated the value of -the Persian jewels at thirteen and one half milliards of francs. - -This prodigious estimate has been strengthened by the gorgeous -appearance of the last Persian ambassador to France. The costume of -this Emir fairly blazed with the brilliancy of the most costly gems, -and recalled the departed glory of the last Prince of Esterhazy. The -presents sent at the same time by the Sultan to the Empress Eugenie -were most magnificent, especially the diamond bracelets, and were -glorious emblems of Oriental favor. - -Among the diamonds possessed by the Persian Crown, besides the -Daria-i-noor, which is said to weigh two hundred and thirty-two karats, -we have information of three others of remarkable size and beauty. -They are named the Taj-Mah, or Crown of the Moon, of one hundred and -forty-six karats; the Sea of Glory, of sixty-six karats; and the -Mountain of Splendor, of one hundred and thirty-five karats, valued at -$729,000. - -Dr. Beke, at the meeting of the British Association, in 1851, read a -paper on a new diamond that had lately come into the possession of -Persia. He referred to the diamond slab of one hundred and thirty -karats that had been captured at Coocha, in 1832, and which he thought -might have been a part of the Koh-i-noor when in its natural state. -The only account of its history the Persians could obtain, was the -statement that it was found in the possession of a poor man, a native -of Khorasan, who used it for the purpose of lighting his fires, by -striking it against steel [the mineral does not possess the property], -and that it had thereby sustained some damage. The gem was presented by -Abbas Murza to his father, Futteh Ali Shah, and is presumed to be now -among the crown jewels of Persia. - -One of the latest accounts of the Persian treasures is given by Mr. -Eastwick, who was permitted to examine them. He found them placed in -a small, strongly built room, to which access was had by means of a -narrow, steep stairway and very small door. In this apartment, spread -out upon thick, velvety carpets, were displayed gems and jewels of the -value of $35,000,000. Conspicuous among them was the Kaianian crown, -which was shaped like a flower-pot, and topped by an immense uncut -ruby as big as a hen’s egg, which is supposed to have come from Siam. -Beside this tiara were spread two lambskins covered with beautiful -aigrettes of diamonds; and before them lay trays of pearl, ruby, and -emerald necklaces, with countless rings. The famous Kaianian belt was -also an object of wonder. This relic of barbaric splendor weighs about -twenty pounds. It is nearly a foot in depth, and is incrusted massively -with splendid diamonds, pearls, rubies, and emeralds. - -The exhibition of arms was worthy of the Oriental taste for martial -decoration, and recalled to memory the ancient fondness for such -things, and the sword and scabbard of Mithridates, which has been -mentioned in history as being of enormous value. Some of these, now -belonging to the Persian Shah, are magnificently decorated with gold -and gems, to the value of more than a quarter of a million of dollars. - -The arms of defence of the Oriental nations have been noted from the -earliest times for the beauty and splendor of their decorations, in -which lavish use has been made of the finest diamonds, emeralds, -rubies, and other precious stones, set in a variety of metals. The -excellence of these precious productions was made known to the nations -of the Mediterranean by means of commercial caravans long before the -invasions of Xerxes or Alexander; and some of them are objects of -admiration to the skilled artisans of the present day. - -In Lahore, Benares, and Lucknow are yet preserved the secrets of the -gold workers of Assyria and ancient Phœnicia, which have long been -forgotten in the countries where they were invented. The enamels of -these artisans, especially the green, red, blue, and turquoise hues, -are not surpassed in beauty of tint by the finest enamels of Paris. - -As Persia is the home of the turquoise, the traveller would expect -to see the finest representative of the mineral species in this -collection. And he will not be disappointed, for the specimen of -turquoise treasured here above all others is of a magnificent color, -from three to four inches long, and without a flaw. Its value is not -given; but we may draw an inference from Shylock’s turquoise, which was -worth “a wilderness of monkeys.” - -Besides the above enumerated articles the treasury contains numberless -objects of value not described, and among them piles of gauntlets and -belts, massive with pearls and diamonds. - -The present ruler of Persia, Nasiru’d-din, during his late visit to -Europe, displayed upon his person many of the chief treasures of his -crown. They were not, however, exhibited to advantage, for his costume -was an incongruous mixture of the amplitude of nomadic ideas with the -close-fitting symmetry of the French tailor. The ridiculous figure of -the Shah, surmounted by the ancient lofty Persian hat, heightened in -comicality by a pair of gold-bowed spectacles, presented a picture -that detracted from the splendor of the gems which he wore. His coat, -which was made after the style of the Parisian frock, was plaited over -the hips and adorned with extraordinary gems. From waist to shoulder, -arranged in _echelon_, were placed five enormous diamonds, each said -to be larger than the English Koh-i-noor. The collar and sleeves of -this garment were also fairly incrusted by brilliants of great beauty; -while over his breast hung his various insignia and orders set with the -finest of gems. His sword-belt and sheath were formed of gold, studded -with diamonds, rubies, and emeralds; while his golden spurs were formed -of diamonds of such perfection as to flash like sunbeams as he walked -along. - -Many fine diamonds are undoubtedly to be found among the nabobs and -princes of India. And their concealment may have been advised by the -lessons of the past. Fears of English rapacity may have caused the -fracture of the famous Nizam diamond, or a report to that effect. This -beautiful gem, which is said to have weighed three hundred and forty -karats, belonged to the King of Golconda, and is said to have been -broken at the commencement of the last Indian revolt. - -In 1807 a fine diamond of seventy-seven karats was obtained by the -Ranee Ruthen from the bed of the river Sumbhulpore; and in 1809 a fine -gem of one hundred and sixty-eight karats was found in the sands of the -river Mahamuddee. - -The King of Ava possesses many diamonds, but of unknown value. Colonel -Symes saw, in his visit of 1795, many rude ornaments of remarkable -splendor and value. One of the state carriages fairly blazed with its -decorations of burnished gold, covered with diamonds and other gems. - -The Sultan of Mattan in Borneo is said to possess a remarkable diamond; -but there is some doubt as to its authenticity, like its great rival, -that of the King of Portugal. But Mr. Hugh Low, Colonial Secretary -of the Island, declares in his work on Sarawak and its productions, -published in 1848, that the gem of the Sultans is a real diamond, -and of the great weight of three hundred and sixty-seven karats. It -was, at that time, in the rough state, and its shape was that of an -egg indented on one side. Its value was estimated by Mr. Crawford -to be £269,378. Sir Stamford Raffles relates that the stone has -remained as an heirloom in the royal family for four descents, and -is almost the only appendage of royalty now remaining. The Governor -of Batavia, desirous of obtaining the gem, is said to have sent Mr. -Stewart to Borneo to negotiate for it. But although the tempting offer -of $150,000, with two brigs of war with their guns and ammunition, -was made to the Sultan, he refused to deprive his family of the rich -inheritance which was supposed to be in the possession of the diamond. - -In the time of Sir Stamford Raffles few courts in Europe could boast of -a more brilliant display of diamonds than was exhibited by the ladies -of Batavia in the prosperous days of Dutch commerce, when the trade of -India and Eastern Asia was to a very great extent in the control of -Holland. - -We cannot properly close this chapter on the gems of Asia without -making a brief allusion to that master-piece of architecture, the Taj -Mahal, the palace-tomb, which Shah Jehan erected at Agra in memory -of his beautiful and beloved wife. The Mogul Emperor promised the -dying Empress the most beautiful tomb the world had ever seen; and he -kept his promise. Even to-day, after so many centuries of neglect and -pillage, the fairy-like structure rises to the view more like one of -the dreams of the “Arabian Nights” than a material edifice constructed -by human hands. - -In its construction the wealth of India was placed at the service -of its architects, and thousands of laborers were employed for many -years. The chief architect was a Frenchman, M. de Bordeaux, who also -designed the famous Peacock Throne at Delhi. Enormous quantities of -precious and semi-precious stones of all descriptions were used in its -ornamentation, and inlaid in its walls, its columns, and ornaments. The -images were masses of glittering gems, and some of the mosaics were -marvels of beauty and human skill. - -In a curious manuscript, still preserved, is given an account of the -gems, jewels, etc., and their value, used in the construction. All -parts of Asia were searched for the richest gems,--Thibet for its -turquoises, Ceylon for its lapis lazuli, Persia for its amethysts, -Lunka for its sapphires, and Pannah for its diamonds. The famous Hindoo -temple of Sumnat was, in the days of its perfection, one of the most -renowned of all the shrines of India, and must have been a structure of -wonderful richness, when its fifty-six pillars, incrusted and inlaid -with multitudes of precious stones, sparkled in the morning light. Even -at the present day its ruins, though despoiled of their ornaments, are -very beautiful and impressive. - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - - MISCELLANEOUS. - - -The royal family of Brazil are said to possess diamonds of great -beauty, selected for their superiority from the best of the products of -the mines of the country. But we have not been able to obtain reliable -descriptions of them. - -The Crown of Portugal, by virtue of its inheritance, is said to own -immense numbers of the gem; and it is understood that they are held in -reserve, and only a certain quantity are to be sold from time to time -according to the demands of the market. In corroboration of this report -it is said that the Bank of Lisbon, sold, in 1863, rough diamonds to -the value of 1,800,000 francs out of the collection brought from Brazil -by John VI. in 1821. It was also stated that the value of the remainder -was estimated at 35,000,000 francs. - -Mr. Mawe, at the time of his visit to Lisbon, stated that the treasury -of the King contained diamonds amounting in weight to four thousand or -five thousand karats. The same traveller and gem-expert says that a -vast number of the Brazilian diamonds have passed into the possession -of the King of Portugal. And he furthermore states that he examined -diamonds belonging to this potentate, which were worth more than two -million pounds sterling. - -Among the crown jewels of Portugal there is a gem of large dimensions -which has been reported to be a diamond weighing 1,680 karats. Mr. -Murray described it to be as large as an ostrich egg, and added that -Mr. Mawe informed him that it was a white topaz. Romè de L’Isle, in his -treatise on Crystallography, published in 1783, describes the stone -as a diamond, but admits that it is suspected to be a white topaz. -It is a little singular that this discrepancy and obscurity has not -been definitely cleared up during all this time, when the character -of the stone can so easily be ascertained. As the massive variety of -diamond is found in masses of more than one thousand karats, it is even -probable that the crystalline and transparent variety may occur of -equal weight. - -Mr. Murray mentioned a beautiful gem of two hundred and fifteen karats, -called the Round Brilliant of Portugal, and estimated its value at -£388,290. Mr. Mawe describes another a little less in size, and also -two nearly perfect octahedrons of one hundred and thirty-four and one -hundred and twenty karats each. - -The state waistcoat of Joseph I. had twenty buttons, each button being -composed of a solitaire diamond of the value of $20,000, and the -rest of its ornaments were corresponding in beauty and value. This -garment is said to have been the richest ever seen in Europe, with the -exception of the recent grand illumination by the Shah of Persia. It -has also been stated that the golden cane of John VI. had in its top a -splendid brilliant of the value of a million of francs. - -The largest of the Brazilian diamonds was discovered as late as 1852, -by a negress working in the mines of Begagem. Like most of the large -diamonds, its form was not symmetrical, and its shape was much modified -from the regular crystalline forms. In 1856 it was brought to France -and exhibited to the members of the Academy of Sciences. The gem then -weighed in its rough state 254¹⁄₂ karats, and appeared perfectly -transparent and without tint. It was placed in the hands of Coster, of -Amsterdam, for cutting, and reduced in weight to 127 karats. The form -given it was the brilliant; but the gem was cut too thin to exhibit -its full beauty. The spread of its table will be found, on comparison, -to be much greater than that of the Regent diamond, which weighs 136 -karats, or almost 10 karats more; therefore Babinet properly exclaims -against the taste which adopted an imperfect brilliant, at a great -reduction of weight, when the form of the brilliolette, like that of -one of the Sancys, would have preserved three fourths of its weight and -given it a more splendid lustre. It would then have been the second -diamond in weight and beauty in Europe. This gem is known as the Star -of the South, but is sometimes called the Halphen diamond, from the -name of the gentleman who bought it on its arrival in Europe. - -The gem treasures of the Elector of Saxony are among the most valuable -and unique in Europe. The commencement of their collection dates from -an early period. The famous silver mines, prior to the discovery of -America, placed the Saxon princes among the richest sovereigns of -Europe; and they took pride in exhibiting their magnificence, in -expending vast sums of money in the purchase of gems, jewels, and works -of art. - -The treasures thus accumulated during a long period of time are of -immense value; and the apartments where they are displayed remind -the observer of the gorgeous descriptions of Oriental magnificence. -And unless we except the unknown collection in the Turkish Seraglio -and those of the Crown of Russia, it is the most extensive and -interesting in the world. All that is rare and beautiful on earth is -here represented; and the total valuation of all the objects of art -and nature must amount to many millions of dollars. They are contained -in eight large consecutive rooms, each surpassing the previous one -in the splendor and richness of its contents. Among the diamonds are -some large and unique gems of the rose pattern. The gala dress and the -decorations of the Elector, which fairly dazzle the eye with their -floods of brilliancy, are also kept here. In the epaulette there are -three splendid brilliants which weigh nearly fifty carats each. - -But the chief attraction among all this vast collection of gems is the -famous green diamond. This wonderful stone is of oblong form, 1¹⁄₁₂ -inches in length by ¹⁰⁄₁₂ of an inch in width, and weighs 31¹⁄₄ karats. -It is mounted in a clasp, set with large white brilliants. The price -paid for it is kept a profound secret; but it is reported that it was -obtained at Warsaw by Augustus the Strong, and that he paid 60,000 -thalers for it. Amateurs generally regard the blue diamond as the most -astonishing and perfect of the products of the mineral kingdom; but we -fail to perceive, in the exhibition of this color, any advantage over -the fine green or the pure red diamonds. - -There is another diamond in this collection which is one of the -finest in Europe, although it weighs but 48³⁄₄ karats. It is known -as the Saxon white brilliant, and is of rare perfection of form -and brilliancy. It is about 1¹⁄₁₂ inches square, and is set in the -insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece, surrounded with other fine -brilliants. Augustus purchased it, and is said to have given more -than $700,000 for it. This gem has a great reputation for its beauty. -Comparison with the Regent, the Orloff, and others, can alone determine -its degree of excellence. - -The fifth and sixth divisions of the eighth apartment are devoted to -the display of diamonds, and the insignia of Saxony. The decorations of -the Elector, consisting of buttons, collar, sword-hilt, and scabbard, -all glittering with diamonds, present a charming appearance. There are -also to be seen, profusely decorated with gems, the Saxon Order of the -Rue Garland, and the seven orders of the Golden Fleece. - -Among the royal treasures in Munich there are several beautiful pink -diamonds of large size, and a magnificent blue one of thirty-six -karats, which is set in the Order of the Golden Fleece. - -In the treasury of the royal palace may be seen many fine single -diamonds, together with magnificent emeralds and sapphires of great -value. The King’s and Queen’s crowns, resplendent with brilliants, -are kept here, with others of older date which belonged to the former -Counts Palatine. Among the relics are preserved the ancient diadems of -Henry II. and his Empress Kunigunda of the date 1010; also, the orb and -sceptre of the Emperor Charles VII., together with his crown. - -Prussia has but few diamonds, the policy of the Hohenzollerns having -been adverse to the purchase of gems as baubles. Austria, however, is -rich in diamonds, and possesses some extraordinary gems. The Imperial -Jewel Office at Vienna contains a rare collection of great value. Here -is preserved the famous Regalia of Charlemagne, which were buried -with the great conqueror in his tomb at Aix la Chapelle. Barbarossa, -in 1165, dared to violate the sanctity of this sepulchre, and removed -the barbaric jewels, which are of great interest to the antiquary and -the historian. For several centuries past they have been used at the -coronation of the German emperors. The crown is a magnificent specimen -of the art of the Middle Ages, and is ornamented with rough diamonds -and other gems in their natural state. - -The crown and sceptre of Rudolph II. may be seen here. They are also -adorned with uncut diamonds and gems, and were formerly worn by the -German emperors elect on their entrance into Frankfort. - -The chains, collars, decorations, regalia, belonging to the dresses -of the various Austrian Orders, namely, Golden Fleece, Maria Theresa, -etc., and worn by the Emperor, exhibit a splendid collection of -diamonds, topazes, emeralds, etc., unique in size and perfection. - -Here is also to be seen the famous yellow diamond known as the -Florentine. It is in the form of a double rose with facets cut all -around, and weighs 139¹⁄₂ karats. It is of a fine lustre, but of -a yellow tinge, sufficient to impair the beauty of the prismatic -reflections. The Emperor Francis, as Grand Duke of Tuscany, inherited -the gem, which accounts for its presence in Vienna. - -This gem has been confounded with the diamond given to the Pope by -Charles the Bold; but its history is very obscure, and its introduction -into Europe is unknown. There is, however, a story among the Italians -that it was first discovered by an amateur while hunting over the -relics and objects of virtu in a curiosity shop at Florence, where -it was regarded as a crystal of yellow quartz. Tavernier saw it in -Florence in the middle of the seventeenth century, but does not mention -its history. Besides this gem there are several large diamonds in -Europe whose history has become very confused, and it is now difficult -to trace their identity in several instances. - -The Florentine is the rarest specimen of the kind known, and, although -it is not cut with regularity, its lustre and its brilliancy are -greatly increased by its star-like cut. It is 1¹⁄₆ inches in length, -by one inch wide, and is neatly set in a large _sevignée_, surrounded -by other fine diamonds. Its value is placed at $450,000. There is also -another large and fine diamond intended as a button for a hat, but its -history is unknown. - -The finest rose-colored diamond known belongs to the Austrian jewels. -It is of a beautiful rose-color, thirty-two karats in weight, and of -remarkable lustre. It is now placed in the centre of a knot of white -brilliants to which the decoration of the cross of Maria Theresa is -attached. Here is also the beautiful bouquet of flowers made for Maria, -and constructed out of colored diamonds and other precious stones. - -The finest collection of colored diamonds in the world is to be seen -here. It was made by a Tyrolese named Helmreicher, who went to Brazil -and spent the most of his life there in searching for them among -the different mines. They illustrate finely the wide range of color -possessed by the gem. - -The Empress of Austria, in 1800, during the war with France, wishing to -emulate the manners of ancient warriors, sent to the Archduke Charles, -then in command of the army of Bohemia, a helmet set with magnificent -gems. - -In ancient times it was not rare for Eastern monarchs to array -themselves richly, which the stern Romans affected to despise, -believing in the virtues of unadorned steel. The decorations of -Artaxerxes Mnemon and Mithridates are said to have amounted to millions -of dollars in value. It is also reported that Alexander, at the battle -of Arbela, wore a helmet with a gorget of polished steel set with -gems. Murat, however, the gayest of all modern generals, obtained his -picturesque effects by means of colored fabrics and feathers rather -than from gold and gems. - -There were few persons among the frequenters of the courts of Europe -during the past three-quarters of a century who had not heard of the -value and the splendor of the Esterhazy jewels. It appears that near -the close of the last century Nicholas, Prince Esterhazy, assisted at -the crowning of Francis II. as King of Hungary. He was then captain -of the Guard of Honor, which was composed of twenty-four nobles and -princes of inferior rank, and on this occasion first appeared in his -ornaments of precious stones. The Prince, not content with the usual -decorations belonging to his rank and his corps, transformed all parts -of his equipments which were of metal into open gold-work incrusted -with gems. The effect was so beautiful as to stimulate the Prince -to continue and complete his designs in a magnificent manner. And -therefore he sought far and wide for the finest gems to adorn his -person. - -This passion for collecting and decorating soon ripened into a mania, -and developed a prodigality greater than the Curii or Fabricii -ever dreamed of. Ample means were at hand to foster this love of -magnificence, for the Prince was feudal proprietor of a third of -Hungary, being possessor of thirty-three manors, and lord of seventeen -grand seignories. - -The uniform of his rank as general of Hungarian huzzars, composed -of jacket, pelisse, and pantaloons, was woven with pearls of the -finest description; and among the multitudes of gems which formed the -decorations were fifty thousand fine diamonds of the brilliant form. -The weight of these mantles of magnificence was more than one man could -endure for a length of time; and its profusion of ornament recalled the -barbaric splendor of Lollia Paulina as she appeared at the banquet of -Caligula. Gems of all colors and varieties were employed by the Prince, -and many fine rubies, emeralds, and topazes were made use of. The most -valued and the most delicately formed of all his ornaments was the -aigrette of diamonds which replaced the ordinary plumes on his huzzar -cap. It was called the most beautiful jewel in the universe. These -artificial plumes, which flashed like flames of fire, contained five -thousand diamonds of the purest transparency and most beautiful colors. -Their weight amounted to one pound and a half avoirdupois. Around the -huzzar cap were placed a wreath and a band, over which were ranged, in -many rows, the finest and most brilliant pearls. The sword and scabbard -were incrusted with the rarest brilliants. The broad band which hung -over the shoulder to the belt was a remarkable article of workmanship. -It was a simple band covered with fine pearls and the most precious -diamonds, one of which, at the shoulder, was valued at 20,000 livres -and another at the waist at 12,000 livres. Besides these ornaments he -had for decorations six orders,--of the Toison d’Or, of the Bath, Saint -Andrew, and others, all constructed of unequalled magnificence. - -These costumes were worn by the Princes Nicholas and Paul at the -coronation of Francis II., of George IV., of William IV., of Victoria, -and of the Emperors of Russia and Austria; and were the themes of -admiration, even among the glittering uniforms of higher ranks. But -finally, by the fatality that attends collections of all that is -beautiful on the earth, there came a change in the fortunes of the -heir of Esterhazy. Paul, the last Prince, died some years ago harassed -with debts. His estates were hypothecated; but his jewels passed into -the hands of his creditors, and many of them were sent to London to -be separated and sold. Since then most of the beautiful gems, which -sparkled so brilliantly in former times in the courts of Europe, have -been scattered over the world, and their identity lost, their history -forgotten. - -There is a very beautiful diamond of thirty-six karats owned in -Holland, but its history we have not learned. - -The famous crown of St. Stephen of Hungary, which disappeared during -the Revolution of 1848, is said not to have any diamonds among its -gems. Whether the absence of this stone is due to the extreme antiquity -or to the whims of the constructors of the crown, we are unable to -state. - -The late Duke of Brunswick had before his death a marvellous collection -of diamonds, partly acquired in gratification of his eccentric tastes -and partly obtained by inheritance. Among the latter was the famous -Cumberland diamond of thirty-two karats, which had descended to the -heir of the House of Hanover. We have not been able to obtain a -description of these treasures, nor can we learn of their disposition -by the remarkable will of their late possessor. - -Among the church regalia of Catholic Europe, and the offerings -presented in past times to the various shrines of the saints of their -religion, are yet preserved many gems of great beauty and value, and -among them a great number of diamonds. Some of them have been stripped -during the ravages of war, or by the iconoclastic fury of civil -disturbances; and the pious monks have, in instances, restored their -loss by the substitution of paste, which has pleased the pilgrim’s eye -quite as well. For instance, the celebrated shrine of the Three Magi at -Cologne has been despoiled of a great part of its vast treasures. And -the skulls of the kings, inscribed with their names--Gaspar, Melchior, -and Balthazar--written in rubies, were once crowned with gold diadems, -resplendent with brilliant gems, now replaced by silver, gilt, and -paste, or imitations. The custodians of the relics and jewels still -assert, through pious fraud or a convenient ignorance, that their value -amounts to 6,000,000 francs. - -Catholicism, when it had the means, spared no expense in decorating -its shrines and beautifying its relics. It well understood the effect -of the glitter of gold and the brilliancy of gems upon the human -imagination. The examples of this barbaric and yet cultivated taste -are to be seen in all parts of Europe. Relics and insignia were not -only lavishly adorned, like the Remonstrance at Prague with its 6,666 -diamonds, but the bones of their saints were committed to the earth -ornamented with costly gems, like those of Cardinal Borromeo interred -at Milan two hundred years ago. The shrine of Loretto in Italy has been -the most favored of all in Europe in attracting gifts from the rich -and powerful as well as from the sick and the conscience-stricken. If -reports are true, it has been and now is the receptacle of many of the -most beautiful treasures of the mineral kingdom. As its history is not -generally known, we will briefly allude to it, and give a still briefer -description of its jewels. - -Casa Santa denotes the chapel of the Holy Virgin at Loretto in Italy. -Its chief room is the chamber in which the Blessed Virgin is said to -have been born, where she was betrothed to Joseph, where the angel -saluted her, and where the Holy Ghost overshadowed her, etc. Tradition -says it was carried, in May, 1291, through the air by angels from -Galilee to Tersato in Dalmatia, and four and a half years afterwards -was taken to Italy and set down in a wood in the district of Recanati, -a thousand paces from the sea. - -Strange to relate, it was more than two hundred years before any author -in that country took any notice of the event or of the building. It -was, when first brought to notice, simply a house of one room; but as -religious enthusiasm became excited it also became necessary to repair -its decayed condition and improve its appearance. Therefore, Clement -VII. caused a vaulted roof to be placed upon it and new foundations -to support its tottering walls. At a later period it was completely -encased in the finest Carrara marble, under the directions of the most -celebrated sculptors of the age and during the pontificates of Leo X., -Paul III., and Gregory XIII. The edifice which encloses the chamber -within its spacious walls was designed by Bramante, and its sculptures -were designed and executed by the most famous artists. This is -composed of Istrian stone resembling the Travertine stone so much used -at Rome. - -Within the ancient chamber, which is regarded as one of the holiest of -all the holy precincts known, stands the sacred image, called the Great -Madonna, five feet high, made of cedar, and carved, as tradition says, -by St. Luke, who was a carver as well as a physician. Upon her head -is placed a triple crown of gold, enriched with diamonds and pearls, -a gift from Louis XIII. of France. Over her shoulders an ample robe -is cast, glittering with jewels of all descriptions and said to be of -inestimable price. - -The niche in which the image is placed is also decorated with gems, -and among them are seventy-one of the finest of the Bohemian topazes -[quartz]. - -Adjoining the Virgin on the right side appears a statue of an angel -cast in pure gold. This is also profusely enriched with diamonds and -other gems. Some of these, which are said to have cost 50,000 ducats, -were the offering of Eleanora of the House of Este, the Queen of -King James II. of England, when she sought for the intercession of -the Virgin to grant her an heir. The Pretender to the British Crown -was born not long after, to the delight of all those who believed in -miraculous intervention. - -On the left side of the Virgin a silver statue of an angel is placed, -and still further on the right appears another costly image. This last -was the gift of Louis XIII. of France, in gratitude for the birth of -the Dauphin, afterwards “Le Grand Monarque,” Louis XIV. - -Seven lamps of solid gold are continually burning with a sacred flame -before the image of the Virgin, and other parts of the room are -illuminated with thirty-seven silver lamps. - -Although many of the reports concerning the valuables belonging to this -famous shrine are probably fiction, there is no doubt of the immense -value of the gems and jewels that have been presented to it. The -donations to the wealth of this famous shrine have been given from all -parts of the world where the Catholic religion has been venerated. And -all classes, both rich and poor, have zealously invoked the blessing of -the mysterious spirit by their liberal bequests. - -The rich Abbey of St. Denys, before the Revolution, is said to have -possessed a rare and costly assemblage of gems, jewels, and jewelled -relics. They were reported to have been the accumulation of many -centuries, dating back to the Carlovingian kings. - -Among them were said to have been valuable presents from the Emperors -of Byzantium. But this is doubtful, for the Greeks despised Catholicism -and the Crusaders. There may have been, and probably were, fine gems of -various kinds from the spoils obtained by the Franks in the conquest -of Constantinople. There is no doubt, however, as to the richness of -the works of mediæval art; for we find sufficient evidence in the old -work of Dom Doublet’s, “Tresor of St. Denys,” although the collection -itself has long since been dispersed and almost forgotten. - -The iconoclastic fury of the Revolution collected many of the treasures -of this Abbey, with those of other chapels of Paris, and offered them -at public sale in 1794. It is said that this collection embraced -a great quantity of precious stones,--rubies, topazes, sapphires, -etc.,--both in the rough crystal and rudely cut, thus proving their -Oriental origin. It is also stated that this much-to-be-lamented -assemblage of beautiful things brought but 80,000 francs. - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - - CUTTING OF THE DIAMOND. - - -The art of polishing the diamond was discovered by man at an earlier -age than history has generally ascribed to it. Positive evidence, -however, is wanting as to exact dates; and the proof is chiefly -presumptive. However, there is no doubt but that it was far anterior -to the times when Berquen announced his improvements on the process. -We are quite willing to admit that the process of abrading the diamond -against diamond was really discovered by the native of Bruges; but we -cannot entertain the idea that the Hindoos were too stupid to pulverize -the diamond and use its powder in polishing the gems. The natives -had made use of powdered corundum in the earliest days, and it is -preposterous not to admit they pulverized the diamond also. - -Most of the gems of antiquity, whether rubies or diamonds, are cut -rudely; and often, with the latter gem, the natural faces of the -crystal are alone polished. Tavernier found that the native Hindoos -polished the natural faces of the crystal if it was clear, and covered -the flawed and the defective with facets to disguise them. And so -common was this practice, that the traveller was always suspicious of -the quality of the stone, whenever it was offered to him cut in this -manner. - -The improvement with many of these diamonds is so slight, that we -consider the fact to be one of the reasons why certain natural -crystals, like those in the crown and clasp of Charlemagne, for -instance, were left in their rough state; the advantage derived from -cutting not being equal to the time and labor expended. - -It is true that we have no direct evidence of the cutting of the -diamond in ancient times, and those that have descended to us from -undoubted early Roman periods are in the shape of natural crystals; but -still there is indirect testimony bearing in favor of the view. - -The ancient gem engravers were wont to use splinters of broken -diamonds in their labors upon various kinds of gems; and they probably -powdered the adamas, as well as varieties of corundum, for the purpose -of polishing the hard stones. Scarcity of the mineral, rather than -ignorance of its properties, may have prevented its general use. - -Janon de St. Laurent, in his work on engraving tools, maintains that -the ancient instruments for the purpose of cutting gems were the same -as the modern; and not only the wheel was used, but diamond dust was -also employed in the process. There is no doubt that the wheel and -other tools were in use in Asia for a long period before their adoption -by the nations on the Mediterranean. So far as we know, Persia was -the birthplace of gem engraving. Why are there not more examples of -polished diamonds, if the process is so ancient? the reader may ask. We -may in part answer this question by saying, that the process of cutting -regular facets on the gems was not early known, or the custom adopted; -and, the polishing being so difficult, that the lapidaries were content -to polish the natural faces only. Polished crystals of diamonds of this -character have descended to us from early times, and other examples are -to be seen in ancient jewels. So little beauty was obtained by this -polishing, that not much was gained in the vast labor required; and -the native crystals were often used without any aid from the lapidary. -We may see them in their rough crystalline forms in the crowns of -the Gothic princes, the Iron Crown of Italy, and the ornaments of -Charlemagne, besides other relics of ancient and even mediæval times. - -This custom of using the rough gems prevailed to some extent in recent -times; and De Laet states that as late as the middle of the seventeenth -century rough spinels were preferred to the cut for ornamentation. -However, we will briefly allude to one or two instances in history, -which lead the reader to infer that the diamond received a definite -polish at an early day. Chrysostom, an authentic writer of the fourth -century, in describing the magnificence of the Greek emperors at -Byzantium, mentions the dazzling splendor of the diamonds scintillating -by agitation. If the historian does not use this description for the -gems in general, we may infer that the diamonds had been polished; -since the unpolished stones do not exhibit much, if any, play of the -prismatic hues. The maxim, “diamond cut diamond,” is of ancient origin, -and may perhaps be referred to the saying in vogue among the Greeks -as early as the seventh century, “that for the purpose of cutting -diamonds, a diamond was most effectual.” - -The accounts of the Oriental historians concerning the fêtes of Timour -in the fourteenth century, where diamonds were showered in profusion -upon the guests, leave no doubts as to the art of polishing the gem as -early as that period. - -The inventory of the _joyaux_ belonging to the Duc d’Anjou, in 1360, -shows that diamonds were then cut, although rudely. It makes special -mention of several diamonds, and one in particular set in a reliquary, -and cut in escutcheon. Other polished diamonds are described in the -account given of the splendid entertainment given at the Louvre, by the -Duke of Burgundy, to the King and Court of France. - -There is also evidence to prove that diamond lapidaries were at work -in Paris, when Berquen came to reside there. However, it was not until -1475, after Berquen returned to his native city, Bruges, that the mode -of polishing diamonds by direct abrasion became known in Europe. And -when Charles the Bold intrusted the three famous gems to his skill, -and rewarded him with 3,000 ducats for his labor, the name of Berquen -became famous and widespread throughout Europe. - -Nearly two centuries after this success, Cardinal Mazarin attempted -to establish the business of diamond-cutting in Paris, and confided -to the lapidaries he had invited to reside there, twelve of the -finest diamonds belonging to the Crown to be recut. These gems, from -their beauty, and the circumstance of cutting, were called the twelve -Mazarins. History has neglected to record the fate of these magnificent -gems save one. In the inventory of the French jewels in 1791, there -is the solitary description, “the tenth Mazarin.” The others have -disappeared. - -The Cardinal made every attempt to establish the favorite project -on a firm basis; but they were in vain; for the Dutch marine had -complete control of most of the exports of India, and decided in favor -of Amsterdam. Moreover, the establishment of the diamond trade in -Holland was one of the indirect results of the revocation of the Edict -of Nantes, and it was controlled by Israelite refugees from France. -The business gradually languished at Paris, and of the seventy-five -diamond-cutters of Mazarin’s industry, but five were left in 1775; and -soon after this, in spite of individual efforts and influences, it -ceased altogether. Even at the recent period of 1852, Paris did not -possess a single diamond-cutter. At this time M. Philippe resolved -to make the attempt to revive the good intentions of Mazarin, and has -thus far succeeded well. But, in spite of all the English and French -opposition, the diamond trade is still controlled by the Amsterdam -Jews, several thousand of whom are engaged in the business of cutting -the stones. - -Diamond-cutting was also practised to some extent in London during the -last century and the early part of this; but concerning it we have -learned but few particulars. It was conducted on strict mathematical -principles, however; and the gems cut during this time in London are -eagerly sought for by amateurs, under the name of the “Old English -Style.” The brilliants of Ralph Potter, cut at the commencement of this -century, are by far the finest exponents of the art as well as of the -natural powers of the gem. Since the discovery of the African mines the -London establishments have been actively engaged, and we also learn -that branches of the business have been located in other cities of -England. - -The process of diamond-cutting is a very simple matter to those -acquainted with the nature of the gem. To cut the facets, two stones -are cemented on two sticks and rubbed against each other until a -facet is cut; then the position of one of the stones is changed, and -another flat surface cut. The process is thus continued until the gem -is faceted all over, at the expense, however, of the other stone, -which does most of the cutting. After the facets are cut, and a -definite form given to the stone, the gem is placed in the hands of the -polisher, who fastens it in solder, and then places it upon a small -steel disk which revolves horizontally with a rapidity of 1,500 to -3,000 times a minute. This disk is moistened with diamond powder mixed -with oil, and one facet is polished at a time. The diamond-cutting -proper is a rapid operation; but the polishing is slow and tedious. One -cutter can generally furnish sufficient work for four or five polishers. - -There are a number of forms adopted by the lapidaries for these gems, -but the two principal ones are the brilliant and the rose. The first -pattern, which was invented in Europe in the seventeenth century, is -perhaps the best of all to call forth the powers of the gem. The second -is of unknown age, and was practised by the Hindoos in ancient times. -It affords the largest beams of light for the weight, but it lacks in -colored reflections when compared with the brilliant. - -For the perfection of the rainbow play of hues, it is essential that -the facets of the superior and inferior parts of the stone should -correspond in exact proportions and at fixed distances, so as to -multiply the reflections and refractions, and produce the colors of the -prismatic spectrum. Therefore the perfect cutting of the diamond is a -mathematical problem, governed by rigid laws. - -All limpid and white gems must be cut according to this rule, but in -case of colored stones the case is far different; for perfection -of color is to be attained, and brilliancy is a secondary thought. -Therefore a fine ruby or sapphire may be decidedly thin in form, and -yet be a gem of great beauty and value. It is very rare we obtain -the full perfection of brilliancy and color in the colored gems; for -generally the depth of the finest hues prevents a display of the -refractive powers of the stone. - -The process of rifting diamonds by splitting them in their cleavage -planes was known long ago to the Hindoos; but, strange to say, it -was forgotten by modern lapidaries until revived by Wollaston not -many years ago. By this means masses of the crystal may be removed to -escape a flaw or remove a spot, and yet preserve material that may be -utilized, and which would have been lost by the process of grinding -away the exterior. - -Some diamonds of the spheroidal form are deficient in cleavage -planes, and are quite impracticable for cutting; and the fact of the -impossibility of polishing them is sufficient proof of their peculiar -origin, and that their form is not due to aqueous action. - -Others, known as bort, seem to be of concentric arrangement, as though -crystallization radiated from the centre; and it is very difficult to -polish them. The Hindoos avail themselves of this natural cleavage, and -form table diamonds by adroitly striking along one of the planes of the -stone with a sharp-edged tool, thereby separating the layers of the gem -as the slate is rifted by the miner. - -The operation, which seems so simple, really requires considerable -skill and much of that acquired instinct or tact which is best -exhibited by our Western Indians, who chip, with marvellous rapidity -and certainty, a glass bottle into symmetrical arrow-heads. This method -of reducing diamonds by cleavage was early known to the Hindoos, and -is mentioned by Tavernier in an unmistakable manner in his published -travels. - -The process of reduction by this means is very rapidly accomplished by -the skilful workman. At a glance he ascertains the direction of the -laminæ, which remind one of the layers of the onion, and then cuts -a small notch with another diamond in the place he selects. In this -minute rift he places the edge of his blunt steel knife, and, tapping -the back of it with a light iron rod, the diamond is split with perfect -ease. By this process flaws and imperfections in the external layers of -the stone are removed without delay. In reducing the natural diamond -to a regular form much of its substance is lost, and sometimes as much -as one half of the weight of the stone. This loss, however, depends -greatly upon the natural form of the crystal. The perfect octahedrons -lose but one fifth of their weight when transformed into the shape of -the brilliant; but the rhombohedrons lose over one third in taking the -same form. - -The following will give the reader an idea of the losses of the rough -stones when converted into fine gems. However, it must be remembered -that these great stones are generally of irregular shape and are -rarely of fine crystalline forms. The Mogul weighed in the rough 780¹⁄₂ -karats, but was reduced in cutting to 279⁹⁄₁₆ karats. The Regent -weighed 410 karats, reduced to 136¹⁴⁄₁₆ karats. The Koh-i-noor weighed -186¹⁄₂ karats, reduced to 102¹⁄₂. L’Etoile du Sud, 254¹⁄₂ karats, -reduced to 124⁴⁄₁₆. - -The process of cutting diamonds of large size is always attended -with risk, and is necessarily a costly operation. The Regent cost in -cutting $25,000, and occupied two years’ time. The Star of the South, -which was cut by Coster, occupied but ninety days, and the Koh-i-noor -only thirty-eight working days. This great feat in diamond-cutting -was performed by the ablest of the Holland lapidaries, with the aid -of steam power. Although the time expended was less than forty days, -yet the cost of cutting is said to have been $40,000, which sum was -lessened by the sale of the rifted fragments. - -The Oriental lapidaries, destitute of mechanical appliances of any -considerable aid, consumed years in cutting some of the paragons of -India. This condition of affairs will explain the reason why the -Armenian lapidaries asked the immense sum of $80,000 to cut the slab of -diamond weighing 130 karats, which was captured by the Sultan of Persia -at Coocha, in 1832. - -The process of diamond-cutting has within a few years been established -in the United States, and is due to the energy and superior inventive -talent of Mr. Henry D. Morse, of Boston. This gentleman conceived the -idea of arranging a machine for the cutting and polishing of these -gems, to enable the American jewellers to have their work performed at -home, instead of sending it to Europe. - -While engaged in perfecting his appliances, chance threw in his way -an itinerant vendor of porcelain, who had in former years served as -laborer in the diamond ateliers of Amsterdam. The sight of the rough -gems and the apparatus recalled to the Jew the scenes of his youth, and -awakened a desire of renewing his former occupation; and he offered to -perform the part of diamond-cutter. But, as the process was carefully -considered, it was discovered that the Jew could only cut the facets -of the diamond, and the art of the subsequent polishing he did not -understand. It seemed strange that an artisan who possessed the rare -ability to tell at a glance how large a gem the stone would cut, how to -avoid internal imperfections, and how to take advantage of its cleavage -planes, could not polish the facets after he had cut them. But such was -the fact; for the two processes of cutting and polishing are widely -different, and require separate instruction. However, the deficiency -was soon supplied by an acquaintance, who was induced to leave Holland -and act as polisher in the American diamond adventure. - -The establishment was now complete, but the business was at first -confined to recutting and repolishing gems that had been damaged by -long use or accident. The inventive genius of Mr. Morse made several -important changes in the machinery required by the lapidary, and -displaced the rude and cumbersome apparatus of the old system. At first -but two or three men were employed; but after the discovery of the -South African diamond mines, the rough gems imported to this country -soon furnished material for a more extensive establishment than was at -first contemplated; and so the workshop was enlarged, and the workmen -increased, until twenty-four polishing wheels were put in operation -by steam power, and a force of thirty persons employed in the various -parts of the process. At first none but foreigners were employed in the -labor; but Mr. Morse believed that American ingenuity could master all -the difficulties of the process, and finally succeeded in educating -a corps of workmen who soon proved to be far superior to any of the -artisans imported from the diamond-cutting establishments of Amsterdam. -Now the atelier of Mr. Morse may be considered as essentially American -both in its artists and its arrangements. - -Many fine gems of large size have been polished by Mr. Morse, and among -them four of the great weight of fifty karats each. And very recently -he has ventured to attempt the cutting of a great diamond from South -Africa, weighing one hundred and twenty-five karats. The operation was -a successful one, and after three and a half months’ labor a beautiful -gem of seventy-seven karats weight was obtained, which is greatly -admired by amateurs and experts, not only on account of the rare -beauty and perfection of the mineral itself, but also as a remarkable -specimen of workmanship in shaping its present form. - -The process of cutting the diamond is divided at Amsterdam into several -distinct branches, and workmen are educated to perform one part, but -not another. Thus the cleaving, the cutting, and the polishing have -special operators, who become expert in performing well the parts -assigned to them without attempting the others. - -This ceremony and care adopted by the Jews has undoubtedly produced -skilful workmen; but we see no reason why all the parts may not be -perfectly acquired by an intelligent mechanic. The art of cleavage, -however, requires tact, and ought to include some knowledge of -mineralogy. - -For the particulars of the art of diamond-cutting, we will refer our -readers to the interesting chapters by Jeffries, Mawe, and Barbot; but -we will, however, briefly mention some of the forms adopted for the -diamond, and how they are produced. - -The table and the rose patterns were the first regular forms adopted -by the lapidaries. The first was simply the top of the stone ground -flat with a corresponding flat bottom of less area, with its four upper -and lower sides parallel to each other. As the light passed through -the stone without much refraction, the beauty of the mineral was not -developed by this pattern. - -It has been stated that the rose shape was invented in Paris under the -auspices of Cardinal Mazarin, but Tavernier describes the diamonds of -Aurungzeb of India as being of the rose-cut. Therefore we must give a -more ancient date to the pattern than Mazarin’s day. The form of the -rose-cut is simply that of a hemisphere covered with small facets. Its -flattened base is therefore admirably adapted for incrustation work, -and the foil on which it is generally set serves as a refracting mirror -for the entering rays of light. - -The rose pattern has several names which indicate the number of facets -which they may bear. If it has but twelve or less facets it is called -an Antwerp rose; if but eighteen or twenty it is a semi-Holland, and a -Holland rose if it bears twenty-four facets. At the present time these -gems are not in much demand, unless for incrustation work, for which -they are superior both in effect and in adaptability to the surface of -the object to be ornamented. - -The form which appears to exhibit the splendors of the gem to the -best advantage is that known as the brilliant, and is rightly named -from its effects. It was discovered in Italy in the latter part of -the seventeenth century by Peruzzi of Venice, which city was then one -of the chief gem marts of the world. The conclusions which led to -the adoption of the shape were derived from experiments upon colored -stones. This form of the brilliant is that of the ancient deep table -modified by receiving thirty-two facets above and twenty-four below its -girdle. The great relative depth of the gem, aided by the numerous -facets of the sides, appears to increase the natural refractive power -of the stone by confining, as it were, the rays of light inside of it. - -Another pattern, called the brilliolette, shows the beautiful qualities -of the gem to great advantage. It is formed like two rose diamonds -joined together at the base; or may be flattened and elongated like the -almond, and faceted all over with small facets. This is the form of the -Sancy, and should have been given to the Koh-i-noor and the Star of the -South. The Austrian yellow diamond is of this pattern, and was probably -cut in India, but when and where is still a mystery. And it is thought -that the famous twelve Mazarins were also cut after this shape. - -The star pattern, which was invented by Caire, is but little used at -the present time. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - TESTING OF THE DIAMOND, ETC. - - -The testing of the diamond is generally an easy matter to the expert, -but the merchant and the amateur are often unable to decide quickly -concerning the character of a gem that may be offered to them. The -learned Abbé Haüy was often called in consultation upon matters of this -kind, and even appeared in court as an expert of diamonds. Fortunately, -the methods of ascertaining the diamond beyond a doubt are now so easy -and numerous that few attempts are made like those of the last century, -when white topazes and zircons were sold or substituted for diamonds. - -We may be permitted to say that the first and surest test of the -gem is that of hardness, and that the diamond scratches all other -substances with ease. The application of this test is not always made -with facility, but a little practice with a rough crystal of diamond -will soon enable the experimenter to perform it satisfactorily. -In performing the test for hardness for all gems it is well to be -provided with a fine English file, and splinters of quartz, topaz, and -sapphire. The file, adroitly applied, will detect the character of gems -below the quartz in hardness, and the splinters above mentioned will -determine all others but the diamond. - -In applying these tests, it is well to touch the middle of a facet, if -the gem be polished, and remember that the edges of many of the gems -are very brittle. The diamond, for instance, although it is so very -hard when its surface is directly tested, yet its thin edges, when cut -into a gem, are broken down with the greatest ease; therefore the test -of hardness should be applied to the polished face of the stone. - -But when the stone has been polished and set in such a manner that the -test of hardness cannot be easily applied, then the easiest method of -distinguishing its character is to expose it to the rays of artificial -light and observe their effects. If the stone, when placed at a certain -distance from the candle, flashes out the prismatic hues in a marked -manner, then the observer may safely conclude that the object is either -a diamond or one of the artificial gems known as strass. To distinguish -them by means of the eye alone will be a difficult task, for both -possess very high refractive powers and exhibit remarkable displays -of the prismatic hues; but the application of a fragment of diamond, -sapphire, or topaz to the object will at once make known its character, -and even the test of the steel file will betray the softness of the -glass. - -The transparent zircons closely approach the diamond in brilliancy, -and are among the rarest of gems; in fact, a fine specimen of perfect -purity would be worth more to the amateur than a diamond of equal -weight. The pure yellow are declared by King to be among the rarest and -most beautiful of gems on account of their remarkable brilliancy and -lustre. He also states that they are seldom found above two karats in -weight. - -The white zircon, which resembles the diamond so closely, is always -minute and rarely above one karat in size. All that are known in -commerce come from Matura, in Ceylon, and are sometimes called Matura -diamonds. In times past they were in great demand for incrustation -work of watches and jewelry, for when cut in the form of roses and set -upon brilliant foil they could not be easily detected by the eye from -the diamond. At the present day they are seldom seen in commerce, but -whether from scarcity, or from an improvement in the ideas of honor -in the jewellers, we are unable to state. We know, however, that they -are still mined by the natives of Ceylon, and are used in Asia for -ornamental purposes. The white spinel is sometimes mistaken for the -adamas; but its inferiority in hardness and its want of the prismatic -hues render its detection easy. The white topaz, when of two or three -karats weight, resembles the diamond in the rough very closely, -especially when in the modified or globular forms of crystallization. -The degree of specific gravity is exactly the same; but the test -of hardness and the want of the prismatic display serve to dispel -all doubts as to its nature. Neither of these gems, nor the white -sapphire, has that peculiar sharp flash of the diamond which is known -as the adamantine eclat. It has been stated by Hoppè that some of the -Brazilian diamonds do not exhibit any more play of color when cut than -rock crystal; but we have no doubt but that the writer is in error, -and has probably been deceived by some of the white spinels or topazes -which are sometimes found in the diamond mines of Brazil and are of -great brilliancy. - -To estimate the value of a rough diamond and ascertain its purity -is often a difficult task, and one that requires both education and -tact. For the surface of the natural gem, especially the modified and -spheroidal crystals, is generally dull and chatoyant. This singular -appearance, which has been erroneously represented as a thin crust, is -in reality produced by the salient edges of the laminæ of which the -stone is composed. The same or a similar effect may be artificially -produced in the polished diamond by heating it to a white heat, as has -been seen in the diamonds injured in the great fires of Hamburg and -Chicago. - -Barbot, the French jeweller, declared that he had discovered a means -by which the apparent rough, translucent coating could be changed into -perfect transparency so as to give a clear view of the condition of the -interior. This statement, however, is very much doubted by lapidaries. - -When the rough diamond is placed in turpentine, alcohol, or even -water, it appears more transparent than before and like a bubble -of air. We have therefore sometimes thought that Barbot had really -discovered some fluid of high refractive power, immersed in which the -rough diamond became transparent. For it is a well-established fact -known among chemists, that rough gems of a lower refractive power, like -sapphire, chrysoberyl, spinel, etc., if placed in a fluid possessing -an equal refractive energy, like that of muriate of antimony, become -clear, and the observer is enabled to look through them. This discovery -strengthens Barbot’s statement and places it within the possibilities; -but as yet we know of no fluid that possesses a refractive power equal -to the diamond. Topaz, emerald, and other gems of low refractive power -can be readily examined by using the oil of cassia, which has the -refractive energy of 1.64. - -The rough diamonds often exhibit various colors, but generally of -faint tints. Sometimes the hue is not perfectly distributed throughout -the stone, but may be confined to a part of it, as in the sapphire, -or even in one of its laminæ. It is a singular fact that the external -coverings of the mineral often contain the shades which render the -rough gem of a disagreeable hue, and which may be made to disappear by -the process of cutting. Therefore, it sometimes requires experience -and tact to determine the value of a rough diamond which possesses a -decided hue. However, those stones which exhibit a greenish or reddish -color are considered safe stones for investment, and will develop -into superior gems after cutting. The bluish and the blackish are -thought to be harder than the others; while the yellowish and grayish -colors indicate inferior stones. The brownish and yellowish hues may -disappear in process of cutting, but there is greater uncertainty in -these shades than in the others. Sometimes a stone which promises to -yield a perfectly white gem, after cutting turns out to be of a decided -disagreeable tinge. Therefore the cutting of a rough diamond is often -attended with some hazard. - -The Hindoos have a practice of examining their stones before purchase -by placing them in an aperture in the wall, with a lighted lamp in -the rear. And to ascertain their color they take them under the cover -of a tree thick with foliage, where the verdure of the shade quickly -reveals any other tinge, especially the bluish. It is quite difficult -to distinguish the snow-white, except by contrast. The officers of -the Junta Diamontina, in Brazil, have a rough way of testing the -native diamonds from quartz, white topaz, and spinel, by rubbing them -together close to the ear. The sharp tone which is thus produced is -characteristic, but the test requires a keen and practised ear. - -Specific gravity is one of the best tests for determining the nature -of polished stones. By this means some of the precious minerals can be -detected with ease, like the zircon and the emerald, notwithstanding -their color. But when applied to the diamond the experimenter should -remember that its weight is exactly that of the white topaz; yet -to distinguish them, the degree of hardness or the phenomena of -electricity will at once enable the expert to discriminate with ease -and without a doubt. For the best methods of ascertaining the specific -gravity of the stones, we must refer the reader to elementary works on -chemistry and physics. - -The test of its electrical phenomena is an important one, as one can -thereby almost instantly detect it from other gems, especially the -white topaz. When rubbed it exhibits vitreous electricity like glass, -but loses it in a very few moments. - -Another curious phenomenon, called single refraction, enables the -observer to distinguish the mineral from all other gems except the -garnet and spinel, the others having double refraction, or, in other -words, giving a double image of a candle-light when it is viewed -through their facets. - -For the purpose of observing this phenomenon, Sir David Brewster -invented an instrument which he called a lithoscope. It consisted of a -small glass prism which moved around a fixed joint so that the lower -surface of it could be laid upon the surface, or a facet of the stone -to be examined. In this position, the two surfaces being parallel, the -image reflected from the lower surface of the prism would coincide with -that reflected from the surface of the stone. A drop of the oil of -cassia or of sulphuret of carbon is placed between the prism and the -facet, and then the observer turns a screw to raise the prism a little -round its joint. The effect of this is to separate the image of a light -or a small luminous aperture as given by the prism from that given by -the facet; and the difference in the intensity and the color of these -two images is an infallible indication of the nature of the stone. The -image from the diamond will be many times brighter than that reflected -from the face of the prism when testing any of the other precious -stones. - -A simpler mode is sometimes adopted by experts, but it requires some -dexterity to exhibit the property. The method is this: the diamond is -held up to the eye, and a needle point or a small hole pierced in a -card is looked at. If the object is seen double, as if there were two -needle points or two holes, then the stone examined is not a diamond, -as but one aperture should be seen. - -With the aid of the tourmaline tongs, however, we have an easier -method--subject to a few exceptions--of detecting the properties of -refraction of all gems even when they have been cut. The transparent -tourmaline, when cut in thin plates parallel to the axes of its -natural crystals, possesses the strange and extraordinary power of -extinguishing or causing to disappear one of the rays of polarized -light, while the other is preserved. Therefore, when a body possessing -single refraction, although perfectly transparent, is placed between -the two thin slices of tourmaline composing the tourmaline tongs or -polariscope, no light passes through; the instrument does not afford -the least glimmer of a ray of light. But when the transparent body -interposed in the polariscope is of double refraction, light passes -through as if by magic. - -When the gem has been cut for ornamental purposes it is often difficult -to adjust the faces of it to the plates of the polariscope. Then -recourse may be had to the use of a glass cell containing a fluid of a -high refractive power, like the oil of cassia, turpentine, sulphuret -of carbon, etc. The stone immersed in these fluids admits the light -in all directions, and is then easily viewed through the plates of -the instrument. These fluids, however, are not of sufficiently high -refractive powers to do justice to the diamond and the zircon, but they -answer admirably for all gems of a less refractive power, like the -varieties of sapphire, spinel, topaz, garnet, tourmaline, emerald, etc. - -The tourmaline tongs furnish the expert with a rapid and easy method -of detecting many of the gems by reason of the phenomena of their -refraction. But the experimentalist must be on his guard lest he -pronounce substances to be of double when they really possess but -single refraction. Glass has a tendency to crystalline regularity when -heated and cooled suddenly, and may therefore acquire the property -of polarizing the ray that passes the first plate of tourmaline and -dispose of a part of that which passes the second. Certain minerals -of the cubic system produce the same result by reason of a certain -rare but forced arrangement; and some crystals, like the topaz, when -cut in a certain direction to their optical axes cease to exhibit the -phenomena of double refraction. - -One of the chief tests used by the jewellers of olden times to -distinguish the diamond was the test of the tincture. This tincture was -a varnish made of ivory black and mastic, and when applied to the back -of the diamond seemed to increase its lustre, while other gems were -impaired in their natural effects. Modern investigators, however, have -shown that this procedure is a fallacious one, and is in reality one of -the absurd traditions which have been attached to the gem from early -times, like some of the supposed spiritual properties. - -A perfect diamond must stand the tests for purity, faultlessness, and -transparency, and when these are carefully applied to the stone perfect -gems will be found to be very rare. - -As we have said before, the diamond is the foulest of gems, and is -exceedingly liable to be injured by faults, such as are described -in the technical terms of the jewellers as ashes, gray spots, rusty -places, flaws, cavities, fissures, veins, feathers, foreign bodies, -wavy and vitreous spots. Very few diamonds can stand the test of the -microscope and be pronounced perfect. Still these microscopic faults -are not to be considered in the commerce of the gem, but only in the -study of its origin and nature. The jeweller may properly pronounce -perfect the gem whose faults cannot be detected by the human eye. Even -the magnificent Regent has one small foul speck in it, according to -Jeffries; and Sir David Brewster found in the Koh-i-noor three specks, -or rather cavities, in its central portion, which appeared to view in -more or less distinctness according as the light reached them. - -After a diamond has been cut it is not easy to ascertain its degree of -perfection without careful examination, and this occupies considerable -time. And gems which appear at first glance to be pure and perfect are -often found to be defective after examination. - -Babinet, of the French Institute, adopted the following method to study -the effects of the diamond, and it was his intention to apply the test -during his leisure moments to the principal diamonds in France; but -other important labors diverted him from his purpose. He pierced a -hole in a white card, a little larger than the diamond to be examined, -and then passed a ray of sunlight or of the electric lamp through this -hole. In the pathway of this ray, at a certain distance from the hole -behind the card, he placed the diamond so that the ray of light fell -upon the anterior surface of the stone. The rays reflected from this -anterior surface, or, in other words, the table of the diamond, and -those which pass through the stone are reflected back on the card, -where they exhibit a white image of the table surrounded by small -bands iridescent with the prismatic colors. By this simple method -Babinet found that if the diamond had been well cut the colors were -considerable in number, were well separated, and equally spread around -the white reflection of the table. As each of these bands indicates -one of the lustres of the stone, it is easy to estimate them both in -number, quality, and symmetry. Therefore the observer can not only -detect the errors of the cutting of the gem, but decide upon the form -best adapted for the stone. - -The term used to express the weight of the diamond and all the gems -is derived from the word _Keration_, a kind of vetch, whose seeds, -being generally of a uniform weight, furnished the Orientals with the -means of estimating the value of precious stones. It is supposed to -represent the equivalent of four Troy grains, but by actual measurement -the diamond karat weighs but 3¹⁄₃ Troy grains at the present day, and -it may descend even lower in the scale, unless the unit be established -by law. The history of the series of diminutions by which the karat -has reached its present weight is obscure, but as the term is supposed -to represent four Troy grains it should equal them in reality. That -it is a mere conventional weight is shown by its variance in European -countries, as well as in the gem-producing countries of Asia. In -making use of the term to express the weight of precious stones we -would suggest that it be written karat, as more in accordance with -its derivation, and that the commonly accepted word carat be used when -we wish to define the alloy of certain metals, like that of gold and -silver coins. - -Before proceeding to the subject of the valuation of diamonds, we -will say a few words concerning the imitations produced by the skill -of man. Many attempts at imitating the diamond have been made by -experimentalists for a long time past, and much ingenuity shown by -them. To those of our readers who desire to study especially these -experiments we will refer them to the works of Silliman, Hare, Latour, -Saix, Despretz, Dumas, Ebleman and Gaudin, Mohler, St. Clair, Deville, -Gaunal, Becquerel, Joyce, Cagnard de la Tour, Mactear, Hannay, and many -other well-known experimenters. - -Despretz’s experiments, which were based upon certain combinations -of carbon, are deserving of mention. The chemists have discovered -that in combining sulphur and carbon a colorless liquid is produced -resembling water, and apparently containing nothing but sulphur and -carbon. Therefore, Despretz reasoned, if he could get rid of the -sulphur by some manner, the carbon might be crystallized. And to -obtain this result, the action of the volcanic battery offered the -most plausible means. With the aid of this battery the experimenter -really succeeded in obtaining on a thread of platina, passed through a -solution containing carbon, some small crystalline depositions, which -by their form and hardness seemed to be embryonic diamonds. But here -the experiment ended. Nature refused to reveal her secrets. - -The alchemists of the Middle Ages seeking the transformation of gold -from baser metals, have been well represented by the chemists of the -present century attempting to imitate the diamond. Philosophy and -science have united their efforts in these fascinating experiments; but -Nature still defies the most determined efforts of art in respect to -the reproduction of the diamond. - -The mineral appears to be an allotropic form of a simple elementary -body which Nature offers to us with lavish hand. And when we consider -the triumphs of chemistry, the process of transforming this element -into the coveted form does not seem to be so very difficult to the -casual thinker. But Nature is stubborn in revealing her simple acts. -However, we are not without faith in these determined efforts of -scientific skill; for we know that art now produces the brother of -the diamond, graphite, at will. And we see that at the soda works at -Aussig this form of carbon is obtained as a secondary product by the -decomposition of cyanogen and its combinations. We do not, however, -look forward with much pleasure to the realization of this idea; for -success in producing the diamond will annihilate at a single blow an -important article of commerce, and rob ornamentation and investment of -one of its most desired objects. - -Art, however, in its researches on this subject, has succeeded in -producing a glass which, when cut, approaches very closely the -brilliancy and prismatic display of the diamond. The artificial gems -made from this glass, which is supposed to have thallium as a base, -instead of lead, are really superior examples of art. “Nothing but -glass,” is a phrase too often used contemptuously and unjustly; for -these imitations are quite as charming as the adamas itself. In the -flash of their rainbow hues, they surpass some of the great diamonds, -like the Koh-i-noor; and in brilliancy they exceed all other gems. -Their refraction reaches 2 on the established scale, while that of the -diamond is reckoned at 2.4, and that of the sapphire, 1.79. They lack, -however, hardness; and the effect of time dims their lustre. But this -defect may yet be remedied; for the ancients made glass quite as hard -as quartz. And when we come to examine those wonderful specimens of -ancient glass, with their exquisite colorings, exhumed by General Di -Cesnola in the Phœnician tombs of Cyprus, who will venture to establish -a limit to the art of glass-making? Even within the past few years, a -process has been discovered by which the elasticity and hardness of -glass have been increased to a remarkable degree; and if the defect of -brittleness can be overcome, a new era in glass-making will have been -reached. - -Artificial diamonds are often worn at the present day; and the fair -wearer consoles herself with the hope that, when sunnier days come, -the artificial will give place to the real. It will not be soon -forgotten by the votaries of fashion, that the Duchesse de Berri, -arriving in France, received for her bridal ornaments only the -imitation, and that she wore them. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - VALUE OF THE DIAMOND. - - -The history of the commercial value of the diamond, extending back -to a distant period of time, forms an interesting chapter for the -philosopher as well as the merchant. It would appear that the gem had -been comparatively independent of the caprice of fashion, and that it -has had for many years a value quite as fixed as gold or silver. This -comparative valuation only applies to the snow-white diamonds, and to -those whose imperfections are not readily discernible to the naked eye. - -In estimating the value of diamonds, Barbot divides their shades into -fifteen degrees, as follows: In the first degree he places the rare -diamonds which exhibit the vivid gleam like the flash of polished -steel; second degree, snow-white, first water; third degree, white, -first water; fourth degree, white, with faint shades, red, yellow, -and blue; fifth degree, white, yellow, or green, second water; sixth -degree, grayish-yellow or green, second water; seventh degree, orange -yellow; eighth degree, translucent topaz yellow; ninth degree, -translucent deep green; tenth degree, translucent brick-red; eleventh -degree, translucent deep red; twelfth degree, quite opaque, dingy blue; -thirteenth degree, quite opaque, deep bottle green; fourteenth degree, -quite opaque, brown or blackish; fifteenth degree, quite opaque, black -as jet. - -In ancient times, the gem probably had no fixed commercial value, -and was sought for as a curiosity or as a talisman. In the fifteenth -and sixteenth centuries, the goldsmiths of Italy, which was then the -richest country in the world, established a comparative valuation for -the four precious stones, ruby, emerald, diamond, and sapphire. From -these accounts we learn that the diamond of one karat was valued at -100 gold scudi, and that the emerald was estimated at 400, and the red -sapphire, or ruby, at 800, or eight times the price of the adamas. -These valuations, if we estimate the scudi at nine English shillings, -make a diamond of one karat worth $225, and the ruby of the same weight -at $1,800, or nearly two thousand dollars, a statement which is quite -incredible. - -In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and even before these dates, -Venice was the chief gem mart of Europe. Her merchants had control of -a great part of the trade with the Eastern countries; and most of the -Oriental luxuries passed through their hands. From the account of the -auction sale, in the year 1606, of the effects of a diamond merchant -in that city, we learn the value of diamonds of one karat weight at -that time. They were then valued at £21 13_s._ 4_d._, which was an -enormous sum, compared with the value of money at the present day. - -In 1750, the price of the stone in Europe was $40 for one-karat gems. -This was just before the discovery of the Brazilian mines. The sudden -influx of the gems reduced the price shortly after to $5 per karat; -but the market soon recovered from the panic, and in 1791, at the time -the inventory of the French jewels was made, the price had arisen to -$30 for the same class of diamonds. Since this period, the prices have -varied, from the influences of the wars of Europe, sinking at the time -of the disturbances of the Revolution of 1848, to $20 and $25 per -karat. But after the year 1850, the price of the gem steadily advanced, -and in 1865, its quotations were almost the same as that of Venice in -1606. This comparison, however, should not be made without remembering -the vast difference in the value of money of the two periods. - -The valuations of the diamond for more than a century past have been -based upon the form of the brilliant, while those of the star, table, -rose, and others, have been valued at lesser and sometimes almost -nominal prices. - -The price of the rose diamonds has been affected by the views of -fashion for a long time, and at the present day we are unable to -establish any fixed scale. We will, however, append the views of some -of the gem experts as to the valuation of this pattern, during the past -two centuries. - -Robert de Berquen, in 1669, valued the rose cut - - of 1 karat at 100 francs. - ” 2 ” ” 500 ” - ” 4 ” ” 1,500 ” - ” 8 ” ” 6,000 ” - ” 10 ” ” 9,000 ” - -This estimate, however, was not founded upon any principle; and it was -not until the celebrated Tavernier formed his rule for the valuation of -the rose cut, that the diamond had any definite value. Tavernier, in -1692, took for an example a rose of one karat, of fine water, white, -and of good form, and fixed the valuation at 150 francs, and for gems -of greater weight multiplied this figure by the square of their weight. -The justly celebrated jeweller and traveller also followed the same -rule with fine diamonds that were not of regular form. The brilliant -cut was not then known. - -In 1858, in France, the comparative values were: for one karat, fine -brilliant cut, 300 francs; for one karat, fine rose cut, 200 francs. - -The following list has been kindly furnished me by Henry D. Morse, -Esq., of Boston, as giving the value of diamonds in the United States -at the present time, January, 1884. The prices have fluctuated -considerably during the past year, and the estimates given are -wholesale prices, and regarded as being quite low for fine stones:-- - - Lots averaging ¹⁄₂ karat each, $60 per karat. - ” ” ³⁄₄ ” ” 80 ” ” - ” ” 1 ” ” 100 ” ” - ” ” 1¹⁄₄ ” ” 110 ” ” - ” ” 1¹⁄₂ ” ” 125 ” ” - ” ” 1³⁄₄ ” ” 145 ” ” - ” ” 2 ” ” 175 ” ” - -Above two karats the prices are not much increased per karat, because -of their not being as much in demand. Stones of five karats and -upwards, being very slow to sell, at the present time can be bought at -$175 to $200 per karat, of the same qualities as the two-karat stones -quoted above. Very extra white perfect stones, when well cut, bring, -when sold singly or few at a time, from 20 to 25 per cent more than the -prices quoted. The lower grades of stones are generally sold in lots, -and the sizes do not make much difference in price. The larger they are -the less desirable, and oftentimes stones of from five to ten karats -are sold cheaper than stones of one to two karats; the price depending -upon the shade of color and skill in cutting. Lots of this description -can be bought for from $75 to $90 per karat. If the tinge is a little -more decided they will bring but $60 per karat. The yellow diamonds -even ranging as high as ten to twenty karats bring about $45 per karat. -Flawy stones bring from $15 to $35 per karat, according to their color, -size, and brilliancy. Fine rough stones of assorted sizes, varying -from three to ten karats, bring from $30 to $45 per karat according to -their shape and perfection. Smaller sizes are reckoned in value from -$15 to $20 per karat. Cheaper grades and off-colored crystals are sold -as low as $8 to $12 per karat. The bort diamonds vary in value; those -coming from Africa bring but $1.50 per karat, while the same variety -found in Brazil bring $6. The carbon variety of the best sizes bring -about $20 per karat. Fifteen years ago the same mineral could be bought -for $2.50 per karat; while the Brazilian bort was quoted at $9. - -Of colored diamonds, those slightly tinged with various colors, -especially the yellow and brown, were valued in London and Amsterdam, -in 1872, as follows:-- - - Under 1 karat 30s. to £2 10s. per karat. - 1 to 2 ” 40 ” 4 10 ” ” - 2 ” 3 ” £3 ” 5 10 ” ” - -The following account of Cape of Good Hope diamonds which were sold by -auction at Covent Garden, February, 1872, may interest the reader in -comparison with other sales at various periods of time:-- - -One white rough diamond, 9¹⁄₂ karats, £60; one slightly off color, 7¹⁄₄ -karats, £37; a curious cabinet specimen of native diamond in matrix, -£14, one large rough gem, drop shape, 14¹⁄₂ karats, £42. Among the cut -diamonds the following were sold: a magnificent brilliant, 8 karats, -430 guineas; a fine yellow brilliant of great lustre, 7¹⁄₂ karats, -140 guineas; a brilliant of great spread and good water, about 7¹⁄₂ -karats, 140 guineas; a large, lustrous brilliant of fine color weighing -about 7 karats, 480 guineas; a court tiara of five graduated brilliant -stars, 185 guineas; a brilliant necklace of forty graduated collets, -£300. - -The following sale by auction, in London, of some of the Imperial -jewels belonging to the Empress Eugenie, may also interest the reader; -and we have therefore thought proper to insert the account. It took -place in July, 1872, at the rooms of Christie, Manson, & Co.:-- - -Lots 16 and 17. A bracelet, with forget-me-nots formed of turquoises -and small diamonds, and another, with pearls and diamonds,--175 -guineas. (Attenborough.) - -22, 23. A heart-shaped locket, formed of bands of brilliants, and a -pair of gold solitaires, with large diamond centres,--215 guineas. -(Copeland.) - -24. A very small keyless watch, with E. in diamonds, with gold chain, -set with rubies and emeralds,--120 guineas. (Agnew.) - -26. A chased gold snuff-box, the top set with flowers in brilliants, -with the Pasha of Egypt’s cipher in brilliants on blue enamel,--165 -guineas. (B. Benjamin.) - -33. A brooch, with pendants, formed of five large turquoises and -brilliants,--105 guineas. (Streeter.) - -35. A brilliant brooch, with sprays set with brilliants,--120 guineas. -(Attenborough.) - -36. A pair of large pink pearl ear-rings in enamelled setting with -brilliants,--105 guineas. (Thompson.) - -37. A heart-shaped pendant, formed of a fine large turquoise surmounted -by brilliants,--250 guineas. (Martin.) - -38, 39. A large black pearl, with brilliant top, and a heart-shaped -brilliant locket,--300 guineas. (Woodgate.) - -40. A pair of shell-shaped brilliant ear-rings with pearl centres and -drops,--106 guineas. (B. Benjamin.) - -41. A brilliant brooch, formed as a corn-flower and group of -foliage,--348 guineas. (Phillips.) - -43-45. A ring with a large brilliant, a fine single stone brilliant -ring, and a ring with a large brilliant and two fine emeralds,--485 -guineas. (Woodgate.) - -46. A ring, with a splendid ruby and two brilliants,--300 guineas. -(Challens.) - -47, 48. Three very fine emeralds, set as a ring, and a pair of hairpins -formed as rosebuds, of pink pearls and brilliants,--275 guineas. -(Gibbons.) - -49. A marquise ring, with a pink diamond surrounded by brilliants, -formerly the property of the Empress Josephine,--400 guineas. (Martin.) - -50. A beautiful pendant, the centre a fine emerald, surrounded by bands -of brilliants, with emerald and pearl drop,--605 guineas. (Brown.) - -51, 52. A group of three wheat-ears tied with a ribbon formed of -fine brilliants, making a brooch or head ornament, and the companion -group,--975 guineas. (Lennox.) - -53, 54. A group of two wheat-ears, en suite, and the companion -group,--£810. (Martin.) - -55. A fine pendant, with a large square emerald, surrounded by -brilliants, with very large pearl drop,--620 guineas. (Ford.) - -56. A scroll-pattern brilliant brooch, for a miniature, with large -pearl drop,--470 guineas. (Challens.) - -57. A broad chain-band bracelet, with sapphire and two large -brilliants,--340 guineas. (Lomax.) - -58. Two fine emeralds and three large brilliants, mounted as a -bracelet,--810 guineas. (Hancock.) - -59. A beautiful cross, formed of eleven large brilliants,--900 guineas. -(Carter.) - -60. A ribbon tie brilliant brooch,--335 guineas. (Grindley.) - -61. A handsome pendant of brilliants and pearls, with a fine large -black pearl centre and drop,--420 guineas. (Martin.) - -62. Two fine large brilliants and an emerald mounted on a buckle set -with small brilliants,--430 guineas. (Harborough.) - -64. A splendid brooch, formed as a rosebud and leaves, composed -entirely of brilliants,--820 guineas. (Attenborough.) - -65. A magnificent bracelet, with sapphire centre, surrounded by rubies, -brilliants, and emeralds,--£650. (Rothschild.) - -67. A fine large pearl, mounted as a hairpin of chased gold, with chain -set with small diamonds,--188 guineas. (Chapman.) - -68. A splendid fly brooch, the body a very large opal, the head -and wings set with rubies, brilliants, emeralds, sapphires, and -opals,--£320. (Greenwood.) - -69. A beautiful watch, in blue enamel setting, surrounded by eleven -large brilliants, suspended from a hook, set with a cluster of -brilliants,--£1,660. (James.) - -70, 71. A fine polished emerald, surrounded by brilliants, and a -bracelet with splendid ruby centre and large brilliants,--975 guineas. -(Hancock.) - -72, 73. A brooch, formed as an anchor, composed entirely of brilliants, -and the companion brooch,--£2,150. (Eaton.) - -74. A tiara, formed of a band of brilliants, the centre a cluster of -fine brilliants and emeralds, surmounted by a large oval emerald, with -brilliant sprays and pearl drop,--780 guineas. (Challens.) - -75. A bracelet, the centre a very fine sapphire surrounded by large -brilliants, with trellis pattern open-work bands, studded with -brilliants,--£1,105. (Martin.) - -76, 77. A brilliant set as a brooch, with fine pearl drop, and a -brilliant brooch with colored stone centre and pearl drop,--730 -guineas. (Keane.) - -78. A brilliant tiara, formed as a group of leaves,--£970. (Carter.) - -79. A pearl necklace, composed of forty-one large pearls of the highest -quality, with cluster brilliant snap,--£2,400. (Marquis of Bristol.) - -80-84. A pair of polished emerald drops, four pairs of larger ditto, -and a single ditto,--750 guineas. (Masters.) - -85-89. Two pairs of emerald drops, with brilliant tops, three pairs of -larger ditto,--550 guineas. (Carter.) - -90-92. Three pairs of very large emerald drops,--£1,275. (Garrard.) - -93-103. A brooch, with a fine large emerald surrounded by brilliants, -nine larger ditto, and one with a square emerald,--5,000 guineas. -(Keane.) - -104-106. A brooch with emerald centre, surrounded by fine brilliants, -with emerald and brilliant drop, and two larger ditto,--£3,525. -(Graham.) - -107. A tiara, composed of ten fine large emeralds, surrounded by bands -of brilliants,--£2,625. (Keane.) - -108. A brilliant brooch, formed as a group of leaves, with six large -brilliant drops and pendants, set with smaller brilliants,--1,050 -guineas. (Keane.) - -109-111. Three brilliant pendants composed of very fine large stones, -with brilliant drops and pendants of false pearls,--2,600 guineas. -(Keane.) - -112. A bracelet, composed entirely of brilliants, the centre an oval -sapphire,--£2,250. (Carter.) - -113. A pair of long ear-rings composed of very large -brilliants,--£3,255. (Stevens.) - -114. A brilliant brooch, formed as a double pink,--£1,470. (Stevens.) - -The whole realized upwards of £50,000 ($250,000) gold. - -The quantity of diamonds now in circulation in fashion, and hoarded -by commerce, is enormous, and may be estimated by the ton. Yet the -requirements of society and the arts are so vast that the gem -apparently seems to be a rare stone, while in reality it ranks low down -in the scale of rarity. - -Although we believe that there are immense diamond placers yet to be -discovered in Africa, Asia, and America, we do not think that the gem -will ever lose its high rank in the wants of fashion and ornamentation, -or that its price will ever again descend to the valuation of 1848 -except in transient times of far-extended commercial distress. The -misfortunes of any one country will not affect the established price to -any great extent, since the demand from other countries is so great as -to preserve a well-marked equilibrium. - -India, with its millions of people who prefer to invest their gains in -a gem to all other known property, will furnish an eager market for the -diamond for many ages to come. The history of the influx and absorption -of silver by that country furnishes an interesting parallelism. - -Most of the people of the earth entertain superstitious fancies, and -especially invest the gems with spiritual powers or special attributes. -Hence the innate love of ornament, combined with the desire of -possessing a rare treasure, will always give to the gems a prestige -and a commercial value above all other things. Puritanical morality -may rail against the gems as luxuries; but the nature of man must be -changed before these ideas can be universally adopted. The refinements -of civilization, as well as the follies of barbaric ages, call for -the ornamentation of jewels and gems. And modern economy may, with -Tiberius, complain in vain of that “rage for jewels and precious stones -which drains the empire of its wealth, and sends, in exchange for its -baubles, the money of the commonwealth to foreign nations.” - -A brilliant writer has lately stated that “Pictures, gems, china, -bronzes, _bric-à-brac_ of every sort, rare shawls, rare engravings, -and even rare fruits, flowers, and dogs are steadily tending upwards -in value, as if their price depended upon a want and not a caprice. It -is the most curious illustration of the unchangeableness of the law -which governs even caprices that we are acquainted with; and tends to -indicate that the desire for the rare, which we all notice and smile -at, in bibliopoles, antiquarians, entomologists, and every variety -of the genus collector, is not an exceptionable eccentricity, but a -permanent attribute of the human mind, though only noticed in those who -have wealth to indulge in some unusual or splendid form. It is like the -desire of accumulation, one of the passions, and not one of the mere -tastes of men; and may be relied on in business, almost as certainly as -self-interest, vanity, or ambition.” - -The relative worth of the diamond has never been better described than -by the following lines from the pen of an able English author:-- - - “It is in truth the very essence of property. It is riches condensed - and wealth secured; too small to be seen by the midnight burglar; too - easily hid to be seized by the tyrant; and too quickly carried away to - be wrested from the patriot exile or torn from the hunted outlaw. In - vain would the vanquished monarch strive to remove his bags of gold, - or transport his territorial domains; but a diamond is an empire made - portable, with which he might purchase a better kingdom, and mount a - prouder throne. Had the treasure of Crœsus been invested in brilliants - he might have founded a nobler Lydia beyond the reach of his Persian - invader.” - - - - - THE EMERALD. - - “The emerald burns intensely bright, - With radiance of an olive light; - This is the faith that highest shines, - No need of charity declines, - And seeks no rest and shuns no strife, - In working out a holy life.” - - MARBODEUS. - - - - - THE EMERALD. - - -Dutens and several others who have written upon gems and precious -stones during the last two centuries, have asserted that the ancients -were unacquainted with the true emerald, and that Heliodorus, when -speaking nearly two thousand years ago of “gems green as a meadow in -the spring,” or Pliny, when describing stone of a “soft green lustre,” -referred to the peridot, the plasma, the malachite, or the far rarer -gem, the green sapphire. But the antiquary has come to the rescue with -the treasures of the despoiled mounds of Tuscany, the exposed ashes of -Herculaneum and Pompeii, and now exhibits emeralds which were mounted -in gold two thousand years before Columbus dreamed of the New World, or -Pizarro and his remorseless band gathered the precious stones by the -hundred-weight from the spoils of Peru. - -Although these specimens of antique jewelry set with emeralds may be -numbered by the score or more in the museums and reliquaries of Europe, -but very few engraved emeralds have descended to us from ancient times. -This rarity is not due to the hardness of the stone, for the ancient -lapidaries cut the difficult and still harder sapphire; therefore we -must believe the statement of the early gem-writers that the emerald -was exempted from the glyptic art by common consent on account of its -beauty and costliness. - -Stones possessing a green color have been used for ornamental purposes -from the very earliest periods of the social life of man. And as we -review the archæological history of the human race, it would seem as -though minerals of this hue had been especially selected among all -others for ornamental purposes. - -For instances of this primitive selection, we will refer to the green -stone hatchets found among the ancient tombs of Brittany; the axe heads -of jade in New Caledonia; the green serpentine implements of Africa; -the articles carved from green zoisite, revered among the Chinese from -time immemorial; as well as the green jade and amazon stones, which -the Mexicans wrought with wondrous skill into strange and grotesque -forms, and which they prized above even their magnificent and matchless -emeralds. It is also clearly evident that the emerald was discovered in -very ancient times, and that it was early adopted in ornamentation, and -was prized as among the most valuable of the gems, if not the highest -in estimation, for its color and fancied virtues. - -Pliny was undoubtedly familiar with the true emerald, and expressed -his satisfaction in the following language:-- - - “There is no color so pleasing to the eye as that of the emerald. - Whoever delights in the verdure of herb and leaf must enjoy infinitely - more the contemplation of emeralds; for no verdure can compare to - theirs. They are the only stones that charm the eye without wearying - it. It loses its lustre neither in sun nor in shade, nor in artificial - light. It shines continually with the same soft glow.” - -In the time of Alexander, the emblems of authority of the Persians -consisted of golden imitations of vines, loaded with clusters of -emeralds, carbuncles, and other gems. At the famous marriage feast -of Alexander and his eighty companions with their beautiful Persian -brides, emeralds appear to have been the favorite gem used, and to have -been esteemed above all other ornaments except the beautiful pearls of -the Persian Gulf. - -In ancient times this gem was not only prized as an ornament, but also -as a talisman, and even as a medicine in the powdered state. Its beauty -captivated the vain and frivolous, and its supposed virtues endeared -it to the rich and the wise. It was supposed to exercise a good effect -upon the eyesight; hence it was worn as a seal to be looked at; when -worn as an amulet it endowed the wearer with courage, drove away evil -spirits, assuaged terror, and prevented attacks of epilepsy. - -Pliny states that Paulina, at the Banquet, was literally covered with -emeralds and pearls, arranged over her dress in alternate rows. - -The famous and fatal ring which Polycrates cast into the sea, as an -offering to the gods in return for forty years of prosperity, was set -with a beautiful emerald. - -The ancient Etruscans carved the emerald at a very remote period, and -the fact is proven by the scarabeus in the Townley collection. - -The Castellani collection exhibits ear-rings of gold set with pendants -of emeralds which were found in the tombs at Bolsena. - -In the Devonshire gems there is a large emerald cut into a Gorgon’s -head, in high relief,--evidently a gem of great antiquity and of -exceeding value at the time of its conversion into a work of art. - -Within the sarcophagus of Maria Honorii fifty rings set with different -stones were found, and among them an emerald set in gold and engraved -with a head supposed to be that of Honorius himself. It was probably -fashioned for a royal signet and buried with the remains of its owner. - -The famous mirror or lens, in or through which the cruel and -near-sighted Nero was wont to view the bloody combats in the arena at -Rome, is supposed to have been cut from an emerald; but it was probably -a lens cut from green glass. - -It appears, however, from the researches of the antiquaries, that the -gem was very rare until the Imperial epoch, when they were introduced -from Asia and other countries in accordance with the luxury and -extravagance of the age. Castellani’s collection displays some fine -examples of the jewelry of this period set with emeralds. Among them -there is a beautiful necklace formed of sixteen natural crystals of -emerald fastened in gold; and also another composed of ten natural -crystals of emerald set in double chains of gold. Among the engraved -gems may be seen an emerald intaglio, representing a Nereid on a sea -bull, and two other intaglios of beryl, with pictures of Mars, and a -portrait of Julia Paula. - -From the earliest times of history monarchs and potentates of all -ranks and races, from Solomon to Montezuma, were wont to wear signet -rings, which were sometimes engraved, and were then often used to -impart authority either by the exhibition of the ring itself, or its -impression upon papyrus, parchment, or wax. The most celebrated ring of -this description we have any authentic knowledge of, was that formed -of a large emerald set in gold and worn by Alexander the Great, whose -portrait was engraved upon the stone. The hero, when dying, bestowed it -upon his favorite general, Perdiccas, and thereby invested him with the -authority of succession. History refuses to make known the fate of this -splendid gem. It is probable that Ptolemy Soter obtained possession -of it when Perdiccas was slain in Egypt, and that eventually Augustus -Cæsar may have worn it for his first imperial seal, which was an -emerald engraved with the head of Alexander. - -After the death of Pompey in Egypt, his seal ring, which represented -a lion holding a sword in his paw, was taken to Rome and presented -to Cæsar, who burst into tears on receiving the signet of his former -associate and unfortunate rival. - -The practice of interring with the dead some of the jewels worn in -life, has been practised in recent times. When Cardinal Borromeo was -buried at Milan two hundred years ago or more, a large gold cross, -containing seven large and fine emeralds surrounded with diamonds, was -placed in his tomb. When Lord Palmerston was buried at Westminster -Abbey, the officiating clergyman threw into the grave several diamond -and gold rings as a peace offering. In ancient times the custom was -of frequent occurrence, and to this habit we owe the preservation of -many beautiful gems and jewels, which have in this manner escaped the -pillage and fury of thieves and iconoclasts. - -The mineral has borne the name of emerald since the middle of the -seventeenth century, at which time it was adopted by the mineralogist, -Wallerius. But whence it is derived, and on what particular grounds, we -are not informed. In Asia, in ancient times, it was described under the -Sanskrit name, “marakat,” which is connected with “esmark,” signifying -a sea monster, or “makara,” meaning the sea. As it passed westward, -among the Persians it became “zabargat,” and still farther on its -journey it was changed by the Greeks and Latins into “smaragdus.” The -derivation of its ancient terms is also exemplified by the use or -purposes in which the gem and its varieties were used. It was therefore -frequently chosen by the antique gem cutters and engravers, as the -proper material for the representation of all maritime subjects or any -allusions to the sea gods. - -The emerald is now one of the rarest of gems; and its scarcity gives -rise to the inquiry as to what has become of the abundant shower of -emeralds which fairly rained upon Spain during the early days of the -conquest of Mexico and Peru, bringing down the value of fine stones to -a trifling price. As with all commercial articles, there is a waste and -loss to be accounted for during the wear of three centuries; but this -alone will not explain their present rarity in civilized countries. -Even in the times of Charles II., when the destitution of the country -was extreme, the Dukes of Infantado and Albuquerque had millions in -diamonds, rubies, and precious stones, yet hardly possessed a single -sou. So impoverished was the land, and so slender were the purses of -all, that the Duke of Albuquerque dined on an egg and a pigeon, yet it -required six weeks to make an inventory of his plate. At this period, -when the nobles gave fêtes the lamps were often decorated with emeralds -and the ceilings garlanded with precious stones. The women fairly -blazed with sparkling gems of fabulous value, while the country was -starving. Most, if not all, of this missing treasure was transferred -to Asia, and with the silver current which flowed steadily from the -Spanish coffers into India went many of the emeralds also; for in those -regions this gem is regarded as a foreign stone, and the natives, -investing it with the possession of certain talismanic properties, -prize it above all earthly treasures. - -When the Spaniards commenced their march toward the capital of Mexico, -they were astonished at the magnificence of the costumes of the -chiefs who came to meet them as envoys or join them as allies; and -among the splendid gems which adorned their persons they recognized -emeralds and turquoises of such rare perfection and beauty that their -cupidity was excited to the highest degree. During the after years of -conquest and occupation the avaricious spoilers sought in vain for -the parent ledge where these precious stones were found. Recent times -have, however, revealed the home of the Mexican turquoise, which has -proved to be in the northern part of Mexico, as the Totonacs informed -the inquiring Spaniards. The first of these mines, which is of great -antiquity, is situated in the Cerrillos Mountains, eighteen miles -from Santa Fé. The deposit occurs in soft trachyte, and an immense -cavity of several hundred feet in extent has been excavated by the -Indians while searching for this gem in past times. Probably some -of the fine turquoises worn by the Aztec nobles at the time of the -Spanish Conquest came from this mine. Another mine is located in the -Sierra Blanca Mountains in New Mexico, but the Navajos will not allow -strangers to visit it. Stones of transcendent beauty have been taken -from it, and handed down in the tribe from generation to generation as -heirlooms. Nothing tempts the cupidity of the Indians to dispose of -these gems, and gratitude alone causes them to part with any of these -treasures, which, like the mountaineers of Thibet, they regard with -mystical reverence. The Navajos wear them as ear-drops, by boring them -and attaching them to the ear by means of a deer sinew. Lesser stones -are pierced, then strung on sinews, and worn as necklaces. Even the -nobler Ute Indians, when stripping the ornaments of turquoise from the -ears of the conquered Navajos, value them as sacred treasures, and -refuse to part with them even for gold or silver. - -All the Spanish accounts of the invasion of Mexico agree in the -great abundance of emeralds, both in the adornment of the chiefs and -nobles and also in the decoration of the gods, the thrones, and the -paraphernalia. The Mexican historian Ixtlilxochitl says the throne of -gold in the palace of Tezcuco was inlaid with turquoises and other -precious stones; that a human skull in front of it was crowned with an -immense emerald of a pyramidal form. - -The great standard of the republic of Tlascala was richly ornamented -with emeralds and silver-work. The fantastic helmets of the chiefs -glittered with gold and precious stones, and their plumes were set -with emeralds. The mantle of Montezuma was held together by a clasp of -the green chalchivitl (jade), and the same precious gem, with emeralds -of uncommon size, ornamented other parts of his dress. - -The Mexicans carved the obdurate jade and emerald with wonderful skill, -using, like the Peruvians, nothing but silicious powder and copper -instruments alloyed with tin. They also worked with exquisite taste -in gold and silver, and they represented Nature so faithfully and so -beautifully that the great naturalist Hernandez took many of these -objects thus portrayed for his models when describing the natural -history of the country. - -When Cortez returned home he displayed five emeralds of extraordinary -size and beauty, and presented them to his bride, the niece of the -Duke de Bejar. On his famous expedition along the Pacific coast and up -the Gulf of California he was reduced to such want as to be obliged to -pawn these jewels for a time. One of them was as precious as Shylock’s -turquoise, and Gomara states that some Genoese merchants who examined -it in Seville offered forty thousand golden ducats for it. One of the -emeralds was in the form of a rose; the second in that of a horn; the -third like a fish with eyes of gold; the fourth was like a little bell, -with a fine pearl for a tongue, and it bore on its rim the following -inscription in Spanish: “Blessed is he who created thee!” The fifth, -which was the most valuable of all, was in the form of a small cup -with a foot of gold, and with four little chains of the same metal -attached to a large pearl as a button: the edge of the cup was of -gold, on which was engraved in Latin words, “Inter natos mulierum non -surrexit major.” These splendid gems are now buried deep in the sand -on the coast of Barbary, where they were lost in 1529, when Cortez was -shipwrecked with the Admiral of Castile whilst on their way to assist -Charles V. at the siege of Algiers. - -Mariana, in his history of Spain, declares that Cortez had, besides -the five great historical emeralds, also two emerald vases which were -valued at 300,000 ducats. Whether these remarkable treasures were -swallowed up by the sea with the other five when the conqueror of -Mexico was shipwrecked, history does not relate. - -Among the presents sent to Charles V. of Spain by the first Spanish -commissioners, Puerto Carreso and Montijo, in 1519, and also by -Montezuma through his governor Teuthlili, were the following articles, -according to the description given by Peter Martyr, the learned -Italian, who enjoyed the friendship of Columbus and the confidence of -the Spanish Court. The Chronicles of Gomara also contain the same list: -a gold necklace composed of seven pieces with 183 small emeralds set -in it, and 232 gems similar to small rubies, from which hung 27 little -bells of gold and several fine pearls; another necklace composed of -four pieces of gold with 102 red gems like small rubies, 172 emeralds, -and 10 fine pearls, with 26 little bells of gold attached. - -The historians, Gomara and Martyr, mention among the prizes which fell -into the hands of Cortez, an immense emerald of a pyramidal form, -whose base was as large as the palm of the hand; and which may have -been the identical stone which crowned the skull which stood before -the throne in the palace of Tezcuco. At all events, an emerald of this -description Cortez sent as a present to the Emperor of Spain, together -with his letters of explanation, after the fall of the city of Mexico. -The letters and the various presents were intrusted to the care of -two of his confidential officers, Quinones and Avila. Arriving at the -Azores, Quinones lost his life in a brawl, and jeopardized the mission; -but Avila escaped and put to sea, to be captured shortly after by a -French privateer; and the rich spoils of the Aztecs were presented to -the King of France, instead of the Emperor of Spain. Francis I. gazed -with delight upon the splendors of the gem, and with a feeling of envy -exclaimed that he “would like to see the clause in Adam’s testament, -which entitled his brothers of Castile and Portugal to divide the New -World between them.” What has become of this historic stone? - -The quantity of emeralds obtained by the Spaniards in their pillage of -Mexico was large; but it was trifling when compared with that collected -by Pizarro and his remorseless followers in the sack of Peru. Many -large and magnificent stones were then obtained by the Spaniards; but -the transcendent gem of all, called by the Peruvians the Great Mother, -and nearly as large as an ostrich egg, was concealed by the natives, -and all the efforts of Pizarro and his successors to discover it proved -unavailing. - -Previous to the plunder of America by Cortez and his followers, -emeralds were not numerous in Europe; but early in the sixteenth -century they began to appear in Spain, and were soon afterwards -distributed among the powerful and wealthy throughout Europe. England -seems to have had at one time a large share of them, and perhaps many -of them were taken by her freebooters from the richly laden Spanish -galleons. In the days of Queen Elizabeth emeralds were exhibited in -profusion, if we can give credence to the chronicles and inventories of -that period. - -The parure of emeralds which the Queen of Navarre bequeathed in 1572, -to her daughter Catherine, must have been of wonderful beauty and -perfection. - -What is the stone lately given to Mustapha, the ex-premier of Tunis, -by the Bey, and described as the famous emerald once belonging to the -Spanish Crown? Was it one recovered from the shipwreck of Cortez, or -was it one of those given away by the Spanish rulers in the early days -of the conquest of Peru, when they imagined the emerald mines were as -broad and exhaustless as the silver beds of Potosi? - -The finest emerald in Europe is said to belong to the Emperor of -Russia. It weighs but thirty karats; but it is of the most perfect -transparency, and of the most beautiful color. There are many other -fine emeralds among the imperial jewels of the Czar, some of which -are of great size and rare beauty. The ancient crown of Vladimir -glitters with four great stones of unusual brilliancy. The grand state -sceptre is surmounted by another emerald of great size. The sceptre -of Poland, which is now treasured in the Kremlin, has a long green -stone, fractured in the middle. It is not described, and may be one of -the Siberian tourmalines, some of which closely approach the emerald -in hue. The imperial orb of Russia, which is said to be of Byzantine -workmanship of the tenth century, has fifty emeralds. This fact alone -would seem to prove that emeralds were known in Europe or Asia Minor -long before the discovery of America; but, on the other hand, the -ancient crown which was taken when Kazan was subjugated in 1553, -is destitute of emeralds. And hence we are inclined to believe the -imperial orb to be of modern workmanship, especially as some of the -ancient state chairs do not exhibit emeralds among their decoration of -gems and precious stones. - -The immense uncut Peruvian emerald, given by Rudolph II. to the Elector -of Saxony, is still preserved in the Green Vaults at Dresden. - -Queen Elizabeth of England sent to Henry IV., the champion of the -Reformed faith, a beautiful emerald, which she herself had worn. She -gave it as a token of esteem, and reminded the gay monarch that the gem -possessed the virtue of not breaking so long as faith remains entire -and firm. - -It has been stated that the Emperor Charlemagne regarded the gift -from the Empress Irene as the dearest of all his talismans. This -treasure consisted of a piece of the true cross, enclosed in a large -emerald, which was attached to a strong chain of golden links. When -his sepulchre was rifled of the treasures deposited with the deceased -monarch, this relic was removed with the rest of the jewels; and -in 1811 was presented to Napoleon by the Burghers of the city of -Aix-la-Chapelle. Bonaparte one day playfully threw it over the neck -of Queen Hortense, declaring that he had worn it on his breast in the -bloody battles of Austerlitz and Wagram, as Charlemagne had worn it on -the field of battle in the Middle Ages. Hortense wore it until the day -of her death. - -The emeralds of the French Crown at the time the famous inventory was -taken in 1781, do not appear to have been of very great purity. Several -of them exhibited fine color, but had many faults. Five of the best -were valued at that time at fifty thousand francs, or ten thousand -dollars, each. - -In the famous Hungarian crown, the large sapphire is surrounded with -four green stones of oblong form, whose species are unknown. It is -also a mystery how they came there, as they are not mentioned in the -inventory made of the jewel when Queen Elizabeth of Hungary pledged it -to the Emperor Frederick IV. - -The Sultan of Turkey is known to possess some exquisite emeralds; and -Rambusson, a French writer on gems, declares that they are the finest -in the world. One of them is said to weigh one hundred and twenty-five -ounces, and is probably another lump of antique glass. Another of three -hundred karats weight, and of less doubtful character, is a gem of -great purity and perfection of color. It adorns the handle of a poniard. - -In the museum at Florence there is a small vase carved in emerald, and -also another ornament of similar form, fashioned from a fine beryl. -The mineralogical collection at Munich boasts of some immense emeralds -which are supposed to have been obtained from Spain, and part of -her Peruvian booty. There are also some splendid specimens of uncut -emeralds in the cabinet of minerals at Vienna. The Saxon and the Papal -crowns contain very beautiful emeralds. - -Probably the most beautiful specimen of the natural emerald in the -world is that presented to the renowned shrine of Loretto in Italy, by -Don Pierre Daragon, when Spanish ambassador at Rome. He was formerly -viceroy in Peru and obtained the treasure at that time. The specimen -is a mass of white limestone, crowned with great crystals of emeralds -more than an inch in diameter and of exquisite color and lustre. - -The name of Emerald Isle is generally supposed to have been derived -from the ever green appearance of its shores but an antiquary asserts -that it arose from the ring which was set with “Optimo Smaragdo,” and -which Pope Adrian sent to King Henry II. as the instrument of his -investiture with the dominion of Ireland. - -There is a very fine and large crystal of emerald in the museum at -Leiden, but its history is unknown. - -Dhuleep Singh of India possesses a flattened crystal of three inches in -length by two in width, and half an inch in depth, which is regarded as -of great value in India. It is said to be of very fine color and with -but few imperfections. - -The Duke of Devonshire’s crystal in its natural state is reckoned as -one of the finest, if not the finest single specimen in the world. It -is from Muzo in New Granada, and more than two inches in length. Its -form is that of a hexagonal crystal, and its weight is 8 oz. 18 dwts. -The color of the stone is beautiful, but several flaws impair the value -as a gem. - -During the visit of the Prince of Wales to India, many fine emeralds -were exhibited to the royal party by the Hindoo nobility. At the -grand reception given them at Madras, the Prince of Virianagram wore -a bracelet composed of three splendid emeralds of very great size. -At Kandy, in Ceylon, the Buddhist priests brought forth from their -sanctuary for the inspection of the Prince, an immense emerald four -inches long by two inches in depth. - -A ring cut out of a single emerald, 1¹⁄₄ inches in diameter, with the -name of the Emperor Jehangir engraved upon it, was presented to the -East India Company. - -One of the most costly and difficult works in engraving upon the -emerald in modern times, was that executed by Carlo Costanzi during the -last century. Upon a table of emerald two inches in diameter, the head -of Pope Benedict and those of St. Peter and St. Paul were engraved. Two -years and a half were required by the lapidary for the execution of his -task. The engraved gem may now be seen in the treasury of St. Petronio -at Bologna. - -Some very fine emeralds are said to be preserved in the royal -collection at Madrid, one quite as large as the Devonshire emerald and -without many flaws. - -The Spanish freebooters, returning home from their American fights -laden with gems, did not forget the shrines of Spain in their peace -offerings. Marshal Lannes, in sacking the church of our Lady of the -Pillar, which was one of the richest in Spain, obtained an immense -booty. Madame Junot declares in her memoirs that it was not far below -five millions of francs in value. - -Harsh stories are also told of the acts of vandalism of Marshal Junot -while he was military governor of Spain. It is related that when -he visited the Cathedral of Toledo, the church dignitaries freely -exhibited to him the magnificent jewels and treasures which belonged -to the church and had been accumulating for many ages. The crown of -the Virgin, which was beautifully constructed of gold and adorned with -exquisite gems, was placed in his hands for close examination. The -summit of this admirable and holy piece of human art was surmounted by -a large emerald of almost transcendent beauty. The French freebooter -examined the beautiful jewel for a few moments, and then coolly -twisted off the emerald from its setting and placed it in his pocket, -exclaiming, with a Parisian grimace, “Ceci doit être à moi.” - -Finely formed crystals of emerald, when not too large, were in early -times mounted in gold and in jewelry without receiving any artificial -polish from the lapidary. Examples are often found in the tombs of -antiquity. The Princess Bariatinsky has a valuable necklace of ancient -emeralds fashioned in this manner. - -The Orientals, taking advantage of the facility with which the prisms -are broken at right angles to the axis, frequently used slices of the -crystals, sometimes artificially polished, but often with the natural -planes of cleavage preserved. This practice was quite common prior to -the fifteenth century. They also adopted the unfortunate custom of -engraving them with condensed quotations from the Koran, and often -drilled holes through the centre of the stones so as to string them as -necklaces or as ear ornaments. - -One of the finest gems that adorned the gorgeous harness of Runjeet -Singh was a beautiful emerald maltreated in this manner. Major Pearse -found in a Punjaub tope a reliquary formed from an emerald three inches -long and two inches thick, with the ends rounded off. It was originally -a gem of fine color, but had been bored half through its axis to -contain two finger joints of some revered Buddhist saint or petted -monkey. - -The emerald has been a subject of controversy among the chemists and -mineralogists, and its character, especially the cause of its beautiful -color, is not clearly defined even at the present day. But that -distinguished chemist, Professor Lewy of Paris, seems to offer, thus -far, the most correct and plausible theory. More than ten years ago -he boldly asserted that the hue is not due to the oxide of chromium, -and with this opinion he confronted such eminent men as Vauquelin, -Klaproth, and others of high rank in the scientific world. Not -content with his researches in his laboratory in Paris, he resolutely -crossed the ocean and sought the emerald in its parent ledges in the -lofty table-lands of New Granada. Here he obtained new information -of a geological character which goes far to strengthen his position. -The experiments of M. Lewy indicate, if they do not prove, that the -coloring matter of the emerald is organic, and readily destroyed -by heat, which would not be the case if it was due to the oxide of -chromium. All my own fire-tests with the Granada emerald corroborate -the views of M. Lewy, for in every instance the gem lost its hue when -submitted to a red heat. - -Nevertheless, the recent researches of Wöhler and Rose give negative -results. These experienced chemists kept an emerald at the temperature -of melted copper for an hour, and found that, although the stone had -become opaque, the color was not affected. They therefore considered -the oxide of chromium to be the coloring agent, without, however, -denying the presence of organic matter. The amount of the oxide of -chromium found by many chemists varies from one to two per cent, while -Lewy and others found it in a quantity so small as to be inappreciable, -and too minute to be weighed. - -Before the ordinary blowpipe the emerald passes rapidly into a whitish -vesicular glass, and with borax it forms a fine green glass, while its -sub-species, the beryl, changes into a colorless bead; with salt of -phosphorus it slowly dissolves, leaving a silicious skeleton. - -M. Lewy visited the mines at Muzo in Granada, and from the results of -his analyses, together with the fact of finding emeralds in conjunction -with the presence of fossil shells in the limestone in which they -occur, he arrived at the conclusion that they have been formed in the -wet way,--deposited from a chemical solution. He also found that when -extracted they are so soft and fragile that the largest and finest -fragments can be reduced to powder by merely rubbing them between the -fingers, and the crystals often crack and fall to pieces after being -removed from the mine, apparently from loss of water. Consequently, -when the emeralds are first extracted they are laid aside carefully for -a few days until the water is evaporated. - -This statement relative to the softness of the gem and its subsequent -hardening has been met with a shout of derision from some of the -gem-seekers,--none louder than that of Barbot, the retired jeweller. -Barbot seems to forget that the rock of which his own house in Paris is -constructed undergoes the same change after being removed from the deep -quarries in the catacombs under the city. - -This phenomenon is observed with many rocks. Flints acquire additional -toughness by the evaporation of water contained in them. The yellow -gneiss of Ceylon is soft when quarried, but hardens on exposure to the -atmosphere. The Egyptian verde antique marble, which was named after -Augustus and Tiberias, was easily quarried with steel implements, but -quickly hardened on exposure to the external air. The mosaic plates -of this mineral which are inlaid in the decorative work of the Tuscan -Gothic buildings are yet quite hard. The steatite of Saint Anthony’s -Falls grows harder on exposure, and other minerals, when quarried -from considerable depths, become firmer on exposure to the action of -the air. Observations of this kind led Kuhlman to investigate the -cause; and he believes that the hardening of rocks is not owing -solely to the evaporation of quarry-water, but that it depends upon -the tendency which all earthy matters possess to undergo a spontaneous -crystallization by slow desiccation, which commences the moment the -rock is exposed to the air. - -The coloring matter of the emerald seems to be derived from the -decomposition of the remains of animals who have lived in a bygone age, -and whose remains are now found fossilized in the rock which forms the -matrix of the gem. This rock in Granada is a black limestone, with -white veins containing ammonites. Specimens of these rocks, exhibiting -fragments of emeralds _in situ_ and also ammonites, are to be seen in -the mineralogical gallery of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. Lewy -believes that the beautiful tint of these gems is produced by an -organic substance, which he considers to be a carburet of hydrogen, -similar to that called chlorophyll, which constitutes the coloring -matter of the leaves of plants; and he has shown that the emeralds of -the darkest hue, which contain the greatest amount of organic matter, -lose their color completely at a low red heat, and become opaque and -white; while minerals and pastes which are well known to be colored by -chromium, like the green garnets (the lime-chrome garnets) of Siberia, -are unchanged in hue by the action of heat. - -At the present time the composition of the emerald is supposed to be -a silicate of alumina and glucina, with traces of organic matter and -also other earths and oxides; but silica, alumina, and glucina are the -principal component parts. It resembles quartz in some of its physical -properties, having a specific gravity of 2.6 to 2.7, and a refractive -energy of 1.58, but its degree of hardness is slightly greater, ranging -from 7.5 to 8.0, while that of quartz is but 7.0. - -The Peruvians maintain that the emerald ripens and deepens in color -after having been mined and exposed to the air and light. Whether -this assertion has been corroborated or not we cannot yet say; but it -is a well-substantiated fact that some minerals do gain in color and -hardness on exposure, and equally well proved that many others lose -their tints very perceptibly. Strange to say, the cystine calculi -undergo a similar change of color, and assume a fine greenish-blue tint -when exposed to the light, changing from a fawn color. The specimens -in Guy’s Museum described by Dr. Marcet in 1817 were of a pale -brown, but according to the report of Golding Bird they now resemble -the green sulphate of iron. Dr. Peter observed the same mysterious -change of color in the two cystine calculi preserved in the museum of -Transylvania University, and noted the fact that the change takes place -on the side exposed to the light. - -But one locality thus far has been discovered in the United States or -even in North America, and this occurs in North Carolina. For several -years previous to the year 1880, Mr. J. A. Stephenson, a collector of -minerals, had obtained in Alexander County a number of beryls and -crystals of transparent minerals which had the shape of beryl with a -tint of the emerald hue, also other crystals of acicular form which -exhibited the true color of the finest Granada specimens of emeralds. - -Some of these minerals were shown in 1880 to William E. Hidden, a -young naturalist then engaged in searching the mineral belts of North -and South Carolina and Georgia for rare minerals. The beauty of these -specimens led the young enthusiast to make a thorough search for the -parent ledge; and, after a few weeks of earnest labor in cutting deep -ditches in the soil near the spot where a number of crystals had been -found, he was rewarded with the discovery of the original deposit in -a rock of gneiss. In this rock, in which felspar preponderates, he -found implanted in open pockets and lenticular fissures crystals of -emeralds, quartz, rutile, monazite, beryl, and also many crystals -of long and slender shapes which appeared to be diopside, but which -exhibited colors of white, yellow, and green of the most beautiful -emerald hues. The mineral which appeared to be diopside was submitted -to the examination of the distinguished chemist, J. Lawrence Smith, -who soon pronounced it to be a new form of spodumene, and named it -Hiddenite after the young explorer. Since then the explorations have -been continued, and have yielded many very beautiful specimens of -both the emerald and the hiddenite. At the depth of thirty-three feet -below the surface of the rock several pockets were discovered which -yielded some beautiful emeralds and hiddenites. They occurred at the -bottom of the pockets, just as the finest crystals of tourmaline are -found in the cavities of the granite ledges at Mount Mica in Maine. -Twelve of these pockets were found within an area of forty feet square, -extending to thirty feet in depth. The largest crystal of emerald found -was more than three inches in length and three quarters of an inch in -breadth, but its color, although of the true emerald hue, is, however, -rather faint. Some of the smaller crystals are of much deeper tint, -and resemble the pure specimens from Granada. But the most interesting -treasures of the mineral kingdom revealed by this exploration were -the crystals which analysis proved to be composed of a silicate of -alumina and lithia, otherwise known as spodumene. Some of these -crystals were white or light yellow, others were of a rich yellow hue -shading into brown, while others exhibited the purest prismatic green -of various depths of hue. In some of the green crystals the color has -been uniform, while in others it is more intense at one end of their -extremities. - -Quite a number of the crystals and their fragments have been cut and -polished into gems which rival, by their lustre and beauty of color, -the best of the South American emeralds. On account of their extreme -rarity, as well as their beauty, they have been sought for by amateurs, -and have commanded high prices. As the field of deposit thus far known -is quite limited, we fear that the yield of this charming mineral will -not meet even the demands of science. - -Professor Cleaveland, who was one of the best authorities of his day, -maintained more than half a century ago that emeralds which exhibited a -lively and beautiful green hue were found in blasting a canal through -a ledge of graphic granite in the town of Topsham in Maine. Several -of the crystals presented so pure, uniform, and rich a green, that he -ventured to pronounce them precious emeralds. But to-day we are unable -to verify the assertion, or point to a single specimen similar in hue -to the emerald from the above-mentioned locality. - -The nearest approach to the emerald in color, with the exception -of the incomparable green tourmalines from Maine, and the emeralds -and hiddenites of North Carolina, are the beryls of North and South -Royalston, in the State of Massachusetts. These beautiful stones -exhibit the physical characteristics of emeralds, with the exception -of the color, in which they differ very perceptibly. But to appreciate -fully the difference in hue we must compare the two gems. Then the -lively green of the beryl fades away before the overpowering hue of the -emerald, whose rich prismatic green may be taken as the purest type of -that color known to the chemist or the painter. - -Several years ago we visited the localities in Massachusetts which were -famous in the days of Hitchcock and Webster. We found that the beryls -occurred in a very coarse granite, where the quartz appeared in masses -and the felspar in huge crystals. These also occur in finer granite, -and exhibit no indications of veins or connection with each other. -They are few in number, and are soon exhausted by blasting, being -generally very superficial. After removing several tons of the rock at -the locality at North Royalston, where the beryls appear on the summit -of the loftiest hill, our labors were at length rewarded with two -beautiful crystals. One of them was a fine prism an inch in diameter, -of perfect transparency and of a deep sea-green color, which, however, -is far from being similar to the transcendent hue of the Granada -emeralds, which exhibit an excess of neither blue nor yellow. The other -was yellowish-green, resembling the chrysoberyls of Brazil. - -Other but imperfect crystals were brought to light, some fragments -of which exhibited the deepest golden tints of the topaz, and others -the tints of the sherry-wine colored topazes of Siberia. Magnificent -crystals have been found in these localities in times long past, and -from the fragments and sections of crystals found in the _débris_ of -early explorations, we observed the wide range of color, and the deep -longitudinal striæ which characterize the renowned beryls from the -Altai Mountains, in Siberia. Lively sea and grass green, light and deep -yellow, also blue crystals of various shades, have been found here. - -At the quarries on Rollestone Mountain in Fitchburg, beryls of a -rich golden color have been blasted out. Some of these approach the -chrysoberyl and topaz in hardness and hue. Others so closely resemble -the yellow diamond that they may readily be taken for that superior -gem. The refractive power of these yellow stones is remarkable; and the -goniometer will probably reveal a higher index than is accorded to all -the varieties of beryl by the learned Abbé Haüy. - -Beautiful transparent beryls have been found among the granite hills of -Oxford County in Maine; and the late Governor Lincoln, nearly half a -century ago, possessed a splendid crystal, quite three inches in length -and of great purity and brilliancy. Some very beautiful transparent -blue crystals of beryl have recently been found in the western part of -Oxford County, Maine, which have yielded gems of considerable value. -Probably active search for this mineral in this region will bring to -light some charming specimens. - -New Hampshire is famous for its gigantic beryls; and the localities -of Acworth and Grafton have yielded some enormous crystals. One was -removed by Mr. Alger, of more than a ton in weight; and a still larger -one was observed by Mr. Hubbard, who estimated its weight at two -and one half tons. These gross specimens are generally opaque, with -patches of translucent or even transparent mineral on their sides. -The regularity of their crystalline forms is also much impaired or -distorted. - -At Haddam, in Connecticut, beautiful crystals of beryl have been -discovered; and one of these of fine green color, an inch in diameter -and several inches in length, was preserved in the cabinet of Colonel -Gibbs. Professor Silliman possessed another fine one, seven inches in -length. - -The mountains in Colorado have yielded some fine specimens. But the -finest of the beryl species come from Russia. In the Ural Mountains -the crystals are small, but of fine color; in the Altai Mountains they -are very large and of a greenish-blue; but in the granitic ledges of -Odon Tchelon in Daouria, on the frontier of China, they are found in -the greatest perfection. They occur on the summit of the mountain -in irregular veins of micaceous and white indurated clay, and are -greenish-yellow, pure pale-green, greenish-blue, and sky-blue. The -chief matrix of the beryl all over the world is graphic granite, but it -may occur in other rocks. The light green stones of Limoges, in France, -appear in a vein of quartz traversing granite. At Royalston we observed -them to spring seemingly from the felspar and project into smoky -quartz, becoming more transparent as they advanced into the harder -stone. - -The beryl possesses the same crystalline form and specific gravity -as the emerald, but its hardness, especially in the blue and white -varieties, is sometimes greater. They are both silicates of alumina, -and the only perceptible difference in the two stones is in the -color. Cleaveland thought that as the emerald and beryl had the same -essential characters, they might gradually pass into each other; and -Klaproth, finding the oxides of both chrome and iron in one specimen, -was led to take the same view. The crystals of true emerald are almost -always small, with the exception of those found in the Wald district -in Siberia, whilst those of the beryl vary from a few grains to more -than a ton in weight. The crystals of both are almost invariably -regular hexahedral prisms, sometimes slightly modified. Those of the -beryl we sometimes find quite flat, as though they had been compressed -by force; then again they are acicular and of extraordinary length, -considering their slender diameter. Sometimes their lateral faces are -longitudinally striated, and as deeply as the tourmaline, so that the -edges of the prism are rendered indistinct. Other crystals are curved, -and some perforated in the axis like the tourmaline, so as to contain -other minerals. Sometimes they are articulated like the pillars of -basalt, and separated at some distance by the intervening quartz. These -modified forms give rise to curious speculations as to their formation -and origin. If we admit the action of fire (which is improbable), then -the separation may be easily explained; but if we insist that they were -deposited in the wet way and by slow process, how can we account for -the dislocation? “By electricity,” whispers a friend,--“by telluric -magnetism, that wonderful unexplained and mysterious force which has -caused the grand geological changes of the globe, and is still at work.” - -Sometimes the crystals of beryl are of two distinct colors, but -generally they are of one color, often shading into white at either -extremity. They may exhibit the richest golden-yellow, or a light -cerulean blue, or a clear sea-green like those described by Pliny, now -called aqua-marines. “Qui viridatem puri maris imitantur.” - -One distinction between beryl and quartz is afforded by the appearance -of its fracture. A crystal of beryl breaks into smooth planes, the -faces of which are at right angles to the axis of the prism; while the -fracture of the surface of broken quartz is invariably conchoidal. - -Blue beryls were highly prized by the ancients. Beautiful specimens -are found in the glens of the Mourne Mountains in Ireland. But finer -gems are brought from the granite district of Nertschinsk, in Siberia, -and also from various localities in the Uralian and Altaian Mountains, -where the Romans were supposed to have obtained them in early times. - -Its name is derived from the Persian “belur,” which the Romans changed -into “beryllus.” Sometimes it occurs of a rose color. A few have -been found at Elba and one at Haddam by Colonel Gibbs. One of the -most beautiful specimens of beryl known was discovered in Siberia. -It consisted of a magnificent crystal of smoky quartz, in the base -of which appeared several fine crystals of beryl, of an exquisite -yellowish-green and greenish-blue. - -In the princely collection of Mr. Vaux, of Philadelphia, may be seen a -crystal of beryl from the Mourne Mountains of Ireland, two inches in -length by five eighths of an inch in diameter. It is of a celestial -blue color, much deeper in hue at one extremity than at the other. But -the gem of this collection among the beryls is a specimen purchased -in Russia, in 1875. It is a six-sided prism nine inches in length and -six inches in circumference. The color is of a rich oily green, and -several inches of its upper extremity is transparent, while the rest -is translucent. It rests upon a mass of granite, and is a specimen of -extraordinary size and beauty. - -Mr. Clay of the same city has a remarkable prism of Siberian beryl two -inches in diameter, which exhibits a tint of celestial blue externally -but which appears of a decided green hue in its interior. - -At the Centennial Exhibition Brazil exhibited a fine crystal of a warm -celadine green color. Russia displayed some very beautiful specimens of -the yellow, green, and blue beryls from Siberia. Some very beautiful -crystals of emerald, both solitary and fixed in the matrix, were also -exhibited from the same country. - -Several of the mineralogical cabinets of Europe possess fine suites -of the emerald and beryl in a great variety of forms and degrees of -perfection. Those of the École des Mines at St. Petersburg, the Jardin -des Plantes at Paris, and the British Museum, are of very great -commercial value and mineralogical interest. - -At the French Exposition in 1867, the celebrated jeweller, Froment -Meurice, exhibited a beautiful specimen of modern glyptic art cut in -beryl. It comprised the bust of the Emperor Napoleon III. carved in -pure aqua-marine. The image was placed upon a miniature pedestal of -blood-red jasper, before which the imperial eagle spread his wings and -perched upon a base of red jasper, which was studded with stars of -topazes, bosses of pearls, and bordered with roses formed of minute -amethysts. - -A beautiful blue stone adorns the summit of the crown of England, and -has been described as a sapphire of unusual purity. But mineralogists -affirm, that the gem is a blue beryl, and it is surmised by others that -it is the identical and famous stone which Edward the Confessor wore -in a ring. It is of a lovely color, oval in form, and measures 2¹⁄₁₀ -inches in length by 1¹⁄₂ in width, and 1¹⁄₅ in depth. - -A superb aqua-marine formerly adorned the tiara of Pope Julius II. -and was considered as one of the most celebrated in the world, -notwithstanding it exhibited a slight flaw. This gem, which was of -an exquisite sea-green color, was 2¹⁄₁₀ inches in length and 2²⁄₅ in -depth. After having been kept in the Museum of Natural History in Paris -for more than three hundred years, Napoleon presented it to Pope Pius -VII. - -The Asiatics, and especially the Turkish officers, prize the prisms of -beryl as handles to their scimetars and daggers. This fondness for -decoration of sword-blades and arms is by no means confined to the -soldiers of the East. The officers of Napoleon’s armies exhibited the -same taste. Murat adorned the hilt of his sword with one of the finest -beryls ever seen in Europe. Another famous aqua-marine formed the -handle of the sword of the poet Moncrif, who, like another celebrated -swordsman, the painter Caravaggio, compelled admiration of his works at -the point of his sword. This blood-stained gem bore as inscription the -epitomized history of the author, a quotation from the poet Theophile, -“Tous mes jours sont des Mardis-gras.” - -One of the most beautiful beryls known is that purchased by the English -banker, Mr. Hope, and placed in his collection of gems. It weighs six -and one half ounces, and cost its princely owner nearly twenty-five -hundred dollars. It is reported to have come from the mine of Cangazum, -in the district of Coimbatoor in India, a locality which has been long -famous for its fine beryls. - -The most magnificent aqua-marine described in history is that belonging -to Dom Pedro. It was found in the diamond districts of Minas Geraes, -in Brazil. In form and size it resembles the head of a calf. Only on -one side does it preserve any trace of a crystalline form; the rest -is water-worn. It is said to be of a fine color, without a flaw, and -perfectly transparent. - -For many ages the shrine of the Abbey of St. Denys, at Paris, received -rare and valuable gems as offerings; and at the time of the French -Revolution the collection had become very valuable. The iconoclasts -ordered it to be separated and sold. It brought 80,000 francs, and -was scattered along the commercial highways of the world, never again -to be reunited. One of the finest aqua-marines, mounted in sapphires -and pearls, and engraved with the portrait of Julia, the daughter of -Titus, was fortunately rescued, and may now be seen in the collection -of the National Library of France. This splendid gem is of the unusual -magnitude of 2¹⁄₂ inches by 2¹⁄₈. For quite a thousand years it formed -a part of a golden reliquary celebrated as “l’escrain de Charlemagne.” -History relates that it was presented by the great Emperor before his -death to the Abbey of St. Denys. This is one of the finest specimens of -an ancient intaglio carved upon beryl that has survived the destructive -pillage of armies and the wreck of time since the early days of the -Roman Empire. It is said that specimens of antique engraving upon this -gem are about as rare as those carved upon the emerald, and their -rarity is believed to be due to their great value, as well as to their -scarcity in the gem markets in ancient times. - -Several royal relics of the lower Empire containing emeralds are still -preserved, to attest the use of the gem in those days as well as the -esteem in which it was held. The famous Iron Crown of Lombardy, made -perhaps before the sixth century, contains several emeralds. This -renowned relic is simply a circlet of gold, covering an iron nail -of the cross, beaten out thin. The crown of the queen of one of the -Gothic kings of Spain, of the seventh century, was recently exhumed -at Toledo, and also exhibits emeralds among other gems. And there are -other examples to prove the use of the emerald in mediæval times for -ornamental purposes. - -No other gem has been counterfeited with such perfection as the -emerald; and in fact it is utterly impossible to distinguish the -artificial from the real gems by the aid of the eye alone; even the -little flaws, which lull the suspicions of the inexperienced, are -easily produced by a dexterous blow from the mallet of the skilled -artisan. Not only emeralds, but most of the gems and precious stones, -are now imitated with such consummate skill as to deceive the eye; and -none but experts are aware of the extent to which these fictitious gems -are worn in fashionable society, for oftentimes the wearers themselves -imagine that they possess the real stones. There is not one in a -hundred jewellers who is acquainted with the physical properties of the -gems; and very few can distinguish the diamond from the white zircon or -the white topaz, the emerald from the tourmaline of similar hue, the -sapphire from iolite, or the topaz from the Bohemian yellow quartz. -Jewellers are governed generally by sight, which they believe to be -infallible, whilst hardness and specific gravity are the only sure -tests. - -Artificial gems, rivalling in beauty of color the most brilliant and -delicately tinted of the productions of Nature, are now made at Paris -and in other European cities. The establishments at Septmoncel in the -Jura alone employed a thousand persons, and fabulous quantities of the -glittering pastes were made there and sent to all parts of the world. - -A fine specimen of prase, when cut, affords a fair imitation of -the emerald. The green fluor-spar which Haüy called “emeraude de -Carthagène” may also be substituted, but the application of the file -detects the trick with ease. Some of the green tourmalines approach the -emeralds in hue very closely, and by artificial light it is impossible -to distinguish them from each other. Fragments of quartz may be stained -by being steeped in green-colored tinctures. The Greeks stained quartz -so like the real gem, that Pliny exclaimed against the fraud, while -declining to tell how it was done. The Ancona rubies at the present day -are made by plunging quartz into a hot tincture of cochineal, which -penetrates the minute fissures of the rock. - -But notwithstanding the high art reached by modern glass-makers, they -are yet far behind the ancients in imitating the emerald in point of -hardness and lustre. Many emerald pastes of Roman times still extant -are with difficulty distinguished from the real gem, so much harder and -more lustrous are they than modern glass. The ancient Phœnician remains -found in the island of Sardinia by Cavalier Cara, in 1856, show fine -color in their enamels and glass-works. The green pigment brought home -from the ruins of Thebes by Mr. Wilkinson, was shown by Dr. Ure to -consist of blue glass in powder, with yellow ochre and colorless glass. -From Greek inscriptions dating from the period of the Peloponnesian -war, we learn that there were signets of colored glass among the gems -in the treasury of the Parthenon. - -Of all the emerald imitations that have descended to us from antiquity, -none are more remarkable, none more interesting to the antiquary and -historian, than the famous Sacro Catino of the cathedral of Genoa. This -celebrated relic is a glass dish, or patera, fourteen inches in width, -five inches in depth, and of the richest transparent green color, -though disfigured by several flaws. It was bestowed upon the Republic -of Genoa by the Crusaders, after the capture of Cæsarea in 1101, and -was regarded as an equivalent for a large sum of money due from the -Christian army. It was traditionally believed to have been presented -to King Solomon by the Queen of Sheba, and afterward preserved in the -Temple; and some accounts relate that it was used by Christ at the -institution of the Lord’s supper. The Genoese received it with so -much veneration and faith, that twelve nobles were appointed to guard -it, and it was exhibited but once a year, when a priest held it up in -his hand to the view of the passing throng. The State, in 1319, in a -time of pressing need, pawned the holy relic for 1,200 marks of gold -($200,000), and redeemed it with a promptness which proved its belief -in the reality of the material, as well as in its sanctity. And it -is also related that the Jews, during a period of fifty years, lent -the Republic 4,000,000 francs, holding the sacred relic as a pledge -of security. Seven hundred years passed away, when Napoleon came; and -as he swept down over Italy, gathering her art treasures, he ordered -the “Holy Grail” to be conveyed to Paris. It was deposited in the -Cabinet of Antiquities in the Imperial Library, and the mineralogists -quickly discovered it to be glass. It is due to the memory of Condamine -to state that he was the first to doubt the material of the Sacro -Catino; for, when examining it by lamplight in 1757, in the presence -of the Princes Corsini, he observed none of the cracks, clouds, and -specks common to emeralds, but detected little bubbles of air. In -1815, the Allies ordered its return to the cathedral of Genoa. During -this journey the beautiful relic was broken; but its fragments were -restored by a skilful artisan, and it is now supported upon a tripod, -the fragments being held together by a band of gold filigree. This -remarkable object of antiquity, which is of extraordinary beauty of -material and workmanship, furnishes a theme over which the antiquaries -love to muse and wrangle. - -Another of the antique monster emeralds, weighing twenty-nine -pounds, was presented to the abbey of Reichenau, near Constance, by -Charlemagne. Beckman has also detected this precious relic to be -glass. And probably the great emerald of two pounds weight brought home -from the Holy Land by one of the dukes of Austria, and now deposited in -the collection at Vienna, is of the same material. Another, more than -eight inches long, was preserved in the chapel of St. Wenceslaus at -Prague. The hardness of our glass is yet far inferior to that of the -ancients; and even the ruby lustre of the potters of Umbria, which was -so precious to the _dilettanti_ of the Cinque Cento period, has not -been recovered. - -The enormous emerald dishes and statues and obelisks described -by Herodotus, Theophrastus, Appian, and others were undoubtedly -constructed of glass, and exhibited to the ignorant multitudes as -formed of monster emeralds. - -One of the most curious of these impositions was the sculptured lion -on the tomb of Hermias on the island of Cyprus, which had emerald eyes -which shone so brightly as to frighten away the fish in the sea near by. - -The wonderful “Table of Solomon” which formed a part of Alaric’s Roman -spoils, and was taken by his Goths to Spain, where it was captured by -the Arab invaders and afterwards sent to Damascus, was probably another -specimen of the ingenuity of the glass-workers of Alexandria or Tyre. -It is described by one of the Arabian historians as of a marvellous -beauty, being formed of a single slab of solid emerald, encircled with -rows of pearls, and supported on many feet composed of gems and gold. - -The famous Barberini vase, found in one of the tombs of the Roman -emperors, and exhibiting white figures upon a dark-blue ground, was -long thought to be carved from some variety of sardonyx, but proved -in modern times to be of hard antique glass. Of similar material -the unique ewer in the Brescian Museum and the vases in the Palace -Borbonico are composed, and all of these are of great antiquity. The -sapphire cup of Theolinda, the once celebrated Queen of Lombardy, now -preserved in the Cathedral at Monza, is glass. - -There are but very few stones whose colors resemble that of the -emerald, and therefore frauds are easily detected. A well-selected -specimen of prase may be passed as an inferior emerald, as well as -the translucent stones cut from the Chinese jade; but their want of -transparency offers a serious objection to them as a gem. The green -tourmaline, when it approaches the emerald in hue, is of equal value. -The green zircon and the green spinel would be far superior to the -emerald in brilliancy, and therefore of greater value to the amateur. -The chrome-green garnet of Hungary and the emerald-green garnet of -Siberia would command a high price, if of pure color, as they surpass -the glucina emerald in eclat and are moreover exceedingly rare. The -peridot may assume the exact hue of the Granada emerald. The glass -imitations are almost _fac-similes_ in hue, and are far superior in -brilliancy to the mineral itself; but their softness, which readily -yields to the file, betrays their nature without difficulty. - -Since the time of the Spanish Conquest, New Granada has furnished the -world with the most of its emeralds. The most famous mines are at -Muzo, in the valley of Tunca, between the mountains of New Granada -and Popayan, about seventy-five miles from Santa Fé de Bogota, where -every rock, it is said, contains an emerald. At present the supply of -emeralds is very limited, owing to restrictions on trade, and want of -capital and energy in mining operations. - -Blue as well as green emeralds are found in the Cordillera of the -Cubillan. The Esmeraldas mines in Equador are said to have been worked -successfully at one period by the Jesuits. The Peruvians obtained many -emeralds from the barren district of Atacama, and in the times of the -Conquest there were quarries on the River of Emeralds near Barbacoas. -Emeralds of a poor quality are found at Limoges in France, and also in -Norway. In some of the felspar quarries in Finland they occur in large -thick crystals, several feet in thickness, of a fine color, but not -transparent. - -Emeralds are found in Siberia, and some of the localities may have -furnished to the ancients the Scythian gems which Pliny and others -mention. In the Wald district magnificent crystals have been found -embedded in mica-slate. One of these--a twin-crystal, now in the -imperial cabinet at St. Petersburg--is seven inches long, four inches -broad, and weighs four and a half pounds. There is another mass in the -same collection which measures fourteen inches long by twelve broad -and five thick, weighing sixteen and three-quarter pounds troy. This -group shows twenty crystals from a half inch to five inches long, and -from one to two inches broad. They were discovered by a peasant cutting -wood near the summit of the mountain. His eye was attracted by the -lustrous sparkling amongst the decomposed mica where the ground had -been exposed by the uprooting of a tree by the violence of the wind. He -collected a number of the crystals, and brought them to Katharineburg -and showed them to M. Kokawin, who recognized them and sent them to -St. Petersburg, where they were critically examined by Van Worth and -pronounced to be emeralds. One of these crystals was presented by the -Emperor to Humboldt when he visited St. Petersburg, and it is now -deposited in the Berlin collection. Quite a number of emeralds are -now brought from the Siberian localities, and it is believed that -enterprise and capital would produce a large supply of the gem. - -Near Salsberg, in the Tyrol, the emerald occurs in a mica-slate which -appears on the face of a very steep precipice difficult of access, -and about 8,700 feet above the sea-level. They are of good color, but -much impaired in their transparency by foreign matter and imperfect -crystallization. Some of the finest stones yielded by this locality -were exhibited as cabinet specimens by the Emperor of Russia at the -Paris Exposition. - -The supply of emeralds from South America is very limited, and -may be ascribed to want of skilful mining, as well as to climate, -the political condition of the country, and the indolence of its -inhabitants. The localities cannot be exhausted, for they are too -numerous and extensive. The elevated regions in Granada admit of -scientific exploration by Europeans, and at the present day the -only emerald-mining operations conducted in South America have been -prosecuted near Santa Fé de Bogota by a French company, which has paid -the Government $14,000 yearly for the right of mining, all the emeralds -obtained being sent to Paris to be cut by the lapidaries of that city. -In the Atacama districts, and along the banks of the River of Emeralds, -the physical obstructions are difficult to overcome; and pestilential -diseases of malignant character forbid the long sojourn of the -European. Yet the introduction of Chinese labor may prove successful -and highly remunerative, since the coolie reared among the jungles and -rice-swamps of Southern China is quite as exempt from malarial fevers -as the negro. - -Hassaurek was surprised not to find emeralds for sale at Guayaquil, -as they had been found in abundance in Equador at the time of the -Conquest. The Alcalde of the region around the River Bechile gave -Stephenson, the traveller, three emeralds which were found in the sands -at the mouth of the river. - -Concerning the emerald mines whence the ancients drew their supplies -of gems, there remains but little positive information. They were -undoubtedly established in Arabia, Africa, and Scythia, but all record -of them is lost. As regards the Egyptian mines, modern travellers have -proved their existence. At the ancient mines at Gebel Zabara, which -were worked in the time of the Ptolemies, M. Callaud found the tools of -the miners as they had left them, and also many inferior emeralds among -the _débris_ of the pits. Mehemet Ali attempted to reopen them, but was -unsuccessful, as the matrix of the gem proved to be exhausted. This -discovery establishes the truth of Pliny’s remark concerning some of -the localities of the emerald. They are the same gems whose beauty was -praised by the Persian poets. We have no evidence of ancient mines of -emeralds in Asia; and Tavernier, who sought in vain to discover them, -ventured to state that he believed that some of the emeralds he saw in -India must have come from Peru, by way of the Philippine Islands, long -before the Conquest by the Spaniards. - -Other mines undoubtedly were worked in Africa; and we know that in the -time of Justinian, the Abyssinians searched the coast, even as far as -the equator. The African emeralds were not of the first quality; and at -a later period of Roman history the Scythian emeralds were reckoned as -the first in value and beauty, the Bactrian second, while the African -were classed as third. About the fourth century the throne of the White -Huns was famous for the splendid Scythian emeralds which adorned it. - -The price of the emerald has no fixed and extended scale, like that -of the diamond, and the fluctuations of its value during the past -three centuries form an interesting chapter in the history of gems. -In the time of Dutens (1777) the price of small stones of the first -quality was one louis the karat; one and a half karats, five louis; -two karats, ten louis; and beyond this weight no rule of value could -be established. In De Boot’s day (1600) emeralds were so plenty as -to be worth only a quarter as much as the diamond. The markets were -glutted with the frequent importations from Peru, and thirteen years -before the above-mentioned period one vessel brought from South America -two hundred and three pounds of fine emeralds, worth at the present -valuation more than seven millions of dollars. At the beginning -of this century, according to Caire, they were worth no more than -twenty-four francs (or about five dollars) the karat, and for a long -time antecedent to 1850, they were valued at only $15 the karat. -Since this period they have become very rare, and their valuation has -advanced enormously. In fact, the value of the emerald now exceeds that -of the diamond, and is rapidly approaching the ratio fixed by Benvenuto -Cellini in the middle of the sixteenth century, which rated the emerald -at four times, and the ruby at eight times, the value of the diamond. -Fine stones (the emerald is exceedingly liable to flaw, the beryl is -more free, and the green sapphire is rarely impaired by fissures or -cracks) of one karat in weight are worth at the present day $200 or -more. Fine gems of two karats weight will command $500; while larger -stones are sold at extravagant prices. - -Most of our aqua-marines come from Brazil and Siberia, and small stones -are sold at trifling prices. Some of them, however, when perfect and -of fine color, command fabulous sums. The superb little beryl found at -Mouzzinskaia is valued by the Russians at the enormous sum of $120,000, -although the crystal weighs but little more than one ounce. Another -rough prism preserved in the Museum at Paris, and weighing less than -one hundred grains, has received the tempting offer of 15,000 francs. - - - - - THE OPAL. - - “What radiant changes strike the astonished sight! - What glowing hues of mingled shade and light!” - - FALCONER. - - - - - THE OPAL. - - -What is the composition of this wonderful stone, which displays such -wondrous hues? What is the nature of this remarkable mineral, which -seems to concentrate within its substance all the glories of the -rainbow, and which rivals in its hue the finest gem of the mineral -world? The Turk believes that it falls from heaven in the lightning’s -flash, and it is often regretted by the mineralogist that the theory -cannot be sustained. Surely a gem so beautiful, so delicate and so -pure ought to be of celestial origin, and free from the impurities and -imperfections of the earth. Alas, we have but one precious stone that -comes to us from the far-off region of celestial space,--olivine,--and -that as yet has been found only in minute grains. - -But if we cannot ascribe the origin of our beautiful gems directly to -the stars and other bodies in space, we may affirm that their birth or -development in the bosom of our earth may be due in a great measure to -extra-terrestrial influences. And as regards the precious opal, if we -cannot prove it of divine origin, we can with truth affirm that there -is a deep mystery connected with the mineral both in its composition -and its physical properties. The liberal-minded physicist to-day finds -himself somewhat baffled when attempting to explain the phenomena of -the gem in accordance with our imperfect knowledge of natural laws. -Apparently it is nothing more than hydrated silica or quartz; but it is -of a lower specific gravity, and some of its varieties are so tender -and delicate in structure as to be at the caprice of the atmosphere. - -It has been maintained that the peculiarities of the opal depend in -a great measure upon the quantity of water it contained, and which, -mixed mechanically with the silica, varies from three to twenty per -cent. But some chemists who have interested themselves in the study -of the composition of the mineral do not regard the presence of water -as absolutely essential for the development of the varied flashes of -color. We will only state in this brief sketch that there is certainly -a mystery connected with the part water plays in producing and -perfecting the beauty of the opal. This quantity or factor of water -varies greatly in the different varieties of opal. Apparently when heat -is applied to the mineral the brilliancy of its hues is increased, -either from evaporation of its water or some structural change. But -if the degree of heat is too great, or its application too prolonged, -the hues of the opal vanish and cannot be recalled by human skill. The -same results from the effects of heat may be noticed in other gems -of greater density and hardness, as the emerald, the topaz, and the -tourmaline. It has been maintained that a faded opal may be restored to -beauty by immersion for a time in water, with the view of restoring the -fancied loss by evaporation; but we fear that the experimentalist will -be often disappointed with his results. However, there is one singular -variety of the mineral known as the hydrophane, which does not exhibit -colors until after it has been immersed for a time in water, and when -removed from its bath and becomes dry again its hues vanish. Therefore, -we may justly affirm that there is a mystery in connection with the -influence of water in producing the color of the opal. The optical -properties of this mineral do not afford decisive distinction, and it -never crystallizes in regular and definite form like quartz, neither -does it exhibit a trace of double refraction. - -We will say no more at present concerning the composition of this -interesting substance except to allude briefly to the experiment of -Damour, who found the opal to turn black when sulphuric acid was -applied to it; hence he inferred that the substance contained some -organic matter, but precisely what he could not determine, although -he suspected the presence of bituminous matter. Similar foreign -bodies have been detected in many other precious stones. In fact, -many of our gems are impaired by impurities; and so generally, that -a stone of absolute purity is of rare occurrence. Even the diamond, -which is regarded as the emblem of light and purity, is reckoned by -microscopists as one of the foulest of gems. - -Werner divided the opal into four sub-species, and Jameson has -separated it into seven varieties. The principal divisions, however, -may be classed as follows: precious or noble opal, presenting refulgent -tints; fire opal, with fire-like reflections; girasole, with reddish -reflections when exposed to the sunlight; common opal, translucent -and without reflections; wood opal or petrified opal, possessing the -characters of common opal; hyalite, clear and colorless as glass. -There is another kind of opal which we have never seen, but which is -described as the asteriated opal. We are not able to give a minute -description of its appearance or draw a comparison between it and that -of asteriated quartz, sapphire, or garnet. It is said to display great -beams of light which undulate over its surface like the flashings of -lightning piercing the storm cloud. The variety known as the moss opal -sometimes displays in its interior dendritic crystallization of a dark -substance resembling delicate mosses, ferns, or trees. And the gleam of -the colored rays flashing amidst these miniature forests and groups of -foliage often present charming effects. - -The grand characteristic which gives to the gem its value and renown is -the wonderful play of the colored reflections which it displays, and -which embrace all of the prismatic tints of the solar spectrum. As we -view its vivid rainbow flashes when the gem is held in the sunlight, -we must admit it to be the most magnificent of gems, and join with the -Latin philosopher, who remarked that it was made up of the glories -of the most precious stones. For as the light falls upon it in varied -directions, its reflections recall the lively green of the emerald, or -the tender blue of the sapphire, the rich yellow of the topaz, or the -gorgeous red of the ruby. - -This mineral has not only been an object of delight to the fashionable -world, but it has also been a wonder and a perplexity to the -philosophers. In admiring its beauties and attempting to account for -its phenomena, Newton was led to the series of experiments and to that -train of sublime reasoning that gave to science the most brilliant -and extraordinary of his discoveries. The colored refractions of the -gem reminded the philosopher of the iridescence of the soap-bubble, -and the soap-bubble suggested the undulatory theory of light. Newton, -after long study of the opal, is said to have declared that its hues -were produced by the refractions and reflections of light at the -numerous minute fissures which traverse the stone in all directions. -But this theory is denied by many at the present day, and especially by -Mohrs, who maintains that the thin films of air filling the cavities -of the stone would produce iridescence only. Other opticians believe -the colored reflections to be due to laminæ formed by incipient -crystallization, as seen in the equally remarkable mineral known as -labradorite. Babinet believes the brilliant colors of the opal to be -due to the narrow fissures in the stone, like those produced in the -partial fracture of glass or quartz. He also refers for example to -the colors of thin transparent plates, and believes that the colors -of flowers are produced in like manner from the overlaying of the -transparent tissues of which the petals are composed. This, then, -according to the French philosopher, is the secret of the gorgeous -hues of vegetation from their first development to the period of their -final decay. The diamond, when cut in a regular form, displays the most -magnificent flashes of the prismatic hues by artificial light; and -although the mineral is composed of an infinite number of laminæ, no -one maintains the theory that the color is produced by thin films of -air like those in the soap-bubble. We also may observe the same hues -sparkling among the dew-drops in the morning sunlight, and likewise -in the artificial diamonds, which are composed of solid glass and -apparently homogeneous. - -In examining the interior of an opal, we often fail to perceive any -cause for the reflections of color, especially in the limpid varieties. -The flashes appear when the light enters the stone at a certain angle, -but when viewed in any other direction the gem presents the usual -appearance of common transparent quartz. In other varieties of the -mineral, however, especially the milky or translucent, a cause for -the colored reflections is easily observed. We have under observation -the beautiful opal known as the “Oberon,” and beneath its translucent -surface appear thin films of a faint reddish hue suspended at different -depths within its interior. They are so well defined that their edges -may be recognized, and they lie like thin clouds suspended in a hazy -sky. But as the gem is turned so that the light strikes the film at a -different angle, the scene is instantly changed, and a mass of flame -replaces the sombre tint. It is a little curious that some of the films -exhibit the different colors of the spectrum as the angle of light is -changed, while others display only the green and blue color, no matter -how the light strikes them. In fact, the films or patches, which are -apparently alike, produce different results from the same rays of -light; and some display the continuous spectrum, while others exhibit -but one color. It is a little singular that all transparent minerals -when fractured do not exhibit alike in their fractures the prismatic -gleams displayed by quartz and glass. We have before us a beautiful -transparent white crystal of adularia or moon-stone from St. Gothard, -and although it is fissured and fractured in a thousand places, yet we -observe little iridescence in it even when exposed to the sunlight. - -The localities where the precious opal is now found are but few, and -none of them were probably known to the ancients. All record of the -old opal mines is now lost; but there were undoubtedly deposits of the -mineral in Arabia, Syria, and in Asia, whence the ancients derived -their gems. The famous Hungarian mines were not discovered until late -in the fifteenth century, and the country was quite unknown to the -Romans. - -The principal mines explored at the present day, and whence most of our -opals are now derived, are those of Hungary and Honduras. The Hungarian -mines are of great extent and are now scientifically explored, but -those of Central America are undetermined and but rudely mined. It is -believed that there are other mines in Central America besides those of -Honduras, for the natives at times bring fine specimens to the coast -from localities widely separated. It is quite true that most of the -opals of America are less hard than the Hungarian, but they are no -less brilliant, and some of them withstand atmospheric effects and the -wear of time quite as well. The Honduras opals are found near Gracias -a Dios in porcelain earth, and are extracted in irregular masses, -sometimes uniform or globular concretions, with rough and deeply -indented surfaces. These masses do not exhibit the least tendency to -crystallization like quartz, and they are generally quite small. Their -natural colors are pale, and vary from brown to a pearly gray. They -often exhibit a rich and varied play of the rainbow hues, even in their -natural and rough condition. But sometimes, when this rough exterior is -removed by the lapidary’s wheel, and the gem is highly polished, the -colors vanish as if by magic. The polished stone no longer displays -a single ray of the brilliant fires which illuminated every angle of -the stone when in its rough state. This singular disappearance may be -explained by the theory that the surface has been too highly polished, -and the substance of the stone is rendered too transparent to permit -the requisite degree of reflection, for when the surface is slightly -roughened the play of colors again returns. The finest specimens -are therefore those which are translucent, or those which, being -transparent, are backed by an opaque ground which refracts the light. - -The opal-bearing districts in Central America are far more extensive -than is generally supposed. The Province of Honduras abounds in them, -and we have evidence of others occurring in the State of Guatemala on -the Pacific coast. The following descriptions of some of the opal mines -of Honduras were published by Dr. J. Le Conte, in 1868, in his report -of the Inter-oceanic Railroad survey:-- - - “Extensive beds of common opal and semi-opal are seen along a belt - extending through the central part of the department of Gracias; but - these varieties, though very beautiful and possessing high interest - to the mineralogist, are without commercial value from the ease with - which artificial products may be made which precisely resemble them. - The localities worthy of exploration are those in which the opal - forms veins (not beds) in compact but brittle trachyte of a dark - color. The veins, as will be seen, are not confined to such rock, but - seem to have their origin in it, and are probably not found except - in connection with it. The best-known mines of precious opal are in - the department of Gracias; several localities have yielded valuable - gems, but they are all remote from the line of road. Some are in the - vicinity of the town of Gracias, others near Intibucat; but the most - important are at Erandique. The working is now carried on in a very - small way; but the locality is extensive, and in my opinion mining - on a large scale would be attended with profit. The country near by - abounds with beds of common opal, as in many other places, but the - gems occur in somewhat irregular veins running in a northeast and - southwest direction, and with a nearly perpendicular dip. The veins - are not continuous, but branch off and disappear at short intervals; - neither are the contents of uniform quality, but the valuable parts - are usually in belts in the vein, and limited on each side by portions - of ordinary opal without play of colors. These lines of light are - sometimes numerous and narrow, alternating with the common opal - forming a very beautiful gem. Many again, even of large size, are - uniform in structure, and exhibit a play of colors as brilliant as the - finest opals from Hungary. The hill in which they are found is about - two hundred and fifty feet high, and two or three miles in length, and - for a width of half a mile for its whole length opals have been found - wherever excavations have been made. The rock in which they occur is - a hard, brittle trachyte of a vitreous lustre, and splintering into - acute fragments when struck; a bed several feet in thickness overlying - this rock is of a gray color and soft consistence, and also contains - opal veins; it is probably a trachyte changed by atmospheric action. - - “Other localities within two leagues of Erandique have furnished very - fine opals, but as they are not now worked I did not visit them. Many - places on the road between Intibucat and Las Piedras appear favorable - to the existence of opal mines; but only careful scrutiny by a number - of explorers can discover them. I would mention as most worthy of - future attention the vicinity of Lepasale and of Yucusapa and the - ascent of the great mountain of Santa Rosa. Greater expectations and - indeed almost certain success will attend the search for opal mines - in the valley leading from Tambla towards the pass of Guayoca, nearly - on the line of the proposed road. Within half a mile of Tambla are - immense beds of common opal of various shades of color. Near Guayoca - are banded opals of alternate layers of opaque and semi-transparent - white, having the appearance of onyx; these occur in a red vitreous - trachyte and sometimes in contact with the masses of petrified wood - which strew the ground for a considerable distance. Veins of a - pearl-colored opal, with red reflections, are also found here; they - have no commercial value, but serve as indications of better things in - the neighborhood. - - “Between the two localities mentioned (that near Tambla and that of - Guayoca), Mr. W. W. Wright, chief assistant of the survey, has, by - following some obscure indications, arrived at a vein of very pretty - glassy opals and yellow fire opals, not of great value, but serving to - strengthen the opinion expressed of the ultimate discovery of precious - opals in the vicinity. Near Choluteca are found fire opals, some of - which I was told possess merit. One (not of the best) given me is - precisely similar to those obtained by Mr. Wright near Tambla. Within - one league of Goascoran, as I am informed by Fernando Gaillardo, a - resident of that town, is a mine producing opals with a good play of - colors.” - -Another remarkable deposit of opal was found by Mr. Wright about five -miles east of Villa San Antonio in the plains of Camayagua. Though not -of high value, it may be of use for ornamental purposes, being of a -fine red color with transparent amethystine bands. It occurs in veins -in gray porphyry, sometimes several inches thick, and may be procured -in large quantities. Precious opal has been discovered in the iron -mines at Barcoo in Queensland, and a number of specimens were exhibited -at Philadelphia, at the Centennial. Some of these specimens were very -fair, and gave promise of choice gems. The blue tints displayed by some -of them were of great purity. They appeared to be of the hard variety, -and therefore less liable to be affected by the ravages of time, or -influence of exposure. - -We will not fatigue our readers with a long dissertation on the -formation of the opal. We will however, quote one theory which all may -understand. - -The boiling waters of the Iceland geyser are projected into the air -at a considerable height, and are heavily charged with silica. As the -waters fall upon the earth, large piles of earthy and stony material -are formed in process of time. When these silicious masses are broken -open, translucent and transparent portions of silica are found, -exhibiting the colored reflections of the noble opal as long as they -remain hydrated, or, in other words, as long as they retain a certain -quantity of water in their composition. This observation has led -M. Descloizeaux to the belief that opals found in volcanic rocks or -igneous rocks have had their origin in phenomena analogous to those of -the Iceland geysers. The matrix of the opal is a varied one. The gem is -not only found in porcelain earth, but it occurs in fissures and seams, -in what appear to be old igneous rocks. It has also been deposited in -recent periods, as in the limestones of the argillaceous beds, and even -in the formations of the silicious waters of the hot springs of the -present time. The decomposed cement of the old Roman ruins around the -hot springs of Polombieres, uniting with certain chemical properties of -the waters, has changed into opal and hyalite. Trees within historic -times have been transformed into opal or semi-opal; and on the island -of Unja one may see blocks and trunks of trees (some even showing the -marks of the hatchet) converted into opal. Silicified trees forty or -fifty feet in length, may be seen stretched from Cairo to Suez. In many -other parts of the world trees and plants have been transformed by the -mysterious processes of nature into a silicious substance possessing -the characters of opal; but none of these vegetable metamorphoses -exhibit the rainbow hues to any marked degree. Quartz, when flawed in -the interior, sometimes exhibits a remarkable iridescence, and may -imitate the opal, especially if viewed at a distance. Such specimens -of iridized quartz are called “iris,” and they may be artificially -produced by a sudden blow upon the stone, or by heating it and -suddenly dropping it into cold water. The superb iris ornaments worn by -the Empress Josephine were of remarkable brilliancy and play of colors. -In ancient and mediæval times, iridescent quartz was held in great -esteem; and fine specimens mounted in antique jewelry are preserved at -the present day. It is described in the “Lapidarium” of Marbodeus as -follows:-- - - “By the Red Sea the swarthy Arabs glean - The iris, splendent with the crystal’s sheen; - Its form six-sided, full of heaven’s own light, - Has justly gained the name of rainbow bright.” - -The fire opal occurs in its greatest perfection in the porphyritic -rocks at Zimapan in Mexico. It is generally of a translucent -hyacinth-red color and flashes forth dazzling beams of fiery -carmine-red with yellow and green reflections. This Mexican gem is the -most beautiful and gorgeous of all the varieties of opal; but, alas! -it is also the most sensitive, and is frequently irreparably injured -by water or exposure, or even by sudden atmospheric changes. So easily -affected are the opals by the vicissitudes of the weather that they -are almost always brighter in summer than in winter. But there are -some varieties that are not so easily influenced, and are not injured -by contact with water. The fact that this variety of opal is injured -in course of time by contact with moisture or careless exposure is not -remarkable when some of the harder gems undergo a change from similar -exposure. The hard amethystine quartz, when worn as a finger ornament, -will completely bleach out and become colorless in a few years. The -black opal is the product of art, and for this purpose harlequin opals -are used. The harlequin opal is simply the matrix of other gems spotted -here and there with flakes of color dispersed over an opaque ground, -and its name was suggested by the resemblance to the motley tints of -the harlequin’s dress. Masses of the matrix, with fragments or specks -of opal interspersed in its substance, are soaked for a time in a -saccharine solution, and afterwards in diluted sulphuric acid. The -porous parts of the matrix absorb a minute quantity of the solution, -which is afterwards charred by the sulphuric acid; while the solid and -transparent parts remain unchanged and exhibit an increased play of -colors upon the black ground. - -The ancients undoubtedly obtained their opals from Syria and Arabia -or other Eastern countries, for the Hungarian mines which now supply -the world with most of the finest gems were not discovered until the -fifteenth century. The famous mines are situated on a mountain which -is one of the spurs of the Carpathians. They belong to the Seignory -Peklin, and are near the village of Czernizka. In the early days of -their discovery, and for a long period afterwards, they were explored -casually and from time to time. At the present day, however, the -explorations are conducted with regularity and the appliances of -skilled labor. The surface of the mountain has been removed to a great -extent during this long-continued search of many centuries, but as yet -no explorations have been attempted into the interior of the ledges. -The true matrix appears not to be more than four to eight yards in -depth below the alluvial soil. It is arranged in continuous beds of -little hardness, but resembling porphyry in color. The opal formation -appears to extend to a considerable distance beyond the flanks of the -mountain; for, in the cultivated fields below, the laborers often find -beautiful gems washed out by violent rain-storms from the exposed and -superficial soils. - -The opals from these mines are the hardest and most enduring of all the -known localities of the earth, yet they have to be carefully tempered -to heat and moisture before they can be utilized. M. Frangoll Delius, -the Commissioner of the Austrian mines, states that these opals, when -first extracted from their rocky beds, are soft, friable, and tender, -and not in a condition to be worked. But after they have been exposed -to the air and sunlight for some days or a definite time, they become -harder, and the stones also become decidedly smaller from contraction. -This exposure is required to be carefully regulated lest the stone -become fissured by sudden contraction. When exposed to the effects of -artificial heat, colors appear sooner than when it is submitted to the -action of the sun’s rays. It is curious to watch the gradual unfolding -and the display of these beautiful hues. At first the stone is limpid -and rayless as pellucid quartz. But as the quarry water is evaporated -by the effect of heat or time, and the stone contracts in volume, the -iridized reflections then begin to appear, increasing in perfection and -variety, until the requisite degree of moisture is expelled. If this -evaporation is carried too far by heat the splendors of the gem vanish -completely, never to be recalled. It is a singular fact that exposure -to the sun’s rays gives the opal much finer hues than the action of -artificial heat. And it is also a remarkable circumstance that of -all the variety of prismatic hues displayed by this gem, the violet -invariably appears the first, according to M. Delius. - -The ancients rarely engraved upon the opal, influenced perhaps partly -from its enormous value in those times, and partly from its soft and -fragile nature. They imitated the gem, however, with such perfection -that Pliny declared that it was almost impossible to distinguish -the false from the real. Modern gem imitators have utterly failed -in producing anything approaching the precious opal in beauty. The -assertion of Pliny in regard to the imitation of the glories of this -gem has always been received with incredulity by the moderns on account -of the failures of our most skilled artisans; but the discoveries among -the ancient Phœnician tombs in the island of Cyprus by Di Cesnola -rather strengthen Pliny’s remark. - -In this collection we may view a great and elegant variety of -glass-ware exhumed from the tombs of the Phœnician nobility who -lived three thousand years ago or more. Many of these vessels gleam -with what appear to be iridescent tints of gold, blue, red, and other -colors of the loveliest tints, recalling to mind the most beautiful and -gorgeous reflections of the opal. Some of the articles are entirely -of one color, while others are composed of patches of various hues -resembling enormous opals with broad gleams of pure color. Peligot -maintains that these superb colors are clue to the effect of great -age; and the substance of the glass being separated into laminæ, the -colors may be explained by the law of iridescence. But we are half -inclined to believe that they may be due to the skill of the artisan in -a great measure,--hence the variety of color in different vessels of -the same age. In the famous collection of Signor Castellani there is a -solid glass ring quite two inches in diameter taken from the ancient -Etruscan tombs. This interesting relic exhibits patches of color as -bright as the prismatic gleams, and they do not appear to arise from -any disintegration of the material, but rather to be produced by the -design of the workman. We surely will not ascribe to effect of age -the decided iridescent glaze which we see in the Maiolica pottery of -Hispano-Moresque objects of the thirteenth or fifteenth centuries, or -in the Gubbio products of the sixteenth century. - -The famous opal of history was that which was worn in a ring by the -Roman Senator Nonius in the days of the Triumvirate. Its size scarcely -exceeded that of a hazel-nut, yet its beauty and perfection were such -that it was considered a marvel among the _dilettanti_ of Rome, and -valued at the enormous sum of nearly a million dollars. Marc Antony, -remembering the sacrifice of the matchless pearl by Cleopatra, and -still enslaved by her irresistible charms, sought to obtain the opal, -intending it as a present to the siren queen of Egypt. But Nonius -refused to part with the treasure which was the idol of his heart, -and sought safety in flight. The beauty and charm of the gem may be -estimated by the fact that banishment then to a Roman was worse than -death. History makes no further mention of this wonderful opal, and -even if preserved among the spoils of ancient Byzantium its glories -have probably vanished ere this, yielding to the destructive effects of -time. - -The finest opal of modern times was that which was worn by the Empress -Josephine in the days of Imperial splendor. It was indeed a magnificent -gem. Its flashing beams of light were so strong and vivid as to -give the appearance of living flames of fire, and hence the name of -_l’incendie de Troie_,--“the burning of Troy,”--was bestowed upon it. -The base of this opal was completely opaque, but the superior portion -was perfectly transparent, and through it were reflected a multitude of -fiery gleams of red light. The fate of this beautiful gem is unknown. -There are two splendid opals still to be seen among the Crown jewels -of France, notwithstanding the frequent change of dynasties. One is -placed in the centre of the Order of the Toison d’Or, and the other -forms the clasp of the royal mantle. - -In the imperial cabinet at Vienna is exhibited the grandest specimen of -this gem yet discovered. It was found in the mines of Hungary in 1770, -and purchased by the Austrian Government. It measures 3³⁄₄ inches in -length, and is 2¹⁄₂ inches in thickness. Its weight is about seventeen -ounces, and its value is estimated at about $300,000. Although it -is injured by several cracks and fissures, it possesses a brilliant -play of color, and is justly regarded as the finest specimen known, -even surpassing the beautiful fire opal brought home from Mexico by -Humboldt, and which is still preserved in the museum at Berlin. - -At the close of the last century, but before the Revolution broke out -in France, Mons. D’Auguy, a financier of Paris, came in possession -of a most remarkable opal of the harlequin variety. It was of oval -form, ⁷⁄₈ of an inch in length by ⁵⁄₈ in breadth. This gem was of -wondrous beauty, and was pronounced perfect by the connoisseurs. It -is now in the hands of the family of Count Waliski. At the same time -the well-known amateur Fleury owned a rival to Auguy’s opal, which it -exceeded slightly in size. - -Another magnificent opal is described by Jackson as having been -exhibited at Vienna. It was nearly an inch in length, and was of the -harlequin order, having three longitudinal bands from which flashed -resplendent flames of light and color. It was pronounced by the -virtuosi of Dresden and Vienna to be the third in rank of all the fine -opals then known. - -In the Musée de Minéralogie of Paris may be seen a splendid opal which -has been carved into a bust of Louis XIII. when a child. King very -properly exclaims against the barbarism and extravagance where work and -material mutually destroy each other’s beauty and value. The Spanish -historians, in their marvellous stories of the wonders seen in Mexico -at the time of the Conquest, describe the image of the mystic deity -Quetzalcoatl (God of the air) on the great pyramid of Cholula, as -wearing a mitre waving with plumes of fire, and which was supposed to -have been produced by masses of the fire opal. - -Dr. Le Conte brought home from his geological surveys in Honduras, a -number of beautiful opals from the mines in that country. They have -since been cut and mounted in gold with diamond settings, in the form -of a necklace, which is regarded by connoisseurs as one of the most -valuable jewels in the United States. - -At the Centennial Exhibition of the United States, Austria exhibited -some very beautiful opals of various kinds, both polished and in the -natural state. One of the polished gems was two inches in diameter and -valued at $25,000. It was of a faint milky white tint, like most of -the Hungarian opals, and displayed a charming arrangement of colors. - -The splendors of the opal are best seen when exposed to the direct rays -of the sun, and viewed through a magnifying glass of low power. The -dazzling scene has no equal in art or nature, for the vivid hues of the -solar spectrum are here displayed with the most charming effect. The -colors are in broad patches and not blended with their complementary -hues as seen in the continuous spectrum, and the effects of the pure -green, red, blue, and yellow, flashing forth in perfect purity and -intensity, without definite arrangement, remind the observer of the -brilliancy of the kaleidoscope. In this fascinating display of hues one -might expect to see the colors pass into each other as in the solar -spectrum, and as the field of view is changed; but such is not always -the result. The red may exhibit a tinge of yellow, or the green a shade -of blue before they disappear from view; but generally the patch of -color ends abruptly, preserving its purity of tint to the last. - -The alternate and irregular flashing of all these varied hues always -presents a harmonious spectacle, such is the wondrous power of Nature -in all her arrangements and groupings. The stone, when arranged by -the art of the lapidary, is almost always cut with a convex surface. -However, when the opal is attached to an opaque substance which serves -as a reflector to the rays of light, the stone may then have its -surface cut almost flat. The colors displayed by this gem embrace -quite all of the tints seen in the solar spectrum, and they are as -pure. The shades of green, blue, yellow, and red will bear comparison -with the hues of the solar spectrum, and the gems of other minerals -are rare that can bear this decisive test. Sometimes but one color is -visible in the stone, and then it is called emerald or golden opal, -according to the tint exhibited. - -The purchase of opals in the rough natural state is attended with -danger, for often the glittering mass, after being shaped and polished -by the lapidary, is transformed into a transparent but hueless stone. -The cutting of the opal is always a hazardous operation, from the -fragility of the material and the special tact required in determining -the shape to be given the gem. We will relate an instance to illustrate -the history of the whole. - -A traveller from Central America brought home a splendid rough fire -opal which dazzled the eye with its fiery reflections. We took it to -an honest lapidary, who received it with a doubtful look. The next day -the opal was returned, having been shaped into the usual oval form, -but only a faint gleam of any of the colored rays flashed from its -surface, or the interior. “Is this the gem we gave you yesterday?” we -demanded of the artisan. With a smile the lapidary took the transparent -stone and roughened its finely polished surface upon the wooden -wheel. In an instant the lost fire returned as if directed by magic’s -wand. The perfect transparency of the gem, with its high polish, -had allowed the rays of light to pass directly through it, and there -was but little refraction, but on roughening the surface the light -was interrupted and the peculiar property of the mineral displayed. -Unfortunately the lesson was not concluded here. At the last touch -of the wheel the beautiful gem flew into two parts, and its glories -departed in an instant. Saddened with the day’s experience, we took -the two fragments, cemented them together, and tossed the stone into a -drawer which contained other mineral specimens of no great value. Some -months after, while searching for a misplaced mineral, a gleam of light -suddenly flashed out as we opened the drawer. It was the neglected and -abused opal, which now gleamed with the energy of a living coal of -fire. It had recovered its beautiful reflections, and still adorns, -notwithstanding its fracture, a most cherished jewel. - -Whence this mysterious change? the reader may ask. We can only say that -the complete transparency of the stone had been lessened, and perhaps -the change was due to the action of some of the ingredients of the -cement with which we united the fragments of the broken gem. - -Some of the Central American opals have the reputation of fading and -becoming translucent and opaque in course of time, or according to the -circumstances of exposure. We will relate an instance which forms a -part of our experience and education in the study of gems. - -A few years ago, two Spaniards arrived in New York with a bag of rough -opals brought from Central America, but from what particular locality -we never learned. The specimens varied in size from that of a bean to -that of an English walnut, and were extremely beautiful. They had a -fresh appearance, as though they had been recently extracted from the -mines, and many of them had portions of the soft sandy matrix still -attached to them. They excited suspicions of not having been properly -tempered and hardened by exposure; but their beauty, which reminded -one of the perfect glow-worm, or lumps of phosphorus moistened with -oil, did not allow the spectator to hesitate about the purchase of -them, especially as they were offered at a moderate price. We invested -in the purchase of several charming specimens, and never wearied in -examining their exquisite effects. Still, we felt a vague suspicion -of the enduring qualities of our newly acquired treasures. The most -beautiful stone, the size of a small almond, we carried in our pocket -for a long time, not only for our gratification but for the purpose of -studying the effect of the atmosphere upon its reflections. Soon after -our acquisition, we fancied a slight shadow or nebulosity appearing -in one end of the stone. We carefully watched it, and before long an -indistinct cloudiness began to appear, like the dim and distant haze -of a summer sky on the commencement of a storm. Even then we thought -it might be mere fancy on our part. But when the shadow changed -to opacity, and the transparency of the gem, with its beautiful -reflections, vanished, never to return, we were compelled to admit that -even substances of the mineral kingdom had their diseases as well as -forms of the organic world. - -This is indeed but one example to illustrate a theory; but most of -those we purchased at that time of the Spaniards have altered in -appearance, and some of them quite as seriously. Therefore we have -arrived at the conclusion that recently mined opals should be bought -with caution; and that the perfection of a rough opal as a gem cannot -be safely estimated until after it has been cut by the lapidary. - -No definite idea can be given in relation to the price of the opal, -so much depends upon the degree of its brilliancy and play of colors. -The gem is not sold by weight, but its value is estimated by its size -and the perfection of its charms. An opal half an inch in diameter -exhibiting fair colors may be worth $5, and another of the same size, -of greater perfection, may bring $5,000, or more. The palmy days of the -opal were during the period of Roman luxury, as the beauties of the -diamond were not then fully revealed, and the opal flashed forth its -marvellous beams of color both by daylight and artificial light. The -gem then commanded enormous prices. According to the tables of Dureau -de la Malle, the opal of Nonius was valued at twenty million sesterces, -or about eight hundred thousand dollars. Enormous as this sum of money -appears, Catherine of Russia would have given as much for the gem, if -its beauty had been in keeping with its reputation. - -The commerce of the opal affords a curious example of credulity and -superstition, which is in singular contrast with the progressive ideas -of our advanced civilization. In times past the changes that sometimes -occur in the opal from physical causes have impressed the minds of -some excessively superstitious people as due to supernatural causes. -And from these trivial fancies the most beautiful and _recherché_ of -all that Nature has offered to us in the mineral kingdom has been -placed under ban. This superstitious dread may be of ancient origin, -and whence its source we know not. But it is a matter of history that -the opal was the favorite gem among the Romans in their best periods -of intelligence and refinement. So far from being feared at that time, -it was eagerly sought for, as it was supposed to possess the power -of warning against disaster, and exhibiting the rosy herald of joy. -Hence it has been thought that a feeling of superstition as well as of -avarice influenced Nonius when his paragon was demanded of him. - -It is possible that the dread of the opal may be derived from the -superstitious fancies that have descended to us from neolithic times, -like the superstitions connected with the ancient stone implements -which are now called in Western Europe elf-stones. In Scotland at the -present day the ancient arrow-heads of stone are known as elf-bolts -or fairy shots, and believed to protect the wearer from disease or -misfortune. Thus it appears that stone weapons of an extinct race -are used as ridiculous charms by later nations far advanced in -civilization. History shows us how elves and fairies were created in -the popular imagination from neolithic sources, and how weapons and -ornaments of stone, amber, and metal became invested with mystic powers -as objects of handicraft of the elves themselves. These objects are -not only regarded as fairy charms among the races of the East, but the -belief in their powers and use is quite as strong and tenacious among -the Celtic portions of Europe. In other countries these primitive -ideas of fairies and charms have become modified, and blossomed into -poetic fancies to please chiefly the innocence of childhood. Some of -these the genius of Shakspeare and other poets have made beautiful, -and to these we offer no objection. Poetic license may sometimes -invest an object with a positive effect which eventually may assume -the appearance of fact. Thus the allusion to changes in the beauty of -the opal in connection with misfortune, which was made by Sir Walter -Scott, in his novel “Anne of Geierstein,” was taken to heart seriously -by many of his readers, and the gem was placed under ban. The popular -imagination became so strongly affected that the commerce of the opal -in England became very seriously injured; and even at the present -day many a timid maiden hesitates over the selection of the opal for -ornamentation. Every mineralogist and man of science will rejoice to -learn that Queen Victoria exhibits sterling good sense in selecting the -opal among her choicest family gifts, thereby presenting a pleasing -contrast to the superstitious and foolish fancies of the Empress -Eugénie. - -To the amateur who loves the rare and beautiful, with a feeling -untrammelled by any of the misty traditions of the past or the caprices -of fashion of the present, the opal is the dearest of all the gems. For -it is not only rare, but it displays the glories of all the other gems; -and it is the only one that defies the skill of the modern artisan to -imitate. Its flash instantly betrays its character, and places it above -suspicion, while quite all of the precious stones regarded as gems are -now imitated so perfectly as to require close and careful inspection, -and sometimes the application of scientific tests. - -When we recall the phenomena of the opal, and the wonders of its -reflections, with their strange and sudden disappearance, we may pardon -the credulity of the Arabian romance writers in ascribing to the gem -supernatural powers. It was a beautiful theory with them that it falls -from heaven in the lightning’s flash, and is the veritable Ceraunia. -Its charming and mysterious play of colors suggested to their ardent -imaginations the glories of Paradise, and hence they invested it with -wonderful talismanic properties, and believed it to be the abode of -afreets and genii. Alas for romance! Science clearly demonstrates that -many of the phenomena which puzzle the superstitious are simply due to -atmospheric influences and to the natural laws which regulate the decay -of organic and inorganic forms. - - - - - THE SAPPHIRE. - - - “The azure light of sapphire stone - Resembles that celestial throne, - A symbol of each simple heart - That grasps in hope the better part, - Whose life each holy deed combines, - And in the light of virtue shines.” - - MARBODEUS. - - - - - THE SAPPHIRE. - - -The colored varieties of sapphire were probably known to primitive -man, and were gathered in their rough state to serve as rude ornaments -long before the diamond, with its less attractive natural appearance, -was recognized as a treasure or a gem. The mountain torrents, laying -bare the superficial strata of the gem beds, early exposed to view -the sapphires of bright and attractive colors, which readily caught -the close, observing eye of the savage; while the diamond, lustreless -within its apparent crust, was unnoticed and unknown until civilization -became far advanced and revealed the hidden splendors of the gem by the -application of art. - -We may therefore infer with a reasonable degree of probability that the -colored sapphires, though perhaps not the most ancient in mineralogy, -were in reality among the earliest gems known to man. The researches -of the antiquary and the archæologist rather strengthen this view, for -specimens of these stones are found among the ruins of the ancient and -long-forgotten cities of Arabia and Persia, while the diamond is not. - -This beautiful mineral has been known in the land of its birth from -time immemorial as “korund;” and under this harsh name were included -all those beautiful gems known to commerce as the Oriental ruby, topaz, -emerald, and sapphire. The ancients in the days of Pliny bestowed upon -the blue variety the more euphonious name of “hyacinthus.” Modern -nomenclature, however, has adopted the term “sapphire” for all the -transparent forms of the mineral, reserving the name “corundum” for the -opaque and translucent or non-crystallized varieties. - -In making use of this word, we have another illustration of the strange -adoption of a term which is destitute of any relationship to the -characters of the object it is intended to describe. The “sapphirus” of -the ancients referred to lapis-lazuli, a blue opaque mineral spotted -with minute metallic flakes; and the only significance it bears in -connection with any of the forms of corundum is the simple fact that -it means azure. If we follow the antiquaries still farther into the -mists of early language, in seeking the etymology of the name, we -shall probably find even less satisfaction. The nature of this gem, as -well as most of the other precious stones, was mere conjecture to the -ancients, and they formed their estimate of them chiefly from their -hardness and color. - -Among the early Greeks, Theophrastus strove in vain to discover some -satisfactory basis of arrangement for these minerals, and to explain -their forms, their constituents, and the manner of their creation. But -his efforts and those of his contemporaries were of little avail; and -so Ictinus, when he constructed the marvellous façade of the Parthenon, -and Phidias, while he adorned it with immortal statues of marble and -other stones, were alike ignorant of the nature of the materials -they employed in their work. Several centuries later the treatises -of the Latin philosopher Pliny show that science had made but little -progress in this respect. The people of India and of the valley of the -Euphrates, however, undoubtedly studied at a very early period the -internal structure of the precious stones, and the revelations thus -obtained had some effect in shaping their religion and their views of -civilization. - -In searching for the mysterious in the gems, the Assyrians discovered -the cuneiform crystals in the interior of transparent sapphires, and -adopted the forms for their own use, believing them to be the language -of the genii. We have little doubt but that the cuneiform character -which now reveals the history of the extinct Oriental empires had -its origin from the wonderful crystallizations sometimes seen in the -internal structure of the sapphire. These crystals are sometimes -visible to the naked eye; but when the polished surface of the mineral -is exposed to a magnifying lens of even low power, they appear with -startling distinctness, and exhibit forms of perfect arrow-head shape -of all colors. The field of vision may at first include but a single -arrow-head crystal of perfect symmetrical outline floating in the -azure of the stone; but as the field is shifted myriads of crystals may -suddenly come into view, presenting a scene of such remarkable beauty -and fascination that the observer ceases to wonder at the credulity of -Arabian superstition. These crystallizations may occur in sapphires -of any hue, and then again we may search in vain for them in many -other specimens of the same mineral. Some specimens may contain a very -few of these arrow-head forms, while others seem to be composed of -multitudes and masses of them. One large red sapphire of four karats -weight submitted to our inspection appears to be composed of clouds -of these cuneiform crystals; and under the magnifying power of about -twenty diameters it presents fields of arrow-heads flashing forth the -most brilliant hues, and changing into new scenes of startling and -transcendent beauty as the focus is varied. Whatever startled the -imagination of the ancients with a new and mysterious beauty was at -once invested with supernatural power. - -In connection with this theme it is interesting and instructive to -trace back the history of the gems and precious stones even within -the period of the past two hundred years, and read the descriptions -and definitions bestowed upon them by mineralogists. Some of the most -gifted of men, like Linnæus and Wallerius, labored diligently to place -them correctly in science; but their efforts to define and arrange them -properly seem at the present day like schoolboy fancies. Daubenton -conceived the brilliant but erroneous idea of arranging them according -to their color, taking the solar spectrum for a standard. His idea -was to place them in seven genera, according to the seven principal -prismatic colors, and constitute species according to the different -shades. This able man was not then aware that the sapphire and the -tourmaline exhibit quite all of the colors of his seven genera. - -Romè de L’Isle was the first mineralogical writer who classed the gems -systematically; but it has since appeared that the amateur, Chevalier -Baillou, preceded him in his crystallogical ideas; for in 1747 this -observer described, in the catalogue of his collection, his views in -relation to the properties of gems, and how their characters might be -readily ascertained by the tests of hardness and specific gravity, -and also by the form of their crystallizations. The distinguished and -learned Abbé Haüy became interested and even fascinated with the study -of the history and physical properties of the gems and the precious -stones; and to his genius we are indebted for much of the information -we have at the present day on this subject. He was deeply interested -in the nature and characteristics of the Oriental precious stones; -and being dissatisfied with the harsh term and the vague synonomy of -“korund,” as applied to some of them, he proposed the more elegant -name, “telesie.” But science, often disdainful of new terms, finally -adopted the name proposed by Wallerius; and at the present time all of -the fine and transparent varieties of corundum are called sapphire. - -This remarkable mineral is found in mineralogical specimens in China, -Siberia, America, and other parts of the world; but all of the fine -gems, with perhaps few exceptions, come from Burmah, Pegu, Siam, lower -Bengal, and Ceylon. - -The island of Ceylon is the most famous of all the localities thus -far known, and it is in reality the most wonderful gem deposit in the -world. It was known in the period of the Roman Empire, as the land of -the luminous carbuncle. This island, which is situated at the southeast -extremity of the peninsula of Bengal, and separated from it by a broad -but shallow strait, is about as large as England in its area. In the -southern centre of the island a group of lofty mountains appears, -rising to the height of about 8,000 feet above the level of the sea. -On one side this great upheaval descends in successive ranges of hills -until the flanks of the mountains subside into the alluvial plains; -whilst on the other side the mountain range is characterized by abrupt -precipices sometimes of several thousand feet in height. The great -gem-producing districts of the island extend along the base of this -mountain range for about fifty miles; and the central and richest part -is considered to be located around Ratnapoora, which is scarcely two -hundred feet above the level of the sea. This want of elevation in the -Ceylon gem strata or placers becomes a marked feature when considering -the high plateaux in which the diamond occurs in other parts of the -world, also coupled with the fact that the two gems are not found -together in the same placers. Here are situated the celebrated mines -which have yielded vast quantities of the sapphire, especially the -blue variety, for an indefinite period of time. They are not small and -trivial deposits, but extend over large areas. Some of the plains which -cover the deposits are more than thirty miles in extent, and form a -large tract of country. Among them are the Kondapalle, Elk, Tolapella, -Horton, Bopatalava, Moonstone, Newera Ellia, and many others. - -The amount of labor expended in excavations on these plains is -stupendous, and evidences still remain which indicate vast operations -and remunerative labor in far distant times. The eastern portion of -the plain at Newera Ellia furnishes a good example of the extent of -the explorations. This region is still called the vale of rubies, and -was mined on a grand scale by the ancient kings of Kandy. Many acres -of this plain have been completely upturned, and the surface is still -indented with numberless pits of large size, varying from three to -seventeen feet in depth. The period of these extensive operations is -unknown, and is so far distant as to be beyond the mention of history -or tradition. - -Most of the gem-bearing districts are classed as wild lands, and belong -to the English Crown. As yet the authorities have never bestowed a -thought upon their value as a source of revenue, and the search for -gems is free to the world. Although much territory has been mined in a -rude manner in past times, the fields are by no means exhausted, and -offer excellent inducements to skilled labor. If some of the energy and -determination now exhibited in the South Africa diamond mines could be -transported to Ceylon, the gem marts would soon display the splendors -of ancient times. - -Ratnapoora, which is the gem mart of Ceylon, and situated in the midst -of the mines, means literally the city of rubies. The mines adjacent to -it and in the district of Saffragan are the principal ones now worked -in the island, but the gems are found under the western plains that -extend from Adams Peak to the sea. The plains and valleys southeast of -Ratnapoora are all gem fields; and the beds of the torrents sometimes -contain so great a quantity of broken fragments of sapphire, garnet, -zircon, etc., that the sifted sands are used by the lapidaries in -polishing gems. - -The mining operations are generally carried on by the native Cingalese, -who labor in the light of a pastime and only during intervals of their -agricultural employments. Some few, however, undertake the labor as a -regular business, but they belong to a low and dissipated class, and do -not work systematically or with regularity. Therefore, the gem-mining -of Ceylon cannot be regarded as a fixed and permanent business. - -When an exploration has been determined upon, a small party of -villagers set out for the promising region provided with the implements -of mining and the means of camping out. The times selected for the -operations are after the heavy rains which prevail in June and October, -and the floods have subsided. The beds of rivers or smaller streams -are often chosen as easier of access than the plains. If the river-bed -is selected, the first act of the explorers is to seek for the proper -locality where the gem-bearing strata may be found. To ascertain -this, the Cingalese thrust a long iron rod of ten or twelve feet in -length into the earth, and test the nature of the sub-soil. By means -of long practice, the natives can adroitly penetrate the earth to a -considerable depth, and, by the resistance to the movement of the rod, -can detect the gem deposit of which they are in search. - -If the indications are good, the natives proceed to build a hut if they -are at a distance from their village, and prepare for the operations, -which often extend over many weeks. After diverting a part of the force -of the stream so as to form a quiet pool, they proceed to excavate the -sand and gravel within a certain area. In order to accomplish this they -use hoes with handles fifteen or more feet in length. The top strata -are hurriedly raked up and thrown away; but as the pit deepens and the -gem stratum is approached, the work is performed with greater care. As -soon as the hoes bring up fragments and bowlders of white quartz, or -strike a thin ferruginous crust, every particle of the gravel drawn -up is carefully preserved. The gravel and sand thus obtained are then -placed in large baskets woven of split bamboo and shaped to a conical -point at the bottom. The basket thus filled is placed in the current of -water, and its contents washed by imparting to it a circular motion. -This washing process is kept up until the stones, gravel, and lesser -particles are cleansed. During this operation the gems, which are much -heavier than common stones, settle at the bottom of the basket, and are -there collected together, so that when the superincumbent gravel is -removed, the sapphires, garnets, zircons, etc., are easily discovered -at the bottom and removed. This is the manner in which the wet diggings -are carried on, and is the easiest mode of exploration; but it is by no -means as sure or often as profitable as the operations in dry ground -on the river banks or in the plains. The dry diggings are much more -laborious, as the soil is firmer and the gem strata must be transported -to water to be washed and sifted. These dry deposits are found the -richest beneath the alluvial plains, which seem to have been in distant -times shallow lakes and lagoons. - -The gem stratum called mellan is always well defined, and occurs at -a certain depth, which seems to correspond to the bottom of the lake -at a definite period. This depth varies from two to twenty feet, and -is perhaps even greater; but the natives rarely excavate below the -depth of twenty feet. This peculiar formation, which is generally -horizontal, is composed of a conglomerate of quartz gravel resting upon -or mixed with a stiff clay, often indurated by a ferruginous oxide. In -among this cascalho, or just below it and adhering to it, are found -the fine pebbles and crystals of sapphire, tourmaline, garnet, zircon, -spinel, and chrysoberyl. Under these rocks and in peculiar hollows in -the plastic clay, which the natives call elephants’ footsteps, the gems -are found clustered together heterogeneously, and often so perfect in -form as to appear as though created there. At other places they are -collected together in these pockets in such a manner as to suggest the -idea that they had been washed in by a current of water. - -All these varieties of gems, some of them widely differing from each -other in composition and form of crystallization, are here embedded -together, and seem to have one common origin. This is the true matrix, -and the gems are not found in other portions of the soil unless some -disturbing force has removed them, like a strong current of water -breaking up the cascalho and transporting the gems to alluvions of its -own deposit. - -It is maintained and generally believed by mineralogists that the -sapphire is formed in crystalline rocks; that in process of time the -matrix is disintegrated, the gems set free, and washed down to the -alluvial soils where they are now found. It is also thought that the -gem-seekers might with patient care trace the precious stones to their -source in the primitive ledges or the mountains, as the gold miner -often follows for long distances the particles of gold in the soil -until he discovers the parent vein in the solid ledge. But in Ceylon -this view is not entertained by the natives; and all scientific efforts -to find the sapphires in the mountain ledges have utterly failed. All -trace of the sapphire and its attendant gems ceases as soon as we reach -the limit of the gem stratum, and what seems to have once formed the -shore of the lagoon. Beyond this plainly marked outline we may search -in vain for the least sign of a connection with the older rocks either -adjoining or at a distance. The result is the same if we examine the -ledges on the same level or those of a higher elevation. - -In some countries, in the granular limestone of New Jersey for -instance, or the ripidolite of North Carolina, the granite of Siberia, -or the dolomites of Switzerland, we find sapphire, or more properly -corundum, of undecided colors, of inferior transparency or even of -opacity; but it is very rare that a specimen is found of sufficient -purity for ornamentation. The most transparent and perfect of these -sapphires are generally impaired by cleavage planes which traverse the -stone in several directions, preventing refraction of light, and often -so marked as to appear like flaws. This circumstance indicates that the -forces that deposited corundum and the fine sapphires were certainly -different in character, or that the conditions in which they were -exerted were not the same. For in Burmah, Pegu, India, or Ceylon, and -wherever the perfect sapphires are found, they have one common matrix, -and that is the peculiar ferruginous conglomerate. - -This conglomerate is recognized as a recent formation; and how came -these gems, which are believed to be as old as creation itself, to be -found among it? This formation is not only recent, but it is actually -taking place all over the world at the present day, and examples may -be found in almost every country. We find in many places the peculiar -strata of sand, gravel, and masses of stone in proper position to -change into conglomerate, which requires the action of water highly -charged with iron and lime or silica. Darwin found these stony layers -in process of forming on the beaches of the Cape de Verde Islands, -and in vain attempted to knock out a bolt of iron which had been cast -ashore from some wreck not long before, and had in a short space of -time become firmly fixed in the conglomerate. We may observe the same -process taking place to-day on the coast of Cornwall, and among the -_débris_ of the ledges of the Abrolhos Islands. In dredging rivers -large masses of solid conglomerate are often brought to light. -The Thames has furnished many examples; and not many years ago a -cannon-ball embedded in a crystalline calcareous rock was taken from -the bed of the Mediterranean not far from the mouth of the Rhone. Fresh -water laden with _débris_ of vegetable matter also possesses the same -cementing action as sea water, and an excellent example is seen in the -allios now forming in the Landes of southern France. This allios is -also a conglomerate, which has formed and is now forming at the depth -of about three feet below the surface. Here the conglomerate of sand, -pebbles, and angular fragments of rock is firmly cemented together by -the rain-water, which filters down from the surface of the earth laden -with vegetable matter. The cascalho in which the diamond is found is of -similar character, and has a similar origin, for we likewise find there -traces of vegetable _débris_, and the diamond itself contains germs of -fungi and vegetable fibres of higher organizations. - -But whence come the elements which form the gems? the inquirer will -say. Can we gather figs from thistles? Marco Polo in the thirteenth -century visited these gem beds, and has left his views in the -following lines: “In ista insula nascuntur boni et nobiles rubini et -non nascuntur in aliquo loco plus. Et hic nascuntur safri et topazii, -amethisti et aliquæ aliæ petræ pretiosæ et rex istius insulæ habet -pulchriorem rubinum de mundo.” Buffon, four centuries later, in -seeking for the causes of the formation of this mineral, observed the -peculiarities of the matrix on this island, and boldly stated that -the origin of the precious stones like the rubies, the sapphires, and -topazes of the East is the same as that of the diamond. He also stoutly -maintained that these stones form and are found in the conglomerate -in which is collected the _débris_ of other matters. The researches -of Sir Samuel Baker and others on these deposits seem to indicate, if -they do not prove, that the sapphire in particular was formed in the -sands, clay, or conglomerate where it is now found, and was not set -free by the disintegration of the old crystalline rocks. Nordenskiold -recognized these gem beds as true placers, but was inclined to think -the gem strata had decayed and left the gems free. An article published -some years ago in “Once a Week,” and supposed to have been from the pen -of Sir Samuel Baker, who had lived many years at Ratnapoora, and had -attentively examined the gem-bearing formations, gave the following -account:-- - - “A common but erroneous belief is that the gems are formed in the - mountains and washed down by the abrasion of the rocks and deposited - in the alluvial bottoms. If it were so, they would have been traced - to their source and sought for in the mountains, where they would - naturally be found in greater quantities; but the natives never - think of searching for precious stones in such places, and in the - localities where they are found there does not appear to have been - any local alteration in the veins of gravel since they were first - thrown there; and my own conviction formed from observation on the - spot, and for this and other reasons following, is that the sapphire - and other gems have been formed and are still forming in the places - where they are now found. In the first place, rounded sapphires and - sapphire crystals with facets of brilliant lustre are found lying side - by side. Secondly, both the rounded stones and the numerous perfect - crystals, with their pyramids unbroken, show that they were never - broken from other rocks, but were formed unattached to any matrix, in - a soft medium such as fine sand or clay. I have seen hundreds of these - taken loose from the same spot. Thirdly, crystals of sapphire are - found with their edges reduced, yet with brilliant facets, which is - inconsistent with their reduction by rolling. Fourthly, sapphire being - much harder than any other stone with which it could come in contact, - it is not easy to understand how any attrition could be brought to - bear upon it to bring it to the beautifully translucent polish which - the rounded stones usually bear more especially considering the short - distance from the mountains to the alluvial bottoms between which the - water-wearing process is supposed to be effected. - - “It is remarkable that the rounded sapphires and rubies are always - the densest and of the finest water and color; showing that they were - formed by different chemical forces from the others. In short, there - is no more reason for supposing rounded sapphires to be water-worn - than for supposing that the bowlders of jasper, for instance, on the - Egyptian desert were so formed, when a fracture shows them to have - been formed in concentric layers and to be in their original state. - The same remarks apply to the crystals of some other minerals, as - zircon, tourmaline, and spinel.” - -The mineralogist, in contesting this opinion, will point to the round -pebbles of sapphire as evidence of disintegration and subsequent -aqueous action. But upon careful inquiry we shall find that these -nodular masses are regular concretions and natural formations, which -do not owe their form to the abrasion of exterior force, but are the -results of crystalline action. We shall also find that these peculiar -stones always form the finest specimens of the class of gems to -which they belong, whether sapphire, diamond, tourmaline, topaz, or -chrysoberyl. - -In regard to beauty of color, density, hardness of texture, and -brilliancy, these apparently water-worn masses are decidedly superior -to the perfectly shaped crystals, and among all the true gem mines of -the world this rule is observed. In the conglomerate of Ceylon we often -find gems whose appearance indicates the shock and abrasion of waves or -currents of water, while we find in adjoining places perfectly formed -crystals whose facets display a lustre as brilliant as on the day of -their creation. Some, then, have perhaps been moved about by aqueous -action, while others have never stirred from their first position. - -Among all the multitudes of sapphires taken from the mines of Ceylon, -we have never seen or heard of a specimen fairly attached to any rock -as a matrix. Sometimes the ferruginous cement which is one of the -necessary components of the matrix unites accidentally the rough gem to -a mass of quartz, but all the sapphires we have seen exhibit no sign of -having been attached permanently to any mineral substance. In fact, all -the rounded stones and the more perfect crystallized specimens have the -appearance of having been formed in a soft medium like sand or clay. - -Whence come the masses of quartz that are always found in the -conglomerate, and which sometimes occur of a large size? may be -asked by the inquirer. This is a question which cannot be answered -satisfactorily, especially when the adjoining ledges do not contain the -material. We can, however, solve the problem by supposing that beds of -quartz have been formed on the beds of the lagoons, and were afterwards -broken up by the action of the waves, frost, or other agencies. -The clay, which is often a component of this matrix, is sometimes -argillaceous and at other times kaolin. We are generally inclined to -believe that these substances are always the results of decomposition; -yet there are abundant evidences to show that they may be original -deposits. The distinguished geologist Jameson was forced to admit this -from his extended observations. We find blue, reddish, and yellowish -mud in cavities of the hard crystalline rocks enveloping crystals of -quartz and topaz, as at Greenwood, in Maine, or Schneckenstein, in -Germany. The phenomena are well marked in the felspar quarries at -Bowdoinham, in Maine, and also at Schemnitz, in Hungary, in a vein four -or five inches wide traversing porphyry. Whence comes this substance, -when there is no opportunity for infiltration, if it is not an original -deposition? Perhaps by pseudomorphism. - -How and why were these sapphires deposited in globular forms when the -law of crystallization is so rigid and inflexible? This is a question -which requires considerable assurance to answer, in the view that they -are original depositions; but Nature offers many examples to sustain -the theory if we search her domain; for instance, how were the rounded -nodules of flint formed in the chalk-beds? Their shape is not due to -attrition, and their peculiar arrangement forbids the belief that they -have been rolled or abraded by the agency of water. In the interior of -solid ledges we find nodules of quartz with rounded edges, as though -they had been exposed to some dissolving agency or abrading force; yet -they have been beyond the reach of external violence. Hence we must -conclude that their globular form is perhaps due to some deviation in -the usual process of deposition or crystallization. Huronite occurs in -spherical masses in hornblendic bowlders; and we may find nodules of -tourmaline in the interior of the most perfect crystals of the mineral. -There are other examples. - -The Cingalese do the mining and sell the gems to Moors, who resort -to Ratnapoora to attend the jewel fair, which is held at the annual -Buddhist festival of the Pera. Purchasers not only from all parts of -Ceylon, but India, come to buy gems at this time. It has therefore -become the great jewel mart of the world; and one can find there many -of the rare and beautiful gems found in other parts of the world: the -emeralds of Peru, the topazes of Brazil, the opals of Honduras, the -turquoises of Persia, the jade of China; in fact, most of the gems -that have a commercial value, or any tradition attached thereto, are to -be found at these fairs. They are of greater importance than the famous -fairs at Novgorod in Russia, to which the gems and precious stones of -Northern and Central Asia are annually sent. - -The Hindoos are the best buyers of gems of all the nations of the -world. Their rajahs and princes pay the highest prices for the -paragons; and the poor native had rather invest in a gem, which to -his simple belief adds to his security and happiness, than hoard -gold coins, which are no better for concealment. The Moors are also -generally the lapidaries. The tools which they use in cutting the gems -are rude and primitive, and often the stones are much impaired under -their hands; but some of the workmen are skilful and are able to copy -with exactness the most perfectly cut gems of the European lapidaries. -Workmen of the inferior class may be found in the little towns all over -the island; but the artists of the first rank are located at Callatura -and Colombo. Immense numbers of garnets, zircons, and inferior -sapphires, with other gems, are cut by these rude artisans, who place -but little value on their time, and therefore work for a trifle. These -precious stones are then sold on the island or exported to foreign -lands, but are generally taken to India by travelling merchants, who -exchange them for produce or money. The demand is so great from the -populous Mohammedan nations, that many of these gems are really higher -in price in India than in the gem marts in Europe, as in the time of -Tavernier, three hundred years ago. Another potent reason prevents the -market from being glutted: the Hindoo parts with his gem reluctantly, -and only in case of necessity or in hope of greater gain; and the -wealthy Parsee prides himself upon his display of gems, as well as -upon his degree of caste. The quantity of gems treasured up by the -inhabitants of India must be immense. - -The composition of the sapphire, when found in the clear, transparent -form, is pure alumina. Its degree of hardness is 9, being inferior only -to the diamond; and its range of colors is very extensive, embracing -most of those seen in the solar spectrum. Its specific gravity varies -from 3.9 to 4.3; and, with the exception of the zircon, it is the -heaviest of all the gems. It is also compact and exceedingly tough in -its texture, and resists the shocks and wear of time better than any -other gem, not excepting even the diamond, which is harder, but far -more fragile. In point of brilliancy, it is below the zircon, garnet, -and the spinel, its refractive index being 1.77 to 1.79. This mineral -possesses remarkable electrical properties, but not so marked in degree -as in the tourmaline or topaz; when this property is excited in the -polished specimen, the attraction continues for a considerable length -of time. The property of double refraction is not often very distinct, -and by means of this peculiarity it is sometimes detected from the -spinel. - -The term corundum is now applied to the coarser and less transparent -kinds of the stone, which have been used as a polishing material from -time immemorial. The granular variety known as emery is largely mixed -with iron ores, and is far inferior to the transparent and purer -varieties as an abrading agent. It is always of a blackish or dark-gray -hue, and is often mistaken for iron ore. Asia Minor furnishes nearly -all of the emery used in the arts. It is found there in masses or -bowlders, either free or in granular limestone. In the United States it -is found along the gold belt in the Southern States; and in Chester, -a town of Massachusetts, it occurs in a large and valuable vein -associated with diaspore, ripidolite, etc., which generally accompany -it. At this mine at Chester, translucent sapphires of bi-pyramidal form -are sometimes found. Dr. C. J. Jackson found one small blue crystal -quite transparent and doubly terminated. - -The corundum belt of the United States has been traced, with wide -intervals, however, from Philadelphia to Northern Georgia. All along -this distance of several hundred miles, masses of corundum, more or -less transparent, have been found during the past forty years, but -active search failed to reveal the mineral in its matrix. A few years -ago exploration in the extreme southwestern part of North Carolina -discovered the long-looked-for corundum _in situ_. It was found on the -side of a mountain, in a mica-like substance called ripidolite. The -corundum from this locality appears in geodes and also in well-marked -crystals, ranging from small size to even the weight of three hundred -pounds. It is often of perfect transparency, but may be translucent -or opaque. The transparent crystals and masses, although possessing -limpidity, are traversed in all directions with cleavage planes, which -prevent their use in ornamentation. The colors are also irregularly -distributed in patches, clouds, or in thin veneers; many specimens have -been seen of variegated hues,--red, white, yellow, and blue,--and even -the whole of these colors have been seen in a single specimen. - -From the great number of specimens submitted to our examination we -have no hesitation in saying that gems cannot be quarried at will from -these mines. The inequality of color and the frequency of cleavage -planes will forbid. Small gems of few grains weight may be cut from -some of the transparent masses if the clear portions are selected with -care, and cut with that skill which is required in the shaping of gems -whose color is unequally distributed. But it is doubtful if fine gems -are found in this formation, for the conditions which deposited the -corundum here, and the more perfect specimens in the true gem strata -elsewhere, are quite different. - -The colors of the North Carolina corundum are often very fine, and -we have seen specimens of a superb blue that retain their hues -by candlelight. None of the reds we have ever seen have the true -pigeons’-blood tint, but are tinged with blue, and are therefore of a -finer shade when seen by artificial light than by daylight. The yellows -are also of a decided shade, and generally form a portion only of the -crystal or mass of sapphire. - -Some fine crystals have been found here, but we have seen none so -perfectly crystallized as the pyramidal specimens from the Asiatic -mines. Several large crystals have been exhumed, one of which -weighs three hundred pounds, and is well defined in its form of -crystallization. It is now preserved in the valuable cabinet of -Professor Shepherd, of Amherst College. - -A few years ago the gold-miners, while seeking for gold in the -river-beds and alluvial deposits among the mountains of Montana, -observed little transparent crystals of stone among the nuggets and -flakes of gold, as they cleared out their rude apparatus used in -washing the auriferous soils. But little notice was taken of these -limpid stones, as their colors were generally faint; but the observing -gold-seekers remarked their great weight and the remarkable coldness -to the touch, as they passed them around to each other in wonderment. -For a long time the miners flung these minerals away with other refuse, -unconscious of their character or their value; but one day there -appeared in the dark sands of the gold-pans a stone which flashed forth -such brilliant red gleams as to excite anew the curiosity and cupidity -of the miners. This discovery led to inquiry, and the gold-seekers -learned too late concerning the value of the treasures they had -carelessly thrown away. Afterwards the gems were preserved and sent -with the gold-dust to the States. They proved to be sapphires. Some -of them were finely crystallized in long, regular prisms, but the -most of them were without definite form. None of the several hundred -specimens that have been submitted to us exhibited smooth faces, like -the brilliant facets of crystals found in cavities of the crystalline -rocks or in the gem mines of Ceylon; but all exhibited a roughness of -the exterior, as though they had been abraded by aqueous action. - -The colors of these sapphires are generally faded or faint; some are -snow-white, but the most of them are of a faint bluish or greenish -cast. We have, however, seen small gems of fine red, yellow, hyacinth, -light-blue, and celadine green. We have also information of a beautiful -red sapphire of six karats, but failed to trace it after it was sent -from Montana. - -This discovery establishes the fact beyond a doubt that the gem occurs -in quite perfect form in the territories of the United States. Most -of the specimens we have seen were collected at El Dorado Bar, which -has since been abandoned by the gold-seekers. From this superficial -search and incomplete information concerning the locality of the gem, -we are unable to determine whether regular gem mines are to be found in -this country, or along the slope of the mountains, which extend either -north or south to a great distance. We have been assured, however, by -officers of the army, that fine sapphires have been brought to them -by the Indians in Colorado living on the same range and formation -that stretches into Montana. Therefore we shall not be surprised if -well-directed search along this formation should reveal gem beds of -value; and the mere circumstance that the gold-washers do not discover -them is of but little weight; for gem-seeking and gold-mining are two -different explorations. - -It is a little singular that none of the beautiful gems occur in huge -specimens, like some of the products of the vegetable kingdom. Nature, -however, in the mineral line, or certainly with the gems, creates -her perfections in small bodies. We sometimes find a clear crystal -of topaz, tourmaline, or emerald of a few ounces or even pounds in -weight, but they are very rare; while the generality of all the choice -specimens are comparatively of a diminutive size. When occurring above -a certain weight they become defective either in color, limpidity, -or form. They are precious stones, it is true, so far as composition -is concerned, but they are not gems according to the acceptance of -the word. By the word gem we not only mean a precious stone, but its -transformation into a form possessing limpidity, brilliancy, attractive -color, or some other charm. - -As regards the sapphire, its perfect forms occur in diminutive -size. This mineral is also found in Bohemia, near Merowitz, in an -argillaceous or marly cement, with garnets, zircons, and even fossil -shells. Tavernier relates that he saw in possession of General -Wallenstein, when at Prague, some beautiful rubies, which were obtained -in Bohemia. Fine stones of even five karats weight have been discovered -at these mines. Concerning the mines of Lower Bengal we have but little -information, and will not venture to give a description. We think they -have the same characteristics as those of the gem beds of Ceylon. The -Ilmenes Mountains, in Siberia, furnish sapphires of a strong blue. In -Greece and Saxony they are also found in small quantities of undecided -colors, and generally opaque. Impure specimens of well-defined colors -are found in the volcanic _débris_ of Expailly, in France, or among the -snow-white dolomites of St. Gothard; in the granite ledges close to -the base of the glacier of Bois, in the Alps of Savoy, we may observe -regular prisms of sapphire, quite transparent and sometimes of a -decided blue or a tender green. - -The massive and opaque varieties known as adamantine spar are said -to be found in granitic rocks in China, and on the coast of Malabar; -but very little is known concerning the exact condition of these -localities. Fibrolite and magnetic iron are said to accompany the -corundum in several of its localities. Brard believes that the blue -diamond of Pliny of the Island of Cyprus is no other than the blue -sapphire. And this belief is not without foundation, as some of the -varieties of corundum are found on the islands and coasts not far -distant. Occasionally stones of fine blue tints and of considerable -size are found. In 1853, a large and beautiful piece was found in the -gem strata near Ratnapoora, and sold to a Moor at Colombo for $20,000. -Fragments as large as goose eggs are also sometimes found in the -Saffragan district, but are of an inferior character, according to Dr. -Davy. Mawe describes one of three hundred and ten karats. We have in -our collection a transparent, light-blue, and finely shaped crystal of -three hundred and eight karats, but we fear that it will not match the -distinct crystal of three inches in length which belonged to Sir Abram -Hume. - -The suite of blues exhibited by this gem is very extensive, and -embraces all known shades and even the purest prismatic hue. The deep -regal blue is too intense a color for a night gem, as by artificial -light it becomes black. But there are sapphires of a celestial blue -possessing perfect limpidity and rich velvety reflections that retain -their splendid colors by night as well as by day, and they merit the -distinction bestowed upon them by the ancients when they consecrated -them to Jupiter. These superb gems are, however, exceedingly rare, and -are eagerly sought for by amateurs at prices far above that of the -colorless diamond. The general color of the blue sapphire is a light -shade, from which it passes through various gradations to a blue black. -Perfect stones of fine colors are quite rare, for they are apt to be -clouded, and the color distributed unevenly in the mass. Frequently -the color is in one extremity of the crystal, or appears as a spot on -the surface of a nodule. In other specimens it is arranged in bands or -thin clouds. Hence much skill is often required to cut them so that the -gem may display a proper distribution. Frequently the color is left in -the bottom of the gem, and when the stone is set the color is diffused -by refraction through the upper portions, so as to give the gem the -appearance of being colored throughout. - -One of the most perfect and beautiful specimens of sapphire is the -magnificent blue gem now in the Natural History Museum of Paris. It -was given by M. Weiss in exchange for a collection of choice minerals. -It is of the form of an oblique angular parallelopipedon of 132¹⁄₁₆ -karats. Haüy thought it had been cut and polished; but Satrin believed -that only its natural faces were polished, and that the form of the -primitive crystal was not altered. This is the most probable view, -for no lapidary of even ordinary skill would select the rhomboidal -form for so beautiful and valuable a gem. This remarkable gem, without -defects, notwithstanding its great size, was found in Bengal by a poor -wooden-spoon maker. It finally was acquired by Rospoli, of Rome, but -was purchased for the French Crown after several vicissitudes. It was -obtained at the price of 170,000 francs, which price is certainly below -its true value. France also possesses several other superb sapphires -of large size. There is also in Dresden a fine sapphire, a gift from -Peter the Great. - -There was in the ancient Hungarian crown a fine large sapphire, -surrounded with four oblong green gems, the nature of which has not yet -been made known. These mysterious green stones, rendered still more -interesting by the disappearance of the crown, are perhaps of modern -introduction, as they are not mentioned in the inventory of the jewel -when Queen Elizabeth pledged it to the Emperor Frederick IV. Hence the -inquiry arises, are they green sapphires, emeralds, tourmalines, or -antique glass? - -In the Universal Exhibition at London, in 1855, two immense and -beautiful sapphires were displayed among the collection of gems and -jewels which had been gathered from all parts of the world; they -belonged to Miss Burdett Coutts, and were valued at nearly $200,000. -At the same exhibition might have been seen a beautiful oval sapphire, -and another in the form of a drop, and of very unusual size and beauty, -belonging to a rich Russian countess. - -The Imperial Crown of the First Order of the Czar of Russia contains an -enormous blue sapphire of great beauty and value. The Russian treasury -also possesses some others of great size and rare beauty. Among them -is the famous light-blue stone which formerly belonged to the cabinet -of the English banker, the late Mr. Hope. There is also a very large -and celebrated sapphire, said to be of marvellous beauty in the Vienna -Kronenschatze. Most of the treasuries and regalias of Europe contain -fine sapphires of value and beauty. Among the Crown jewels of France, -there are two superb gems of twenty-seven karats each, one of nineteen -karats, and about a dozen ranging in weight from nine to thirteen -karats each. - -The Hindoos took great pleasure in carving images of their idols, and -in making grotesque forms as well as talismans, from the precious -stones found in their country; and very many examples are shown to the -traveller. The sapphire was often chosen for this purpose; and neither -its excessive hardness nor its high price offered any serious obstacles -to the determined votary or the superstitious grandee. There is a -statuette of Buddha, one inch in height, carved by the Hindoos out of -a perfect sapphire, in the British Museum, which came from the sack of -India. One of the richest reliquaries of any age or any country is the -golden case at Kandy in Ceylon, which contains a tooth of Buddha, but -which the naturalists declare to be the tooth of a monkey. Never was -fancied sanctity so dearly enshrined. The dental specimen is enclosed -in five golden cases fitting each other _en suite_ and incrusted with -the finest rubies, sapphires, and other gems Ceylon and India has -afforded. - -Philostratus describes a chamber in the ancient Royal Palace of the -Parthians at Babylon as follows: “It has a roof fashioned into a -vault like the heaven, composed entirely of sapphires, which are the -bluest of stones, and resemble the sky in color. This is the chamber -in which the King delivers his judgment.” The Asiatics, in all periods -of their semi-civilized history, made a lavish use of this gem in the -decorations of their dwellings and their temples. Even the partial -ruins of some of these edifices still to be seen in various parts of -India, exhibit great beauty in their impaired mosaics of precious -stones. - -The red sapphire is known in commerce as the Oriental ruby, and when in -perfection is the most magnificent of gems, and is rarely approached in -the beauty of its gorgeous hue by any other gem. The term ruby is an -indefinite one, and refers to any stone of a rich red color. All these -gems were classed together in the time of Pliny, under the generic name -of “carbunculus,” but the red sapphire was reckoned a variety, and -especially referred to under the name of “lychnis.” It is seldom found -exceeding three karats in weight, and the distinguished mineralogist, -Beudant, declares that a perfect red sapphire of thirty troy grains -is unknown, and would be of inestimable value. It is a singular fact -that while the blue variety should occur in masses and crystals of even -several ounces in weight, the red is rare even at four karats. Modern -mineralogists now maintain that all of the large historic rubies are -spinels, but it is within the bounds of possibility that large red -sapphires do occur sometimes as exceptions to an apparently rigid rule; -for we have lately received from the Ceylon mines a transparent crystal -of pink color which weighs two hundred and forty-one karats. It is -also stated that the King of Arrakan possesses two magnificent prisms -of one and a half inches in length and an inch in diameter. - -But of all the fine red sapphires which are known and proved, there -are but few above five karats. The largest one of which we have -any definite knowledge is the beautiful gem set in the Toison d’Or -of the French Regalia, and which weighs 8³⁄₁₆ karats (= 26 grains -troy). The inventory of the French gems in 1791 justly illustrates -the comparative rarity and diminutive size of the stone; for in this -splendid collection, which had accumulated during a long period of -time, and was then the richest in Europe, there were but four red -sapphires above five karats, and only five above four karats. This -variety is singularly liable to imperfections, and far more so than -either the blue or the yellow. It is rare to find a ruby of the pure -and characteristic pigeons’-blood tint that does not in some degree -exhibit silky and opalescent fibres. This defect, which generally -appears as a milkiness in the interior of the gem, is due to minute -crystals dispersed throughout the stone, and which become apparent when -the mineral is viewed parallel to the primitive axis of the crystal. -Hence, in cutting the rough stone, considerable care must be exercised -by the lapidary, so as to shape the gem and render its opalescence -invisible. Rubies of exquisite color are often rendered comparatively -valueless on account of fibres, clouds, and chalcedony-like bands. -All the red sapphires, however, are not affected in this way. The -blood-red are much more liable than those which have a tinge of -blue. We have examined a number of red sapphires perceptibly tinted -with violet, which were completely free from internal defects. This -opalescence is never possessed by the spinel, and is therefore one of -the distinguishing marks in testing the nature of the red gems. The red -tourmaline is also strangely liable to internal fibres, hollow threads, -clouds, and longitudinal streaks, and sometimes presents an appearance -similar to that of the ruby. The red sapphire is also distinguished -from the other varieties by being decidedly heavier, and also by being -softer than the deep-blue. - -Ceylon is famous for the abundance of blue sapphires, while the red -variety is comparatively rare. In Burmah, however, the red variety is -the most abundant and of the finest hue. The Ceylon rubies are regarded -as inferior in tint to those found in Ava and Pegu of the Burmese -Empire; but they are less inclined to be opalescent, and are therefore -more brilliant. The violet tinge of the Ceylon rubies lessens their -beauty when viewed by daylight; but it disappears in a great measure -by artificial light, and the hue then becomes of a fine prismatic red, -accompanied by the most vivid lustre; therefore we may say in general -terms that the Burmese rubies are the most beautiful by daylight, and -that the Ceylonese are superior by night. - -The finest mines of rubies in the world are near the Capelan Mountains -in Ava. But concerning their extent, history, and exploration, very -little is known. Colonel Symes, who visited the country in 1795, with -the British Embassy, stated that the richest and most valuable of the -mines were then situated in the vicinity of the capital; but that there -were many other mines in various parts of the kingdom. The information -concerning these remarkable deposits is vague and uncertain even at -the present day; but sufficient is known to establish the fact that -the geological formation is very similar to the gem beds of Ceylon and -Lower Bengal. According to the publications of the Asiatic Society of -Bengal, the principal mines of Burmah are situated about seventy miles -east of the capital; and the deposits are discovered by sinking pits -at various depths in the earth until the gem stratum is reached. It -appears to be precisely like the conglomerate of Ceylon, and occurs at -a depth varying from two to forty feet below the surface. - -It is stated that all of the fine gems above a certain weight are -monopolized by the king, who styles himself “Lord of the rubies,” and -consequently but very few find their way to the marts of other nations. -It is also stated that the gems are polished at Amarapoora, where there -are about twenty lapidary establishments; and that pulverized blue -sapphire, or the massive corundum spar, which is a trifle harder than -the red variety, is used as the abrading material. All of the mines -are jealously guarded from the visits of Europeans; and when Professor -Oldham was allowed to examine some of them in 1855, he could learn of -but one European who had previously seen them. This favored person -was a deserter from the British army, and was employed by the king as -superintendent of the mines. - -This gem is so highly prized in Burmah that when a fine gem is -discovered a procession is formed of grandees, elephants, and soldiers, -and sent out to meet it and escort it to the royal treasury. The -long and exclusive possession of these mines has enriched the Crown -immensely; but nothing is known with certainty. Colonel Symes, -however, saw some of the state carriages of the King of Ava, which -were splendidly decorated with jewels. One of these carriages was a -magnificent and singular production of art. Its decorations were so -profuse and contained so many precious stones set in silver and gold, -that it presented one entire blaze of the most brilliant colors. A -vast variety of gems were used in the construction of this truly -Oriental vehicle; and among them were to be seen diamonds, rubies, -white and blue sapphires, emeralds, amethysts, garnets, topazes, and -crystals of all kinds. Another of these queer barbaric monuments of -art was lately exhibited at Rangoon. It is known as the Royal Hitee. -This grotesque piece of architecture, with fantastic name, is a light -edifice thirty-five feet high, formed of seven terraces, surmounted -by an umbrella, which is the emblem of royalty. The terraces were -richly inlaid with gold and precious stones; and the sacred umbrella -was profusely decorated with valuable rubies, pearls, diamonds, and -emeralds. - -Rambusson has recently stated that none of the mines yielding rubies -have been worked for one hundred and fifty years; and that all of the -gems now offered in commerce have been collected previously. We think -this author is somewhat mistaken in this statement; for we know that -the Ceylon gem-deposit yields more of these gems at the present time -than for a long time past; and we do not quite believe that search -for them has been entirely suspended in Siam or in Burmah. During the -last years of the occupation of Ceylon by the Dutch, they exacted -from the tribes of the interior of the island an annual tribute in -the form of a certain quantity of precious stones. Hence the King of -Kandy forbade further exploration for gems by the natives; and so the -gem-fields lay neglected for a long time. Lately, however, under the -English rule, the ancient fondness for gem-mining has revived among the -Cingalese, and some fine gems have been discovered. In 1875 a native -hunter found in a remote district of Siam some remarkable mines of red -and blue sapphires; and explorations brought to light many valuable -stones, which found their way to the gem marts of Rangoon and Calcutta. -Splendid specimens were shown to Admiral Coote; and the consul at -Bangkok saw a magnificent stone of three hundred and seventy karats, -which yielded a blue gem of one hundred and eleven karats weight, and -of the finest water. - -Rubies are even now scarce in India, and probably always will be, -since the demand for them is very great among the wealthy of the -populous nations of that country. Even three centuries ago Tavernier -found it profitable to buy them in Europe and sell them again in the -country whence they had been taken perhaps many centuries before. Red -sapphires not only exhibit singular internal structures, but they may -be colored strangely, thus puzzling the experimentalist to account -for the distribution of coloring matter. Davila possessed a fine and -rare ruby which exhibited a clear white band between two parts of red. -Another gem showing a strange arrangement of color was to be seen in -the cabinet of Chantilly. It was half red and half yellow. Stones of -such distribution of color are marvels of rarity; but it is quite -common to meet with them partly red and blue or white, or blue and -yellow. They sometimes display a vague dichroism which is not so well -defined as in the iolite or tourmaline. The naturalist Fanjas found -at Expailly, in France, a transparent sapphire which, viewed in one -direction, exhibited a green hue approaching the emerald in its beauty -of tint, but when seen in another light it appeared of a very beautiful -blue. In the Orleans collection there was a curious sapphire which had -been engraved with the figure of a woman, the head being formed of -white, and the dress of intense blue. It is related that M. Bossi, of -Milan, who was an excellent connoisseur in gems, saw in possession of -Prince Metsch a superb sapphire which appeared to be dotted with flakes -of gold. We sometimes notice this singular appearance in the interior -of other gems, and find by the use of the microscope that it is due -to internal flaws or reflections from plate-like crystals within the -stone. We are inclined to believe that this gem of Prince Metsch is -to be classed with the sapphire owned by Abbé Pullini, which had been -engraved upon by the ancients. This stone, when viewed in a certain -direction, exhibited flakes of gold in the interior, which disappeared -when the view was changed, which would hardly have been the case if the -reflections had been produced by opaque bodies. We have before us a -polished Siberian beryl which shows flakes of silver-white in certain -lights, but which appear of dark-brown when the axis of vision is -changed. - -The Crown of England possesses some large and beautiful colored rubies, -but they are probably spinels. The large one standing in the centre of -the Maltese cross on top of the British crown is probably a spinel, -but nevertheless of great beauty. It is also a gem of considerable -historic interest, if we can believe the traditions that cluster around -it, and it is believed to be the identical stone given to the famous -Black Prince of England, by King Pedro of Castile, after the battle of -Najara. Tradition also asserts that King Henry V. of England wore it -in the front of his helmet, in the bloody battle of Agincourt, about -a hundred years later. Its earlier history seems to be lost. Perhaps -this is the identical ruby given in 1360 to Rudolph II. of Austria -by the Queen Dowager of France. When Peter the Great visited England -he gave one of the members of the royal family a very beautiful ruby -which he carelessly took from his vest pocket. The last message sent -by Mary, Queen of Scots, before execution to the Duke of Guise was -accompanied with a beautiful ruby ring, as proof of the credibility of -the messenger. - -The King of Burmah is said to possess an immense ruby of wonderful -beauty, of the size of a pigeon’s egg, but there is no authentic record -of it. Tavernier mentions a ruby of 50 karats and another of 17¹⁄₂ -karats, which he saw in possession of the King of Visapour; but as all -gems of fine red color were then classed as rubies, we are ignorant -of their nature. Among the numerous articles of loot obtained by the -French in the sack of the Summer Palace at Pekin, was the necklace -of the Emperor of China. This celestial jewel was formed of green -jade stones of delicate color, perforated and strung upon a cord, to -the centre of which was attached a monster red stone, of the nature -of which we are not informed. It has been stated that the East India -Company has the largest specimen of red sapphire known, but we are -unable to vouch for the statement. The largest ruby seen in India by -Garcia was of twenty-four karats weight. Chardin, however, describes -a magnificent one among the crown jewels of Persia, in the year 1666. -This matchless gem was as large as a hen’s egg cut in half, and was of -superb color. On its superior face the name of “Chaic Sophy” had been -engraved by one of its former possessors. - -The Crown of Russia possesses the finest and most valuable collection -of rubies in the civilized world. Some of them are of enormous size and -are probably spinels, but they are nevertheless of great beauty and -value. The degree of color gives the true value to the gem, no matter -what its composition may be, if its hardness is equal to quartz. Among -the red gems of lesser size there are undoubtedly red sapphires of -value, but we have no positive details concerning them. In fact, all -of the red stones of fine hues are classed as rubies without regard to -their nature. The famous ruby placed under the cross in the Russian -crown of Anna Ivanovna is said to have been bought at Pekin by the -Russian ambassador for 120,000 roubles. It is indeed a wonderful gem, -and is one of the marvels of the mineral world, whether its material be -corundum, tourmaline, or spinel. It is now known that the Chinese have -mines of rubies in the mountains of the Province of Yu-Nan, and it is -possible that this gem may have come from that locality. The tourmaline -deposits of Nertschinsk, which yield gems of splendid red hues, are -not far distant from Pekin, and those mines may claim the honor of -producing this rare stone. - -The throne of gold, called by the Persians Takdis, was supported on -feet formed of rubies. One of the seal rings of Chosroes II. was a -pink ruby, with the legend engraved upon it, “Riches are the source of -prosperity.” The fifth seal ring was a red ruby, bearing the legend, -“Splendor and prosperity.” - -The flowers, composed of the finest gems afforded by the mines of -India, and placed by Shah Jehan on the tomb of his beautiful wife, in -that wonderful mausoleum, the Taj Mahal, were the most precious ever -made. The roses of these garlands were made of the finest rubies; and -the leaves were composed of emeralds, which were made to glisten with -diamond spray. The screen which was built around the tomb was carved -from marble, and as delicately wrought as a veil of lace; and along its -borders, lilies, tulips, roses, and other beautiful flowers, composed -of precious stones, were inlaid in the marble. - -The tomb of Mahomet, at Medina, must contain some superb gems and -works of the goldsmith’s art. Here is to be seen that masterpiece of -embroidery, the veil of Kunderas, which is composed of inwrought pearls -and various precious stones of the value of ten millions of rupees. The -faithful relate, that when the rays of the morning sun glance over it, -its wonderful beauty seems enhanced by invisible influences. The famous -sympathetic ruby of the sacred Kaaba, now preserved in the temple at -Mecca, and believed to have fallen from the heavens at the beginning -of the world, is undoubtedly an aerolite. The fiery red hue which it -exhibited when traversing the sky, coming from unknown space, gave rise -to the tradition of its being a latent ruby whose gleams of beauty had -been temporarily suspended. - -The yellow variety of sapphire is quite common, and exhibits many of -the finest shades of yellow; but they are generally very faint in -tint and often like the lemon in hue. They are exceedingly liable -to imperfections, and especially to that opalescence which so often -disfigures the red sapphire. Fine specimens, therefore, possessing -transparency and beauty of color, are rare gems. But when it does occur -in perfection, it forms a magnificent gem, which is only surpassed by -the yellow diamond and zircon. Its rich golden hues, with soft and -satin-like flashes, are far superior to the Brazilian topaz. - -The Museum of Natural History in Paris possesses one of the finest -yellow sapphires known. It is a wonderfully lustrous gem of fine color, -and measures nearly an inch in length by half an inch in breadth. There -is also in the same cabinet a strange gem which was once placed among -the crown jewels of France. It was mentioned in the famous inventory -of 1791, as a singular corundum of 19²⁄₁₆ karats weight, and of 6,000 -francs value. It had been polished in the form of an elongated oval, -and exhibited the remarkable appearance of being deep-blue at the -extremities and yellow in the centre. This singular distribution of -color is not often seen in fine specimens, although it is frequently -met with among the inferior. We have also had the pleasure of examining -another large gem, cut into the form of a brilliant, whose diagonal -corners were blue and yellow, and yet, such was its play of dichroism, -that light reflected through these two colors produced but a faint -tinge of green. - -This double arrangement of coloring is sometimes seen with blue and -red sapphires, or yellow, blue, and white; but we have learned of but -one fine gem displaying the red and yellow. Several of the transparent -crystals from North Carolina exhibit the two hues in the same crystal; -and we have seen one that was actually red, yellow, white, and blue. -But the specimen was not sufficiently perfect to form a gem. Sometimes -the yellow hues are of a greenish cast, and then they resemble the -finest of the golden chrysoberyls, or they may approach the more -verdant shade of the peridot. It is said by the antiquaries that none -of the collections of ancient Greek and Roman engraved gems possess a -single specimen in yellow sapphire. This singular absence may be partly -accounted for by its rarity in perfection, and also from its liability -to appear pale when set in gold. - -In the French casket of gems, in the year 1791, mention was made of -a superb yellow sapphire of 27¹⁴⁄₁₆ karats, two of 13 karats each, -and one of 11 karats, all of which were valued at 8,900 francs. The -beautiful specimen now exhibited in the Cabinet of Minerals, in the -Garden of Plants at Paris, which is of the purest and richest color, -joined with wonderful lustre, is supposed to be the gem mentioned above -among the crown jewels. The French amateur and writer on gems, Caire, -once possessed a remarkable and charming yellow sapphire of the great -weight of twenty-nine karats. Its former Hindoo owner had seriously -impaired its beauty by drilling a hole in one extremity for the purpose -of suspension; and had also engraved on its sides inscriptions in -Arabic, which were probably condensed quotations from the Koran to -preserve the possessor from harm. - -The green variety is probably the rarest of all the forms of sapphire, -and finely tinted stones are very seldom seen. They are generally of -a faint sea-green tinge, and resemble beryls in their hues. But when -they do occur of grass-green color, they form magnificent gems and far -exceed the true emerald in lustre and brilliancy. We very much doubt, -however, if they ever approach the emerald in its exquisite shade of -green. We have examined many green stones from the Ceylon gem mines, -and with one exception have found them to be green spinels, zircons, -and tourmalines of various intensities of shade. The one undoubted -specimen referred to was of an impure hue. The celebrated Romè de -L’Isle possessed two beautiful crystals of green sapphire. When they -display the sea-green hue or the mountain-blue of the beryl, they are -then called Oriental aqua-marines, but fine stones of this description -are not common. We have seen some small but very beautifully tinted -gems of this class from the gold fields of Montana. Barbot speaks -with ecstasy of two green sapphires from Matura in Ceylon, and which -far exceeded any other gem in their velvety color, limpidity, and -brilliancy. It is possible that these two gems may have been zircons, -as these stones abound in Matura, and are of the most vivid lustre when -perfect. But stones of fine green hues of this mineral are exceedingly -rare. We have also seen a specimen of transparent corundum from Siam -which was dichroite, blue and green one way, and entirely green the -other. It called to mind that found at Expailly in France, by the -naturalist Fanjas, and which appeared of an almost emerald green when -viewed in one direction, or of a most beautiful blue when the axis of -vision was changed. - -The name girasole is applied to those gems that exhibit a peculiar -radiance when exposed to the sunbeams. This curious play of light is -seen in the transparent and translucent stones, but especially in -the translucent. When the gem which possesses this quality is cut in -the boss form it shows a glimmering light brighter at one part than -at another, owing to a peculiar internal refraction. The effect is -very beautiful when the gem is of fine color, and the bright spot -moves mysteriously over a more sombre ground as the stone is turned -in various directions. The sapphire rarely shows this property to -the same perfection exhibited by one of the varieties of opal. We -have seen two specimens from the North Carolina corundum mines, which -would have been very superior gems if they had not been traversed in -all directions by numerous cleavage planes. They were quite an inch -in diameter, of a nodular form, and had been deposited in a ledge of -ripidolite. - -One of the most remarkable varieties of the sapphire is known as the -asteria, which was so named by Pliny from the fact of its displaying -diverging rays of light. This phenomenon is only seen in stones of -semi-opacity or inferior clearness, and the star-like rays are so -arranged as to be inclined to each other at an angle of 60 degrees. -These stones may be of various colors,--blue, red, or gray,--yet the -rays of the star are always white or faintly tinged, and stream forth -in beautiful contrast to a ground of delicate blue or decided red. -The stars appear the most distinctly to view when the polished gem is -exposed to direct sunlight or a small bright flame. This mysterious -play is seen in but few of the gems, and the sapphire exhibits it -in its greatest perfection. It is indeed a curious thing to see a -six-rayed star with long silken beams of light suddenly appear to view -as the gem is turned to the light, and as quickly disappear as the -focus is changed. No wonder the ancients believed the appearance due -to supernatural powers. The microscope, however, has disclosed to the -moderns the cause of the asterism. This instrument reveals multitudes -of minute crystals within the stone, arranged in three different but -equal angles. To obtain the stellate appearance in perfection, then, -the stone must be cut and polished in cabochon or dome-like form. -The apex of the gem is then in a direct plane to these angles, being -perpendicular to the axis of the primitive form of the crystal, and -therefore the rays of light are reflected from the sides of these -multitudinous crystals producing the asterism. - -As we have said before, some other minerals exhibit this phenomenon -at times. We find it in rare specimens of quartz and in some of the -mica group. In some rare fragments of quartz from Siberia the stellate -appearance is seen in extraordinary perfection. The six-rayed star is -not only seen by refracted light, but is even visible by transmitted -light. Sometimes these stones also exhibit reflections of red and blue -as the direction of the stone is changed, thus combining the girasole -and asteria in the same gem. Lancon relates that M. Desmaret possessed -a little plate of this variety of quartz, of so great beauty and -perfection as to refuse 25,000 francs for it. There is in the Museum -of the Jardin des Plantes a remarkable diamond asteria; and there are -also in this collection and in the cabinet of the École des Mines some -superb blue and red sapphire asterias. - -The pure white sapphires are not often found. When well cut they -exhibit a vivid eclat, and are sometimes mistaken for diamonds; but -they are easily detected by the expert, since they do not possess -even three fourths of the degree of brilliancy of the diamond, nor -the prismatic play of color. Some of the faint-colored stones lose -their tints when subjected to a high degree of heat, and improve in -brilliancy and lustre. It is said that the Orientals practise this -trick extensively, and sell the altered gems for diamonds. We are not -aware of the refractive index of these fire-tested stones having been -measured with the view of ascertaining the degree of change; but it -is certain that their lustre is increased in a marked degree. Heat, -however, does not affect all colored sapphires. Some of the red are -often changed to deeper hues, and others are not affected. Brogniart -found that the French sapphires from Expailly were actually rendered -more intense in color by the action of fire. After numerous experiments -with the faint-colored sapphires from Montana, we also have come to -the conclusion that the stones from this locality are not perceptibly -affected by long-continued heat. - -Sir David Brewster, in conducting his famous experiments in optics, was -of the opinion that the white sapphire, on account of its structure and -its refractive power, was superior to all other transparent minerals -for lenses for the microscope. The diamond, which one would naturally -suppose to be the most perfect material for the purpose, on account of -its high refractive power and apparent clearness, is really faulty, and -comparatively worthless on account of its internal structure. If the -white sapphire is of such excellence in this respect, on account of its -compactness and refractive power, why will not the white zircon prove -far superior as a lens, as it is the most compact, transparent, hard -mineral known, and its refractive power is much greater than that of -the sapphire? Black sapphires are now and then mentioned by authors, -but we are inclined to believe that they are very rare; for Davy -declares that he met with but two or three specimens in his travels -in India or Ceylon. Blue stones of very deep hue appear sometimes -quite black; but when they are placed in a strong light, and viewed in -another direction, the blue tinge clearly appears. The violet sapphire -of perfect hue is a very rare gem, and may be regarded as an accidental -stone, being formed of an admixture of the blue and the red. Davy, -in all his extended researches in Ceylon, found but two specimens of -violet sapphire; and in our examinations of the rough gems from the -mines, we are inclined to think the purple spinel is often supposed -to be a purple sapphire. Romè de L’Isle found that this variety of -sapphire is oftener ruby-violet than sapphire-violet, or that the red -tinge prevailed more distinctly than the blue. The lilac-blue are -exceedingly rare, and are eagerly sought for by amateurs. - -There are some sapphires which exhibit a double play of colors when -viewed by natural and then by artificial light. For instance, they may -display a decided blue color by day and an amethystine tint by night. -D’Auguy possessed a stone that showed in the daylight a beautiful, -clear, and sparkling blue, but by candlelight it changed to a royal -purple. The cause of this phenomenon is perhaps due to an excess of -latent red in the stone, which, however, is not visible in the daytime; -but which is called forth by the difference in the illuminating lights, -as is shown in their spectra. The hyacinth sapphire is seldom seen, and -when perfect is regarded as among the marvels of the species. Dutens -possessed a fine one which had been engraved upon by the Greeks. - -The subject of the glyptic art, or engraving upon stones, is very -interesting to the student who seeks for evidences and traces of the -social life of man in early ages. The engraved cylinders of Babylon -and Nineveh, with their cuneiform legends, carry us back to traditions -two thousand years before the Christian era; and from the engraved -scarabei of Egypt and Etruria we form some ideas of the people whose -history has otherwise been lost. We may, perhaps, consider the true era -of the glyptic art as dating from the time of the Macedonian princes -and the Persian conquests, although it had been practised in a rude way -from far earlier times. This art of cutting figures upon bright and -richly colored, though minute stones, was quite as much admired among -the ancients as the laborious skill, with its powerful blows, which -produced the heroic statues out of bronze or marble. And perhaps we may -say that these gems, in their estimation, were of greater value, not -only on account of their beauty and rarity and their minuteness, but -also on account of their hardness, which defied the steel instruments -of the ordinary sculptor, and yielded only to the dust and splinters of -the hardest minerals, like the sapphire and the diamond. We may also -safely affirm that the gem-engravers of the Alexandrian and Augustan -ages were, in all that concerns excellence of design and composition, -rivals of the most famous workers in marble and bronze. These admirable -and wonderful artists contrived to enclose within the narrow limit of a -little stone all the complicated details of an event in history, or of -a fable in mythology; and to make them stand forth in beautiful relief -as a cameo, or to sink them down as an intaglio, with all that truth of -design and power of expression which characterize the excellence of the -largest works of the most consummate masters. - -By means of these engraved gems, miniature but accurate copies of some -of the celebrated masterpieces and noblest works of ancient sculptors -have been preserved to us, while the originals have been destroyed, -and even the record of them lost. An instance may be observed in the -engraved gem in the Orleans cabinet, which is the only representation -we now have of the famous statue of the Repose of Hercules, by -Lysippus. As a learned critic has said, in these gems we have the -emanations, ever fresh and unfaded, of the feelings and the taste -of those ages when the love of the beautiful was the all-prevailing -and almost sole religion, and flourished unfettered by tradition, -prejudice, and conventional rules; whilst from the universal demand -during those same ages for engraved gems, whether for signets or for -personal ornaments, artists of the highest ability did not disdain the -narrow field of the precious stone as the arena for the exercise of -their power. The unparalleled vigor and perfection of many of these -performances are a sufficient proof that they proceeded directly from -the master’s hand, and were not mere slavish copies, by a mechanic, -after designs created by the genius of another. The lovers of the fine -arts may derive much benefit from the study of the antique in this -particular branch of workmanship. What is there more pleasant than the -contemplation of the work of the artists of antiquity; and to behold, -shut up, as it were, within the narrow compass of a small gem, all the -majesty of a vast design and a most elaborate performance? During the -flourishing periods of the Greeks countless statues were carved by -numerous artists; and it has been stated that Lysippus alone executed -fifteen hundred, all perfect, and some of them colossal. Throughout -Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy every town had its temple, gymnasium, -or forum peopled with statues of those among her sons who had in any -way distinguished themselves in arms, letters, or public games. These -became the spoil of the later Romans, and an incredible number were -transported to Rome from time to time. Nero is said to have selected -from Delphos alone five hundred bronze statues for transportation to -Rome. The Etruscan bronzes were quite as plentiful; and Flaccus is -said to have carried away in triumph two thousand statues from the sack -of Volsinii. - -From these statements in ancient history concerning the number of large -works in statuary, we can form some idea of the inexhaustible treasury -of portraiture in another and oftentimes less costly material. It is -estimated that for a period of three hundred years, the engraved gems -were manufactured in countless numbers all over the Roman world. It is -a little curious that licentious scenes and figures are never or rarely -found on antique gems. - -Among the gems preserved in the museum of the Vatican may be seen two -engraved intaglios of early date, upon sapphires of an amethystine -hue. Among the most beautiful of the engraved sapphires that have been -preserved to us from ancient times is that of Cneus, now placed in the -cabinet of the Strozzi, in Italy, which represents the figure of young -Hercules. In the collection of gems at Turin there is a white sapphire, -on which a fine head of Tiberius has been engraved. There may be seen -among the crown jewels of Russia a beautiful sapphire of two shades, -engraved with a representation of a female figure enveloped in drapery. -The figure is engraved in the darker shade of the stone, while the -drapery is carved from the lighter part. The French cabinet boasts of -a very fine blue sapphire with an engraving representing the Emperor -Pertinax. - -King, the excellent and tireless antiquary, mentions, in his chapter -on the hyacinthus, several beautiful and unique engraved sapphires. He -states that engraved gems of this class, dating to times previous to -the Imperial epoch, are extremely rare; still, there are extant some -undoubted specimens, among which are a small Etruscan scarabeus and a -magnificent head of Jupiter, executed in the purest Greek style. The -accidental discovery of the last indicates how many more of the fine -gems of antiquity may yet appear in course of time to gladden the -lovers of the glyptic art. This gem was an inch in diameter, and of -fine color; but to utilize it to the wants of the Turkish possessor, -who wished to set it in the handle of his dagger, the engraved side -was set downward and thus preserved from injury, while the back of the -stone was rudely faceted by some Eastern lapidary. A Medusa’s head of -the same style of execution, upon a stone of remarkable beauty, is -one of the chief glories of the celebrated Marlborough collection. -In the same museum there is another larger and deeper-hued sapphire -bearing the head of Caracalla, the short, curly hair of the irascible -tyrant being represented by a series of minute holes closely drilled -together. One of the most famous of all engraved gems of this material -is the signet ring of Constantius. The stone is one of great beauty and -perfection, and weighs fifty-three karats. Its engraving represents the -Emperor as spearing a monstrous wild boar before a reclining female -figure, personifying Cæsarea of Cappadocia, the scene of exploit. -It bears an inscription in proof of its royal use,--the letters -“Constantivs Avg.” King mentions another fine specimen of the time of -Hadrian, representing “Hebe feeding the eagle.” It was heart-shaped in -form, of fine color, and quite an inch and a half in diameter. - -The museums of Europe contain many examples of mediæval and modern -engraved sapphires, one of the finest of which is the famous portrait -of Pope Paul III. among the Pulsky gems, and attributed to Il Greco. -It is a very beautiful stone, and three quarters of an inch square. In -the Marlborough cabinet there is an extraordinary specimen of a thumb -ring of high antiquity, cut from a single stone, but of rather a pale -tint. Rings containing both plain and engraved sapphires have been the -appointed symbol of church authority from a very early day. They have -often been bestowed as the badge of pontifical rank, and the custom has -descended to the present day. King devotes an interesting chapter to -the history and description of this class of ornaments and symbols; and -to his pages we must refer the interested reader. - -Engraved red sapphires of ancient date are extremely rare, so rare -that the experienced antiquaries, Lessing and Clarac, deny the -existence of any antique intaglios of this variety. Investigation -has proved that many of the supposed engraved rubies are really red -spinel, garnet, or zircon. Nevertheless, there are a few examples to -prove that the ancients did make use of the gem in the glyptic art, -although the act was regarded as one of extreme extravagance, from -the rarity, costliness, and beauty of the material. The Devonshire -parure exhibits a convex red sapphire of about three karats weight, -of pure pigeons’-blood tint, and engraved with a Venus Victrix in the -latest Roman manner. Another shows a full-length figure of Osiris, in -half-relief, of the time of Hadrian. In the museum of the Jardin des -Plantes there are said to be two engraved red sapphires. - -There are but few gems with which the blue sapphire can be confounded. -The blue diamond can be easily detected by its superior brilliancy and -hardness. It is very rare that the tourmaline appears of a deep blue, -and still more rare for the topaz to assume the appearance except of -the very light varieties, and the same may be said of the beryl. The -iolite, which, however, is a very rare mineral, may resemble the blue -sapphire, but its inevitable dichroism betrays its character. Turn the -gem before the eye, and the deception vanishes; the blue disappears as -if by magic, and the stone is gray. Kyanite sometimes appears of the -most beautiful blue tints, but its softness indicates its nature, and -prevents its use as a gem. The glass-workers, however, produce the most -beautiful and attractive imitations of sapphire, and of all colors, -lacking but one desideratum, and that is the thus far unattainable -degree of hardness. The red, green, yellow, and white varieties may -all of them be closely approached in color by other gems, and the best -methods of detection are the tests of specific gravity, degree of -hardness, and the optical phenomena. - -The blue variety of sapphire being less sought after in ornamentation -than the diamond, has not had a fixed scale in valuation. Still, prior, -or for a few years prior, to 1850, the ordinary sapphire was placed -by jewellers upon the same valuation as the emerald, or at about $15 -the karat. Since this period its value has quadrupled, but has not -kept pace with that of the emerald. The pale-blue stones have only a -nominal value, and the same may be said of the very dark blue. But -those sapphires which exhibit the perfect tint of the prismatic blue -can command very high prices. - -The ancient Romans excelled in their imitations of the ruby, both -in hardness, color, and lustre; and a number of examples are yet -preserved in some of the European cabinets. The bold robber, Charles, -the Duke of Burgundy, was the possessor of several famous gems which -he carried with him on his campaigns, and used as personal decorations -on particular occasions. One of the choicest of them was a monster -ruby more than an inch in diameter, which the famous Margaret of Anjou -had given him. On that fatal day at Grandson it was placed with the -historic diamond in a golden box, and left in the tent of the Duke, -where it was captured by the mountaineers. The gems were carried to -Berne by the victorious Swiss, and afterwards offered for sale to the -rich Nuremberger, Jacob Fugger. Then it was discovered by the expert -that the ruby was indeed a lump of red glass of ancient make, and -probably of the date of the Roman Empire. - -As the red sapphire is one of the rarest as well as the most beautiful -of all gems, its value is in keeping with its attributes. As it -overpowers all other gems with its gorgeous red, which is a pure -prismatic hue, so it transcends all others in price. There are but -very few gems with which it can be confounded in color. But no matter -what the material may be, provided it displays the royal tint. It is -extremely rare that the red tourmaline or spinel exhibit the perfect -tint which is the characteristic of the red sapphire. The zircon -sometimes displays a fine red color, and may imitate the sapphire. It -is also within the range of possibilities that the diamond and garnet -may closely resemble the true ruby. We have seen small garnets that -exhibited the pigeons’-blood tint. The scarcity of the ruby is so great -that fine gems are only to be acquired by the very wealthy. In the -times of Cellini, three centuries ago, the price of the red sapphire -was eight times that of the diamond. And to-day we may safely adopt -Cellini’s estimate, for the gem is so rare that we cannot readily -compute its value in comparison with the diamond, which is so abundant. - -King, in commenting upon the valuation of precious stones during the -past three hundred years, mentions two fine rubies which were sold in -London recently for enormous sums of money. One of three karats brought -$1,500; while another of finer tint, of less than four karats (11 -grains), was sold for $5,500, or for $500 a grain, which price is quite -equal to Cellini’s estimate made in the year 1560. - - - - -INDEX. - - - A. - - Abbas Murza, 214. - - Abbé Haüy, views of, 75, 91, 253, 371. - - Abbey of St. Dennis, gems of, 236, 320. - - Acber, banquet of, 209. - - Achille de Sancy, 172. - - Adamas, 15, 89. - - Adamantine flash, 91. - spar, 393. - - Adolphus, marriage of, 123. - - Advice of Rabelais, title page. - - Agrah diamond, 213. - - Ahmed’s ring, 116. - - Alaric and his Goths, 121, 122. - - Alexander, Emperor, 177. - fêtes of, 115, - helmet, 229. - marriage of, 287, - ring, 289. - Palace, collections of, 146. - - Alfred de Vigny, poem on the diamond, 12. - - Alla-ud-deen, 209. - - Amsterdam diamond cutters, 242. - - Ancient gem localities, 48. - gems and regalia, 106. - glass, 323, 325, 351, 352. - monster emeralds, 325. - - Anna Ivanovna, Empress, 136. - - Anne Boleyn, jewel of, 192. - - Antitheses of carbon, 16. - - Aqua marines, 318-320. - - Arabian romance writers’ fancies on gems, 363. - - Asiatic gems, 201. - - Assyrians and gems, 369. - - Asteria sapphires, 414, 415. - quartz, 416. - - Augustus the Strong, gems of, 225. - - Aurelian, triumph of, 119. - - Austrian gems, etc., 226, 227. - - - B. - - Baba, trial of, 161. - - Babinet, views of, 99, 185, 223, 263. - - Bahia, mines of, 39, 44, 45. - - Baillou’s views on gems, 371. - - Baker, Sir Samuel, views, 381, 382. - - Barbarossa, Emperor, 226. - - Barberini vase, 326. - - Barbot, views of, 108, 181, 256, 257, 269, 306. - - Bariatinsky, jewels of, 155. - - Baron d’ Eschwège, 39. - - Batavian display of diamonds, 281. - - Begagem mines, 223. - - Beke, Dr., account of large diamonds, 214. - - Belisarius, triumph of, 125. - - Bernier’s estimate of Persian gems, 213. - - Berquen, lapidary, 167, 238, 241, 272. - - Beryl, 145, 311, 320, 332. - name derived from, 317. - of English Crown, 318. - - Beudant, Prof., views of, 99, 398. - - Bheen, temple of, 209. - - Biot, views of, 72. - - Blue beryls of Ireland, 316. - diamond of France, 163. - of Mr. Hope, 189. - of Munich, 226. - - Boetius de Boot, views of, 105. - - Bohmer, French jeweller, 179. - - Bordeaux, architect of Peacock Throne, etc., 219. - - Borghis, Hortensio, lapidary, 202, 203. - - Brewster, Sir David, views of, 65, 184, 259, 263. - - Bronze horses of Venice, 127. - - Brunswick, Duke, gems of, 232. - - Buchanan, views of, 32, 34, 74. - - Buffon’s views, 59, 380. - - Burial of Cardinal Borromeo, 290. - Lord Palmerston, 290. - - Burning-of-Troy opal, 353. - - Byzantium, 129, 130, 139. - - - C. - - Cæsar, ring of, 289. - - Cagliostro, 175. - - Canopies of the Persians, 26. - - Cape de Verde, conglomerate, 61. - - Capture of Ctesiphon, 24. - - Caravans of the ancients, 26. - - Carbon, combinations of, 18. - - Carbonado, 45, 89, 104. - - Cardinal Borromeo, 233. - - Cardinal Mazarin, 242. - - Carpet taken at Ctesiphon, 24. - - Cascalho, 60. - - Cassia oil, refractive power of, 257. - - Castellani, collection of, 288, 289, 352. - - Catherine, Empress, 153, 155. - - Cedrenus, the historian, 128. - - Cellini’s value of emerald, 331. - ruby, 427. - - Ceraunia, 363. - - Cerulean throne of the Nizam, 211. - - Ceylon mines, 26, 56, 64, 372. - - Chalice of Abbé Suger, 161. - - Charlemagne, jewels of, 226, 239. - - Charles I., gems of, 194. - - Charles VIII. of France, 177. - - Charles the Bold, 167, 242. - bogus ruby, 426. - - Chladni, 71. - - Chosroes, palace of, 126. - - Chrysoberyl, 95. - - Chrysostom, the historian, 129, 241. - - Church regalia, 232-234. - - Churches of England, ornaments of, 208. - - Cingalese gem miners, 374-378. - - Clay as an original deposit, 384. - - Claudian’s description of treasures of Theodosius, 114. - - Claussen’s views on the diamond, 42, 43. - - Cleaveland’s views, 315. - - Colesberg Kopje mines, 52. - - Coliseum decorated with gems, 119. - - Collection of armor, 142. - - Collections of the Arabs, 116. - Mamelukes, 117. - - Color of fossils, etc., 82. - gems, 82, 99-104. - - Comnenus, Emperor, 137. - - Conglomerate strata, 60. - - Connecticut beryls, 314. - - Constantine, 128. - - Constantinople, conquest of, 113, 126, 127, 130. - - Constituents of perfumes, 19, 205. - - Coocha diamond, 205. - - Cortez, emeralds of, 294. - - Cortez’s presents to Charles V., 296. - - Corundum, 368, 378, 388. - - Cossacks, 132. - - Coster, the lapidary, 184, 223. - - Count de Douhet, 45. - - Crawford’s estimate of Borneo diamond, 218. - - Crown of Anna Ivanovna, frontispiece. - Austria, 227. - Chosroes, 22. - Goths of Spain, 321. - Kazan, 139. - Khan of Tartary, 22. - Lombardy, 321. - Muscovites, 136. - Portugal, 222. - Russia, 143. - Saxony, 226. - St. Stephen, 232, 300. - Victoria, 179. - Vladimir, 137. - - Cumberland diamond, 232. - - Cuneiform crystals, 369, 370, 378. - - Cup of Chosroes, 23. - Theolinda, 326. - - Cutting of the diamond, 238. - Kohinoor, 247. - Mogul, 247. - Regent, 247. - Star of the South, 247. - - Cystine calculi, change in color, 308, 309. - - - D. - - Daubenton’s ideas of the gems, 371. - - Davy, Dr., 394. - - De Drèe’s Cabinet, 101. - - De Laet, 240. - - Delattre, report on the French gems, 158. - - Delisle, 172. - - Demidoff, Prince, 173. - - Despret’s experiments, 265. - - Development of insect life, 84. - vegetation, 84. - - Devonshire gems, 288. - - Diamond, antiquity of, as a gem, 21, 114. - appearance of, in nature, 86. - asteriated, 103. - black, 45, 87, 89, 104. - blue, 103, 163, 164, 222. - bort, 87. - Cascalho, or conglomerate, 60. - celebrated Agrah, 213. - blue, of France, 163. - Daria-i-noor, 205, 213. - De Drèe, 102. - Holland, 232. - Hope, 103, 164. - Kohinoor, 151, 180, 206-208, 214, 263. - Mogul, 181, 202, 205. - Mountain of Splendor, 214. - Munich, 103. - Napoleon, 163. - Nassac, 187. - Orloff, 149, 187, 206. - Paul Pindar, 195. - Pigott, 187. - Polar Star, 154. - Prince Riccia, 102. - red, of Russia, 107. - Regent, 161, 164, 165, 187, 206, 223, 263. - Sancy, 166. - Sea of Glory, 214. - Shah, 150, 205. - Stewart, 55. - Sultan of Mattan, 36. - Sultan’s, 112. - Taj-Mah, 213. - yellow, of Austria, 227. - Chancourtois, views, 69. - cleavage of, 91, 245. - color of, 97, 99, 100-104, 228. - rough diamonds, 257, 258. - comparative brilliancy of, 93, 95. - density of, 94. - Cumberland, Duke of, 191. - cut diamond, 241. - deposition of, 20, 65. - diminutive size of, 26, 27. - dispersive power of, 96. - Du Toits Pan placer, 53. - electric properties of, 88; - hardness, 88, 90, 25. - formation of, 59. - forms of brilliant style, 244, 251. - brilliolette style, 252. - rose style, 244, 251. - table style, 250. - globular forms, 87, 95, 245. - green, 102, 135. - imitations of, 265, 267. - worn by Duchesse de Berri, 268. - influence of, 83. - injured by fire, 256. - in time of Emperor Severus, 22. - Pliny, 15, 22, 26. - localities of Africa, 53. - Algiers, 52. - America, 49, 50. - Arabia, 51. - Australia, 56. - Borneo, 35. - Brazil, 37. - Golconda, 31. - India, 30. - Ireland, 47. - Java, 56. - Russia, 47, 48. - necklace of Rohan, 174. - old English style, 243. - origin of, Arago’s views, 69. - Buffon’s views, 59. - Davy’s views, 69. - Goppert’s views, 65. - Hartt’s views, 44. - Humboldt’s views, 43. - Lavoisier’s views, 68. - Newton’s views, 67. - pans, 62. - phosphorescence of, 88. - physical properties, 85. - pink, 159, 228. - placers, 58. - prismatic display, 91, 96, 244. - purity of, 262. - quantity of, in use, 279, 280. - red, 107, 222. - refraction of, 92, 97. - rough, value of, 274. - specific gravity of, 87. - spiritual properties, 104. - swindle of Arizona, 51. - testing of, 253, 258-264. - value of, 269-282. - yellow, 159, 227. - - Diminutive size of precious stones, 392. - - Dogni collection, 104. - - Dolomieu, views, 70. - - Don Antonio, 171. - - Duke of Anjou, diamonds of, 240. - Brunswick, diamonds of, 232. - Buckingham, jewels of, 194, 198. - Burgundy, fête of, 241. - - Duten’s views of the emerald, 151, 285. - - - E. - - Earl of Effingham, 151. - - Eastwick’s account of Persian Treasury, 214. - - Eleanor of Provence, jewels of, 191. - - Electric properties of diamond, 88. - - Elf-bolts, 362. - - Elphinstone, British Envoy, 212. - - Emerald Isle, 301. - - Emeralds, 145-283. - abundance of, in Peru, 291. - ancient, 285-291. - at Dresden, 301. - at Florence, 300. - Kandy, 302. - Leiden, 301. - Madrid, 302. - Munich, 301. - Rome, 301. - Vienna, 301. - carved by the Mexicans, 294. - color and composition of, 304, 305, 307, 308, 315. - derivation of name, 290. - engraved by Carlo Costanzi, 302. - found by Maj. Pearse, 304. - given to Hortense, 299. - Napoleon, 299. - imitations of, 321-327. - in times of Queen Elizabeth, 297. - localities of Africa, 331. - Finland, 327. - France, 327. - in ancient times, 330, 331. - Norway, 327. - United States, 309. - Siberia, 328. - South America, 306, 327. - Tyrol, 329. - mentioned by Heliodorus, 285. - Pliny, 285, 287. - of Dhuleep Singh, 301. - Duke of Devonshire, 301. - Charlemagne, 299. - Cortez, 294. - Emperor Jehangir, 302. - French crown, 300. - Mustapha of Tunis, 297. - Pedro II., 11, 145. - Prince of Virianagram, 302. - Princess of Bariatinsky, 304. - Queen of Navarre, 297. - Rudolph II. at Dresden, 298. - Runjeet Singh, 304. - Russia, 298. - Shrine of Loretto, 301. - Sultan of Turkey, 300. - pillage in Mexico and Peru, 296. - of Marshal Junot in Spain, 303. - of Marshal Lannes in Spain, 303. - price of, at various times, 331, 332. - rarity of, 291. - sent by Elizabeth to Henri IV., 299. - supply of, 329. - the Great Mother, 297. - - Empress of Austria, gift to the Archduke, 229. - - Enamels of the ancients, 215. - - Englehardt, 47. - - English clergy, magnificence of, 200. - - Engraved gems, 14, 288, 289, 320, 351, 418, 424. - abundance of, 421. - - Esterhazy, jewels of, 229-232. - - - F. - - Fairs of Armenia, 26. - gems, etc., in Ceylon, 385. - Russia, 386. - - Ferishta, historian, 202, 211. - - Fêtes of Alexander, 25. - - Fitchburg beryls, 313. - - Florentine diamond, 227. - - Francis I., emerald of, 296. - - Franka, Dr. Nello, 65. - - Freaks of nature, 79. - - French Regalia, 158. - display of, in 1855, 166. - inventory of, in 1791, 159. - in 1810, 162. - in 1849, 162. - stolen, 160. - - - G. - - Garcias, 33. - - Gem engraving, 239, 240. - Fair’s of Ceylon, 385. - Fairs of Russia, 386. - mining in Ceylon, 374-378. - - Gems as abodes of spirits, 364. - meaning of, 392, - of Palace of Tezcuco, 293. - - Genseric, pillage by, 124. - - Gifts to Charles V., 295. - - Girasole sapphires, 414. - - Glass gems, 267. - ancient, 267. - - Globular forms of minerals, 385. - petrifactions, 73. - - Glorious Masque, pageant of, 193. - - Glyptic art, 417. - - Godoy, 173. - - Gold nuggets, deposition of, 75. - placers, 76. - of Danube, 78. - of Tesino, 78. - - Gomara, chronicles of, 295, 296. - - Goppert’s views of gems, 65. - - Gothic and Grecian forms, 81. - treasury at Toledo, 123. - - Gouttes d’eau, topaz, 95. - - Grandson, battle of, 169. - - Graphite, production of, 266. - - Great Harry, jewel, 193. - - Great Mogul diamond, 181, 186, 202-206. - - Green diamond of Dresden, 225. - garnets, 327. - prase, 326. - sapphires, 413. - stones sought for by primitive man, 286. - - Greenockite, 93. - - - H. - - Halpen gems, 100, 223. - - Hamlin, Dr. Cyrus, 106. - - Hardening of rocks on exposure, 307. - - Harlai de Sancy, 170. - - Hartt, Prof., 44. - - Haüy, Abbé, 75, 91, 253, 371. - - Helmreicher collection of diamonds, 104, 228. - - Henrietta Maria, 172. - - Henry VIII., 170, 192. - - Heraclius, capture of Persian treasures, 126. - - Hermitage, gems of, 144. - - Hervey, Lord, 196. - - Herz collection of gems, 190, 191. - - Hidden, Win. E., naturalist, 309. - - Hiddenite, 309-311. - - High refractive power of fluids, 257. - - Hindoo’s love of gems, 201, 386. - - Hitee, the royal, of Ava, 403. - - Holy synod of Moscow, ornaments, 147. - - Honorius, rings of, 288. - - Hope beryl, 319. - blue diamond, 103, 190. - collection, 101, 102, 190. - - Horse gear of the Turks, 146. - - Hughen’s views, 99. - - Humboldt’s emerald, 328. - views, 43. - - Hungarian opal mines, 349, 350, 354. - - Hyacinthus, 368. - - - I. - - Ictinus, constructor of the Parthenon, 369. - - Imitation gems, 265, 267, 321, 326, 351. - - Indian arms, decoration of, 215. - - Iolite, 425. - - Iridescence of minerals, 341. - quartz, 347. - - Iris, Marbodeus’s description of, 348. - ornaments of Empress Josephine, 348. - - Itacolumite, 61. - - - J. - - James II., 172. - jewels of, 196. - - Jansetsee Jejeebhoy, 173. - - Jarlet, lapidary, 154. - - Jewish Temple, spoils of, 125. - - John VI., golden cane, 223. - - Joseph I., diamonds of, 222. - - Justinian, 125, 129. - - - K. - - Kaaba, sacred stone, 410. - - Kaianian Belt, 215. - Crown, 214. - - Karat, weight of, 264. - - Kazan, Cathedral of, 147. - Crown of, 139. - - King, views of, 167. - - King of Ava, gems of, 217. - Kabul, 212. - - Kohinoor diamond, 181, 206-208, 212, 214. - - Korund, 368, 371. - - Kremlin, 132, 135, 141. - - Kyanite, 423. - - - L. - - Lahore, Treasury of, 208. - - Lamartine, historian, 113. - - Lapis lazuli, 368. - - Lavoisier, views of, 67. - - Le Conte’s description of Honduras Opal mines, 343, 346. - opals, 355. - - Lecourbe, General, 157. - - Lewy’s views on the emerald, 304-306. - - L’Isle, Romè de, his views, 371. - - Linnæus’s views, 370. - - Lithoscope, 259. - - Lollia Paulina, 22. - - Louis VII., 199. - - Low’s work on Borneo, 217. - - Lucretius, poet, 73, 90. - - - M. - - Maine beryls, 313. - - Maiolica pottery, colors of, 352. - - Mandanga diamond mines, 38. - - Mansur Ben, views of, 90. - - Marbodeus’s poem on emeralds, 284. - sapphire, 366. - - Marc Antony’s opal, 353. - - Marco Polo, celebrated traveller, 380. - - Maria Theresa, cross of, 228. - - Mariana, account of emeralds, 295. - - Martyr, account of emeralds, 295, 296. - - Mary Queen of Scots, jewels of, 193. - - Matura diamonds, 225. - - Mawe’s visit to Lisbon, 221. - - Mellan, or gem conglomerate, 374, 379. - - Minas Geraes diamond mines, 41. - - Mirror of Naples, diamond, 193. - - Missorium, or emerald table, 123. - - Mithridates, 130. - - Montezuma’s mantle, 294. - - Morse, H. D., diamond establishment, 247, 272. - - Mosaics of precious stones, 398. - - Murat, General, uniform of, 229. - - Murchison’s views, 43. - - Muzo, emerald mines of, 327. - - - N. - - Nadir Shah, 151, 152, 186, 187, 204, 206, 211. - - Narbonne, pillage of, 123. - - Nassac diamond, 187. - - Navajos, turquoises of, 293. - - Nero’s Lens, 288. - - New Hampshire beryls, 314. - - Newera Ellia sapphire mines, 373. - - Newton’s views, 67, 81, 92, 99. - - Nizam diamond, 217. - - North Carolina sapphire mines, 388-390. - - - O. - - Oldham, visit to the Burmah ruby mines, 402. - - Oliva, actress, 175. - - Opal, 335. - ancient mines of, 341, 349. - Babinet’s views of, 339. - beauty of, 338. - black variety of, 349. - cause of its colored reflections, 339, 340. - commerce of, 367. - Count Waliski, 354. - Damour’s experiments with, 337. - dandritic, 338. - Delius’ account of Hungarian opals, 350. - Descloizeaux, views of, 347. - described by Jackson, 355. - division of, by Jameson, 338. - Werner, 338. - Dr. Le Conte’s, 355. - engraved, 351. - formation of, 346, 347. - Harlequin variety, 349. - Hydrophane variety, 337. - imitations of, 351. - mines of, 341. - Central America, 343. - Gracias a Dios, 343. - Honduras, 342. - Hungary, 341-349. - Queensland, 346. - Zimapan, 348. - Mohr’s views of, 339. - Newton’s views of, 339. - of Austria, 354. - - Opal of D’Auguy, 354. - Empress Josephine, 353. - Fleury, 354. - France, 354. - Humboldt, 354. - Nonius, 352, 353. - U. S. Centennial Exhibition, 355. - on image of Mexican deity, 355. - physical properties of, 336, 337. - purchase of, 357, 360. - splendors of, 356. - superstitious fancies regarding, 361-364. - treatment of, when mined, 350. - value of, in rough state, 360. - Nonius’s gem, 361. - varieties of, 338. - - Orb of Russia, 140. - - Order of the Golden Fleece, 225, 226. - - Origin of diamonds, 57. - gems, 335. - - Orloff diamond, 149-152. - - Ottoman display of gems, 117. - - - P. - - Passion for gems, etc., 280, 281. - - Paulina, gems of, 288. - - Peacock Throne, 210. - - Peligot’s views on ancient glass, 352. - - Persian emblems of authority, 287. - treasures, 214-216. - - Peruzzi, inventor of the brilliant, 251. - - Peysonnel, 72. - - Phidias, 369. - - Philip of Spain, 170, 196. - wedding of, 197. - - Pictet, 71. - - Piggot diamond, 187. - - Pitt, Wm., and Regent diamond, 164, 165. - - Placidia, marriage of, 123. - - Plato’s views on gems, 73. - - Pliny’s views on gems, 15, 285, 287, 288, 328, 330, 331, 368, 369, - 414. - - Plumbago, or graphite, 16, 18. - - Plunder of Delhi, 204. - - Polariscope, 261. - - Poles, customs of, 134. - - Polycrates, ring of, 116, 288. - - Pompadour’s jewels, 174. - - Pompey, 130. - ring of, 290. - - Pope Julius II., beryl of, 319. - - Potemkin, gems of, 154. - - Potemkin’s plume, 145. - - Priest’s treasury in the Kremlin, 141. - - Prince Esterhazy jewels, 212, 229. - - Prismatic display of the diamond, 92, 93, 96-98. - - - Q. - - Queen Caroline, jewels of, 196. - Elizabeth, jewels of, 197. - Mary, jewels of, 196. - - - R. - - Raleigh, Walter, dress of, 198. - - Ralph Potter, lapidary, 243. - - Rambusson’s remarks on ruby mines, 403. - - Ramusso, Venetian historian, 130. - - Ranee Ruthen’s diamond, 218. - - Ratnapoora, sapphire mines of, 372, 374. - - Ravenna, capture of, 125. - - Refractive power of gems, 259-262. - - Regale of France, gem, 199. - - Regalia of Charlemagne, 226. - England, 179. - France, 158. - Russia, 132. - - Regent diamond, 161, 165. - - Richelieu’s wreath, 160. - - Ring of Ahmed, 116. - Polycrates, 116. - - Rohan, Cardinal de, 174. - - Rome, triumphs of, 119. - - Romè de L’Isle, description of diamond, 222. - - Rose-colored diamonds, 228. - - Rose diamonds, Antwerp form, 244, 251. - Holland form, 244, 251. - - Round brilliant, 222. - - Royalston, locality of beryls, 311-313, 315. - - Ruby, lustre of the potters of Umbria, 325. - of Crown of Persia, 407. - Crown of Russia, 407. - East India Company, 407. - King of Burmah, 406. - Prince of Wales, 180, 406. - price of, 427. - seen by Garcia, 407. - - Runjeet Singh gems, 206-208. - - - S. - - Sacred standard of Persia, 23. - vestments, 127. - - Sacro catino--emerald dish, 323. - - Saffragan sapphire mines, 374. - - Sancy diamonds, 166-171. - - Sapphire, 365. - black variety, 417. - carved by the Hindoos, 397. - colors of, 394, 398, 411-420. - composition and characters of, 387, 400. - deposition of, 377-384, 389. - engraved, 405, 412, 417-424. - formation of, in Ceylon, 384, 385. - imitations of, natural and artificial, 424, 425. - - Sapphire, mines of, 372, 378, 379, 388-390. - Ava, 401. - Bengal, 393. - Bohemia, 393. - Burmah, 400-403. - Ceylon, 400-403. - China, 408. - Colorado, 392. - Montana, 390, 391. - North Carolina, 388, 411. - Siam, 403. - red, known as Oriental ruby, 398-400, 403-408, 424, 426. - refraction of, 98. - roof of the Parthian Palace, 397. - varieties, early known, 367. - - Sapphires of the French Crown, 395, 397, 399, 411, 412. - Hungarian Crown, 396. - King of Ava, 402. - Miss Coutts, 396, 398. - the Russian casket, 397. - price of, 425-427. - - Sapphirus, 368. - - Sarmatia, ancient, 133. - - Sassanian kings, 23, 25. - - Saxon white brilliant, 223. - - Saxony, Elector of, gems, 224. - - Sceptre of Vladimir, 138. - - School of Mines, St. Petersburg, 145. - - Scythian incursions, 133. - - Selwyn’s views of gold deposits, 77. - - Serena, 121. - - Shah Jehan, 202, 209, 210, 218. - Nasiru’d-din of Persia, 216. - Soujah, 207. - - Shrine of Thomas à Becket, 199. - - Siberian beryls, 313-315. - - Silicified trees, 347. - - Sinan Pasha, jewels of, 117. - - Sir Stamford Raffles, 36, 218. - - Smith, J. Laurence, discovers Hiddenite, 310. - - Sokolli, gems of, 117. - - Sorel, Agnes, necklace of, 177. - - Soujah and the Kohinoor, 207. - - Spanish Conquest of Mexico and Peru, 292. - - Specific gravity of diamonds, 87. - emerald, 308. - opal, 336. - sapphire, 387. - - Spiritual properties of gems, 104. - - St. Chapelle of Paris, 127, 128. - - St. Laurent, views of, 239. - - St. Mark’s Palace, 127, 130. - - St. Melania, 121. - - St. Sophia, mosque of, 129. - - Stamboul, 130. - - Star of the South, 41, 223. - - Stewart diamond, 55. - - Sultan of Mattan diamond, 36. - - Sumnat, idol and temple of, 209, 220. - - Superstitious fancies about gems, 362. - - Suvaroff gems, 98, 144, 156. - - Sword of Solyman, 107. - - Symes’s visit to Ava, 217. - - Symes’s, Col., visit to Burmah, 401. - - - T. - - Table of Solomon, 326. - - Taj Mahal, palace tomb, 218, 219, 408. - - Talasca, standard of, 293. - - Tavernier, the traveller, 27, 30, 34, 66, 67, 150, 154, 163, 182, 202, - 203, 205, 213, 227, 238, 246, 251, 272, 387, 404, 406. - - Telesie, a name proposed by Abbé Haüy, 371. - - Tennant, Prof., 40, 179. - - Theophrastus, 25, 368. - - Thiers, Madame, necklace of, 178. - - Throne of Nadir Shah, 107. - Russia, 140. - - Throne of Takdis, 23. - Turkey, 107. - - Timour, Fêtes of, 114. - spoils of, 114, 186. - - Tiridates and the Parthian nobles, 120. - march to Rome, 121. - - Titus and the spoils of Jerusalem, 124. - - Tomb of Mahomet, 409. - - Topaz, 95, 98, 145, 425. - - Tourmaline, 97, 99, 145, 310, 326, 408, 425, 427. - tongs, 260. - - Tournament of the cloth of gold, 192. - - Townley collection of gems, 288. - - Treasury of the Seraglio, 107, 118. - - Troitza, treasury of, 147. - - Tschudi, Prof., 86. - - Turkish casket of jewels, 106. - - Turquoise of Mexico, 292. - Persia, 216. - - - U. - - Ural Mountains, 47. - - - V. - - Vaal region diamond fields, 62. - - Value of gems in 15th century, 270. - - Vaux, mineral collection of, 317. - - Veil of Kunderas, 409. - - Venice, a gem mart, 270. - - Verneuil’s views of diamond, 43. - - Volo, plain of, in Poland, 134. - - Voysey’s views of diamond, 37, 74. - - - W. - - Wallerius, views of, 290, 370, 371. - - Walpole, Horace, 195. - - Weight of large diamonds, 247. - - Werner collection of gems, 102. - - Wilson, Dr., descriptions of the Kohinoor, 207. - - Winter Palace, collection in, 142. - - Wollaston, Prof., 245. - - Wooden-spoon seller’s sapphire, 395. - - Wright’s discovery of opal mines, 345, 346. - - - Y. - - Yellow diamond of Austria, 227. - sapphires, 410, 411. - - Yriarte, history of Venice, etc., 128. - - - Z. - - Zenobia, captivity of, 120. - - Zircon, 91, 93, 96, 255, 427. - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - -Errors in punctuation and accentuation have been fixed. - -Page 140: “Boras Godunoff” changed to “Boris Godunoff” - -Page 255: “gobular forms of crystallization” changed to “globular forms -of crystallization” - -Page 281: “as it their price” changed to “as if their price” - -Page 298: “Kasan was subjugated” changed to “Kazan was subjugated” - -Page 343: “State of Gautemala” changed to “State of Guatemala” - -Page 410: “a single speciimen” changed to “a single specimen” - -In the Index, “Runjeet Sing” changed to “Runjeet Singh” and the page -numbers for the turquoise references have been corrected. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEISURE HOURS AMONG THE -GEMS *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Hamlin—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> - <style> /* <![CDATA[ */ - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; - text-indent: 1em; -} - -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.p4 {margin-top: 4em;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } - -hr.r5 {width: 5%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 47.5%; margin-right: 47.5%;} - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -ul.index { list-style-type: none; margin-top: 2em;} -li.ifrst { - margin-top: 1em; - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 1em; -} -li.isuba { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 2em; -} -li.isubb { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 3em; -} - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} -table.autotable { border-collapse: collapse; width: 60%;} -table.autotable td, -table.autotable th { padding: 4px; } -.x-ebookmaker table {width: 95%;} - -.tdl {text-align: left;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} -.tdc {text-align: center;} -.page {width: 3em; vertical-align: top;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; - text-indent: 0; -} - -.blockquot { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 5%; -} - -.bt {border-top: 2px solid;} - -.center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} - -.caption {font-weight: bold;} - -/* Images */ - -img { - max-width: 100%; - height: auto; -} -.w50 {width: 50%;} -.x-ebookmaker .w50 {width: 75%;} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - - -/* Poetry */ -.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 35%; margin-right: 5%; text-indent: 0em;} -/* uncomment the next line for centered poetry in browsers */ -/* .poetry {display: inline-block;} */ -/* large inline blocks don't split well on paged devices */ -@media print { .poetry {display: block;} } -.x-ebookmaker .poetry {display: block; margin-left: 5%;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - -.xbig {font-size: 2em;} -.big {font-size: 1.2em;} -.small {font-size: 0.8em;} - -abbr[title] { - text-decoration: none; -} - - /* ]]> */ </style> -</head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Leisure hours among the gems, by Augustus C. Hamlin</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Leisure hours among the gems</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Augustus C. Hamlin</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: December 16, 2022 [eBook #69560]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEISURE HOURS AMONG THE GEMS ***</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p> - - - -<h1>LEISURE HOURS AMONG THE GEMS</h1> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="center p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img004"> -<img src="images/001.jpg" class="w50" alt="CRYSTAL OF SAPPHIRE"> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption">CRYSTAL OF SAPPHIRE<br>CEYLON<br>Exact size.<br>HAMLIN COLLECTION</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span></p> - - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="center xbig"> -LEISURE HOURS AMONG THE GEMS<br> -</p> -<p class="center p2"> -<span class="small">BY</span><br> -AUGUSTUS C. HAMLIN<br> -<br> -<span class="small">AUTHOR OF A TREATISE ON THE TOURMALINE FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF NORTHERN EUROPE CHEVALIER OF ST. ANNE, ETC.<br> -</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot p2"> - -<p>“Now in matter of the knowledge of the works of nature, I would -have thee give thyself curiously; so that there be no sea, river, -nor fountain of which thou dost not know the fishes; all the fowls -of the air; all the metals that are hid within the bowels of the -earth; together with the precious stones that are to be seen in the -east and south of the world. Let nothing of all these be unknown to -thee.”—<span class="smcap">Rabelais.</span></p> -</div> - -<p class="center p4"> -BOSTON AND NEW YORK<br> -HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY<br> -The Riverside Press, Cambridge<br> -1891<br> -</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span></p> - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="center"> -<i>Copyright, 1884</i>,<br> -<span class="smcap">By Augustus C. Hamlin</span>.</p> -<hr class="r5"><p class="center"> -<i>All rights reserved.</i><br> -</p> -<p class="center p4 small"> -<i>The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass., U. S. A.</i><br> -Printed by H. O. Houghton & Company.<br> -</p></div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="DEDICATION">DEDICATION.</h2> -</div> - -<hr class="r5"> -<p class="center"> -<i>Whatever of interest or value there is to be found in these pages is earnestly inscribed</i><br><br> -To the Memory<br> -OF<br> -<span class="big">JEAN ANDRÉ DE PEYSONNEL,</span><br> -</p> -<p class="poetry"> -<i>who ventured to announce to the men of science of the Royal</i><br> -<i>Academies of Europe in the eighteenth century that the</i><br> -<span class="smcap">Coral</span> <i>was the product of animal life, and not of vegetable</i><br> -<i>growth. In answer to his simple discovery and honest declaration,</i><br> -<i>the naturalist was met with a storm of contempt and derision that</i><br> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span><i>eventually wrecked his happiness and his life.</i><br> -</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS.</h2> -<hr class="r5"> - -<p> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span></p> -<table class="autotable"> -<tr><th></th><th class="tdr"> -PAGE</th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#THE_DIAMOND"><span class="smcap">The Diamond</span></a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_13">13</a> -</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#THE_EMERALD"><span class="smcap">The Emerald</span></a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_285">285</a> -</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#THE_OPAL"><span class="smcap">The Opal</span></a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_335">335</a> -</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#THE_SAPPHIRE"><span class="smcap">The Sapphire</span></a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_367">367</a> -</td></tr> -</table> -</div> -<p> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_DIAMOND">THE DIAMOND.</h2> -</div> - - - - -<p class="poetry" xml:lang="fr" lang="fr"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Le diamant: c’est l’art des choses idéales</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Et ces rayons d’argent, d’or, de pourpre, et d’azur</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ne cessent de lancer les deux lueurs égales</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">De pensers les plus beaux, de l’amour le plus pur.</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Il porte du génie et transmet les empruntes,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oui, de ce qui survit aux nations éteintes,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">C’est lui le plus brillant trésor et le plus dur.</span><br> -</p> - -<p class="center"> -<span class="smcap">Alfred de Vigny.</span><br> -</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span></p> - -<p class="xbig center">LEISURE HOURS AMONG THE GEMS.</p> - -<hr class="r5"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br><span class="small">THE DIAMOND.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The advice of Rabelais quoted on our titlepage indicates sound -judgment, if not a glimmer of prophetic feeling; but we doubt very much -whether the quaint philosopher had any conception of its extent and -scope when he gave it. Could the queer, sceptical old fellow return -to earth again after his long quiet sleep of almost four centuries, -how astonished would he appear at the revelations of the students -who have followed his suggestion during the last century even! And -yet in reality how little has been revealed to the limited vision of -man, compared with the vast resources of nature still unexplored and -shrouded in mystery. In enumerating the precious stones among the -works of nature worthy of the contemplation and earnest study of man, -Rabelais not only exhibited a prophetic discernment, but he disclosed -the fancies which invested these mineral objects in his day and in -earlier times, and which have in a measure descended to the present -era, and still exert some influence.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span></p> - -<p>The study of the gems is one of the most interesting of all the -objects of natural history; and although the field of research appears -somewhat limited at first glance, the scene expands as we advance, -and we are soon lost in the beauty and mystery of the subject, which -as yet no man has been fully able to comprehend and explain. It is -commonly understood that this study is simply a matter of commerce, -or belonging to the province of the jeweller or the mineralogist. But -the subject is really of far greater importance. Several of the ablest -of our philosophers have been deeply interested in this pursuit, and -have revealed to us startling phenomena, many of which have been turned -greatly to the aid of science and the comfort of mankind. After so many -years of study and research, the field of observation and discovery is -by no means exhausted.</p> - -<p>We may take another view of the subject solely with the artistic eye, -and find much for enjoyment and contemplation. In the art of ancient -times the precious stones played an important part, and by means of the -engraved gems we are enabled to form an idea of the wonderful skill -of the artists of those periods. By means of these engraved stones -the portraits of many of the illustrious characters of antiquity have -been preserved, and also representations of some of the masterpieces -of sculpture, which have since been destroyed by time or the hand of -barbarism. If the reader, exercising a little credulity and patience, -will kindly follow me through the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> observations of many years here -condensed and recorded, he may in a slight degree partake of some of -the enthusiasm and interest of the author.</p> - -<p>But, before we proceed very far on the pleasant and seductive journey, -let us understand each other, and, above all, allow the author to -confess that his knowledge of the subject is decidedly imperfect, and -perhaps somewhat visionary at times.</p> - -<p>We will consider first the diamond, not because we regard it the -foremost in interest among minerals, but because it is to-day reckoned -commercially, as it was in the time of the Latin philosopher, Pliny, -nearly two thousand years ago, “Maximum in rebus humanis,”—“The most -costly of human possessions.” But we must, however, slightly modify -the remark, and now apply it to the rare colored varieties of the gem, -since commerce and refined taste rank the red sapphire far above the -colorless diamond in value, and sometimes even the emerald and rare -blue sapphires exceed it in price. It is interesting, and at times -amusing, to read the views of the ancient gem-writers, and even those -of mediæval times, relating to this remarkable mineral, and compare -them with the accepted opinions of the present day. The ancients were -completely ignorant of the nature of the stone, and called it “adamas,” -or the invincible, from the mistaken idea that it could resist all -external violence, and was also perfectly indestructible. Modern -science, however, has disclosed the fact that the gem is not only quite -delicate in its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> structure, but that it is also utterly perishable in -its nature. The revelations of chemistry have clearly demonstrated that -the glittering stone, known as the diamond, is simply crystallized -carbon, and one of the allotropic forms of that protean element which, -by the aid of some mysterious agency, can deposit its substance in -the shape of a sooty blackness, as in the coal, or in the transparent -crystal of diamond, which may be regarded as the very emblem of light. -Furthermore, the gem is not only the concentrated embodiment of human -valuation, but it is also the standard of hardness among all mineral -substances; and yet, strange to say, plumbago, which apparently is of -the same composition, is exactly the reverse, and quite as soft as talc.</p> - -<p>Here, then, we may behold one of the strangest antitheses to be seen -in the whole mineral kingdom, for we have a simple and singular -mineral composed of the meanest of elements, yet whose different forms -illustrate the extremes of hardness, and may also be considered to -represent the antipodes of material treasures.</p> - -<p>The crystallized and transparent variety, when it occurs in its -greatest perfection, and especially with the rare colors of red, blue, -and green, forms indeed the most beautiful of all the decorative stones -yet known to man. For it not only far exceeds all others in degree of -hardness, but it also surpasses them in its extraordinary brilliancy -and the wonderful display of the prismatic colors, especially by -artificial light,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> which charm it alone possesses of all the gems and -precious stones.</p> - -<p>Although it is widely distributed over the world, and has been known -to man for many centuries, yet its distribution, its deposition, its -geological age, are not only puzzling themes to the mineralogist, but -they are yet subjects of startling interest to the philosopher.</p> - -<p>The origin of the stone has long been a subject of inquiry among -experimentalists, and it has received more attention from them than -all the other gems reckoned together. As for our humble opinion, after -long consideration of this multitude of hypotheses, we are inclined -to assert the diamond to be the product of decomposition of vegetable -material, and derived from one of the numerous chemical compounds of -carbon and hydrogen. We find some of these forms generated wherever -vegetable matter is decomposed under water, and in the gem strata of -the diamond placers we may observe abundant evidence of material for -metamorphosis. If we admit the origin of the gem to be from vegetable -matter, or derived from any transformations of organic débris, we then -reduce the history of the diamond to a simple problem; for it is quite -easy to explain, or rather imagine, the required chemical change under -the action of electricity or telluric magnetism, and all along the true -gem formations the phenomena of the earth’s vitality in this respect -are remarkable.</p> - -<p>Carbon is commonly mentioned as the meanest of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> elements, yet, when -we come to consider its bearing in the mineral kingdom, and its -vast relations in human industry, or its effect in the progress of -civilization, it deserves a higher rank, or certainly a more generous -classification among the constituents of the earth. For it not only -occurs in various states in the air, the sea, and the more solid -portions of the earth, but we find it an essential ingredient in the -structure of all animal and vegetable life. It is really one of the -most interesting and important of the elementary bodies, and may -present itself in a variety of allotropic forms of remarkable and -striking character. To its combination in the mineral substance known -as coal the world owes its greatest blessing, save the golden grains -Triptolemus gave to mankind. From its purest and crystallized form art -derives its richest and most dazzling object of ornamentation. Without -it the globe would soon become desolate and all organic life cease to -exist.</p> - -<p>In contemplating the transcendent beauties of the purest of its states, -the observer can hardly realize that between the sparkling diamond and -the black, lustreless mineral known as graphite, there is only the -difference in the arrangement of their invisible atoms. Yet, so far -as we know at the present day, the two objects are apparently of the -same composition, differing only in their system of crystallization. -The first we recognize as the perfection of natural beauty, the -concentration of brilliancy, and the standard of limpidity, while the -other is directly the opposite<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> in its effects and relations. The -diamond, when exposed to sufficient heat, parts with its wonderful -beauty and disappears, leaving only a minute trace of seemingly -carbonized matter.</p> - -<p>It often perplexes the student in chemistry to explain the varied -forms and the different properties of substances having apparently -the same composition. It is not especially in the mineral kingdom -that he meets with these strange anomalies, but his mystery becomes -intensified when attempting to solve the problems of organic life. For -instance, in seeking to explain the odors of vegetable substances, -he finds that ten parts of carbon and sixteen of hydrogen appear to -form the sole constituents of many perfumes,—like the oil of lemons, -lavender, turpentine, etc. And yet, with the elements known, he not -only finds himself unable to combine them artificially so as to produce -the perfumes, or explain satisfactorily why bodies possessing the same -constituent parts exhale odors so different.</p> - -<p>Among all these investigations and reasonings the question comes -forcibly to the mind, why was the gem created, and has the day gone by -when the conditions required for its formation no longer exist? With -due respect to the phenomena connected with the crystallization and -deposition of metals and minerals at the present time, we cannot answer -this inquiry hastily.</p> - -<p>We may affirm, perhaps, that nature possesses the power to form the -diamond to-day, but are the conditions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> requisite for its evolution -present and complete? We will not now attempt to discuss the arguments -bearing upon this interesting theme; but we will, however, modestly -state that it is our belief that the diamond is the last gem placed -upon the earth, and that the period of its deposition was subsequent -to the introduction of some of the higher forms of animal life on the -globe, and, possibly, since the appearance even of man.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br><span class="small">ANTIQUITY OF THE DIAMOND AS A GEM.</span></h2> - - -<p>It is quite certain that the diamond is not one of the earliest gems -known to man, and the facts of the stone not having been found among -the ruins of Nineveh or Bassora, the Etruscan sepulchres, or the -jewels of the ancient tombs of the Phœnicians of the island of Cyprus, -recently explored by Di Cesnola, afford strong presumptive evidence -that its discovery dates within historic times. As the gem in its -natural state is not often finely crystallized with smooth planes -and perfect transparency, like the limpid crystals of quartz, it was -probably long overlooked by man, and its adoption in the decorative -arts preceded by the bright-colored and softer stones. The rough -crystals are not attractive when placed in comparison with many other -gems, and their degree of hardness, coupled with their rarity, probably -gave them their value among the ancients. We are inclined to think that -their use was governed by the fancy of the rich and powerful nobles, -and that the emerald and the blue and red stones took precedence in the -selection of gems until the art of polishing was discovered.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span></p> - -<p>In the time of Pliny the stone was acquired only by the richest of -kings; and in the days of Alexander Severus, in the third century, it -was remarkable for its price, while the emerald was estimated for its -beauty. Lollia, at the Banquet of Caligula, glittering with the spoils -of Asia Minor, of fabulous value, did not wear the diamond, so far as -we can ascertain.</p> - -<p>There is evidence to lead to the presumption that the gem was regarded -in the early periods more of a curiosity possessing talismanic powers -than as an ornamental stone. The famous crown of Chosroes, made in the -latter part of the sixth century, and brought to light by Shah Abbas -after a thousand years of concealment in an obscure fortress among the -mountains of Lauristan, does not contain diamonds among its ornaments, -but is incrusted with pearls and rubies.</p> - -<p>The absence of the stone in this royal tiara, constructed at this early -period of time, is certainly significant, and indicates that it was not -high in estimation, or that the art of polishing in a definite manner, -so as to reveal the hidden splendors of the gem, had not then been -discovered.</p> - -<p>The early practice of polishing the natural faces of the crystal did -not reward the patient lapidary by a corresponding increase of beauty. -Hence we can explain the setting of rough diamonds in mediæval times -long after the process of polishing had been discovered and put in -practice by the Orientals.</p> - -<p>The crown of the Khan of the Tatars, captured on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> the Oxus by the -Persians in the fifth century, is described as being ornamented with -several thousand pearls, but there is no allusion to any stones -resembling diamonds; yet the Tatars had undoubted access to the -commercial marts of India.</p> - -<p>The cup of Chosroes I., of the seventh monarchy of Persia, and which -is still extant, is composed of small disks of colored glass united -by a gold setting, and having at the bottom a crystal engraved with -the figure of the monarch. This royal relic is destitute of diamonds. -When the treasures of the Persian palace of Dastagherd were captured -in the seventh century, no mention of the diamond was made in the -enumeration of the articles. Among them were the famous throne of gold -called “Takdis,” supported on feet composed of rubies; also the crown -formed of a thousand huge pearls. If diamonds were abundant at this -period, why do we not find them among the decorations of the royal -jewels? Macondi, however, says that the Sassanian king had nine seals -of office, the first of which was a diamond with a ruby centre, bearing -the portrait, name, and titles of the monarch.</p> - -<p>The sacred standard of Persia, the famous “durn-foh-Kawani,” or -leathern apron of the blacksmith Kawak, which was eighteen feet long -by twelve feet broad, was richly adorned with silk and the finest -gems when it was captured by the Arabs in 636, at the great battle of -Cadesia. Its value was then estimated at $150,000, but the diamond is -not mentioned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> among its ornaments, and if it had been abundant we -might expect to see it prominently displayed among the decorations. -However, we must admit that many of these historical descriptions -are very incorrect, and often partake largely of the nature of the -fabulous. And so, in the description of the capture of Ctesiphon by the -Arabs in the seventh century, the historian states that vast quantities -of gems and precious stones and treasures of wondrous beauty, of more -than one hundred millions of dollars in value were obtained. Among the -descriptions of the articles comprised in this immense booty we fail to -find any allusion to the diamond, and yet we know that the gem was not -unknown to Persians at that time.</p> - -<p>To give the reader an idea of the magnificent tastes of the Persian -nobles at that period, we will mention some of the articles captured at -this time by the freebooters of the desert.</p> - -<p>A wonderful carpet woven of white brocade is described as being one of -the marvels of the world. It was four hundred and fifty feet long by -ninety feet in breadth, and exhibited a border worked in with precious -stones of various hues to represent a garden of all kinds of beautiful -flowers. The leaves were formed of emeralds and other green colored -stones, while the buds and blossoms were composed of pearls, rubies, -sapphires, and other gems of immense value.</p> - -<p>The captured robe of state was thickly embroidered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> with the most -beautiful rubies and pearls. The arms, helmets, and scimetars found -in the royal treasury fairly flashed with the gleams of the rarest -precious stones, so thickly were they incrusted over the metal. -At a later period of the monarchy the Sassanian kings adorned the -paraphernalia of their courts to a degree of magnificence which is -almost incredible. Some of the coins and sculptures yet extant have -preserved faithful representations of their luxury in dress. Many of -the robes were beautifully embroidered and covered with gems and pearls.</p> - -<p>The royal crown at this period, it appears, was not worn by the -monarch, but was suspended from the ceiling in the throne-room directly -over the king’s head when seated on the throne.</p> - -<p>Theophrastus, a Greek writer living three centuries before the -Christian era, does not mention the gem in a clear and distinct manner. -It is true he alludes to adamas, but it is now thought by several -mineralogists that this term was then applied to steel and some of the -varieties of corundum. The descriptions of the splendid fêtes given -by the army of Alexander at this period, when the wealth of India and -Persia was brought forth to deck the Persian maidens, do not mention -the diamond.</p> - -<p>At this period, and even in later times, the royal insignia and the -emblems of Persian authority were such as wreaths and vines of pure -gold laden with flowers and clusters composed chiefly of emeralds,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> -rubies, carbuncles, and other bright-colored gems, but not including -the adamas. Of like description were those famous canopies under which -the ancient potentates of Persia sat and gave their audiences.</p> - -<p>Pliny, three centuries later, was the first to describe the gem in -unmistakable terms, but even then but very little of a definite -character was known of it.</p> - -<p>The Romans had access at an early period to the gem-producing -countries. Ceylon and India had long been known to the Roman merchants, -and their caravans traversed entire Asia from the coast of Syria to -the Chinese ocean in two hundred and forty-three days. Their fleets -sailed regularly in the time of Claudian from the Red Sea to Ceylon, -Coromandel, and Malabar. Ceylon was then famous for its luminous -carbuncles and the lustre of its pearls. The famous fairs of Armenia -and Nisbis, which attracted the merchants of Asia, also furnished the -Romans with many of their luxuries. There certainly were no serious -obstacles to the introduction of the gem into the bazaars of the -wealthy nations of the Mediterranean in early times and subsequent -periods if it was then an article of commerce.</p> - -<p>With the ancient history of the gem there is also a remarkable fact to -be considered in its study,—its diminutive size. It is believed by -many antiquaries that the diamonds known or used by the Romans were -well-defined octahedral crystals, of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> not over four or four and a half -karats weight. It may be stated in reply that the exportation of larger -gems may have been forbidden by the Hindoo rulers, as we have seen in -later times concerning the rubies found in Burmah. But we place but -little confidence in this objection. Large and fine gems, had they been -known in the days of Roman prosperity and luxury, would surely have -found their way from time to time to the wealthy marts of the empire.</p> - -<p>There is other evidence to found the belief that most, if not all, of -the diamonds of antiquity were of small size. The celebrated traveller -and diamond merchant Tavernier boldly asserted in his day, that prior -to the sixteenth century the largest diamonds seen in India were about -ten to twelve karats weight. Tavernier was well informed of the history -of the gem, and had visited several times the most famous mines of -India. We are inclined to support the views of the French traveller, -and believe that the famous diamonds known as the paragons are of -modern discovery, or since the sixteenth century.</p></div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br><span class="small">DIAMOND LOCALITIES.</span></h2> - -</div> -<p>The diamond is widely dispersed over the earth, and undoubtedly occurs -in countries where its existence is not now suspected. The difficulty -of detection has restricted its geographical area in history, yet -enough is known to regard its deposition as almost universal, or at -least quite as frequent as that of gold. In some countries the deposits -are very limited, while in others, like those of Africa, Brazil, and -India, they stretch away over immense distances.</p> - -<p>We will proceed to give brief descriptions of the well-known diamond -districts, and mention others but little known to commerce or the -mineralogists. For more extended accounts of the historical mines we -must refer the reader to the works of the authors quoted in our text. -We will commence with those of Asia.</p> - -<p>The diamond fields in India are very extensive, and occur everywhere -among the hills of the great range that extends from Cape Comorin -through the whole of Bengal for a distance of several hundred miles and -with an average breadth of fifty miles.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span></p> - -<p>How long these mines have been known to man must always remain a matter -of conjecture; but it is nevertheless certain that the famous mines -have been discovered within the past thousand years, and probably a -much less period of time. It is stated that many of the gem districts -along this range have not been explored carefully, and that the -kingdoms of Golconda and Visapour alone have supplied most of the gems -known in India. And it is also related that none of these localities -have been scientifically mined or surveyed with a view to thorough -development.</p> - -<p>The most ancient of the diamond mines in India are supposed to be those -of Soumelpour, near the river Gonet, a tributary of the Ganges; but the -celebrated mines of Golconda and Raolconda have been known only since -the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.</p> - -<p>The richest mine of India, and the most extraordinary of any yet -discovered in the world, is that known by the name of Gani, or Couleur. -It is situated under a plain at the foot of a mountain about seven -days’ journey west of Golconda, and was discovered by accident about -the middle of the sixteenth century.</p> - -<p>A native digging the earth to sow millet threw up a bright, clear -crystal of twenty-five karats. It was soon recognized to be a diamond, -and crowds of Hindoos flocked to the fields to reap the most wonderful -harvest of gems yet known. A vast number of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> large gems were obtained, -and among them the Great Mogul, which weighed in its rough condition -seven hundred and ninety-three karats. The gems of this mine were -remarkable for their large size, but they were not of the clearest and -purest water, the color and lustre of the stone seeming to partake of -the quality of the earth composing the matrix.</p> - -<p>This idea, which prevails among the miners in other gem districts in -India and also in other countries, lends support to the belief that -the diamonds were formed in the strata of gravel where they are now -found, and not in the hard crystalline rocks and afterwards set free by -disintegration.</p> - -<p>The matrix of these mines, as well as of all the others in different -parts of the world, is essentially the same; and consists of rolled or -broken masses of quartz, mixed or united with sand or earth impregnated -with a ferruginous oxide. Amongst this conglomerate, or immediately -below it, mixed with clay, the diamonds are found, and generally -unattached to any substance.</p> - -<p>The earliest and best accounts of the mines of Golconda are to be -found in the narrative of Tavernier, who visited them in the middle -of the seventeenth century. At this time they were in prosperous -condition and furnished occupation to many thousand men. There were -but four mines then worked in Hindostan, and more than sixty thousand -miners were employed at the mine of Gani, or Couleur, alone. About -thirty years after the last<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> visit of Tavernier, the Earl Marshal of -England, who had previously examined the diamond mines on the coast -of Coromandel, visited those in Bengal. He found that diamond mines -occurred everywhere along the slope of the hills extending through the -country; but that very few of them were worked, and that nearly all of -the diamonds then supplied to commerce were obtained from the kingdoms -of Golconda and Visapour. He gives descriptions of twenty-three mines -in Golconda and fifteen in Visapour.</p> - -<p>The most famous of these at that time was called Currure, and was -worked by the king for his own use. Several very large gems are said -to have been found at this locality. It is related that a Portuguese -gentleman from Goa, having received permission to explore a part of -this mine, had the good fortune to discover a diamond of two hundred -and six karats, which so overjoyed him that he erected a large stone -over the spot with an inscription in Hindoo commemorative of the event.</p> - -<p>Near this place there was another famous mine which yielded stones -of fine form and water, occurring in black earth, which is regarded -in India as a singular formation. In all the mines of Visapour the -diamonds are found in red and yellow earth, and this is generally the -color of the matrix elsewhere.</p> - -<p>William Methold visited the mines of Golconda at a later period, and -relates that at that time they gave employment to about thirty thousand -laborers. The means for exploration were then exceedingly simple,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> -and no mechanical contrivances were adopted for excavating the pits -or bailing out the water. Shafts were rudely sunk in the earth to the -depth of sixty or seventy feet, and the cascalho found at even that -depth. It appeared to be reddish, mixed with white and yellow chalk, -and was rich in diamonds. Rarely, stones of one hundred and twenty to -two hundred karats were found, while those of ten to fifteen karats -were quite abundant; but by far the greater number were so minute that -it required from eight to twenty of them to weigh a karat.</p> - -<p>Within the present century <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Buchanan and <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Voysey visited the -mines of India, and have left interesting and accurate descriptions of -their examinations and observations.</p> - -<p>The famous mine of Pannah was examined in 1813, and found to be -situated in a table-land of great extent a thousand feet or more above -the Gangetic plain. The whole plain, wherever the gravelly formation -appeared, afforded diamonds at various depths ranging from six feet -to twenty-four. Many mines were worked in beds or borders of rivers -because they were easy of access, and the lazy natives lacked the -ability and means to explore the adjacent plains, which abounded in -diamonds, but were destitute of the water required for washing the -gravel.</p> - -<p>The effect of the Brazilian discovery and its yield of several tons of -diamonds was severely felt in Hindostan, and many of its mines were -stopped in consequence. Yet there is abundant virgin territory<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> left in -India for future successful exploration, if conducted scientifically -and with ample means.</p> - -<p>The natives, with their rude methods of mining, generally ceased -operations when the deposit required the removal of twenty-four feet of -superincumbent soil. Hindoo labor, also, though apparently very cheap, -is in reality costly when we come to compare their slow and feeble -results to the efforts of well organized and conducted operations. -Hence the diamond has always been a costly gem in Hindostan, and it is -worth more in that country at the present time than in Europe.</p> - -<p>Concerning the widespread idea of the reproduction of diamonds in India -we will make only a brief allusion at the present time.</p> - -<p>This theory does not seem to be of a very recent date, for the -Portuguese traveller Garcias, who had been physician to the Viceroy at -Goa in the early part of the sixteenth century, and who visited the -mines, has left in his treatise published in 1565, some curious notes -on the rapid generation of diamonds at that time. And he affirms that -the soil a few feet below the surface will, in the interval of two -or three years, produce diamonds again; but he also admits that the -largest gems are only found at much greater depths.</p> - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Voysey, who examined the principal mines in Southern India in 1821, -was also assured by the miners of this reproduction; and from his -investigations he was led to adopt similar views.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span></p> - -<p><abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Buchanan in 1813 visited the famous Pannah mine, and these views -then prevailed at that locality. He examined the diamond-bearing earth, -but observed nothing very peculiar in its formation. It seemed to be -very red, and characterized by pebbles stained by iron and a great -variety of quartz in broken fragments, chiefly white in color, or -stained red in places, or dotted with black spots.</p> - -<p>The miners who were then operating the mines assured the Doctor “that -the generation of diamonds is always going forward, and that they -have just as much chance of success in searching earth which has been -fourteen or fifteen years unexamined as in digging in what has never -been disturbed; and in fact,” he says, “I saw them digging up earth -which had evidently been before examined, as it was lying in irregular -heaps as thrown out after examination.”</p> - -<p>Borneo is thought to be rich in diamonds, but concerning the extent -and productiveness of the placers but little definitely is known. The -island has long been known as abounding in the gem, but travellers -and mineralogists have been prevented from exploring it by a variety -of causes, chiefly arising from opposition of the native rulers and -difficulty in penetrating into the interior of the country where the -mines are found.</p> - -<p>Tavernier was desirous of visiting these mines, but was dissuaded from -going by these supposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> or fancied difficulties, and the fact that the -Queen at that time forbade the exportation of the gem. Therefore we -have to regret the absence of the report which this able and truthful -traveller would have made if he had visited those regions.</p> - -<p>The Borneo diamonds are reported to be the best in the world, and to -owe their excellence to a faint steel-like tinge and a very vivid -adamantine flash. We are inclined to think, however, that diamonds of -this description may be found in various countries, and that commerce -assigns their locality to Borneo as a matter of convenience and trade.</p> - -<p>Borneo is yet a <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">terra incognita</i>, and its features have not yet -been made known to geography or even commerce. The second island in -size in the world, and itself almost a continent, it presents a vast -field to the explorer, with its broad prairies, immeasurable forests, -deep and impenetrable jungles, interspersed with lofty ridges of -mountains. Its mineral wealth is undetermined, but enough is known to -found the belief that the island is one of the richest in this respect -on the globe.</p> - -<p>Concerning the diamond mines we have but imperfect accounts and none -of very recent dates. However, it is known that the character of the -mines is the same as that of India and elsewhere, and that the gems -are found in a gravelly stratum at various depths below the surface. -The best of these mines are said to be situated along the river Lavi,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> -near Sukkademia, and to be worked in a rude manner by the Malays -and Chinese. Mines on the northwest coast of the island have been -worked extensively, but it is reported that no large diamonds have -been discovered there. The Colonial Secretary, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Low, states that -the gems are found in the greatest quantities in Sango, Landak, and -Banjarmassin, and that the stones, although of small size, are of the -purest water.</p> - -<p>The quantity of diamonds afforded by Borneo is not exactly known, but -a recent writer in the Journal of the Geographical Society of London -gives it as about two thousand karats annually. It is also stated by -various authorities that the mines of the island have never yet yielded -a diamond of thirty-six karats in weight.</p> - -<p>If these reports are correct, how can we explain the accounts of the -great diamond belonging to the Sultan of Mattan, which may be found in -the History of Java, by Sir Stamford Raffles, and also in the Memoirs -of the Batavian Society?</p> - -<p>The famous mines of Brazil, which gave rise to a new era in the -commerce and history of diamonds, were discovered by accident. And -we are not aware of an instance of the discovery of a single diamond -district or region of country, with the exception of the Urals, which -can be ascribed to the results of scientific research. Even the -wonderfully rich mines of the Province of Bahia in Brazil were first -made known by a slave who noticed the similarity of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> soil to that -of the diamond mines of Minas Geraes, where he had formerly worked.</p> - -<p>In 1727 a Portuguese by the name of Lobo, while visiting the gold mines -of the Sierra do Frio, a desolate country about four hundred miles -north of Rio Janeiro, noticed some bright crystals of stone which the -ignorant miners picked up from time to time and treasured as trifles. -Gathering a number of them, he submitted them to some Dutch traders, -who informed him as to their valuable character. The Dutch at once -contracted with the Brazilian Government for all of the rough diamonds -that might be found, and for a long time controlled the trade. The -mines where the gems were first discovered were situated in the midst -of a desolate country destitute of vegetation and of considerable -elevation above the level of the sea. Since this period other mining -districts have been discovered, and it is now ascertained that the -whole of the vast territory situated between the twelfth and twentieth -parallels of latitude and extending even to Matto Grosso, a thousand -miles distant, belongs to the gem-bearing formation.</p> - -<p>This vast space of territory has not been examined scientifically, -and but little is known of its condition except that it is diamond -yielding. Since their discovery the mines have been worked with more -or less activity with slave labor under the direction of companies of -large capital. Skilled labor with the modern appliances of science has -not yet been employed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> in these mining districts. And the condition -of the country, its laws, and the controlling power of the diamond -corporations, will render the application of scientific skill a -difficult and hazardous task. The explorations are conducted in a -primitive manner during the dry season, which lasts from April to -October. They are made generally in the beds of the streams which have -been dried up by the summer’s drouth. Rivers are sometimes diverted -from their natural course, and their gravelly beds completely removed -to sheds on the banks to await the rainy season, when water, which is -required for washing, will be in abundance. The cascalho, a name given -to the peculiar gravel, composed of quartz fragments mixed with sand -and clay united with a ferruginous cement, which contains the diamonds, -is then placed in shallow troughs, and a stream of water directed upon -it until it is well cleansed, when it is removed and dried in the sun. -The dried residue is then carefully searched for diamonds, and it is -not always easy to distinguish them among a great variety of pebbles, -of which the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> is chiefly composed.</p> - -<p>Some of the diamond mines were of great extent and required many -laborers to conduct the operations. That of Mandanga employed twelve -hundred slaves in its excavations alone, besides many free persons -engaged in other duties. The yield of the Brazilian mines at first was -enormous, and one thousand one hundred and forty-six ounces of the -precious<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> gem were shipped to Lisbon in one year. The vast quantities -of the gem thrown upon the markets brought the price of them down to -five dollars per karat.</p> - -<p>Consternation speedily spread among the diamond dealers all over the -world; and many of them, believing that the gems would soon be as -common as transparent quartz, declined to invest largely, even at -these low prices. But a panic was checked by the prompt action of -the Brazilian Government, in claiming the working of the mines as a -royal monopoly, and also regulating the supply. In this condition of -affairs the working of the mines and the trade remain at the present -day; but the African discoveries and free explorations may change -this restriction and monopoly if the Cape fields continue to yield -their present supply. According to the estimates of Baron d’Eschwège, -the quantity of diamonds obtained from the Brazilian mines under the -Government restrictions averaged between 1730 and 1814 thirty-six -thousand karats annually, the cost of which amounted to nearly four -dollars per karat.</p> - -<p>From a variety of causes the supply gradually diminished until about -the year 1830, when the diminution was so great, coupled with the -increased cost of exploration, that the rough stones cost eight dollars -per karat. In 1843 the discovery of the Bahia mines increased greatly -the yearly supply, which was then about thirty thousand karats. For two -years after the discovery of the Sincora mines<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> the supply amounted to -six hundred thousand karats. But the great distance of the mines from -the large towns and the coast, the fearful malaria which prevailed -in the district, together with the difficulty of obtaining supplies, -have prevented the working of the mines to any great extent; and in -consequence the supply in 1852 sank to one hundred and thirty thousand -karats. In 1732 the price of the rough gem was five dollars per karat, -but in three years after it rose to about eight dollars per karat, and -remained at that figure as late as 1742.</p> - -<p>The Brazilian diamonds are generally very small compared with those -yielded by some of the India mines, like that of Gani, which produced a -great many gems of ten to forty karats weight. Of the Brazilian yield -it was found by Professor Tennant that out of one thousand diamonds, -one half weighed less than half a karat; three hundred, less than one -karat; eighty, one and a half karats; one hundred and nineteen varied -from two to twenty karats, and only one reached twenty-four karats.</p> - -<p>Brazil still exports annually diamonds to the value of several millions -of dollars, but the exploration has probably been checked by the influx -from South Africa and the consequent fall in prices.</p> - -<p>Out of the immense number of gems yielded by these mines,—the district -of Minas Geraes is said to have produced two tons in weight,—it is -strange that more large gems have not been found.</p> - -<p>Quite a number of diamonds exceeding fifty karats<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> have been -discovered, and several over one hundred karats, the largest being -known as the Star of the South, which weighed two hundred and -fifty-four karats. This fine gem was found in 1853 in the mines of -Begagem by a negress. It was in the form of a dodecahedral crystal. -Another fine gem, called the Abaethe, was found in 1797 in the alluvium -of the river Abaethe. Three convicts, banished into the interior of the -savage country, wandered about from thicket to thicket and mountain -to mountain, in hope of discovering some treasure that would restore -them again to their friends. After six years of weary wanderings and -severe privations they at length stumbled upon a diamond of one hundred -and five karats in the bed of the river above named. They ventured -to return to the inhabited regions and confided their good fortune -to a priest. He took them at once to the Governor of Villa-Rica, who -suspended the sentence of the convicts and sent the priest to Rio -Janeiro with the gem.</p> - -<p>A frigate was despatched with the treasure and the clergyman to Lisbon. -The King, delighted with his acquisition, fully pardoned the convicts -and advanced the priest to a high rank in his profession.</p> - -<p>Many attempts have been made to trace the diamonds of Minas Geraes to -primitive and unbroken rocks on the more elevated plateaux or even -among the more distant mountains. And sometimes the gems have been -found in cascalho at a great elevation, or perhaps in crevices of the -sandstones; and hence the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> idea has arisen that the solid matrix has -been found. The cascalho is the true matrix, whether found in the -lowlands or on the mountain peaks. The color of this conglomerate is -not uniform and varies in many districts. At the rich <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Antonio’s -mine it is of a dark gray; at the Veneno it is of a light ochre with -lumps cemented with ferruginous oxide; in the Pitanga mine it is of -a light gray and almost white, and contains but few diamonds, but of -the finest quality. The observer is sometimes led to believe that the -abundance of the ferruginous oxide is evidence of the abundance of -gems, and this fact is also noticed in the famous mines of Ceylon, -where, however, the diamond does not occur.</p> - -<p>Concerning the accounts of finding the diamonds in Brazil in their -native rock, as described by Claussen and later still by Redington, -we are not yet willing to give full credence any more than to the -stories of diamonds having been found in the “old rock” in India. We -have no doubt of the gem having been found in what appears to be a -soft sandstone, but which is in reality a secondary product like the -heterogeneous cascalho. And we can conceive this sandstone-like deposit -to be formed at the bottom of lagoons under like conditions which gave -origin to the conglomerate.</p> - -<p>Claussen published in the Bulletins of the Academy of Sciences and -Belles-lettres at Brussels, in 1841, an interesting account of his -observations while searching for a matrix of the diamond.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span></p> - -<p>He affirms that the gems are found at the mines of Grammagon in beds -of a soft sandstone, which he calls a psammite sandstone, and which -resembles the itacolumite, which is much harder. He also describes -several specimens in which the gems are embedded in the sandstone, -but admits that they are not very common. The same writer mentions -instances where they are said to have occurred between plates of mica -like the flattened garnets. Furthermore, he states that the crystals -found in the itacolumite are rounded octahedrons and those found in -psammite sandstone are perfect octahedrons.</p> - -<p>Claussen, although he believed the itacolumite to be the matrix of -the gem, was unable to explain its total absence in places where the -itacolumite was greatly developed. He was also forced, when tracing -the origin of the cascalho, to admit the existence of a secondary -itacolumite posterior to the transition formation.</p> - -<p>It is interesting as well as perplexing to follow the multitude of -views expressed by mineralogists when attempting to explain the -formation of the diamond. Most of them are determined to give the -gem an ancient origin, and insist upon the action of plutonic forces -upon dioritic veins. Humboldt maintained that the gems of the Ural -Mountains had a geological relation to the carboniferous dolomite of -Adolfskoi as well as to augitic porphyry. But Verneuil and Murchison, -examining the mines, found the alluvia which contained the diamonds -had no carbon;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> therefore the hypothesis was incorrect, and the matrix -of the stone must be sought in another direction. The mines of Brazil -have been examined during a century past by a number of geologists and -amateurs like Mawe, Martins, <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Hilaire, Claussen, Eschwège, Burton, -Hartt, and others; and to their works we must refer the reader for -extended descriptions of the geological features of the country and the -peculiarities of the gem mines.</p> - -<p>In the recent exploration of the diamond fields by Professor Hartt, the -Professor decidedly opposes the views of Claussen by saying, “I do not -believe that the diamond ever occurs in the true palaeozoic itacolumite -in Brazil, but that it is derived from the tertiary sandstones.” -After casual examination of the diamond-bearing sands of the mines -in Bahia, he is also led to believe that they have resulted from the -disintegration of Chapada sandstones; and he regrets that they have -never been critically examined, for he thinks that the mystery of the -origin of the diamond may be solved from their study.</p> - -<p>However, from the multitude of hypotheses to which the study of the -subject has given rise, we find nothing to shake our confidence in the -belief of the formation of the diamond in the secondary gravel beds -where they are now found.</p> - -<p>Shortly after the opening of the Bahia mines, black, brown, and even -clay-colored pebbles were found associated with the transparent -diamonds in the cascalho. These pebbles were of various sizes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> -generally quite small, but sometimes appearing in masses as large as -one thousand karats. Their nature was not at first recognized, and they -were thrown aside with all other stones of little or no value. Finally -a quantity was gathered and sent to a merchant in Paris, where they -were seen by Count de Douhet. The Count in 1867 presented a notice -of them to the Academy of Sciences and pronounced them to be massive -carbon, and a variety of the diamond. The exact localities in Brazil -where it occurs we are unable to describe, but believe them to be -situated in the Province of Bahia. As to the quantity gathered we are -also unable to give a definite opinion, but have reason to think that -it is quite limited; and, moreover, we have yet to learn that it occurs -in any other diamond mines in the world.</p> - -<p>The color of the carbon, or carbonado, as it is called by the -Brazilians, is generally black, but it may be light-brown or of a -greenish gray color, when diluted with clay. It is always opaque, but -is not always compact, being sometimes quite porous, like pumice-stone. -It never crystallizes, but generally appears in angular pieces in lumps -or concretionary masses whose specific gravity is 3 to 3.4, while that -of the transparent diamond is 3.5.</p> - -<p>The black and perfectly crystallized diamond, which is very rare, is -not to be confounded with this variety.</p> - -<p>The hardness of the carbon is equal to that of the transparent diamond, -and probably some of the purest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> and most compact specimens are harder -even than the limpid variety; for the black gems are generally harder -than the light-colored, and we have for instances the deep-blue -sapphire, the black tourmaline, etc.</p> - -<p>At first this newly discovered mineral was pulverized, and its powdered -dust used to polish diamonds and other gems, and was then sold for a -few francs the karat. Lately, however, science has applied its use to -new inventions; and the demand for it in its application to the drill -and the saw has increased its value to several dollars the karat, and -the price is still increasing. Its advantages over the crystallized -varieties are very decided, and it is as hard and has no cleavage -planes, and is therefore far better able to resist the effects of shock.</p> - -<p>The only diamond known to have been found in modern times in Western -Europe is that picked up in a brook in the County of Fermanagh in -Ireland. Its weight was not given, but it was stated to be of a reddish -cast and valued by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Rundell at twenty guineas. Some mineralogists -have maintained that the stone in question was not in place and was -probably brought in the crop of some bird of passage from Brazil or the -tropical countries of America.</p> - -<p>To us, however, a more plausible and probable theory would be that the -stone was in place, and that its presence is no more remarkable than -the gold nuggets found in the same country. In fact, this instance -is no more strange than the finding of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> great American diamond -in Virginia, which was also a solitaire and many miles below the -auriferous fields whence it is supposed to have drifted. We shall not -be surprised to learn of the occurrence of diamonds in other parts -of Europe. Pliny ends his chapter on the diamond by stating on the -authority of Scepsius that diamonds are found in Germany and in the -island of Basilia along with amber.</p> - -<p>Eastern Russia was long ago suspected of being diamondiferous; and as -early as 1826 Maurice Englehardt pointed out the resemblance of the -Ural districts to those of Brazil. It was, however, left to Humboldt -and his companions to make known the actual occurrence of these gems -in this country. For in 1829, during their visit to Siberia, they -discovered several diamonds on the estates of Count Porlier, about one -hundred and sixty miles west of Perm, on the western declivity of the -Ural Mountains. Active search having been instituted, forty diamonds -were found in the detritus on the banks of the Adolfskoi. Strange to -relate, they were discovered in the gold-bearing alluvium twenty feet -above the stratum containing bones of mammoths and rhinoceroses. Since -this period they have also been found at several other places along the -Uralian chain.</p> - -<p>In commenting upon the occurrence of these diamonds of the Adolfskoi -which are preserved in the collection of Prince Butera, some of our -best geologists have come to a startling conclusion.</p> - -<p>Humboldt, Sir Roderick Murchison, and M. Verneuil,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> obtaining -information from different points in Siberia, have been led to the -belief that the diamond in these localities was formed at a date -subsequent to the destruction of the mammoths.</p> - -<p>Since this period Colonel Helmersen has made known other points along -the Uralian chain of mountains where the gem has been found, as -Ekaterinsburg, Kushvinsk, and Versch-Urak. But we have no information -of “placers” of any considerable extent having been discovered, or -the finding of the gem in sufficient numbers to warrant systematic -explorations.</p> - -<p>Future research may reveal other localities in Siberia where this gem -occurs, for the country was known to the ancients as furnishing the -adamas.</p> - -<p>Amnian in the fourth century mentions the region of Agathyrsi as one of -the gem-bearing countries; and this country included the Ural Mountains -and part of Siberia. It is not at all strange that the exact localities -should have been forgotten during the long intervening space of time -and the many political convulsions that have interrupted commercial -intercourse with those far-off regions.</p> - -<p>It was well known that Scythia furnished the ancients with gold for -centuries; but in modern times all trace of the localities was lost -until revealed by the researches of German miners exploring for copper -and iron. Stranger still, the locality of the gold mines in Spain, so -famous in ancient times, is unknown at the present day.</p> - -<p>The gold fields of the Southern States of North<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> America have been -known to be diamond-bearing for forty years or more, but as yet no -earnest or well-directed search has been made for the gems. During -this period of time more than thirty diamonds have been picked up by -accident along the gold belt which extends from the central and eastern -portion of Alabama, through Georgia, North and South Carolina, even -to the interior of Virginia. All along this auriferous formation the -itacolumite appears in the gravel beds or in ledges or even in large -mountains in some localities.</p> - -<p>In Alabama, where the itacolumite is abundant, several fine diamonds of -three or four karats weight have been found.</p> - -<p>The northeastern portion of Georgia has also yielded some beautiful -stones to the miners while washing for gold. Some of these we have -seen and found them to be of the purest water. The Glade mines, a few -miles north of Gainesville, have yielded several fine diamonds, some -of which have been cut in London. They were found by accident in the -riffles of the gold-washing machines, and were preserved by the miners -simply as curiosities. At the Horshaw gold mines, a few miles farther -to the northeast, a large diamond was picked up, but unfortunately -destroyed by the ignorance of the laborers, who unluckily reasoned -like the ancients concerning its destructibility, and therefore tried -the effects of a heavy sledge upon it while placed on an anvil. An -examination of this last deposit in 1866 convinced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> the writer that it -was a true diamond field; and search was rewarded with the finding of -two small but well-crystallized diamonds. So far as we can ascertain, -all the diamonds thus far discovered in these regions have been finely -crystallized.</p> - -<p>North Carolina has also yielded some fine specimens of three and four -karats weight; but the largest diamond thus far found in the United -States and preserved was picked up in 1856 on the banks of the James -River, opposite the city of Richmond in Virginia. The spring floods -had probably washed it down from the gold fields which are situated a -few miles above. The stone was a well-defined octahedral crystal. Its -weight, while in the rough state, was about twenty-five karats, and -its color was of a faint greenish white tinge. Its transparency was -perfect, but its refractions were somewhat impaired by a flaw or a -speck in the interior.</p> - -<p>The American diamond-cutting establishment of Morse, Crosby, & Foss, of -Boston, cut this gem very successfully at the cost of about $1,300. The -stone was purchased by a distinguished American athlete in New York, -and worn by him in a breast-pin for many years.</p> - -<p>None of these diamond fields have been examined systematically by -experienced miners with a view to their development, and in fact no -definite idea of their limit or their value can be given. But we have -the impression that they are far more extensive than has been imagined -by mineralogists.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> The returning gem-seekers who have been educated -in the diamond mines of South Africa may investigate ere long these -unknown districts and settle the question beyond further inquiry. In -California, a few diamonds are reported to have been found here and -there among the gold fields, but nothing like a gem placer has yet -been revealed. The geological formations of Arizona and New Mexico are -more promising than any part of the United States, and explorations -may disclose extensive and valuable gem deposits in those regions. -The originators of the famous diamond swindle in Arizona chose their -locality with more than ordinary sagacity.</p> - -<p>The account of this daring scheme reads more like romance than reality, -and it was more than ordinary boldness that prompted the perpetrators -to visit foreign lands, purchase quantities of rough diamonds and then -plant them in a distant, desolate, and hostile country to entrap the -wary speculator. The success of this piracy was fortunately checked -by the sagacity of one of the United States geologists exploring the -adjacent territory, who quickly disclosed the fraud, but not in time -to prevent the swindlers from pocketing large sums of money from -speculators in California.</p> - -<p>Pliny mentioned Arabia as one of the localities of the gem; but modern -investigators believe that he founded his views on the facts of the -diamonds being obtained from Arabian merchants, and that they really -came from other countries.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span></p> - -<p>This probably is the true version of the commerce of the Arabians -in those days; but we see no objection to the belief that Arabia -may have been a diamond-bearing country in early times, and may -possess undeveloped fields at the present day. Northern Africa was -also asserted to be diamond yielding, and modern investigators have -established the truth of the assertion.</p> - -<p>In the year 1867 the attention of gem-seekers was turned to vague -reports of the discovery of rich diamond fields in South Africa, and -the pages of history were examined closely to prove that in ancient -times this continent was known as a diamond country. It is undoubtedly -true that Africa yielded diamonds to the ancients, for within thirty -years several have been found in Algiers, and are now preserved in -the collections of Paris. They were discovered in the auriferous -sands of the river Goumal, in the Province of Constantine, by natives -while washing for gold. They were small in size but of unmistakable -character. This discovery strengthens the ancient report of the -Carthaginians’ procuring the gems from the Etrurians, who brought them -from the interior of Africa.</p> - -<p>In 1867 a diamond was discovered by accident in the soil several -hundred miles north of the Cape of Good Hope. The report was not -credited, and it was not until a number had been found and tested that -the attention of adventurous men was fairly aroused. Success soon -rewarded the labors<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> of the first bands of gem-seekers; and the news, -widespread over the world, soon brought thousands of determined and -hardy men, who are even yet earnestly exploring the gem districts and -also revolutionizing the country.</p> - -<p>The gem mines now under process of exploration are situated on the -Vaal River and its tributaries, the best of them being found near the -junction of the Vaal and Orange Rivers and from five to six hundred -miles north of the Cape. The locality known as Du Toits Pan soon -became famous and yielded a great number of diamonds, some of them -over 100 karats and one reaching the great weight of 288³⁄₄ karats. -The topography of the country around these mines is characterized by -low, flat-topped hills, which strike the observer at once by their -singularity. The storm clouds, their frequency, their dull gray hue, -their constant commotion, and the nearness of their approach to the -earth are also quickly noticed by the new-comer, so strangely different -are they from the ordinary atmospheric changes.</p> - -<p>Five miles to the north of Du Toits occurs one of the most remarkable -mines yet discovered in any part of the world. It is called Colesberg -Kopje, and although one of the richest spots of the globe, it is also -one of the meanest places on God’s earth. Several thousand men have -been actively engaged upon it for a number of years past, and many -thousand diamonds have been taken from it. So rich<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> has been its yield -that it is stated that four thousand have been obtained in a single day.</p> - -<p>The extent of the excavation is enormous, and yet all has been done by -simple and even rude means. But little advantage has been taken of the -use of machinery and skilled labor, and most of the operations have -been conducted in a primitive manner. The distance to the coast and the -great expense of transportation is perhaps the principal reason why -different and more satisfactory arrangements have not been made.</p> - -<p>The photographs of the appearance of this field and its excavations -strike one with amazement. The countless array of tents in the distance -on the borders of the deposit; the thousands of busy miners; the huge -and deep ditches stretching across the plain, vast enough to float a -fleet of men-of-war; the lofty mounds of thrown-up earth,—all together -present a startling picture never to be forgotten.</p> - -<p>The depths of these enormous ditches vary from ten to more than one -hundred feet.</p> - -<p>All this herculean labor has been performed in less than twenty years -under the stimulus of extraordinary prosperity, and it indicates a -determination to explore the country thoroughly.</p> - -<p>As yet there has been no complete survey of these regions, and the -extent of the diamond fields is still unknown. Sufficient evidence, -however, has been received to indicate that they cover an area of one -thousand square miles, and are situated principally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> in the Orange -River Free State, but also extend into the Transvaal Republic and Cape -Colony. These districts alone will afford remunerative labor for some -time to come, and we have little doubt but that other fields of even -greater extent will before long be discovered in other parts of Africa.</p> - -<p>For a long time past we have been led to regard this continent as -containing the most extensive and richest diamond deposits on the -globe. A great portion of Africa belongs to the geological conditions -which produce the diamonds, and the present explorations will educate -a host of gem-seekers, who will not only investigate other parts of -Africa, but will also explore other countries. Therefore we may expect -the diamond trade to receive a strong impetus for some years to come, -and that new mines may for a time reduce the present prices of the gem.</p> - -<p>The largest diamond yet afforded by the South Africa mines is that -called the Stewart. It was found at Waldeck’s plant, in November, 1872, -by a man named Antonies. Its form was that of a modified octahedron, -beautifully crystallized, and exhibiting a faint tinge of yellow. -On the outside of the crystal were a few specks and flaws, but the -interior appears to be free from imperfections. Its original weight was -288³⁄₈ karats.</p> - -<p>A vast number of the diamonds found in these fields are tinged with a -faint hue, generally yellow or faint brown. This peculiarity was also -noticed with the yield of the Brazilian mines.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span></p> - -<p>It is quite impossible to give a correct account of the quantity -afforded by these mines up to the present time. It amounts to many -millions of dollars, and is sufficiently large to produce a marked -effect upon the market, but nothing like the panic which followed the -discovery of the Brazilian mines. The value of the diamonds exported at -Cape Town in 1871 is said to have been $7,500,000, but it was probably -much greater.</p> - -<p>Australia has afforded to the gold miners quite a number of small -diamond crystals, and gem fields undoubtedly occur within its -borders. Among the auriferous sands of the Maguarie River minute -crystals have been picked by the careless miner from time to time, -and other localities have also afforded specimens of the mineral, but -no systematic search has yet been made for them. A number of these -specimens of diamonds, although of minute form, were exhibited at -Melbourne in 1865.</p> - -<p>The islands of Java and Sumatra yield diamonds among their mineral -treasures, but, strange to say, the island of Ceylon, which is the -most remarkable gem deposit in the world, does not produce a single -specimen. The island is not far distant from the gem districts of lower -Bengal. The formation appears to be of the same character, but it is -evident that the geological conditions which deposited the sapphire, -the zircon, spinel, etc., differed from those required by the diamond.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br><span class="small">ORIGIN OF THE DIAMOND.</span></h2> - - -<p>The origin of this precious stone has been a favorite study with man -from the earliest times of its history; and, as we have already stated, -it has given birth to a multitude of hypotheses.</p> - -<p>The peculiar fascination which attends the contemplation of the gems -arises partly from their commercial distinction, as well as from -certain mysterious properties with which they have been invested not -only by tradition but even by scientific research.</p> - -<p>We will not, however, venture to affirm that they are more wonderful or -deserving of a higher place in the estimation of man than the beautiful -and more transient flowers of vegetation. Both are indeed objects of -our highest consideration.</p> - -<p>The transparent diamonds always occur in crystalline forms, although -they sometimes appear almost amorphous or even cylindrical or globular. -Its primitive form, however, is the octahedron.</p> - -<p>They are found generally in limited deposits, which are often as -shallow and well defined as the gold fields, which are termed placers; -and therefore we will also call the diamond fields “diamond placers.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span></p> - -<p>In some “placers” the shapes of the crystals are perfectly regular, -while in others they are greatly modified and rendered indistinct. In -some mines they occur in fine octahedrons with beautifully truncated -edges, but in other districts the rare form of the regular cube may -abound. Every section of the diamond-bearing countries seems to have -some peculiarity either in color, form, or arrangement of crystal. It -is indeed true that experts, from an examination of the rough specimen, -are sometimes able to detect the locality whence the diamond was -obtained. The same facility may be applied to the natural crystals of -other gems, but it cannot be established as a fixed or general rule. -The diamond “placers,” distinct and well defined, are far more numerous -on the earth’s crust than is generally believed.</p> - -<p>A thousand plausible and often ingenious theories on the geological -character of the diamond have been advanced in modern times or within -a century past; and a great variety of rocks or mineral substances -extending from itacolumite to xanthophyllite have been affirmed to be -the parent mineral. The real matrix, or such as we believe it to be, -of the diamond is the same all over the world. The associate minerals -which form the conglomerate in which it is generally found may vary -somewhat, but the character of the deposit is but little changed. This -matrix is a secondary product, and consists of a conglomerate gravel -which once abounded in remains of animal and vegetable life.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span></p> - -<p>The keen eye of Buffon early detected the formation of the true gem -strata; and believing that the gems were produced in these peculiar -beds by the solar forces, he boldly asserted that they were formed in -the superficial strata from <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> of older formations, mineral, -animal, and vegetable. “On ne peut leur donner d’autre origine, d’autre -matrice que la terre limoneuse qui rassemblant les debris des autres -matieres.”</p> - -<p>This matrix is a well-defined conglomerate, which is found generally -on elevated plateaux, and which corresponds to the bottoms of shallow -lagoons or lakes of inconsiderable depth. In the earthy portion, -which is composed of a variety of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i>, occur the diamonds, -interspersed among the quartz or rock pebbles, and in a marked and -continuous layer. These formations are well known to the geologist, for -they occur in almost every country on the globe.</p> - -<p>In various parts of the earth’s structure we find solid strata -of conglomerate and sandstone, which have been formed at distant -and different periods of the world’s history. In other places we -may observe the loose materials of the same formation awaiting -transformation when exposed to the action of water highly charged with -iron, lime, or silica, and we may even see the process taking place at -the present day. For example, we will take the broad tracts of level -country known in the south of France as the “Landes.” Here we have an -excellent illustration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> of the formation of the gem beds, lacking, -however, the precious stones. Below the surface of these plains, and -generally at the depth of about three feet, a conglomerate called -“allios” has formed, and is still in the process of forming. This stony -layer, which is composed of quartz pebbles mixed with sand, has been -cemented strongly together by the vegetable and organic matter which -has trickled down from the surface of the earth during indefinite -periods of time. The action of this organic <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> soon renders -the conglomerate quite impervious to water, and retards its passing -into the sand beds or other strata below. In consequence thereof these -broad tracts of level lands become stagnant lagoons of water during -the rainy seasons, and all the remains of vegetable and other organic -life sink down into these layers of stone, gradually filling up the -interstices among the rocks and lesser pebbles.</p> - -<p>This collection of decayed various organic substances is generally -of a gray or blackish color, or may be of a rusty yellow-hue like -ferruginous sandstone. Its cementing power has given a special name -to the formation it has caused; and to the gold-miner it is known as -hard-pan, to the gem-seeker as cascalho or “mellan.” Its peculiar hue, -together with the metallic fracture of its layers, has given rise to -the belief that it was composed chiefly of a ferruginous oxide. Recent -analysis, however, of the “allios” has shown that this idea is partly -erroneous, and that the color and the substance of the formation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> in -reality arises from the juice and <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> of plants loaded with -tannin and other matter. Iron, it seems from these investigations, is -present only in small quantities, and also is afforded by the secretion -of vegetable life. However, the quantity of iron in the conglomerate -varies considerably in different localities, but most of it seems to be -acquired from the action of vegetable vitality.</p> - -<p>These conglomerates of the Landes have been a long time in process of -formation; but in other localities, like those of the Cape de Verde, -to which the waves of the sea have had access, we may witness the -transformation going on with rapidity. No great time is required by -nature for this production, but rather the application or conjunction -of certain materials exposed to the action of chemical changes and -telluric forces.</p> - -<p>It has been asserted that the diamond has been found embedded in -the singular quartzite to which Count D’Eschwège gave the name of -itacolumite, but we are inclined from examination of one of these -specimens to think that its presence is quite accidental.</p> - -<p>In the State of Georgia there are immense beds of itacolumite, -appearing, also, here and there along the auriferous formation which -extends from Virginia to central Alabama; and they afford ample fields -for proof of the statement that the mineral is really the true matrix -of the gem. But, after careful examination of some of these exposed -rocks, we are led to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> regard the itacolumite as an associate mineral -to the diamond, and that any farther connection with the gem is very -distant. Fragments of this rock are quite often found together with -quartz in the conglomerate; but we do not regard their presence -as essential as that of a ferruginous oxide, which is one of the -distinguishing features of all gem mines, and especially of the famous -deposits of Ceylon, where the diamond is never found.</p> - -<p>The best and most characteristic mines of India, Brazil, and Africa are -situated on elevated plateaux, where there is at present but little -vegetation.</p> - -<p>To give the reader an idea of the formation, we will describe one -of the districts of South Africa, which may serve to illustrate all -others. At Pnict Kopje, in the Vaal region, the diamonds are found -on an elevated plateau one hundred and fifty feet above the river -bed; and many of them have been discovered but two or three feet -below the surface, in company with fossil wood and even bones. In the -Orange River Republic they occur frequently in peculiar isolated and -circumscribed spots, called by the miners “pans.” These are basin-like -hollows which are filled with water during the wet seasons. In these -pans none of the diamonds exhibit signs of abrasion caused by shock -or attrition, although the quartz pebbles forming the gravel and -conglomerate show in their rounded angles evidences of aqueous action. -The gems are not only found in the shallow edges of these hollows, -but are taken from depths of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> one hundred feet and more. And they are -always found in their peculiar and connected conglomerate, which seems -to have formed at the bottom of some pool or lake. Hence we may explain -the superficial depth of the cascalho at the shores of the extinct -pond, and the increased depth at central parts of the fields. If motion -had taken place among the pebbles forming the conglomerate after the -deposition of the diamond, we might properly look for worn surfaces on -the gems from shock with contact with loose rocks; for slight blows -will mar the surface of the diamond, even if its edges scratch all -other minerals with perfect ease.</p> - -<p>In these pans the diamonds are natural in form, indicating that they -have not moved since the time they were deposited. But in the beds of -the rivers which have in later times worn deep ravines in the face of -the country we find diamonds with abraded surfaces, having been rolled -about by the torrents for indefinite periods of time. Whence come the -alluvial soils and the gravel beds which cover the gem strata and -completely fill up the lake depression, especially when there are no -surrounding elevations to furnish disintegrated material?</p> - -<p>This serious question will naturally arise in the minds of all -observers; and to answer it clearly will be a difficult task. Sometimes -the thought occurs to us that much of the quartz gravel has formed in -these pools at subsequent periods and has been broken up and rolled -about by the waves until<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> another stratum of alluvium has formed above -it; but we will not venture to assert an opinion to this effect. -Still, it is a great mystery to ascertain whence some of the quartz -pebbles came from in the present elevated condition of the placers and -the absence of similar rocks in the vicinity. There is another fact -connected with the diamond placers which deserves consideration, and -that is their great elevation above the sea level.</p> - -<p>The mines of India, Africa, and Brazil are situated at a considerable -altitude above the ocean. Those of India are generally a thousand feet -above the sea level; while the wonderful gem mines of the adjacent -island of Ceylon, which are also true placers, occur but few feet above -the line of the tides, but do not yield the diamond. It is certainly -remarkable that Ceylon does not afford this gem among the great number -of other precious stones. At first thought the idea occurs to the -observer that as flora and fauna have their distribution according to -certain elevations a similar rule may be applied to the deposition of -minerals. But there are too many exceptions known to oppose this view, -however pleasing the theory may be.</p> - -<p>One of the strongest arguments in favor of the theory of the recent -deposition of the gem is connected with its discovery in the gold mines -of the Adolfskoi in Siberia. Here they were found in alluvial strata -twenty feet above those deposits which contained the bones of the -mammoth and the rhinoceros.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> Hence Humboldt, Murchison, and Verneuil -were led to the conclusion that they had been deposited there since the -introduction of animal life. There are also some remarkable evidences -to sustain the view that these gems were formed in the conglomerate -and earth where they are now found. In some of the mines of India they -have been taken out of red earth with the earth clinging to their -sides as if it had become attached to them, while the crystals were -of a soft, glutinous substance. In the Museum of Rio Janeiro there is -a large rounded diamond which has very distinct impressions of grains -of sand upon its sides. The British Museum contains an octahedral -crystal attached to alluvial gold, and <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Nello Franka mentions -another which enclosed a leaf of gold. A number of specimens have been -observed containing splinters of ferruginous quartz and crystals of -other substances. The microscope often reveals in the interior of these -stones germs of fungi and even vegetable fibres of higher organization, -some of which resemble the moss-like appearance seen in the moss agates.</p> - -<p>It was from the study of these conditions, connected with the fact -that the stone becomes black when strongly heated, that Goppert was -led to assert that it could not be of igneous origin. It was also -from investigation of the refractive powers of the gem that Sir David -Brewster was induced to assume the hypothesis that it was, or that -it might be, a congealed secretion of a vegetable production.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> This -distinguished philosopher was seeking a perfect lens for microscopic -use; and discovered that the diamond, notwithstanding its immense -refractive power, was of very doubtful character in its adaptation -to this purpose, and that its laminæ were sometimes of different -shades and even arranged in a series of stratification. They not only -differed from each other in color and purity, but did not exhibit a -common focus. Therefore, Brewster was led to infer from these and other -phenomena that the mineral was of vegetable origin, and that its parts -must have been held in solution before crystallization took place.</p> - -<p>There is nothing very startling in this hypothesis, no more so than -in the case of the amber, which is now admitted to be a fossil resin, -and which is, in its refractive powers, second only to the diamond. -Therefore we cannot object to the theory of vegetable origin on account -of the property of brilliancy.</p> - -<p>Tavernier observed that the color of the diamonds in India -often partook of the color of the gravel in which they were -deposited,—white, reddish, blackish, or greenish, according to the -color and purity of the matrix. This fact has also been noticed in -Brazil; and it lends support to the view that the gems have been -deposited under stagnant water, and have received some tinge from its -color.</p> - -<p>The diamond is admitted by microscopists to be one of the foulest gems -known to them; and specimens are rare that do not exhibit cavities, -imperfections,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span> or foreign matter in their interior. A painstaking -microscopist, after examining the large collection of rough crystals -of the East India Company in London, which numbered several hundred -specimens, came to the following conclusion: “It seems to be a general -truth that there are comparatively few diamonds without cavities and -flaws, and that the diamond is a fouler stone than any other used in -jewelry.”</p> - -<p>Berzelius first called attention to a black substance which he found in -a diamond belonging to the collection of Countess Porlier; and since -then many other examples have been observed. Frequently black specks -resembling anthracite have been noticed in the Brazilian diamonds. -Tavernier saw in India a large diamond of one hundred and four karats, -whose central portion was so foul as to render the stone worthless. -When it was cut open the cavity yielded about eight karats of filth, -resembling that of a rotten weed.</p> - -<p>The diamond is now recognized by the chemist as a crystalline form -of pure carbon. Newton, in 1675, with the wonderful penetration of -his genius, and reasoning from the high refractive power of the gem, -which so far exceeded the degree due its density, believed it to be -combustible. More than a century later the experimentalists of the -Academy of Florence strengthened this view by destroying it in the -focus of powerful burning mirrors. Lavoisier, however, dispelled -all doubts concerning its combustibility by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> burning it under a -receiver filled with oxygen gas. It has since been ascertained that -a temperature of 14° Wedgewood completely volatilizes the diamond, -producing carbonic acid gas. An English experimentalist, however, has -recently declared that the gem may be consumed at a red heat, and -maintains that he has accomplished this result by enveloping the stone -in certain alkalies.</p> - -<p>It has been admitted by eminent geologists that the diamond proceeded -from the slow decomposition of vegetable material, and even animal -matter, as the requisite carbon could be obtained from either source. -But they have also strenuously maintained that the gem was formed -under the same conditions of heat as produced the metamorphism of -argillaceous and arenaceous schists, these schists being supposed -to have once been altered from shales impregnated with carbonaceous -substances of organic origin. To this theory the revelations of the -microscope offer decisive objections, since this instrument shows that -there has been no action of heat in the formation of the stone, for the -vegetable remains often detected in the interior of the mineral forbid -the development of any considerable degree of caloric. Therefore, as -there is no evidence of the influence or effect of heat upon these -organic matters within the diamond, the theory must be abandoned.</p> - -<p>Geologists have been, perhaps, too tenacious in their views of the -origin of many of the rocks that compose the earth’s crust, and -especially in maintaining<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span> that many crystalline rocks are as old -as the dawn of creation. We know that some of these minerals may be -produced artificially at the present day, and that the forces that -arranged all rocks of a high molecular organization are still in force.</p> - -<p>We sometimes speak of old crystalline rocks with the inference that -their age is beyond comparison, and therefore undetermined. Yet -the microscope is constantly lessening the force of these views by -revealing prodigious numbers of minute and animal forms in fossil -condition in various kinds of crystalline rocks.</p> - -<p>We also observe that various forms of silex have been deposited on the -earth in recent periods of its history, and even since the appearance -of animal life, for we find their remains transformed into agate. Thus -it is evident that nature still possesses the power to deposit certain -forms of mineral substances.</p> - -<p>Arago and Biot, reasoning from the energy of the refractive power of -the diamond, were inclined to believe that it contained hydrogen. Sir -Humphrey Davy suspected the presence of oxygen, but sought for it in -vain after many careful experiments. Chaucourtois, however, deriving -a theory from chemical results, came to the view that the stone is -derived by the humid process from a hydrocarburet. Reasoning from the -process of forming sulphur from hydro-sulphuretted emanations, he -believed that in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> humid oxidation of a carburetted hydrogen the -hydrogen is oxidized, while part of the carbon becomes carbonic acid, -and the rest remains as carbon and may crystallize into diamond.</p> - -<p>Supposing this hypothesis to be correct, where do you find the required -materials for the formation of the diamond? the reader may ask. At -the bottom of these lagoons the decomposition of organic matter -furnished abundant means for the production of the gem. Carbonic acid -is everywhere produced from the decomposition of animal and vegetable -matter. It is constantly evolved from the earth, and has the property -of decomposing many of the hardest rocks. It is the cause of that -mysterious decay which Dolomieu called “La maladie du granite.”</p> - -<p>In carburetted hydrogen we have the united force of two of the most -active substances known as organogens, or generators of organic bodies. -But of the vast range of their properties, their affinities, and their -interior changes we are still profoundly ignorant. We may, however, -easily recognize the fact that their combinations and also almost every -other chemical compound may be decomposed by electricity or galvanism.</p> - -<p>Here then we have a clew, though perhaps distant, to the formation -of the gem. Is not the production of drops of water by passing the -electric spark through a mixture of hydrogen and atmospheric oxygen -suggestive of the manner in which the diamond<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> might be formed from -carburetted hydrogen? It is true this experiment in the laboratory -has failed to produce the transparent and crystalline form of carbon, -although it has thrown down the element in an amorphous state. This -failure is by no means decisive, for many of the simple acts of nature -are beyond the imitative power of man.</p> - -<p>And then again the chemist may exclaim, “How is it possible for the gem -to be produced in this manner, when the combination of these elementary -bodies is always or nearly always attended with the development of a -considerable degree of heat, while the diamond contains at times germs -of organic matter? Would not these organic remains be destroyed during -this process? On the contrary, they do not exhibit the least trace of -the effect of combustion or even heat, and are as well defined as the -insects in the fossil resins.” In reply we will point to the formation -of fulgurites through the agency of the lightning without the evolution -of heat.</p> - -<p>History presents some almost incredible examples of the stupidity and -obstinacy of mankind in the explanation of natural phenomena. It seems -quite impossible that when the German philosopher Chladni, less than -a century ago, asserted that meteorites were extra-terranean bodies, -the Academies of Europe laughed at him in scorn. Several meteoric -showers falling in Europe shortly after did not convince the bigoted -philosophers. And when Pictet in 1802 read a paper before the French -Institute in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> favor of the theory, he was insulted by his learned -audience. It was not until a year afterwards, when the great meteoric -shower occurred in Normandy, that Biot, deputized by the French -Government, succeeded in convincing the most sceptical. Yet only a few -years previous De Luc, the first meteorologist of Europe, the founder -of geology, declared that he would not believe it even if a stone -should fall at his feet from the skies. In 1751, Peysonnel presented -to the Academy of Sciences at Naples an elaborate memoir in which he -very plainly proved that the coral belonged to the animal and not -the vegetable kingdom. But his admirable paper was hooted at by the -European naturalists; and even the distinguished philosopher Reaumur -declared that the idea which was advanced was really too absurd to be -discussed.</p> - -<p>When we come to review the hypotheses of science during the last -century, we shall feel more inclined to be generous and flexible in our -views of natural phenomena.</p> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Than are dreamt of in your philosophy.”</span><br> -</p> - -<p>The nodular or globular forms of the gem present no serious objection -to the idea of vegetable or animal origin; and we may refer for -argument to the calcareous nodules of the old red sandstone. These -concretionary and radiated masses are merely sarcophagi of animal -remains; and their arrangement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> plainly shows the chemical influences -of decaying animal matter and also the multiple and varied effect -of crystalline attraction and electric force. Can we say that the -crystallized diamonds occurring in well-defined placers are any -more remarkable than the little globular petrifactions found in the -cretaceous formation and known as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coscinopora globularis</i>, -and which nature provided with a perforation so that ancient man -adopted them as ornaments in place of beads?</p> - -<p>We are often reminded by the antiquary of the remarkable foresight or -acuteness of the ancient poet Lucretius in his explanation of certain -natural phenomena which have since been verified by modern science. But -of all the heaven-inspired dreamers none have come nearer the truth in -terrestrial matters than the Arabian poet Fizee, who wrote:—</p> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“The sun from whom the seven seas obtain pearls,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The black stone from his rays obtains the jewel,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The mine from the correcting influence of his beams obtains gold.”</span><br> -</p> - -<p>Plato believed that the gems were produced by a sort of vivifying -spirit descending from the stars. It is undoubtedly from the influence -of the solar forces and the magnetic and electric currents which are -constantly playing through the crust of the earth that the gems derive -their origin.</p> - -<p>These phenomena of the earth’s vitality are manifested in their -greatest force along certain elliptics,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> which may be traced over -the true gem districts of Asia, Africa, and Brazil, and in marked -contrast to adjacent territories. The miners in South Africa, disturbed -by the severe whirlwinds and frequent thunder-storms, soon began -to imagine that the excessive electric action had something to do -with the creation of the gems they sought. <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Voysey, Geologist to -the India Survey, also observed the very marked telluric action in -the diamond formations of India, and moreover that the process of -crystallization took place there with wonderful rapidity. So convinced -was this keen observer of the present reproduction of gems in the -alluvial soil or conglomerate that he commenced to collect the proofs -of recrystallization. Unfortunately for science, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Voysey died -shortly after he adopted these views. <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Buchanan, another traveller -who visited many of the mines of India, was impressed with this idea; -and he was assured by the miners all over India that the regeneration -of diamonds is always going on in the peculiar gravel. In proof of -their statements, many men were then engaged in working over the -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> that had been examined many years before. An interval of -fifteen years was sufficient in their estimation to reproduce new gems, -at least to a certain extent. This reproduction, or rather, we will -say, assertion of a reproduction, reminds one of the mysterious action -of the nitre beds, which yield rich returns after a rest of a few -years, and especially those which occur among rocks which are destitute -of potash.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span></p> - -<p>It is to the learned Abbé Haüy we owe the theory that crystals are -made up of an assemblage of minute parts or molecules, each having the -same definite form. To the diamond especially this hypothesis may be -applied, since it is composed of thin laminæ covering or concealing -its primary form. With the aid of the skill of the artisan we can -remove these coverings one after the other, until the definite and -elementary form of the crystal be revealed. In the time of Louis -XIV. it was thought that the size of diamonds might be increased by -placing them in certain solutions, as crystals of salt are enlarged by -immersing them in solutions of the same substance. But the difficulty -then was to find the required liquid; and even at the present day we -have not yet succeeded in discovering the composition of the water of -crystallization of crystals of quartz or topaz, although Nature has -shown the fluid to us in the cavities of certain crystals.</p> - -<p>These curious speculations which were discussed in the days of the -“Grand Monarque” are again revived by the theory that gold nuggets are -not only deposited from aqueous solutions, but are actually increasing -in size under certain influences and conditions.</p> - -<p>But where does this metal come from? the inquirer may ask. From a -variety of sources, we may reply. Does not the water of the ocean -contain it in appreciable quantities, and did not M. Sage extract -it from the ashes of certain burned vegetable substances?<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> We also -know for a certainty that iron is produced by vegetable vitality, but -we will not attempt to explain the manner or whence the material is -primarily derived. Cosmic dust or the invisible atoms of the atmosphere -may be the source. The origin of the gold nuggets and the particles of -gold-dust in the well-defined placers, as advanced in the hypotheses of -Raymond and Murray within the past few years, is connected very closely -with the theory of the recent formation of diamonds in similar placers.</p> - -<p>In connection with this theme, it is proper to make a digression in -explanation of the condition and formation of the gold placers, as they -seem to be highly suggestive of the depositions of the diamond placers. -Gold is often found in the same strata with the diamonds, and the -presence of the one sometimes indicates the deposition of the other. -But this is not invariably the fact. Yet the peculiar formation in -which the metal and the gem occur leads the geologist to similar trains -of reasoning when seeking to explain their presence in the tertiary -strata of very recent times. It has been generally supposed that all -alluvial gold is the result of disintegration of the old crystalline -rocks. But we now distinguish placer gold into two kinds, as the -alluvial and that which results from decomposition of quartz reefs. -The distinction between these two qualities of the same metal arises -from differences which are quite strongly marked. The alluvial gold<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> is -generally much purer than the reef gold; and the reefs rarely, if ever, -contain nuggets. The appearance of the nuggets and particles from the -true placers, in comparison with the gold-dust evidently set free by -aqueous action, is suggestive of a theory that they have been deposited -by different agencies.</p> - -<p>It has been suggested by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Selwyn, the Government Geologist of -Victoria, while studying these differences, that the gold nuggets found -in the drift may have been deposited from solutions containing gold by -means of electric and chemical agencies. <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Skey, analyst to the New -Zealand Geological Survey, has recently come to similar conclusions -from his researches on the subject. The theory is well illustrated by -the formation of crystals and masses of iron pyrites from solutions of -that metal; and as gold is often found associated, free and uncombined, -in these pyritiferous depositions, there is sufficient evidence to -believe there may be some connection in the manner of formation.</p> - -<p>From the results of certain chemical experiments in the laboratory, -it would appear that organic matter is one of the necessary chemical -agents for the decomposition of some of the solutions of gold. -Therefore, if we assume this hypothesis to have a positive bearing -upon this question, the abundance of organic matter occurring in the -gravel beds adds to its weight as an argument. Selwyn found in the -gold-bearing drifts of Australia quantities of fragments of wood, roots -of trees, and other organic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> to serve as nuclei, or as -reagents for the reduction of mineral solutions. We may introduce as -evidence the formation of iron pyrites in crystalline forms, which is -taking place at the present day under the action of sea-water. The -metal in these instances replaces the organic structure of wood, or -assumes definite forms with a particle of organic matter as a nucleus.</p> - -<p>The formation of gold nuggets from solutions of the metal is by no -means as wonderful or difficult of explanation as some other phenomena -witnessed in metallurgy. The strange play of pseudomorphism is well -defined in some instances, if not well understood. Here we observe -that the peculiarity of form may be rigidly adhered to, while the -composition is completely changed. In the waters of certain copper -mines, drills, rings, and bars of iron that have accidentally been left -have in course of time become transformed into pure copper. The iron -of the implements has changed places with the atoms of copper held in -solution.</p> - -<p>In connection with this interesting theory, there are some puzzling -facts to be deduced from the phenomena of the auriferous sand beds -of some of the rivers of Europe. The gold placers along the coast -of the Danube and the Rhine are situated far from the mountains, -the supposed sources of the metal, and there are also wide barren -districts intervening. The river Tesino affords no gold in its sands -until its waters have passed through and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> beyond Lake Maggiore. From -these and other examples, it is quite evident that the gold which -appears in these river beds has been derived from the placers through -which the rivers have passed, and not from quartz reefs in the distant -mountainous regions. The situation of these placers, with the evenness -and regularity of their deposits, also the absence of auriferous ledges -among the contiguous rocks, permit the observer to indulge in the idea -that the gold may have been deposited from solutions and not from -the decomposition of crystalline rocks. We certainly have sufficient -evidence to object to that final explanation which ascribes all these -depositions to aqueous action in distant times, and to the abrasion -of primitive mountains, the evidence of whose existence is alone and -doubtfully afforded by the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> which form the strata of the -gold and diamond placers. The ancients long ago noticed the deposition -of gold in the beds of rivers; hence the phrase “The gold-breeding -sands of Pactolus.”</p> - -<p>It has been a favorite theory with many persons of a philosophic turn -of mind that all organic forms were created upon the earth not by -mere chance or hap-hazard, nor by what have been called by the early -geologists “freaks of nature,” but, on the contrary, with some definite -intent on the part of the Creator, and perhaps for the welfare of -mankind. Some of these far-sighted thinkers have advanced their views -so far as to maintain that even obscure animal and vegetable forms -may have some indirect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span> or distant effect upon the well-being of man. -We all must admit that it is indeed a beautiful hypothesis, even if -it be contested by stern and savage arguments. But if we indulge in -this manner of reasoning, there seems to be hardly a limit in natural -philosophy in which we may not seek for evidence.</p> - -<p>Can we not include the subject of our treatise among those things -which are supposed to have some influence upon the moulding of human -character? Certainly its geological age, its origin, the beauties and -wonders of its physical properties, and their application to art and -science as well as to the wants of society, furnish evidence to sustain -an inference.</p> - -<p>But how can a cold, inanimate object like a gem influence the condition -or expansion of the human intellect? the rigid materialist may say. The -gems, he will maintain, apply only to the superficial wants of man, and -directly tend to degrade rather than elevate our natural morals; that -they are articles of commerce, and that commerce debases our natural -instincts.</p> - -<p>On the contrary, we may say that the beautiful in nature of whatever -degree is calculated to assist in the development of mental culture; -and without these beautiful lessons and examples constantly spread -out before us, man would always have remained in a state of utter -barbarism. As we look back upon the history of life, how many of the -triumphs of human architecture may be traced to the suggestions arising -from the observance of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> varied forms of nature! Nearly all of the -beauties of the Gothic or Grecian styles may be found existing in the -fossil relics of by-gone ages or even in the multiple forms of existing -vegetation. What grand deductions Newton derived from his studies of -the glories of the opal and the iridescent gleams of the soap-bubble!</p> - -<p>Let us follow our theme a little longer. In reviewing the fragmentary -remains of the early periods of the earth’s history, the observer -will admit that there has been a marked progress in even vegetable -life as well as in the animal. For in the primitive ages we find the -non-flowering plants were more numerous than the flowering species. -Therefore, in contemplating the precedence of succession of animal -and vegetable life, the thought naturally occurs to us that perhaps -the most delicate and beautiful of all our flowers elate from recent -geological periods.</p> - -<p>We may also apply this hypothesis to the gems, and perhaps maintain -that they too have arrived at perfection by progressive stages. The -corundum, for instance, in the primitive rocks is never so pure and -perfect as the nodules and crystals found in the true gem strata of -recent formations. The emerald of the limestone is also incomparably -above the beryls of the granites. The spinels, the chrysoberyls, the -zircons, and the topazes of the gem beds are generally far superior -to those found in the old crystalline rocks. There are, however, some -plain exceptions to this plausible theory; and the finest of the -tourmalines<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> are found in cavities in granite ledges that appear to be -of an early age.</p> - -<p>We are also sometimes inclined to think that color in the early ages -of terrestrial life was wanting in the rich hues which now deck -animate nature. For of all the relics of the old geologic forms that -are preserved to us their colors are either greatly faded or were at -first faintly painted. Even in the tertiary division the hues are -not beautiful. The shells, however, exhibit a trace of the pearly -hue of the nacre, which may once have shone as brightly as in the -modern mollusca. Some of the fossil fishes display a gleam of the -silver tints that now glisten on the sides of the living species. -Fossil corals preserved in the marble, however, have retained the -beauty of form but lost all delicacy of hue, if they ever possessed -any. Still, absence of bright and glowing colors of the animals in -a fossil state is by no means conclusive evidence that nature was -then devoid of external decoration. For we may see on every side -how the beautiful hues of animal and vegetable life may fade and -disappear altogether on the suspension of vital activity; and also -how the process of solidification and petrifaction may modify or even -obliterate all traces of organic color. It is, however, a fact that the -richest-colored gems and minerals are found near the surface of the -earth, as though they required the direct influence of the solar rays, -like the finest varieties of colored coral and the gorgeous flowers of -vegetation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span></p> - -<p>In reflecting upon these phenomena, and in seeking for the causes that -led to the creation of the diamond, and sifting down the evidence -that science has patiently brought to light, we are naturally led to -philosophic musings. It is a singular reflection that much of our -commercial greatness is derived from luxuriant vegetations of early -ages of the earth’s history. How much pleasure, how many of the -comforts of civilization and even the necessities of life, do we owe -to the extinct fauna of by-gone ages! Even invalid man, seeking to -restore the exhausted fountains of his shattered nature in the waters -of some of the sulphur springs, quaffs the life-restoring principles -from the mineral and animal <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> of the lower ocean of the -old red sandstone. Here, then, is a happy adaptation of the vague and -empty theory of transmigration of the ancients,—the metempsychosis of -Empedocles. Certain elements imprisoned in the earth for ages return -again at last to reanimate exhausted man and improve his social life. -The same agency in recent times, and by natural though mysterious laws, -has produced from similar materials the gem, which seems to be quite as -necessary for the superficial wants of mankind as gold or silver.</p> - -<p>In studying the earth’s history and examining the successive phases -of its development, we are insensibly led to the idea that all these -stages, seemingly progressive, never retrograde, were for a definite -purpose, if not for the exclusive benefit of mankind. For it is only -just before the introduction of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> man that some of the highest orders -of vegetation, such as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rosaceæ</i>, appear on the earth. There -is certainly a marked intent in the appearance of the pear, the apple, -plum, cherry, peach, and other fruits, with the true grasses, late in -the tertiary period.</p> - -<p>We may also trace this suggestive progression in the development -of even insect life. In the Silurian age the hum of the insect was -unheard; and it was not until the oölitic period that this form of -animal life appeared. A fossil gem—the amber—reveals the time of the -birth of the insect dearest to man; and it was not until the eocene -change that the earth heard for the first time</p> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“The soft murmur of the vagrant bee.”</span><br> -</p> - -<p>May we not also place in the same category of possible intents the late -deposition of the diamond? It is not so very strange, after all, when -we come to consider the vast field that lies within the range of the -argument.</p></div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br><span class="small">PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, ETC.</span></h2> - -</div> -<p>Before explaining, or rather attempting to explain, the phenomena -of some of the prominent physical properties of the mineral, it is -proper that we should give a description of its forms and its natural -appearance as it is taken from the mines, so that our reader may become -more familiar with the subject. We will not, however, venture very far -among the dry details of crystallography, even if it be a subject of -great interest to the student in science. The stone which so readily -attracts the eye by its dazzling splendors after it has received a -definite form and polish from art, is seldom attractive to the view -unless it occurs in a rare and perfect form of crystallization. Even -then, in this primitive state it exhibits none of the rainbow play -of color which makes the stone so celebrated and so beautiful. In -reality, in these rare conditions it is seldom if ever so lustrous and -pleasing to the sight as crystals of many other minerals. In general, -the diamond is so obscure in its attractions that practised eyes are -required for its search.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span></p> - -<p>Recently the distinguished savant Von Tschudi, in visiting some of -the diamond mines of Brazil, was unable to distinguish readily the -gems as they lay in the washed cascalho, while the trained eyes of the -negro miners picked them out with ease. It has been stated that the -diamonds are always or nearly always covered with an earthy crust of -various hues, especially greenish or yellowish, which is hardly the -fact; for what appears to be a crust is often caused by the salient -edges of the laminæ, among which a little earthy or coloring matter -has been introduced. These extraneous colors generally disappear when -the surface of the stone is removed; and, in fact, the degree of their -intensity is very much modified when the rough gem is placed in alcohol -or in any fluid of high refraction.</p> - -<p>The dull, whitish appearance seen in the natural diamonds is also -produced by the action of fire, which raises the edges of the laminæ, -producing a faint milky aspect.</p> - -<p>The primitive form of the mineral is the octahedron, and many irregular -masses may be reduced by cleavage to that of a double pyramid. -These octahedral crystals are sometimes as perfect in outline as a -mathematical model, with clean-cut angles and smooth faces. In some -specimens the edges may be truncated, that is, as if they had been -flattened or ground off by mechanical means. Generally, however, the -crystals are of the form of the octahedrons with rounded faces. The -dodecahedrons, with their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> twelve faces, and the cubes, with their -four sides, may also be reduced by cleavage to the primitive form of -the double pyramid. Sometimes two crystals are united, forming what -are called hemitrope or twin crystals. Then, again, a number may be -grouped together, assuming on the whole a globular-like mass. But they -are decidedly different from the globular, which in their form of -crystallization radiate from the centre of the crystal.</p> - -<p>The variety of diamond called boart, or bort, deriving its name from -the supposed abortive attempt of nature to form a perfect crystal, -is also quite deficient in cleavage, or its laminæ are so irregular -as to render splitting quite impossible and the cutting of the stone -equally so. The transparency of these forms is also affected by the -arrangement of crystallization; hence they are generally crushed into -powder for polishing material or used for various purposes in the -arts. The specific gravity of these varieties seems to be influenced -by the manner of crystallization. For instances, we find that the fine -transparent crystals have a specific gravity of 3.55 (water being -considered the standard as 1), while the bort is somewhat less; and the -massive variety called the carbonado varies from 3 to 3.4, according to -the amount of earthy matter it may contain. It has also been asserted -that the blue, the green, the orange, and the red varieties are heavier -than the white. The phenomena of electricity observed in the diamond -are not remarkable, and are inferior to most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> of the gems. Some of the -precious stones when excited retain their electrical properties for -hours or even days, but the diamond loses it almost immediately. It -exhibits vitreous electricity when rubbed.</p> - -<p>Much has been said and written concerning the artificial -phosphorescence exhibited by the diamond when removed to a dark room -after having been exposed for a short time to the sun’s rays. We are -not able to verify this statement, and feel inclined to doubt its -correctness, although we have been assured by experimenters of the fact.</p> - -<p>One of the most remarkable properties of the diamond is its extreme -hardness, in which it far exceeds all known substances in the mineral -kingdom. This peculiarity is due to the substance itself, but appears -to be modified by its color and its form of crystallization like some -other minerals.</p> - -<p>The more perfectly the crystal is formed, the easier its laminæ become -detached, and the softer the substance appears to be. In the globular -forms, which are quite deficient in cleavage planes, the hardness -is excessive, and often resists the most determined efforts of the -lapidary. Even in fine crystals we shall find that certain angles are -harder than others; and we may observe the same relative degree among -crystals of other minerals, like those of the topaz. In the large -transparent diamonds of irregular form, spots of excessive hardness are -often found. These are called by the lapidaries “knots,” and appear to -be due to a change in the process of crystallization.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> The coloring -matter, or the mode of its formation, seems to affect the degree of -hardness in many minerals; and in respect to the diamond, the rare -crystallized black form is harder than the limpid or lighter colored.</p> - -<p>Some years ago a black diamond from Borneo was placed in the hand -of Gallais the lapidary, to be experimented upon at the expense of -the French Institute. The chief object of the test was to ascertain -the relative degree of hardness in comparison with some of the other -varieties of diamond. In this trial the lapidary wore out his steel -wheel and a large quantity of ordinary diamond dust without making -the least impression on the surface of the black diamond. Although -heavily loaded with weights, it lost none of its roughness, and was -heated almost to whiteness by the friction of the wheel, which revolved -with great velocity. During the period of this extreme velocity it is -reported that a shower of sparks was emitted; but how shall we account -for this scintillation, when the ordinary transparent diamond does not -give forth sparks when struck by steel?</p> - -<p>The carbonado, which is amorphous and without cleavage, is also -extremely hard. The term “adamas,” which the ancients bestowed upon it -as denoting an invincible infrangibility, is not quite appropriate; for -although it is far superior in hardness to all other known substances, -it is in reality very fragile. And in the power to resist the effect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> -of shock it is also inferior to some of the other gems, and especially -the sapphire. Therefore several mineralogists have thought that the -ancients really applied the term to steel or to some of the varieties -of corundum, like the ruby and the sapphire, and not the diamond. -It is curious that this property should be ascribed erroneously to -the diamond for so many ages, when a trifling experiment would have -disclosed the real condition of things. In the days of the poet -Lucretius the gem was believed to be able to resist violent blows.</p> - -<p class="poetry" xml:lang="la" lang="la"> -<span style="margin-left: 11em;">——“adamantina saxa</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prima acie constant, ictus contemnere sueta.”</span><br> -</p> - -<p>Pliny entertained the same idea, and also that its infrangibility -could be overcome only by first steeping it in goats’ blood. Even in -mediæval times Ben Mansur, the Persian mineralogist, gravely states -that a diamond laid upon the anvil and struck by a hammer would not -be broken, but would be driven by the violence of the blow into the -substance of the anvil. This stupid but wide-spread idea has prevailed -even in modern times; and many a gem has been sacrificed by the -ignorant in testing the character of the stone. The brittleness of the -gem is partly due to its singular cleavage, which in regular crystals -is so perfect and uniform as to permit the lapidary to remove the -laminæ so as to entirely demolish the structure of the crystal. But -when once accomplished, no artisan, however skilful, can replace<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span> them -again. The facility with which the stone may be separated was known in -ancient times among the Hindoos, and probably in Europe as early as the -sixteenth century, as De Boot knew of a physician who could divide the -diamond into thin scales like a piece of talc; but it was forgotten -until Wollaston not many years ago stumbled upon the secret of cleavage -and made it known to modern science.</p> - -<p>The real charm and value of the diamond lie in its remarkable -brilliancy, and in the wonderful prismatic display of the bright and -beautiful colors, which are constantly fugitive, but perpetually -returning, as the learned Abbé Haüy elegantly expresses it. When a -ray of light is reflected from the surface of a body, a particular -impression is conveyed to the eye, which we may properly term the -eclat. This impression is often so decided and so varied in its -effects, that we are able to distinguish certain substances at a -glance; and the reflection from the diamond exhibits a peculiarity -which is seen only in a very few substances. This is known as the -adamantine flash, and none of the gems display it to any marked degree -except the rare zircon. We witness the perfection of this property in -the black and opaque but crystallized diamond, when faceted by art; and -also in some few minerals of which we shall soon make mention. When -the rays of light are refracted, after passing through the transparent -diamond after it has been cut in a certain manner, and its facets -are arranged in an exact relation to each other, then we obtain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span> -the remarkable exhibition of color which is known as the prismatic -display. This singular property is seen in perfection, or even to any -considerable degree, only in the diamond, among all the gems thus -far known. But art, however, has succeeded in imitating it in one -of her productions of glass, and so admirably, that under favorable -circumstances it is quite impossible for the eye alone to distinguish -the artificial from the real gem. Some of the theories relating to the -causes of these phenomena we will discuss hereafter, and at the present -will only say that it is to modern science the diamond owes the full -development of its latent beauty; and that the result was not attained -until Newton demonstrated the laws that govern the refraction of light. -It is only in the brilliant and rose-cut forms, or their modifications, -when made with mathematical precision, that the brilliancy and beauty -of the stone is displayed in perfection. The ancients, therefore, were -not acquainted with the full splendors of the gem. For, being ignorant -of the laws of refraction of light, they polished the stone chiefly -with the view of preserving its greatest weight; and, at the same time, -producing perfect transparency. Hence most of the specimens of ancient -and barbaric art are rudely cut, and therefore do not exhibit the -degree of beauty which is latent in the mineral. This is also one of -the reasons why the luxurious Romans preferred the opal to the diamond, -since the polished, or even the rude specimens of opal exhibited their -glorious reflections<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> of wondrous hues, both by day and in artificial -light by night; while the diamond, with its natural or polished faces, -gave forth no prismatic display in the daylight, and but a slight -degree comparatively in artificial light at night.</p> - -<p>Whence arises this remarkable brilliancy, and to what particular cause -is the property due? This inquiry has afforded a fruitful theme of -speculation among philosophers, but at the present time we are content -to say that the refractive power of the gem is due to the nature of its -substance. This is somewhat indefinite, it is true, but what else can -we say?</p> - -<p>Under the general belief that the harder the gem the higher its -refractive powers would be, it has been maintained that the brilliancy -of the diamond arose from the simple property of its excessive -hardness. Investigation, however, does not sustain this widespread -view. Hardness, indeed, may have considerable relation with the -arrangement and form of the molecules composing the gem, for in the -same crystal it is not uniform,—some faces and angles being harder -than others,—but it does not determine the degree of brilliancy. To -strengthen this statement we will take for instances the soft minerals, -crocroisite, the chromate of lead; the Greenockite, the sulphuret of -cadmium; and the octahedrite, the oxide of titanium, which exceed even -the diamond in brilliancy. There are also other decided examples among -the transparent minerals to sustain this view; the most remarkable -of which perhaps may be found in the zircon, a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> gem which is soft -as quartz; yet it ranks next to the diamond in brightness, and far -surpasses in eclat every other gem, even the sapphire, which is next -to the diamond in hardness. Density does not seem to have anything to -do with the determination of the refractive power of gems, for the -garnet, spinel, sapphire, and zircon are much heavier than the diamond, -and are yet far inferior in brilliancy. The topaz is exactly of the -same specific gravity as the diamond (3.55), but nevertheless its -refractive powers have but little more than one half the energy of the -diamond. The relative brilliancy of the diamond to that of the purest -limpid quartz is 8 to 3; but the relative density is only as 4 to 3. -All diamonds do not exhibit the same degree of brilliancy, because -they do not possess alike the same quality of purity or perfection of -crystallization.</p> - -<p>We often observe among the minerals that the most perfect specimens -are found of a diminutive size; and we shall also find that the finest -and purest types of the diamond occur in stones of little weight. The -larger crystals, or amorphous masses, seem to be wanting in purity -and brightness as compared with the lesser; and this peculiarity may -be observed well marked in some of the other gems. Here, then, we may -find material for the argument that the degree of brilliancy is in a -measure due to the perfection of the crystallization of the stone; -and, therefore, the larger and coarser the laminæ of the crystal the -less will be its brightness. One thing,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> however, is certain; that the -most brilliant gems are obtained from stones of no great weight, and -which also seem, from their form, to indicate a nodular arrangement of -particles in their formation; or, in other words, a certain concentric -manner of crystallization. This form of deposition is not peculiar -to the diamond, but is clearly shown in the sapphires, topazes, -chrysoberyls, tourmalines; and the finest specimens of these gems are -cut from these nodular forms. We think we are correct in stating that -the greatest brilliancy and the most beautiful prismatic display may -be observed in diamonds of less than ten karats in weight. In fact, -the diminution of brilliancy in the gem, when above twenty karats, -is easily discerned by the eye alone, as compared with the vivid and -adamantine flash of a pure and perfect four or eight karat stone. The -same peculiarity may be observed in the little globular masses of the -chrysoberyl, which are seldom larger than a pea in size, but which, -when cut, exhibit flashes of fire which are only equalled or excelled -by the diamond, or the rarer zircon. We can hardly realize that the -little rounded pebbles of white topaz, known as <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">gouttes d’eau</i>, -“drops of water,” will yield gems of such lustre as to be often -exhibited, and even sold for the diamond. Yet the larger irregular -masses, or finely crystallized specimens of the same mineral, do not -afford gems of unusual brilliancy. In these instances we may affirm -that the form or mode of crystallization has something to do with the -degree of brilliancy.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span></p> - -<p>The prismatic play of color which this gem alone possesses to any -considerable degree constitutes its chief charm, and its cause has -been a matter of earnest study among opticians. A plausible theory has -lately been advanced by an English philosopher that the colored rays -are produced by the relation of the high refractive to its very low -dispersive power. For instance, this refractive power in the diamond, -or, in other words, its property of bending a ray of light falling -obliquely upon its surface, is 2.439, while that of water is only -1.336, and that of glass 1.500. But its power of dispersing a ray of -white light, or, in other words, of separating it into its compound -colors in reference to its refractive power, is only 0.038, while -that of glass is 0.052. Hence it is surmised that this inferiority -of dispersive power is required for the production of the splendid -colored reflections which constitute the glory of the gem. It is also -maintained that this high refractive power separates the red and the -blue rays more than a high dispersive power would in other transparent -bodies, and to such degree as to allow each color of the spectrum its -full force. As example, the zircon, with its inferior reflections, is -offered, its refraction being 1.99 on the established scale, while its -dispersive power is as high as 0.044. The relations of the spinel are -also as 1.81 to 0.040, and neither does the gem display the rainbow -hues. This theory is certainly ingenious, and if correct the test -may be applied to other transparent minerals<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> possessing similar -relations. We may, therefore, expect the white garnet to exhibit the -property of prismatic display, as it has a refractive power of 1.81 and -a dispersive power of 0.033. But, unfortunately, perfectly pure and -transparent white garnets are unknown, and we must therefore turn to -other minerals for comparison.</p> - -<p>To the white tourmaline, then, we will apply the test, since this -mineral has a refractive power of 1.66, with a dispersive power of -only 0.028. Here, then, we have nearly the same relation as observed -in the diamond; and, if the theory be correct, we may reasonably -expect the exhibition of the same phenomena. But, upon examination of -several perfectly white and transparent tourmalines from Mt. Mica, -cut into regular brilliants, we have failed to detect an increase of -prismatic display, or even discover any evidence to lend support to -the plausibility of the hypothesis. We, therefore, reluctantly turn to -other arguments for a solution of this most interesting problem.</p> - -<p>The snow-white diamond displays the rainbow hues in the greatest -perfection; and this is the reason why this quality is sought for in -preference to the light buff or deeper yellow, which are in reality -more brilliant. The deeper the hue of the gem, the less becomes the -prismatic display; and when the diamond becomes of deep and decided -hue, the colored reflections cease altogether. It is somewhat -singular that the colored gems are generally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> more brilliant than the -pure white, that is, if the color is not so deep as to affect the -transparency of the stone. For examples, we shall find that the white -sapphire has an index of refraction equal to 1.768, while the blue has -1.794, and the red 1.779. The refractive of the white topaz is 1.610, -while the yellow is 1.632.</p> - -<p>The brilliancy and rainbow play of the diamond is not so apparent by -daylight as by certain kinds of artificial light, when all its latent -beauties are called forth as if by magic. The light of the camp-fire in -the obscurity of night produces a marvellous effect upon the polished -stone; and it is no wonder that the savage heart of the Russian -General, Suvaroff, was fascinated by the vivid gleams of his treasured -diamonds when viewed at night in the flickering beams of his bivouac -fire. It may seem singular that the brilliant white light of gas does -not display the qualities of the diamond as the duller flame of the wax -candle. The secret lies, perhaps, in the difference in their spectra. -Nevertheless, there is a great difference in their effects upon the -gem, and it is a fact that the wax candle far exceeds the gaslight in -calling forth the latent splendors of the gem. Therefore, we can assert -that the brilliancy of toilets where the diamond is much worn depends -greatly upon the manner of illuminating the apartment.</p> - -<p>We now come to another interesting problem in the study of the nature -of the diamond. We refer to the various colors of the gem. As we have -maintained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span> that the mineral is of vegetable origin we may be expected -to explain the phenomena of its color upon this hypothesis, and also -account for the various changes of the gem when exposed to the effects -of heat or the fire test. But we must admit with candor that our views -concerning this physical property are decidedly unsatisfactory, and -shall refer the reader to one of the chapters in our treatise on the -Tourmaline, in which are grouped some of the theories relating to the -subject. In fact, we may repeat the remarks of Huyghens, who said at -the end of the seventeenth century: “In spite of the labors of Newton, -no one has yet fully discovered the cause of the color of bodies.” -“We must, then,” says M. Babinet, “admire, without penetrating their -secret, the unparalleled red of the Oriental ruby, the pure yellow of -the topaz, the unmingled greenness of the emerald, the soft blue of the -sapphire, and the rich violet of the amethyst. This is not the only -thing the discovery of which we shall leave to posterity.”</p> - -<p>The color-suite of the mineral is much more extensive and varied than -has been generally admitted by mineralogists. We are led to infer from -their works that white is the prevailing hue of the gem; but Beudant -declares that perfect limpidity and whiteness is rare comparatively, -and that the stone is generally affected with yellowish or brownish -tints. But what becomes of the vast numbers of these clouded or tinged -and inferior gems, if the mines yield so many of them in comparison -with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span> the snow-white? Are they consumed in polishing others, or -expended in the arts, or have the lapidaries secret processes by which -these objectionable tints are expunged from the stone?</p> - -<p>Barbot, the French jeweller, declares that, by means of certain -particular and energetic agents, aided by a proper degree of heat, he -is able to remove the greens of all shades, the light-red, and the -yellow, when the coloring matter is superficial, or even situated -between the external laminæ. We are inclined to believe Barbot in this -particular reference, especially as he admits that he is unable to -change much the deep-yellow, the brown, and the smoky-tinted stones. -Of the yellow tints, the diamond affords the most beautiful examples, -and far surpasses in variety all the other gems, with the exception -perhaps of quartz. To the yellow topaz it is decidedly superior in its -range of shades, and in some of its chrome-like tints it is without -an equal among the gems. This hue of chrome mixed with a faint tinge -of green is a delicate, yet gorgeous, shade, and is not often seen. -Stones of a canary-yellow are quite common, and perfect resemblances to -the Brazilian topaz are not rare. From these hues they pass insensibly -into brown and black. The transparent light-brown stones are often -modified in hue when exposed to the action of heat, and some of them -exhibit remarkable changes of color. M. Halpen, in 1866, exhibited to -the French Academy of Sciences a singular diamond of this description.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> -It was a stone of sixty grains weight, and of a whitish hue tinged -slightly with brown. But when it was exposed to the action of heat it -changed its tint to a fine rose-color, and retained it for six or eight -days, when it gradually returned to its natural hue. This remarkable -effect was not an accidental result, but was tried five times at the -Academy with success and without injury to the stone. In other colored -diamonds the action of fire often produces permanent effects, and -sometimes a brownish hue is converted into a decided red color. Buckman -saw a diamond with a large brown spot in its interior change to a -beautiful red, like that of the Balais ruby, after the stone had been -placed in borax and exposed to a red heat. Another stone, however, of -similar appearance, likewise exposed, changed to a permanent black, -to the great injury of the gem and dismay of the experimenter. The -red varieties of this mineral are rarely of deep tints, but when they -exhibit a decided red color they form the most gorgeous of gems. The -largest and finest of this description known is the ten-karat stone -purchased by the Emperor Paul of Russia for one hundred thousand -roubles. This gem may be considered the marvel of the mineral kingdom. -The princely collection of the late <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hope possessed one of a -blood-red garnet shade, also a fine twelve and a half karat stone of an -apricot hue, besides several others of a beautiful hyacinth red, or of -a lilac pink.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span></p> - -<p>The celebrated cabinet of gems belonging to the late Marquis de Drée -contained a large and beautiful rose-colored diamond. Prince Riccia, -of Naples, acquired in 1830 a very fine rose-colored brilliant of -fifteen karats weight. M. Halpen, in 1838, exhibited a magnificent -gem of this description of twenty-two and a half karats. Among the -crown jewels of France there are several splendid brilliants of a -peach-blossom hue, and there are also quite a number to be seen among -the princely caskets of Europe. It is, however, somewhat remarkable -that this gem, although possessing several shades of red, never, or -very rarely, occurs of a decided violet or purple color. Diamonds of a -light aqua-marine of greenish and bluish tints are not rare, but those -of a positive grass-green color are uncommon. Perfect stones of decided -green form the most magnificent gems of this color. The velvety green -flashed forth by the extraordinary power of the stone surpasses beyond -comparison the finest emeralds with their duller reflections. In fact, -we may term the splendid green diamond of forty karats, now in the -Green Vaults at Dresden, as being one of the five paragons among all -the gems of the world.</p> - -<p>In the Museum of Natural History in Paris there are some small diamonds -of very fine shades of green, which were collected by the celebrated -Werner. Some of the diamonds which have a slight milky hue, when cut -so as to allow the play of light within the stone, present a very -beautiful appearance. The varied<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span> flashes of colored rays, in contrast -with the duller hues of the stone, appear like the charming effects of -the finest specimens of Siberian adularia, and are therefore entitled -to the name of aventurine diamonds.</p> - -<p>The asterism, or star-like form of six rays, which is so beautifully -displayed by the sapphire when it assumes a certain form of internal -arrangement of crystallization, is sometimes, though very rarely, -witnessed in the diamond. There is one of this description to be seen -in the Museum of the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Jardin des Plantes</i> in Paris.</p> - -<p>The diamond is rarely found of a perfect shade of blue; but there are -now in Europe several magnificent gems of this description. Foremost of -all of them stood the famous blue diamond of 67²⁄₁₆ karats, belonging -to the French crown. This marvel of Nature’s work, with two other -diamonds of paler hue and lesser weight,—thirty-one and ten karats -respectively,—disappeared on that fatal night of September, 1792, -and have never since been discovered. At the present day, the finest -known is that which belongs to the princely collection of the late <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> -Hope, and weighs 44¹⁄₄ karats. It is of a fine blue; but exhibits that -steel-like tint which is so often seen in sapphires. The next in value -and beauty is that which is preserved at Munich. It is a magnificent -gem of thirty-six karats weight, and of superb color.</p> - -<p>The crystallized black diamond is a very rare stone; and, when -polished, it forms a unique gem, since it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> exhibits a remarkable -brilliancy, proceeding, as it were, from darkness itself. We do not now -refer to the compact variety, known as carbon or carbonado, which is -never found except in the amorphous form, but the crystalline variety, -which is of greater density and more homogeneous. The famous collector, -Dogni, possessed a very fine specimen of this kind which had been cut -with small facets, and exhibited a vivid eclat. It afterwards came into -the possession of <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Bapst, who disposed of it to Louis XVIII. for -the sum of twenty-four thousand francs. A large and unique diamond, -almost black, formerly belonged to the late Duke of York. Several of -the European mineralogical cabinets have interesting and valuable -collections of colored diamonds; but the finest is to be seen in the -Imperial Cabinet of Minerals at Vienna. This beautiful and complete -series, which illustrates the great range of the color-suite of the -gem, was the life-long labor of a Tyrolese gentleman, by the name of -Helmreicher. This enthusiastic amateur went to Brazil, and passed most -of his life in the mines, searching for the gems.</p> - -<p>We will not fatigue our readers with long quotations of authors and -philosophers concerning the spiritual properties of this gem; but we -will briefly say, that a well-selected compilation of all these views -and speculations, extending back to very early times, would form a -chapter by itself, and quite as interesting as absurd. Even the good -sense of the Latin philosopher Pliny was affected so far as to indulge<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span> -in the belief that the gem was not only an antidote to poison, but also -freed the mind from vain fears. Late in mediæval times, the adamas -was invested with supernatural powers, and regarded as a spiritual -creation. And even in the commencement of the seventeenth century -Boetius de Boot, in his treatise on gems, asserts that the diamond -possesses wonderful metaphysical properties; but remarks that they -do not reside in the stone <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">per se</i>, but belong to the angelic -spirits whom it has pleased the Almighty to connect, in a mysterious -manner, with certain substances in nature.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br><span class="small">THE TURKISH CASKET AND ANCIENT GEMS.</span></h2> - - -<p>The Sultan of Turkey is said to possess many wonderful diamonds -and other gems among the regalia and ornaments treasured up in the -strongholds of the Seraglio; but very little is known, definitely and -positively, concerning them.</p> - -<p>In 1840 the Sultan granted a firman to the Duke of Devonshire and a -party of friends, permitting them to examine the court-jewels. One -of this party, my illustrious kinsman <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Cyrus Hamlin, has recently -described to me the impression they made upon his memory, more than -thirty years ago. The number of articles was too great, and their -effect too dazzling, for the memory to be able to particularize them -after so long an interval of time. He remembers that in two strongly -built rooms, and displayed on mats, or cushions of velvet, were a -vast number of decorations and insignia, crescents, tiaras, clasps, -and necklaces, etc. Among the latter was one of wondrous beauty and -perfection, which the Sultan wished to present to the Princess of -Wales on her visit to Stamboul. The beautiful Princess wore it at the -reception she gave the Sultan and his cabinet, but for various reasons -was obliged to return the magnificent gift.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span></p> - -<p>Among the arms of former Sultans were the swords of Al-u-deen, and -Solyman the Magnificent. Besides their historical renown, they -were interesting on account of their superb workmanship, and their -decorations with gems of wonderful beauty.</p> - -<p>In 1880 an American traveller was admitted to a view of some of the -rooms in the Treasury of the Seraglio, and from memory of what he saw -there wrote the following description:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“In the centre of the first room is a throne. It is a platform -about two and one half feet square, with a cushion of cloth-of-gold -embroidered with pearls, rubies, and diamonds. Around three sides of -the cushion is a low rail supported by miniature columns, and standing -about eight inches high. The whole body of the throne is overlaid -with plates of gold, and the rail is studded with clusters of rubies -symmetrically arranged. The first thought that strikes one on seeing -this throne is the surpassing value of its jewels, and the second is -the superlative discomfort of the concern viewed as a resting-place. -The rail, which answers for arms and back, is perpendicular and -rectangular, and could rest neither the arms nor the back of the -enthroned Sultan. Uneasy the man that sits the throne, must be the -Turkish equivalent of the proverb concerning the wearer of the crown. -In one corner of the room is another throne, said to be the throne -of Nadir Shah, of Persia. It is of some dark wood, delicately inlaid -with ivory and pearl, and has a canopy of the same materials, from the -centre of which hangs a great gold ball decorated with precious stones.</p> - -<p>“In one of the cabinets is the cradle of the imperial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> babies. It -stands low on its rockers, like the cradles now in use in Turkey. The -two ends rise a foot above the mattress, and are connected at the top -by a bar which runs lengthwise of the cradle. The whole is of solid -gold, and the outside of the cradle is crusted with pearls, diamonds, -rubies, and turquoises.</p> - -<p>“In one of the galleries are the effigies of all the Sultans of -Turkey down to Mahmoud the Reformer. The figures are dressed in what -professes to be the state robes actually worn by the Sultans whom -they represent. The costumes are all different, and differ very -much in cut, indicating the changes of fashion during the last five -hundred years. But all these dresses agree in the feature of richness. -Cloth-of-gold and silk brocade are the materials, and many of the -figures are weighed down with jewels. The swords or daggers which all -of the figures wear are especially magnificent in their display of -precious stones. The dagger of Sultan Mahomet II., the conqueror of -Constantinople, has in its handle an emerald full two inches long and -an inch thick. I use the adjective ‘thick’ advisedly, for solidity of -splendor is the impression left on the mind by that emerald. All of -these gentlemen wore large turbans, and bedecked their turbans with -diamonds. The only exceptions are seen in the case of the boy Sultan, -Osman II., who was killed by his janissaries before he had attained -man’s estate, and in the case of Sultan Mahmoud, the Reformer, -who alone of all his kinsmen appears in European broadcloth. His -head-dress is the fez cap, with a plume of bird-of-paradise feathers -fastened in place by a great spray of diamonds.</p> - -<p>“But there is no such thing as describing in detail the splendors -of these rooms. There are antique arms and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> armor heavy with gold -and jewels; there are innumerable horse-trappings and saddles, -covered with plates of gold and studded with emeralds, rubies, -topazes, diamonds, and pearls; there are saddle-cloths embroidered -with precious stones. Several sofa-covers hang in the cabinets as -background to the smaller articles. They are worth $150,000 apiece, -and are heavy cloth-of-gold embroidered with seed pearls. In one of -the cabinets are three uncut emeralds, the largest being the size of -a man’s fist, and the smallest larger than a hen’s egg. The birds of -the palace realized the experience of dwelling in cages of gold, for -here they hang,—these ancient cages of gold wire. Some of the cages -have a clock in the bottom, face downward, so that the royal household -might see the time of day as they lolled on the divans beneath. The -Imperial Princes appear to have gone to school in childhood, for here -are the satchels in which they carried their books,—bags of velvet -embroidered with gold and pearls and diamonds. In another place you -see many mottoes from the Koran, embroidered in diamonds on red -velvet. There are amber mouthpieces for pipes, studded with diamonds -and rubies. There are coffee-sets and tea-sets of all degrees of -magnificence; and vases of crystal and agate and onyx,—some of these -profusely bejewelled. There are inkstands and snuff-boxes innumerable, -all glittering with priceless gems. There are royal knives and forks -and spoons of solid gold, with jewels on their handles. There is an -immense array of clocks. One would suppose that every Sultan had his -private clock, which ceased to tick when his heart stopped beating.</p> - -<p>“Among the articles in this imperial treasure-house are many -which must be regarded simply as toys. Of such is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span> a tea-set of -tortoise-shell as thin as paper. Another toy is a lady’s parasol of -white silk exquisitely embroidered with gold, the staff of which is -a single branch of coral so long and true and well adapted to its -purpose that one might search years and fail to find its like. There -are also very many fans of varying degrees of splendor. Another one of -the toys is a figure of a sultan seated on his throne under a golden -canopy ribbed with alternate rubies and emeralds. The whole structure -is, perhaps, six inches high. The body of the figure is a single -huge pearl, the lower extremities are carved from a blue turquoise, -and the turban is a solid mass of diamonds. There is literally no -end to the marvels of this place. After every conceivable use has -been made of jewels, the surplus unmounted stones are gathered by -handfuls into crystal bowls at one end of the cabinets in the second -room. The spoils of all the empires which preceded the Ottoman Empire -are heaped up in these two dingy stone rooms in the old Seraglio at -Constantinople.</p> - -<p>“It requires some time fully to realize the enormous wealth of this -treasure-house. But slowly one becomes convinced that these treasures -can only be the accumulation of centuries, and represent the heritage -of the Ottomans from all their predecessors. Once assured of this, -the traveller will find a peculiar fitness in the aspect and attitude -of the guards of the place. They stand, dressed in spotless black -broadcloth, four or five feet apart, in line along the cabinets, -perfectly motionless. And they are solemn of countenance, as if -standing by the catafalque of some deceased monarch lying in state for -the homage of his subjects.</p> - -<p>“I first visited this place shortly after the late war with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> Russia. -The Turkish Government was in sore straits for the means of daily -existence. The Sultan had just sent his gold and silver plate to the -mint to be coined in order to buy up the depreciated paper currency. -The people of whole districts were at the verge of starvation because -the $80,000,000 of paper money in circulation had lost its purchasing -power. I was naturally incredulous as to the reality of what I had -seen. If these jewels were real, their value must be sufficient to pay -off the dishonored bonds of Turkey. It did not seem reasonable that -the Turkish Government could have passed through such straits as those -to which it had been reduced by the war without having recourse to -their treasure-house. Multitudes of articles in those rooms have an -immense antique and artistic value entirely aside from their intrinsic -value.</p> - -<p>“I spoke in this strain to one of the officers of the Imperial Ottoman -Bank, and he replied that the jewels were unquestionably genuine. -He said that during the war the Turks borrowed $30,000,000 from -the bank. The loan was to be secured by pledge of jewels from this -treasure-house, and the bank officials were told to help themselves -from its riches. They selected enough of the jewels to guarantee them -amply against loss. These jewels were packed in three small boxes and -removed to the vaults of the bank. But their removal left no gap in -the great accumulation. Afterward I asked a Turk why the Government -did not sell this treasure and be at ease. ‘Sell it?’ said the Turk; -‘why, it is the treasure of all the Sultans! It cannot be sold.’</p> - -<p>“So there is this treasure-house to-day—a grand relic of ancient -splendor—in the hands of the broken, ruined remnant of the house of -Osman. The possession of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span> enormous wealth must be a terrible -temptation at times to the worn man who wears the Sacred Sword of -Turkey. But he clings to it through all his adversity, for it is the -only relic left to the Empire of the glory of its past.”</p> -</div> - -<p>Two of the oldest authenticated diamonds in Europe belong to the -Sultan. One of them, a beautiful stone of twenty-four karats, and -which adorns the aigrette of the Imperial plume on days of parade, was -found in Constantinople in the time of Mahomet IV. It was picked up -by a poor man upon a heap of dirt not far from the gate of Egrikapon. -The finder had no idea of the value of his treasure, and sold it for a -trifle. Passing through the hands of several purchasers, the gem was -finally brought to the notice of the guild of goldsmiths, when its true -character was made known. It was then seized by the Grand Vizier and -annexed to the Imperial treasures by an edict. The other diamond, which -is of greater beauty and weight, was found by a child playing in the -Haiwanserai, or the Hebdomon, during the reign of Mahomet II., or about -the middle of the fifteenth century. It was believed by the antiquaries -that these gems belonged to the treasures of ancient Byzantium, and -that the last may have adorned the crown of the Byzantine emperors. -This jewel was lost by the fault of the masters of the wardrobe on the -place of the Hebdomon during a triumphal march in the twenty-second -year of the reign of Justinian, or 548 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> We can learn -nothing more concerning the condition of these diamonds when found, but -infer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span> that they were polished, otherwise they probably would not have -attracted the notice of the finders.</p> - -<p>Lamartine and other historians of the Ottoman Empire allude to its -treasury as in reality a wonderful museum of art, whose wealth is -unknown and perhaps incalculable. They state that in four vast -apartments beneath the Seraglio, vaulted subterraneously to shelter -them from the ravages of fire, are collected the sacred relics, the -jewels, the gems, and a great variety of objects of value that have -accumulated since the origin of the monarchy. The antiquary may well -say in viewing this collection of treasure, “The spoils of the universe -are here represented.” For whatever of value and historic worth was -saved from the wreck of Rome or preserved from the accumulations of -the Greek conquests was gathered at Byzantium. In this fatal Acropolis -at the extreme point of the continent of Europe, the Greek Empire -had indeed collected all its monuments, all its masterpieces, all -its riches, as if to tempt fate and render the prize all the more -glittering to the eyes of the Ottomans.</p> - -<p>Many, if not the most, of these priceless relics and treasures fell -into the clutches of the Turks when Constantinople was won. Nothing -escaped at that time. There is no doubt but that many remarkable gems -were captured at this period, but concerning their nature and their -value history has left us but little more than conjecture.</p> - -<p>However, the historians speak definitely of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span> Greek emperors during -their prosperity as displaying a magnificence worthy of the luxurious -periods of Rome. The costumes of these rulers are described as marvels -of art, and their jewels as of inestimable price. The accounts remind -the reader of the descriptions left by Claudian of the treasures of -Theodosius:—</p> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“Sidonian mantles rich with purple fold,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Belts bossed with pearls, robes stiff with gems and gold,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And breastplates shining green with emeralds bright,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And helmets rich with precious sapphires dight.”</span><br> -</p> - -<p>That diamonds were then used as gems and held in high estimation may -be inferred from the single remark of the indignant historian, “One -man buys entire Syria with the diamonds of his wife.” Perhaps the word -diamond was thus used figuratively, and the expression referred to gems -and jewels in general.</p> - -<p>Besides these accumulations of the Greeks, much of the spoil collected -by Timour in his merciless sack of India and Persia came afterwards -into the possession of the Emirs of Asiatic Turkey, and eventually -drifted to Constantinople. What these treasures were may be imagined -from the glowing descriptions given by the historians of the last -scenes of the life and reign of the great Tatar conqueror. The -magnificent fêtes given by Timour on his return to Samarcand after the -conquest of Arabia and Eastern Turkey, surpassed in historic splendor -even the descriptions of Oriental fable. In the gigantic palace<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span> -erected by him during the days of leisure between his conquests, and -which was one of the marvels of the architectural world, he celebrated -in a single day the marriage of six of his grandsons. The spoils of the -universe were displayed in the decorations of the marriage feasts. The -wealth of the Indies had been transferred to the home of the Tatar. -Pearls, sapphires, and diamonds were showered in profusion upon the -married pairs. Nine times did they change their apparel, and, arrayed -in different solid cinctures of a tissue of pearls and diamonds, -present themselves to the view of Timour,—the last festivities of the -great Tatar chieftain.</p> - -<p>This wonderful display of mediæval times recalls to the mind of -the antiquary the magnificent marriage feasts of Alexander and his -eighty lieutenants with their beautiful Persian brides. This historic -festivity took place in Persia 324 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span>, when the Greek -army returned from India, and continued for five days. Like that of -Timour, it displayed in its magnificence the gems and art treasures of -conquered Asia. The diamond, however, does not appear. Art evidently -had not then acquired the process by which the natural and rough -crystal is developed into a gem of sparkling and lustrous beauty. And -the selected brides, to enhance their natural charms, wore pearls, -emeralds, rubies, and turquoises wreathed among their tresses of hair, -or in their necklaces, amulets, anklets, and bracelets.</p> - -<p>Among the treasures supposed to be gathered in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span> these catacombs, of -an Empire’s wealth at Constantinople, there is one especially dear to -the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dilettante</i>,—the wondrous ring of Ahmed. Vanquished in the -long, bloody, and desperate battle fought upon the slopes of Olympus -when entire Turkey was the prize, Ahmed offered to his victorious -brother Selim I. a single gem to purchase the honors of a tomb. This -precious stone was set in a ring richly chased in gold, and was the -gift of Bajazet II. to the most beloved of his children. It was as -dear as the ring Solomon wore, and which was gifted with wonderful -powers extending even to the invisible world. But it was as fatal as -that which Polycrates cast into the sea as an offering to the gods for -his long-continued prosperity. History does not mention the nature of -this remarkable treasure, nor relate whether it was diamond, sapphire, -or emerald. However, we may glean some idea as to its rarity and -beauty from the statement that the Genoese jewellers who were then the -gem-venders of the world placed its value at a year’s revenue of all -Asia Minor.</p> - -<p>The antiquary may also find among these dusty and forgotten collections -some of the lost gems and beautiful works of art of ancient Rome, or, -perhaps, the rich ornaments brought home by the Macedonian soldiers -from their Eastern triumphs, or the holy relics which the Arabs removed -from the Gothic treasury at Toledo, and concealed in their fortresses -and fastnesses of Syria. In mediæval times the precious stones and all -that was marvellous in decorative art<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span> that fell into the hands of the -Genoese and Venetian merchants went to Constantinople to adorn the -magnificence of the Turkish nobles. Whatever the Mamelukes had gathered -together in their treasury in Egypt, rescued from the dust of the -catacombs, or wrested from the isolated strongholds of Western Africa, -was seized by one fell swoop of the Turkish horsemen and transferred to -the Bosphorus.</p> - -<p>The extravagance of the Turkish nobility during some of the brilliant -reigns of the Empire was extreme, and seems to belong to the golden -age of fable rather than to the truthful periods of history. We can -form some idea of the wealth of these favorites of the Sultans from the -glowing descriptions left by the Ottoman historians.</p> - -<p>Sinan-Pasha, the Turkish Marius, seven times exiled and seven times -consul, yet dying at last at eighty while conducting the army -to Hungary, left a heritage worthy of a king. Among his immense -possessions the historian enumerates thirty-two cuirasses incrusted -with rubies, fifteen strings of huge pearls, sixty bushels of fine -pearls, seven tablecloths bespangled with diamonds, all accumulated -during campaigns in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Another potentate, -the Grand Vizier Sokolli, exhibited a love of magnificence worthy -of the most reckless Roman profligates. His garden, near Tokat, was -the wonder of Asia Minor, and was called the garden of Paradise, -“Djennet-bagni.” Its parterres, instead of being covered with natural -flowers, sparkled with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span> rubies and precious stones imitating the form -of flowers and surpassing them in splendor. This unique display of art -was finally destroyed by the victorious barbarian hordes from Asia, -and the beautiful imitations of flowering vegetation were borne off -to the distant steppes to be transferred into ornaments for arms and -horse-gear.</p> - -<p>In forming a conjecture of the value of the treasures of the Turkish -Seraglio, the antiquary naturally and justly recalls to memory the -magnificence of early history and the numerous spoliations of ancient -nations that eventually fell into the grasp of the Greek and Roman -Emperors. Let us follow briefly the historian among some of the -fragments of history which relate to this subject, and seem to indicate -that the treasures of the earth gathered during the last two thousand -years in reality drifted in course of time and by the fortunes of war -to the Greek Capitol. It is the sad epitome of man’s greatness and his -insignificance. For the pillage which graced the triumphs of the Greek -and Roman arms not only represented the peaceful industry of nations, -but they were also often the memorials of the destruction of the -earth’s fairest hopes.</p> - -<p>Rome, in the height of her glory, displayed a magnificence worthy of -the valor of her arms and the magnitude of her conquests. Her temples -were profusely decorated with gems, and her nobles vied with each other -in the possession of the rare and the beautiful. At times the Coliseum -exhibited the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span> wealth of the nation and the liberality of its rulers. -The poet who describes the games of Carinus affirms that the porticos -of the immense edifice were gilded, and the extensive circles which -divided the ranks of spectators from each other were studded with a -precious mosaic of beautiful stones,—</p> - -<p class="poetry" xml:lang="la" lang="la"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“Balteus in gemmis in lita portico aureo</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Certatim radiant,” etc.</span><br> -</p> - -<p>In the triumphs of Rome the spoils of the last conquest were not only -displayed, but the accumulated riches of the Empire were ostentatiously -exhibited to view at the same time.</p> - -<p>To give the reader an idea of the magnificence of these celebrations, -we will describe the triumphal entry into the eternal city by Aurelian -when returning from the conquest of Palmyra and the nations situated -along the great commercial highways to Asia. This was one of the -greatest of the Roman triumphs, and spread a dazzling glory over the -name of the conqueror. The pomp was opened by the stately procession of -twenty enormous elephants, followed by four royal tigers and more than -two hundred of the most curious animals from all parts of the world. -Then came a fierce and haughty band of sixteen hundred gladiators, -selected for their beauty, strength, and skill. The wealth of Asia -followed this vanguard of brute strength. Displayed in charming -arrangement or carelessly heaped in immense piles, the spectators -witnessed the arms, ensigns, and a vast collection of the objects of -value and luxury of many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> conquered nations. Among the articles of -gold were exhibited the numerous crowns of Aurelian, together with -the magnificent plate and wardrobe of the Syrian queen. Amidst this -glittering array appeared the embassies of foreign and distant nations; -and the ambassadors of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, India, and China, -with their brilliant or picturesque costumes, added greatly to the -interest and splendor of the scene. Following these came long trains -of captives from various nations,—Goths, Vandals, Sarmatians, Gauls, -Syrians, etc.,—with the ill-fated emperor, Tetricus, and his son, -dressed in Gallic costume. But the most attractive figure of all to -the Roman populace was the beauteous form of the celebrated queen of -the Syrian deserts. Zenobia was on foot and alone. As if in mockery of -human ambition, she preceded the magnificent chariot in which she once -hoped to have entered Rome. Her elegant figure was shackled with solid -chains of gold, while she tottered under the weight of the inestimable -jewels which adorned her natural graces. In the rear appeared the still -more sumptuous chariots of Odenatus and of the Persian monarch. The -triumphal car which carried Aurelian was resplendent with gems, and was -drawn by four stags.</p> - -<p>One of the most magnificent exhibitions of extravagance and luxury of -ancient times was displayed on the march of Tiridates and his Parthian -nobles, when they went to Rome to receive the nominal crown from the -hand of Nero. Four thousand selected<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span> Parthian cavalry, clothed in rich -apparel, escorted the King. The entire expense of the journey, which -lasted several months and amounted to more than thirty thousand dollars -a day, was paid by the Romans. The triumphal procession traversed Asia -Minor, crossed the Hellespont, passed through upper Greece, around the -Adriatic, and then down the peninsula to Rome.</p> - -<p>It was a great day for Rome when the Parthians approached its walls. -The city was illuminated, and decorated with garlands and the movable -wealth of the Empire. The Roman nobles were clad in white; and the -splendid Pretorian guards, glittering with their arms and decorations, -were drawn up in two lines stretching from the end of the Forum to the -Rostra. Through these lines of steel, flanked by a vast assemblage -of citizens, Tiridates and his proud nobles marched to the Rostra, -and received from the hands of Nero the promised diadem. The Empire -impoverished herself in this barbaric display and attempt to awe and -charm her haughtiest foe. The accumulated spoils of three hundred -triumphs at Rome formed a glittering prize to the minds of Alaric and -his devoted Goths.</p> - -<p>But six years before the capture of the city, Rome displayed her -magnificence and her wealth in the ovation given to <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Melania on -her return. The extent of the decoration of the temples and their -shrines may be inferred from the quotations of the historians. Serena, -the wife of the Roman general,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span> Stilicho, on great occasions wore a -magnificent necklace which she borrowed from the statue of Vesta. But -the protection of the goddess could not protect the unfortunate woman -from being strangled by the Romans during the siege by the Goths.</p> - -<p>The fame of these treasures had spread all over the known world. -And to the Goths the beauty of gems and the delights of luxuries -were not entirely unknown. For, in previous times, they had invaded -the coasts of the Euxine Sea and sacked many of the rich cities, -like Trebizond. In the pillage of the city by the Goths, Alaric is -said to have protected the consecrated plate and ornaments of the -temples; but he undoubtedly confiscated the most valuable and notable -of the treasures. The booty of the army was immense; and when the -victorious soldiers took their departure the roads were incumbered -with the rich and weighty spoils. The haughty victors, clad in the -vestments of unexpected luxury, might have been seen resting by the -wayside, waited on by their captives,—the sons and daughters of Roman -senators,—drinking the wine of Italy in golden goblets, decorated with -gems.</p> - -<p>The treasures obtained by the Goths in the conquest and sack of Italy -were borne away with them to Gaul. Besides these, the Gothic chieftains -are said to have possessed many valuable gifts from other nations. The -record of these wonderful works of art has been lost; but a few scraps -of history, here and there, give glimpses of marvellous treasures. -When<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span> the Franks pillaged the palace at Narbonne in France, in the -sixth century, they found many curious and costly ornaments of gold.</p> - -<p>But most of the treasures and choice works were undoubtedly carried -along with the army into Spain, and deposited in the Gothic treasury -at Toledo. These were eventually captured by the Saracens and sent -to Damascus. Thus, by the singular fortunes of war, these remarkable -and beautiful relics returned to the Holy Land whence some of them -had been taken centuries before. Among these articles was the famous -“Missorium,” or great dish for the service of the table, weighing five -hundred pounds. It was formed of solid gold of exquisite workmanship, -richly inlaid with gems, and was the pride of the Goths.</p> - -<p>The wonderful emerald table, which has been so enthusiastically -described by the Arabian writers, was also seized at the same time. The -transparent top of this table was encircled with three rows of fine -pearls, supported on three hundred and sixty-five feet, formed of gold -and gems. This superb piece of workmanship was valued at five hundred -thousand pieces of gold.</p> - -<p>The marriage feast of Adolphus, the successor of Alaric, with Placidia, -the daughter of the great Theodosius, was a memorable occasion in -ancient history. It was celebrated at Narbonne, and displayed the -prodigality and magnificence of the Goths. The ceremony was performed -according to the lavish fashion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span> of the Romans and the rude customs -of the victors. Adolphus offered to his bride, in accordance with -the manner of his nation, the spoils of her country. Fifty beautiful -youths, attired in silken robes, presented the happy maiden with one -hundred basins, one half of which were filled with gold, and the rest -were heaped with gems of an inestimable price. Such was the inconstancy -of fortune in those days, and such the cruelty of the times, that only -a year after this grand event the beautiful woman, the daughter of a -Roman emperor, and the wife of the Gothic chieftain, might have been -seen marching on foot with a crowd of vulgar captives, in front of the -horse of the assassin of her beloved husband. However, a few short days -after the usurpation, the Gothic army, struck with pity and indignation -at the sufferings of Placidia, attacked and slew her barbarous master.</p> - -<p>Genseric, with his Moors and Vandals, fiercer in their pillage than the -Goths of Alaric, ravaged Rome for fourteen days and nights. Everything -of value, sacred or profane, was seized and borne away to the galleys -of the invaders. Even the Empress Eudoxia was rudely stripped of her -ornaments; and the holy relics, brought from Jerusalem by Titus and -spared by Alaric, were taken from the temples and transferred to -Carthage. One of the vessels, containing a part of the sacred utensils -and other treasures, was shipwrecked on the same shore which a thousand -years later swallowed up the wonderful and blood-stained emeralds -which Cortez wrested from Mexico<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span> and carried with him when wrecked -with the Admiral of Castile. The remainder were saved to swell the -ponderous pile of booty when Carthage fell before the arms and genius -of Belisarius. All these treasures, the collections of the Moor and the -Vandal, were transported to the Bosphorus to enrich the city of the -conquerors.</p> - -<p>To the successful army and its general a triumph was decreed; and it -was the first Byzantium had ever seen. The display on this historic -occasion was worthy of the army and its hero. The wealth of nations was -brought forth to heighten the splendor of the scene. Rich armor, golden -thrones, chariots, varied forms of sculpture and furniture, statues, -vases, and other objects of art, together with the holy relics of the -Jewish Temple, were displayed in the procession.</p> - -<p>But the grandest object of all was presented by the noble and majestic -form of Belisarius, marching on foot at the head of a band of his -bravest officers. Later in life, at the capture of Ravenna, Belisarius -obtained the treasures of the Gothic army, which had been collected -in that stronghold. These were transferred to the Byzantine palace; -but the deserving general was deprived of his hard-won triumph, for -Justinian had now become envious of the glory of his subject. The -magnificent spectacle of the booty was not exhibited to the populace; -but shown only to the flattering and subservient senate.</p> - -<p>The results of the Persian conquests largely increased<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span> the number, -variety, and value of the art and gem collections at Constantinople. -The Persian monarch, Chosroes, to arrange and preserve the treasures -gathered by rapine or tribute, constructed an elegant palace at -Dastagherd beyond the Tigris. In this stronghold, protected in a -hundred vaults, were deposited most of the gold, silver, gems, silks, -aromatics, and other objects collected from Persia and other countries -of Asia. All these fell into the bold hands of the Roman Emperor -Heraclius; but a part of them, during an unlucky tempest, were lost -in the waves of the Euxine Sea. In the capture of Tauris, Heraclius -obtained what were supposed to have been the spoils of Crœsus, which -had been transported by Cyrus from the citadel of Sardes.</p> - -<p>Once only, before the coming of the Turk, was Constantinople, during -its many centuries of varied prosperity and adversity, subjected to -serious pillage. Hostile armies had again and again surged up to its -almost impregnable walls, only to retire in discomfiture; and it seemed -as though the grand old city was protected by some invisible agency -from external violence. Internal dissension, however, was the bane of -the capital, and was the true cause of the success of the Latins, and -finally that of the Turks. The successful attack by the combined forces -of the Latins and Venetians was one of the results of the Crusades. It -took place in the commencement of the thirteenth century.</p> - -<p>The city, however, remained under the Latin power<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span> for only fifty-seven -years, when it was recaptured by a bold stroke of the Greeks. Injured -by the pillage of the Latins, and many of its beautiful edifices -destroyed by fire during the siege or subsequent occupation, the -Greek capital not only lost its prestige of divine protection, but it -has never recovered its former splendor. How much of the spoils were -removed by the captors is a matter of conjecture. The historians of the -Greeks and Latins—the spoiled and spoiler—undoubtedly exaggerate the -injury of the conquest and the quantity of booty obtained.</p> - -<p>Two of the Emperors, succeeding by usurpation, fled from the city -with much treasure before it was finally captured. Even then one -quarter of the accepted plunder was reserved for the elected ruler -of Constantinople. And as to the remainder, which is said to have -been divided equally between the French and Venetians, and valued at -11,125,000 marks of silver, or $11,000,000, there is no record extant -of the articles. We know that the bronze horses of the Hippodrome -were transferred to Saint Mark’s Palace, and the crown of thorns -to the Sainte Chapelle at Paris. We also learn that many gems-the -adamas, emerald, jacinth, ruby, sapphire—were among the spoils; but -if the sack was complete, why did Venice years afterwards offer ten -thousand ducats for the seamless vesture of the Redeemer, which was -then among the sacred reliquaries of Constantinople? If these spoils -were divided between the conquerors, how explain the fact recorded in -French history, that the sacred relics sent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span> to Paris and placed in -the church erected to receive them were purchased? It is a matter of -history that the crown of thorns, with the piece of the true cross, the -antique gems, and other relics that were deposited in Sainte Chapelle, -together with the construction of the building, cost Saint Louis of -Baldwin, Emperor of Constantinople, a sum of money equal to 2,800,000 -francs. This fact, coupled with the offer of the Venetians for the -holy vestment, renders the accounts of the sack of the city still more -obscure. The historian Yriarte declares that the only monuments of art -deemed by the Venetians as worthy of transporting to their capital were -the famous bronze horses. If this statement is correct, the Venetians -must have been sadly deficient in taste, or history has wrongfully -accused the founders of Constantinople of spoliation.</p> - -<p>According to the early accounts, Constantine, in the reconstruction -of Byzantium, despoiled the cities of Asia and Greece of their most -valuable ornaments, the trophies of memorable wars, the objects of -religious veneration, the most finished statues of the gods and heroes, -of the sages and poets, of ancient times. The most celebrated works -of the age of Pericles and Alexander were remorselessly seized by -the Emperor and transferred to his capital to enhance its beauty and -its renown. So many statues and architectural masterpieces had been -transported to the Bosphorus that the historian Cedrenus ironically -said, “Nothing in this great city was wanting except<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span> the souls of -the illustrious men whom those admirable monuments were intended to -represent.”</p> - -<p>In the reign of Justinian the city was decorated by the best of living -artists. In the construction of the public edifices, the richest -materials were sought for and used with lavish hand. The bright hues, -the primitive lustre, of many of the stones of which the buildings were -composed were so remarkable as to form the theme of a poet. Distant -countries were explored for choice materials. The costly marbles of -Asia, Gaul, Greece, and Africa were transported to the Bosphorus. -Among the rare stones used by the Greek architects, one may recognize -in the ruins of the present day, the emerald-green marble of Laconia, -the golden-hued of Mauritania, the black of Gaul, and the purple and -red, with intersecting veins of sea-green, of Phrygia. The shrine which -stood in the Mosque of Saint Sophia a thousand years ago or more must -have been of marvellous beauty. The wealth and energy of the ancient -world was expended upon it; and we can form some picture of it in our -imagination from the fact that the Emperor Justinian, on beholding it -after its completion, exclaimed, with outstretched arms, “Solomon, I -have surpassed thee.”</p> - -<p>The magnificence displayed by the wealthy houses of Byzantium in their -internal arrangements must have been of an extraordinary character -if we can judge correctly from the invectives of Chrysostom; and -the utensils of silver and gold were in massiveness<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span> far beyond the -prodigality of modern times. Ramusio, the Venetian historian, dazzles -the reader with his glittering descriptions of the acquisitions of his -countrymen. He mentions with preciseness the vases whose forms were as -grotesque and varied as the caprice of man,—the murrhines Pompey won -in his triumphs over Mithridates and Tigranes; chalices decked with -gems or formed of turquoise, jasper, and amethyst; crowns of gold, -studded with pearls; unnumbered emeralds, sapphires, topazes, jacinths, -and other gems; also the matchless carbuncles which afterwards adorned -the altar at Saint Mark’s, and which were believed by the superstitious -to have the power of dissipating the darkness by their refulgent beams -of light.</p> - -<p>Constantinople, with its remaining works of art, again fell into the -power of the Greeks and was retained by them until captured by the -Turks. To describe the treasures of the Greek capital before its -capture, and correctly estimate the character and value of the objects -removed, and those secreted and again brought to light, will be a -difficult task for some restless antiquary. We are, however, inclined -to believe the Greeks successfully secreted many of their choicest -gems. All through the pages of early and mediæval history, the reader -will observe that by a strange caprice of fortune many of the richest -and rarest works of art and nature passed into the possession of the -rulers of Byzantium, Constantinople, or Stamboul. These three names, -distinct in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span> their meaning, yet relate to one and the same city, which, -during its existence of more than a thousand years, passed successively -under the sway of the Roman, the Greek, and the Turk. Stamboul is still -the Mecca of the antiquary.</p></div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br><span class="small">RUSSIAN REGALIA.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The empire of Russia has the most splendid collection of diamonds of -any country in the world, with the exception, perhaps, of Persia. In -the Kremlin at Moscow, and the Winter Palace at <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Petersburg, are -preserved a multitude of gems of the highest perfection and beauty, -and also many interesting ornaments formed or captured by the early -rulers of Russia. Possessing many of the avenues of approach and trade -with the countries of Central and Southern Asia, this country has long -enjoyed excellent facilities for obtaining the gems from Upper India -and Persia. The enormous quantity the treasury still possesses, added -to the great number given away in past times by various sovereigns, -naturally gives rise to the inquiry, whence this great abundance of -precious stones came. We may say that this grand accumulation commenced -in the earliest days of the Russian dynasty, and has been steadily -increasing by direct intercourse with the gem-producing countries.</p> - -<p>Many of the fine gems that fell into the hands of the Turks in their -various conquests, have indirectly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span> passed, by purchase or otherwise, -into the possession of the Russians.</p> - -<p>Some others recall the times of the incursions of the Cossacks of the -tenth century, when the fearless hordes of the North marched even to -the gates of Constantinople, and imposed menaces and ransoms upon the -Greek emperors.</p> - -<p>The crafty policy of the Russian dates back from those distant times. -“Let us be content,” said the old Russian chieftain to his impetuous -warriors complaining of treaties and tributes; “is it not better to -obtain, without fighting, the gold, the silver, the silk, the precious -stones of these people?”</p> - -<p>The still earlier Scythians, with their light active horse, performed -incredible journeys even into Illyricum and Thrace. The river Danube -offered but a slight barrier to these fearless riders; and they boldly -traversed flood, forest, and plain, sweeping, with impunity and menace, -even up to the walls of Byzantium. They pillaged, without remorse, the -rich towns and country palaces of the nobles, and returned to their -forest wilds accompanied by thousands of captives, and laden with booty -of immense value.</p> - -<p>We are also reminded by the historian, that a part of Russia, -especially Poland, was the Sarmatia of the ancients, whence issued -the fearless swarms of invincible Huns and Goths and Sclavonians, who -spread desolation at various times over nearly the whole of Europe. -Although these fierce hordes seldom returned to their native plains, -preferring the sunnier portions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span> of the conquered countries, yet they -did not abandon all communication with the land of their birth. Many of -their incursions into the Roman provinces were rewarded with immense -booty of captives, and a variety of plunder. For fifteen hundred years -the customs of the Poles were but little changed. The love of nomadic -life, of magnificence, of arms, dress, ornaments, was a predominating -trait until a very recent period. The famous political assemblies of -the Poles on the plain of Volo were among the grandest displays of -barbaric splendors of any age; and sometimes one hundred thousand Poles -were assembled in conclave.</p> - -<p>The chivalry, the wealth of the country, was represented there. All -the nobles and citizens of note attended, mounted upon the finest -horses, and caparisoned and decorated in the most lavish manner. As the -historian says, “The children of the desert strove to hide the furs and -skins in which they were clothed, under chains of gold and the glitter -of jewels. Their bonnets were composed of panther skin; plumes of -eagles or herons surmounted them; on their front were the most splendid -precious stones. Their robes of sable or ermine were bound with -velvet or silver; their girdles studded with jewels; over all their -furs were suspended chains of diamonds. One hand of each nobleman was -without a glove; on it was the splendid ring on which the arms of his -family were engraved,—the mark, as in ancient Rome, of the equestrian -order,—another proof of the intimate connection<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span> between the race, the -customs, the traditions of the Northern tribes, and the founders of the -Eternal City.” But nothing in this rivalry of magnificence could equal -the splendor of their arms: double poniards, double scimetars set with -brilliants; bucklers of costly workmanship; battle-axes enriched in -silver and glittering with emeralds and sapphires.</p> - -<p>After reviewing the history of ancient and mediæval Poland, we are -not surprised at the accumulation of gems in Russia, nor at the fact -that some of the fine gems now in the modern cabinets of Europe were -obtained from that country. For instance, the splendid green diamond of -Dresden came from Warsaw.</p> - -<p>The grand repository of the Empire is in the towers of the Kremlin; -and here are preserved the sacred relics and the almost innumerable -treasures of the Empire. In the galleries of this ancient castle of -the Muscovites are gathered such an accumulation of wonders that the -visitor is fairly dazzled, and is forcibly reminded of the tales of -Eastern romance, of the munificence of the store-house of the Caliph -Haroun-Al-Raschid, and the wells of Aboul Kasem.</p> - -<p>Diamonds, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, topazes, and other gems, of -large size and wondrous beauty, flash from every side of the apartment; -and their profusion astonishes the mineralogist, who has been -accustomed to regard these natural treasures as rare. It will be quite -impossible to enumerate or explain properly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> the glittering arrangement -of these marvellous works of art and nature. The sceptres, the crowns, -the caskets, the reliquaries, the globes, thrones, and the insignia -of religion and royalty collected here, fairly dazzle the eye by the -reflections from the immense number of gems which decorate them. The -scene reminds one of the prismatic effect of the rays of the morning or -evening sun upon the numberless raindrops on the grass, after a shower -has passed.</p> - -<p>Here we shall find the crowns of the Muscovite Czars, together with the -captured diadems and regalia of the countries that form a part of this -vast realm. Among them may be seen, in all of their original quaintness -and splendor, the crowns of Siberia, Novgorod, Kazan, Moscow, Poland, -and the Crimea. To this imperial display we may expect to see added, at -no distant day, the jewels of the Southern countries, which seem to be -the inevitable heirlooms of the sagacious Cossack.</p> - -<p>To describe correctly, and in a proper manner, the works of ancient, -mediæval, and modern art collected here, would require a large volume -by itself. We will, however, attempt to give a brief description -of some of the beautiful crowns, which, though generally of rude -workmanship, are yet studded with gems of an immense value, and are -also objects of great historic interest.</p> - -<p>Foremost of all, appears the magnificent diadem worn by the former -Empress Anna Ivanovna, and which is, perhaps, one of the most splendid -jewels<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span> of its kind in the world. It is well proportioned, and lightly -formed of open gold work, incrusted with a vast number of exquisite -gems, and among them 2,536 diamonds of great perfection. On its top, -serving as a base to a slender cross of pearls, is placed the immense -and wonderful ruby, which the Russian ambassador purchased at Pekin, at -the price of 120,000 roubles.</p> - -<p>The crown of Vladimir, which is used at the crowning of the heir to -the throne, is composed of filigree gold-work, surmounted by a cross -of plain gold, with a large pearl on each arm. It is surrounded at its -base by a band of sable fur, and is ornamented with 4 fine emeralds, 2 -rubies, and 25 pearls.</p> - -<p>This crown was a gift from the Emperor Alexis Comnenus, and was brought -with ceremony from Constantinople, by a Greek embassy, in the year 1116.</p> - -<p>This circumstance recalls to memory the history and fate of the last of -the Comnenuses, the self-styled Emperor of Trebizond, and who afforded -so many themes of ridicule to the knights and troubadours of the -fifteenth century.</p> - -<p>In connection with our subject, it may be proper to give a sketch of -the appearance of this potentate when he gave an audience to foreign -ambassadors.</p> - -<p>His dress was a tight gown of scarlet silk; around his neck, down the -front of his gown, and around the bottom of it, were bands of gold -about four inches<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span> wide; these were edged with pearls, and ornamented -with large rubies and emeralds in rows down the centre of each band -of gold. On his arms, above the elbows, were golden armlets, and -around his wrists gold bracelets, all set with precious stones of -various colors. His girdle was of the same pattern, about three inches -wide, and had a hanging end about two feet long, which the Byzantine -emperors, for some undiscovered reason, always carried over the left -arm. In his right hand he bore a golden sceptre about three feet long, -with a large cross at the top, set with enormous pearls. On his head he -wore a close golden crown, of which the top was arranged in metal like -a helmet. From this crown a fillet set with pearls hung down on each -side of his face as far as his beard, which was of considerable length. -Scarlet silk hose and golden sandals completed the Imperial costume, -except two round ornaments of gold, each of the size of a plate, which -were affixed to his robe on the outside of his thigh.</p> - -<p>Such was the appearance of this vain ruler when he gave audience to -the envoys of Mahomet II., the conqueror of Constantinople. The plain -steel-clad warriors of the Sultan briefly said, “Wilt thou secure thy -treasures and thy life by resigning thy kingdom; or wilt thou rather -forfeit thy kingdom, thy treasures, and thy life?”</p> - -<p>The sceptre of Vladimir is also preserved here. It is about three feet -long, and contains among its ornaments 268 diamonds, 360 rubies, and 15 -emeralds.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span> The enamel covering of the rest of the surface, unadorned -by the gems, represents religious subjects, painted and treated in the -Byzantine style.</p> - -<p>The tiara of Astrakhan is far more complex in its construction, and is -very rich in barbaric taste. It is now known as the gold Imperial Crown -of the First Order of the Czar; and is a tall, imposing structure, -covered with brilliant gems. Among them are many fine rubies, emeralds, -pearls, and an enormous sapphire of great value.</p> - -<p>The crown of Kazan, captured in 1553 by John IV., is a very interesting -specimen of mediæval workmanship, and shows the influence of Persian -art in its arrangement. It is of gold filigree-work, intermixed with -black, and is adorned with splendid rubies, turquoises, and pearls. On -the summit is placed a very large ruby, surmounted with two pearls.</p> - -<p>The ornament known as the diamond cap of the Czar is a singular -combination of the rude and the beautiful in art. It is profusely -garnished with 817 diamonds of the first water, besides 4 magnificent -rubies and 8 emeralds. This is also surmounted with an enormous ruby, -which sustains on its summit a solid Greek cross, composed of gems and -pearls set in gold.</p> - -<p>We have not space to describe the remaining diadems of ancient rulers, -or those of recent times, nor the rich breast-crosses, the sceptres, -and the various regalia used in the coronation of the Russian Emperors, -but will mention the Grand Imperial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span> Orb, before proceeding to the -description of the ancient and curious thrones.</p> - -<p>The Orb is an immense globe of gold, heavily chased and richly -incrusted with large and beautiful gems. It is surmounted with a tall -Greek cross, also studded with precious stones of the purest water and -color. It is of Byzantine workmanship, as early as the tenth century, -and is said to have served as model for several other ornaments of this -character, made at Venice in later times. The upper portion of the -exterior of the globe is arranged in four triangular spaces, whereon -are enamelled in color scenes from the life of David. Among the gems -which are set in enamelled gold are 58 diamonds, 89 rubies, 23 blue -gems(?), 50 emeralds, and 38 pearls.</p> - -<p>The three unique chairs used as thrones in the coronations of the -rulers of Russia are objects of historical interest and are of great -value intrinsically. The smallest of the three, designated as the -Stool, is the most ancient of all, having been presented in 1605 by -Shah Abbas of Persia to the Czar Boris Godunoff. It is completely -covered with polished sheets of beaten gold decorated with pearls and -precious stones. The second seat is in the form of a high-back chair -of rude workmanship, and is intended for the reigning Empress, and -is called the Golden Throne. Although its proportions are uncouth, a -mine of wealth has been expended in its decorations, and it is inlaid -with 1,500 rubies, 8,000 turquoises, 2 magnificent topazes, and 4 rare -amethysts. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span> third chair, of rude construction, was made as early as -1660, and is intended for the Emperor, and designated as the Diamond -Throne. It is literally a mass of sparkling diamonds; and every portion -of the chair is aglow with brilliant colored flashes of the diamonds, -so profusely is this gem used in its decoration. The rude and imperfect -cutting of these beautiful stones indicates their Oriental origin as -well as their antiquity.</p> - -<p>The Priests’ Treasury in the Kremlin is a wonderful accumulation of -wealth. We will attempt to describe but one of the articles to be -seen there. In a golden casket studded with the finest gems may be -seen some ancient holy relics given by one of the Greek Emperors of -Constantinople. Among them there is a fragment of stone from the tomb -of Christ, and a bit of wood from the cross. The elegance and richness -of the casket will remind the antiquary of the receptacle of the tooth -of Buddha, which was formerly preserved at Kandy, the capital of Ceylon.</p> - -<p>This relic was kept in a golden casket incrusted with the finest -gems. This was also encased in four other boxes, all of which were -studded with precious stones of enormous value, and forming together a -priceless reliquary to which none of the shrines of civilized countries -could offer an equal in comparison, not excepting that of the famous -Virgin of Loretto in Italy.</p> - -<p>In the great hall devoted to the collection of arms<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span> and armor may be -seen a great number of articles highly interesting to the antiquary -and historian. Arms and armor of all periods from Europe and Asia are -represented here,—the plain steel-clad vestments of the Crusader; -the richly chased and inlaid coats of mail of the knights of mediæval -times; the light defences of the Persian and Saracen horsemen, -glittering with those gems which were supposed to possess the power of -averting fatal missiles; the casques of the Circassian mountaineers, -brilliant with barbaric decorations; scimetars, bucklers, scabbards, -and a great variety of other arms, resplendent with the most beautiful -of the rarest and most precious stones.</p> - -<p>There is also a most costly and unique collection of saddles and -horse-gear to be seen. These are mostly presents of Emperors of -Constantinople in early times, and from Grand Turks and Persian Shahs -of later periods. Some of these are of great value and contain gems of -historic interest. Their decorations are profuse; and the bits, curbs, -bridles, headstalls, and, in fact, all portions of the trappings that -will admit of the setting of precious stones, are literally incrusted -with splendid gems, forming stars, suns, and various ornaments of -grotesque shapes.</p> - -<p>In one of the rooms of the Winter Palace at <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Petersburg are -deposited many of the jewels of the Empire, and especially those -required in the court ceremonies.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span></p> - -<p>Among them may be seen the beautiful crowns and coronets of the late -Emperor and Empress. The crown of the Emperor is of magnificent -workmanship, and dazzles the eye with the splendor of its gems. In -outline it resembles the dome-formed patriarchal mitre, which was a -favorite shape among the Byzantines. Upon the summit appears a cross -formed of five beautiful diamonds, which is also supported by a large -spinel ruby, polished, but not faceted. This ruby and cross are -supported by a foliated arch composed of eleven great diamonds and -rising from the back and front of the base of the crown. On either -side of this central arch is attached a hoop formed of thirty-eight -large and perfect pearls. The spaces on either side of these arches -are filled with leaf-work and ornaments in silver, incrusted with -diamonds underlaid with the richest purple velvet. The band which forms -the base of the crown is of gold, and is ornamented with twenty-eight -magnificent diamonds.</p> - -<p>The coronet of the Empress is thought to be the most beautiful -collection of diamonds ever presented to the view in a single ornament. -It is composed of four very large diamonds of the purest water, and -eighteen others of slightly smaller size, together with a multitude of -lesser diamonds of exquisite water. The flash of these beautiful gems -reminds the observer of a collection of rainbows.</p> - -<p>Among the other regalia of this collection may be seen the most -remarkable necklace of diamonds in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span> Europe. In the links which form the -chain are twenty-two huge brilliants of great value, and, as pendants -to the connecting chain, fifteen other diamonds of surprising size -appear, forming an ornament of great beauty.</p> - -<p>In this room may also be seen the plume of Russia’s great general, -Suvaroff. It is an aigrette composed entirely of diamonds of wonderful -lustre, and was the gift of the Sultan of Turkey.</p> - -<p>Among the curiosities preserved here are the Order of Saint Andrew, -mounted with five pink diamonds; also two of the famous Siberian -beryls,—one green, the other blue,—surrounded in their settings with -diamonds.</p> - -<p>In the museum of the Hermitage, adjoining the Winter Palace, may be -seen one of the finest and largest collections of gems in the world. -It is composed of choice selections from some of the most celebrated -cabinets that have been formed in Europe during the past two centuries, -and comprises the better portions of those known as the collection of -the Duke of Orleans (Philippe Egalité), that of the famous Strozzi, and -that of the Beverly, which had been formed under the direction of the -learned antiquary Dutens. The cabinet is not only extremely valuable in -its art treasures, in the form of engraved gems and cameos, ancient, -mediæval, and modern, but it is a noble monument of the good taste and -liberality of the sovereigns of Russia. The description of these alone -would require a ponderous volume.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span></p> - -<p>In another gallery in the same palace may be seen the plume of Prince -Potemkin, glittering with gems of the purest ray, presented to him by -the Sultan of Turkey; also the two magnificent bouquets of artificial -flowers composed of the finest colored diamonds, topazes, pearls, -sapphires, rubies, and other gems, which rival in their hues the most -beautiful of the productions of the vegetable kingdom; the identical -parrot which was carved from a single emerald, and given by King Pedro -II. of Portugal, to his bride, the Princess of Savoy; together with a -vast number of priceless objects of virtu of various ages, many of them -profusely decorated with interesting and valuable gems. The Hermitage, -like the Green Vaults at Dresden, is one of the jewel-boxes of the -civilized world.</p> - -<p>In the museum of the School of Mines at <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Petersburg may be seen the -finest collection of the gems in their natural and rough condition -in the world, not even excepting the magnificent collections of the -British Museum, or that of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. The -glittering treasures of Siberia are here displayed in lavish profusion. -Natural crystals of diamond, of chrysoberyl, of topaz, beryl, and -emerald attest, by their beautiful forms, the great mineral wealth of -that vast country. The crystals of emerald are enormous and exceed -in size all others in the world. The topazes are unsurpassed in -their beauty and variety of tints. The collection of beryls is truly -wonderful, and contains specimens<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span> of exquisite color and of great -value. They may be seen not only of green, blue, white, and yellow, -but even pink, which is an exceedingly rare hue for this mineral. The -cabinet of tourmalines is superb, and nobly illustrates the beauty and -variety of colors and forms of that wonderful mineral.</p> - -<p>In the arsenal of the Alexander Palace may be seen a curious and -valuable collection of arms and armor of all ages, and among them -many ornaments beautifully worked in precious stones. Prominent among -them are the two sets of horse-gear which came as presents from the -Sultan of Turkey. The first is a souvenir of the conclusion of that -peace which was signed at Adrianople when the Cossacks had passed the -barriers of the Balkan Mountains and almost clutched the long-coveted -prize of Istamboul in their grasp. It is superb in its construction, -with its mountings and stirrups of gold, and its velvet trappings -studded with flashing diamonds. But the second saddle is even far -superior in its ornaments and its effects to the first. It is indeed a -glorious specimen of Persian handicraft and ornamentation, and worthy -of one of the heroes of the Arabian Nights. It fairly glitters with the -multitude of diamonds of which it is composed, and some of which are of -great size and wondrous lustre. It is indeed a barbaric mine of wealth.</p> - -<p>This costly present was given to the Czar by the Sultan after the -fatal battle of Konieh, when the Porte supplicated Russia to send an -auxiliary force<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span> to defend a tottering throne against the attacks of a -rebellious vassal.</p> - -<p>Many of the cathedrals, convents, and monasteries of Russia are -richly endowed with gems and jewels of great beauty and value. In the -Kazan Cathedral at <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Petersburg may be seen the miraculous image of -the Virgin brought from Kazan in 1579. It is covered with gold, and -incrusted with diamonds and other gems. The sacristy of the Monastery -of Solovetsk is one of the richest in the realm, and is filled with -jewels and gems which have been presented in times past by kings, -princes, and nobles.</p> - -<p>In the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael, in Moscow, there are some -ancient reliquaries adorned with gems of remarkable beauty. The -diamonds, however, are surpassed by the magnificent emeralds.</p> - -<p>In the sacristy of the Holy Synod in Moscow are preserved some -wonderful sacerdotal robes and ornaments. One of the sakkos of crimson -velvet is so heavily laden with diamonds, rubies, pearls, emeralds, -etc., that its weight amounts to fifty-four pounds. The great mitre -is also so studded with gems, such as the finest diamonds, rubies, -emeralds, pearls, and sapphires, that it weighs five and a half pounds. -The decoration of these sacred objects has been made by lavish hands -and from an abundance of the most costly materials.</p> - -<p>The famous Convent of Troitza possesses rare and beautiful gems and -jewels among its gifts and reliquaries,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span> which are well worthy of -examination by <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dilettanti</i>. From a great variety of sources -these riches have accumulated. The shrine has been famous for many -centuries past; and czars, princes, boyars, and peasants have deposited -their offerings both in ostentation as well as with the hope of divine -dispensation.</p> - -<p>Its treasury is indeed a colossal jewel-box, whose wealth must amount -to many millions in value, and which rivals, if it does not surpass -in richness, the famous shrine of Loretto in Italy. The variety of -articles decorated with gems exhibited here is marvellous. Art has made -use of the precious stones in her decorations with lavish hand. Some of -the frames in which are set sacred pictures are literally composed of -gems of the largest size and also costly in price. Even the robes of -the Madonnas are spangled with diamonds, rubies, sapphires, topazes, -and emeralds, forming the richest mosaics.</p> - -<p>It is impossible, from the imperfect information we have received from -travellers concerning this wonderful museum of ancient and mediæval -art, to give an accurate account of its treasures; but we hope some of -the learned antiquaries of Western Europe may be induced to examine -them, and make known their history. Among the great numbers of engraved -gems, skilled search may reveal some of the most beautiful forms of -ancient art, and supply some of the missing links in glyptic history.</p> - -<p>According to these vague accounts a volume might<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span> be written on the -description of the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">armoires</i>, among which are comprised Bibles, -Gospels, liturgical books, bound with covers of silver gilt and -incrusted with precious stones, such as the onyx, sardonyx, agate, -chrysoprase, aqua-marinas, lapis lazuli, malachite, turquoise. The -clasps of these volumes are made of gold or silver, in which antique -cameos are set. Among the sacred utensils and relics are described -chalices of gold belted with rows of diamonds, and a great variety of -vessels richly ornamented; also crosses studded with beautiful emeralds -and rubies; sapphire rings; vases and chandeliers of silver; dalmatics -of brocade embroidered with flowers composed of gems, and with legends -in old Sclavonic, written in pearls; enamelled censers; triptychs -storied with countless figures. Besides these articles we have -enumerated, the museum contains a great number of others, including -images of saints and Madonnas richly decorated, masses of precious -metals, and heaps of precious stones in their natural state. What a -glorious field of study for the amateur and the historian is presented -here!</p> - -<p>Among the paragons possessed by the Crown is the diamond known as -the Orloff, which derives its name from one of the counts of that -celebrated family, who purchased it for the Empress Catherine. It is -one of the finest gems in the world, and is the largest in Europe. It -rivals in beauty the famous Regent of the French regalia, which it -surpasses in size. The weight of this diamond is 194³⁄₄ karats, and it -is exactly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span> of the form of the famous diamond described by Tavernier as -the Great Mogul. In shape it is ovoid, or rather, in gem nomenclature, -of a high-crowned rose-pattern. It is possible that this gem is the -long-lost Mogul. Were it not for the remarkable accuracy of the -distinguished French traveller, we should at once pronounce the Orloff -to be the missing Mogul. Hence the question arises, may not Tavernier -have made an error in his calculation of weight? It is certainly very -remarkable that two rare stones of such great weight, and such unusual -form, should possess so great and so many degrees of resemblance. And -it may be possible that the Mogul diamond is concealed in some of the -obscure fastnesses of Persia, and may appear again to the world, like -the crown of Chosroes, after a thousand years of concealment.</p> - -<p>The Orloff disputes with the Regent the claim of being the finest -known gem in the universe. Both have their ardent admirers. The Regent -owes much of its fancied superiority to the regularity and perfection -of its form, which is that of a perfect brilliant, and may therefore -be regarded as the type of the style. The Orloff, likewise, may be -selected as the perfected model of the form known as the rose-cut. -Therefore, either gem may be considered as the perfection of the -brilliant or the rose-style of cutting. The brilliant is certainly -the most symmetrical of all the forms; but does it enable the gem to -exhibit to a full degree its powers of refraction? It may exhibit<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span> -the prismatic play of color in greater perfection; but does not the -rose-cut project brighter beams of light in a more extensive proportion -than the brilliant? Let the opticians decide.</p> - -<p>The Orloff now adorns the Russian sceptre, being placed in the top, -just under the golden eagle.</p> - -<p>Concerning the history of the Orloff there is considerable obscurity, -even in that which relates to the time and the manner in which it came -into possession of the Russians. At all events, there is no doubt but -it formed a part of the spoils of Delhi, and was brought to Persia, -along with the Koh-i-noor and other gems, by the conqueror, Nadir Shah. -Its subsequent history, however, is somewhat mixed up with other gems. -Dutens relates a romantic story of its having formed one of the eyes -of the great idol at Seringapatam, and having been stolen by a French -deserter, who managed to be installed as a priest and attached to the -temple. Pallas, however, gives a totally different version, which he -is said to have derived from the son of the Armenian who sold the gem -to the Russians. This Armenian purchased the diamond from one of the -Afghan generals, who formerly served with Nadir, and who received it as -his share of the booty. But so far as we can learn, the gem was brought -to Europe by the Earl of Effingham, who obtained it when Governor -General of India. It frequently changed owners before it fell into the -possession of the Greek merchant who took it to <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Petersburg and sold -it to Prince Orloff. The price<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span> said to have been paid for it is given -at $450,000, besides an annuity of $20,000 and a patent of nobility.</p> - -<p>The Shah is a remarkably irregular prism of slab of diamond, partially -faceted by art. Tradition has associated with it adventures of a -startling and bloody character.</p> - -<p>It was one of the gems possessed by Nadir Shah, and at the time of his -death was received as booty and secreted by one of the assassins. Long -after the event, an Afghan visited an Armenian by the name of Shafras, -who lived at Bassora with his two brothers, and offered him a large -diamond, an emerald, a ruby of fabulous size, a sapphire of wonderful -beauty, together with a hundred other stones of less value. The -stranger asked an insignificant price for these valuable gems, but the -Armenian was not at the time able to furnish the means of purchase, and -entreated the Afghan to return at another time with his treasures. But -suspicious of the good faith of the jeweller, the mountaineer departed -and disappeared. Several years afterward the Armenian met, by chance, -the Afghan at Bagdad, where the gems were sold to a Jew for 65,000 -piastres. Shafras summoned his two brothers, and they assassinated -the stranger and the Jew, and flung their bodies into the Euphrates. -The brothers fled to the desert, and while attempting to divide their -spoils fell into dispute. In the depths of night the elder brother slew -his two companions in crime, and fled to Constantinople.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span> From thence -he passed to Holland, and informed several of the Courts of Europe -of his treasures. Catherine is said to have invited him to Russia, -but would not accede to his terms of purchase. The Armenian, while at -<abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Petersburg, was induced by some of the courtiers to lead a life -of dissipation, with the view of ultimately obtaining his treasures. -But, soon perceiving the intentions of his associates, he secretly -quitted the country, and was heard of no more for ten years, when by -accident it was discovered that he was living quietly at Astrakhan. New -overtures were at once made to him by the Russians, but he would not -consent to meet the negotiators, except at Smyrna. At this city the -purchase was finally made, and the Shah passed into the possession of -the Muscovites for an immense sum of money,—said to be $650,000.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately for this romantic story, only the outlines of which we -have here given, it is now reported that Chosroes, the son of Abbas -Mirza, presented the gem to the Emperor of Russia. Another account -states that it was purchased of Chosroes by the Russian Government. At -all events, no matter what its true history may be since the death of -Nadir, it is a gem of the most perfect purity of color and freedom from -blemish. Upon one of its sides an inscription in the Persian language -has been engraved by some lapidary of extraordinary patience. Its -weight is ninety-five karats.</p> - -<p>Many of the Russian nobles possess fine diamonds,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span> which are not well -known to the public. We know that the Princess Yassopouff owns the fine -brilliant of forty karats called the Polar Star; but what has become of -the fine gem of ninety karats, which was cut for Russia by the French -lapidary Jarlet, at the close of the seventeenth century?</p> - -<p>While we are speaking of lost gems, we will call the attention of -the reader to the large pear-shaped diamond of 157¹⁄₄ karats, which -Tavernier bought at Amadabad in India, and brought to Europe on his -return. This gem also has disappeared from history, and thus far evaded -all attempts for its recovery. The history of all the large and famous -diamonds brought to Europe would form a most interesting chapter, if -some tireless antiquary could be induced to take up the subject and -clear away the obscure wanderings of some of them.</p> - -<p>The history of Potemkin, as related by a recent writer, reveals an -extravagance unequalled since the days of the Roman follies; and it -reads in these sober times more like romance than reality. The Prince, -when fully attired, wore a collar of the Order of Saint Alexander, -which was the gift of the Empress, and profusely ornamented with -diamonds of the value of 60,000 roubles. A laurel wreath, which he wore -on state occasions, also the gift of Catherine, was beautifully wrought -in gold, and set with superb emeralds and diamonds which were estimated -as worth 150,000 roubles.</p> - -<p>The picture presented by this bold favorite in his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span> sunniest days, -when, for instance, he assisted the Empress to alight from her -carriage, surpasses the display of Prince Esterhazy in later times. -Orloff was then dressed in a scarlet coat, over which hung a long cloak -of gold lace extravagantly ornamented with precious stones of enormous -value. In fact, his dress was completely covered with beautiful -gems; and his hat was so heavily laden with precious stones, that an -<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">aide-de-camp</i> carried it for him when not in use.</p> - -<p>Catherine was not only passionately fond of belles-lettres and the -arts, but she had a generous heart withal, as evinced by the numerous -gifts she bestowed upon her friends. The value of the gems and the -jewels she gave to her favorites exceeds almost the bounds of belief, -and far surpasses the munificence of any of the sovereigns of history. -The total estimate of the worth of these gifts amounts to the enormous -sum of 88,820,000 roubles. We will enumerate some of them. To Zoritz -she gave diamonds of the value of 200,000 roubles. To Plato Zouboff, -gems worth 100,000 roubles. To Zawadoffsky, to Lanskoi, to Zermoloff, -she presented caskets of diamonds of the value of 80,000 roubles each. -Wasulitschikoff and Kozzakoff each received presents of the same -precious stone, costing 60,000 and 50,000 roubles. The five brothers of -the Orloff family, and especially Potemkin, received gifts amounting in -value to many millions of roubles. To the famous house of Bariatinsky -Catherine gave many beautiful gems which are still preserved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span> among the -treasures of the family. Among them is a splendid solitaire diamond -with a pendant, which was given to one of the Princes at his baptism.</p> - -<p>Some of these jewels are of unique patterns and workmanship, and of -immense value. Among them is a necklace of solitaires, each stone -as large as the end of the thumb, with large pear-shaped pendants -attached. There is also a bracelet of rude Persian art, made of beaten -gold, and set with uncut crystals of diamonds, thus indicating a very -ancient origin, or singular caprice on the part of the maker.</p> - -<p>There are still preserved among the princely families of Russia, as -well as in the Royal casket, many diamonds yet in their rough and -crystallized forms, or imperfectly cut in the Oriental and ancient -manner.</p> - -<p>The remarkable soldier, Suvaroff, although careless of his dress and -his personal appearance, was passionately fond of jewels. And the -allied sovereigns of Europe, learning of his love of the beautiful, -sent him several superb gems, among which was a large diamond of great -beauty, from the Empress Catherine.</p> - -<p>Like Charles <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">le Temeraire</i>, the terrible Cossack carried his gem -treasures with him during his campaigns; and he took infinite delight -in examining their charms, in times of danger and fatigue. They were of -various kinds and of great value; but the one he prized the most was -the gift of the Czarina.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span> This splendid gem he always reserved for the -last look, after toying with the others; and seemed fascinated with the -strange gleams of the prismatic display, as the stone was viewed in the -dim and flickering light of the camp-fire.</p> - -<p>What a picture is presented of the grim and fearless veteran, deriving -a gleam of comfort from his treasures during that lonely bivouac on the -summit of the high Alps, in Switzerland, on that fearful night in 1799, -when the victorious French, under Lecourbe, forced the Tatar general, -with his twenty-four thousand desperate soldiers, and with terrible -losses, over the desolate and rarely trodden pass of the Kenzig Culm!</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br><span class="small">FRENCH REGALIA.</span></h2> - - -<p>Previous to the time of the French Revolution, and commencing from -periods dating back beyond mediæval days, France had accumulated a -casket of gems and jewels of extraordinary richness and value. The -amateur may form an idea of their beauty and magnificence, from the -famous report made to the French Assembly by M. Delattre in 1791. In -this list there were enumerated with special care, 9,547 diamonds, 506 -pearls, 230 rubies, 134 sapphires, 150 emeralds, 71 topazes, 3 Oriental -amethysts, 8 Syrian garnets, and 8 other stones not designated.</p> - -<p>The estimated value of these treasures, together with the bijou and -mounted parures belonging to the Crown, amounted to nearly thirty -million francs. From this carefully arranged inventory, we have made -the following selection, which will be interesting to the reader at the -present day, as not only showing the estimated worth of the gems at -that time, but also describing some of the fine gems whose history has -since been lost.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr><th></th><th>Weight.<br>k.</th><th>Value.<br>fr.</th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">1 A brilliant diamond called Le Regent </td><td class="tdr bt">136¹⁴⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr bt">12,000,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">2 A diamond cut in facets, perfect in lustre and brilliancy, called Le Sancy </td><td class="tdr">33¹²⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 1,000,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">3 Diamond cut in facets </td><td class="tdr">28⁶⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 250,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">4 A brilliant diamond </td><td class="tdr">26¹²⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 150,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">5 A pear-shaped diamond, of a peach-blossom hue </td><td class="tdr">24¹³⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 200,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">6 A diamond called the Mirror of Portugal </td><td class="tdr">21²⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 250,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">7 Pear-shaped diamond, of a yellowish cast </td><td class="tdr">20¹⁴⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 65,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">8 Rose-colored diamond, with flaws </td><td class="tdr">20¹²⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 48,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">9 An olive-shaped diamond, clear </td><td class="tdr">18¹³⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 85,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">10 A brilliant, of a greenish cast, and flawed</td><td class="tdr">18¹¹⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 20,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">11 A pale wine-colored brilliant </td><td class="tdr">18⁹⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 75,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">12 A steel-colored brilliant </td><td class="tdr">17⁷⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 18,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">13 Brilliant, cloudy </td><td class="tdr">17 </td><td class="tdr"> 50,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">14 The 10th Mazarin, cloudy </td><td class="tdr">16 </td><td class="tdr"> 50,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">15 A brilliant, of peach-blossom hue </td><td class="tdr">14¹⁴⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 25,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">16 A fine white brilliant </td><td class="tdr">14¹⁴⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 150,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">17 A brilliant, of peach-blossom hue </td><td class="tdr">14¹²⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 30,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">18 Brilliant </td><td class="tdr">13¹⁰⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 60,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">19 A brilliant, of brownish hue </td><td class="tdr">13⁸⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 35,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">20 A brilliant, of yellowish hue </td><td class="tdr">11¹⁰⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 15,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">21 A brilliant, of brownish hue </td><td class="tdr">11¹⁰⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 10,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">22 Brilliant, of yellowish cast </td><td class="tdr">11⁶⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 15,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">23 Brilliant, of peach-blossom hue </td><td class="tdr">11²⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 10,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">24 Pale-blue brilliant </td><td class="tdr">10⁷⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 30,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">25 Brilliant, of brownish hue </td><td class="tdr">10⁴⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 25,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">26 White brilliant </td><td class="tdr">10 </td><td class="tdr"> 30,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">27 15 brilliants (of unknown weight) </td><td class="tdr"> ......</td><td class="tdr"> 833,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">28 54 brilliants, each from </td><td class="tdr">5 to 10</td><td class="tdr"> 756,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">29 227 brilliants, each from </td><td class="tdr"> 1 to 5</td><td class="tdr"> 332,700</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">30 1,631 small diamonds, together </td><td class="tdr"> 425</td><td class="tdr"> 77,228</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">31 12 diamonds, rose-cut and flawed </td><td class="tdr"> 84</td><td class="tdr"> 82,700</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3"> <span class="smcap">Royal State Dress, White Parure.</span> </td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">32 12 brilliants, each from and 163 smaller ones </td><td class="tdr"> 2 to 20</td><td class="tdr"> 413,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">33 The Order of <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Esprit, 9 brilliants, each from, and 286 smaller ones </td><td class="tdr"> 7 to 14</td><td class="tdr"> 324,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">34 The Epaulette, composed of 12 brilliants, each </td><td class="tdr"> 3 to 19</td><td class="tdr"> 306,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">35 The Croix du Cordon, 6 large brilliants and 143 smaller diamonds </td><td class="tdr"> ......</td><td class="tdr"> 200,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3"> <span class="smcap">Colored Parure.</span> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">36 A rich sky-blue brilliant </td><td class="tdr"> 67²⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 3,000,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">37 Pale-blue brilliant </td><td class="tdr">31¹²⁄₁₆</td><td class="tdr"> 300,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">38 Croix du Cordon, 13 large brilliants, 362 smaller </td><td class="tdr"> ......</td><td class="tdr"> 10,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">39 Epaulette, 9 large brilliants, 197 smaller</td><td class="tdr"> ......</td><td class="tdr"> 47,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">40 Epée de diamonds, 2,189 rose-cut diamonds</td><td class="tdr"> 400</td><td class="tdr"> 329,075</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">41 Diamond buttons, large and small </td><td class="tdr"> 552</td><td class="tdr"> 294,851</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">42 Other diamonds of various qualities </td><td class="tdr"> ......</td><td class="tdr"> 315,000</td></tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span></p> - -<p>This magnificent and matchless collection was mysteriously stolen in -September, 1792, and many of the fine gems have not been recovered. -Neither has time yet divulged the authors of this bold theft, nor -explained clearly the motives that led to the act. The circumstances -connected with this celebrated robbery are interesting although -obscure. They are as follows:—</p> - -<p>After the fearful and bloody scenes of the 10th of August and the -2d of September, fears were entertained by the Republican chiefs -concerning the safety of the public treasures. Therefore the building -which contained the gems was closed to the public; and the Commune of -Paris, representing the domain of the State, placed its seals upon -the apartments wherein were placed the crown, sceptre, the golden -wreath left by Cardinal Richelieu to Louis XIII., and a great number -of gems and bijou. On the morning of the 17th of September M. Sergent -and two other Commissioners of the Police perceived that during the -night thieves had entered the halls of the Garde Meuble by scaling the -colonnade from the side of the Place Louis XV., and opening the windows -on that side. They had broken the seals, picked the locks, and, after -removing many of the inestimable treasures, had disappeared, without -leaving a trace of their flight.</p> - -<p>The city was thrown into consternation at the boldness of the act -and the magnitude of the robbery. Active and untiring search was at -once made,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span> but not a trace of the plunder nor the least clew to the -perpetrators could be obtained.</p> - -<p>Not long after, however, an anonymous letter revealed the information -that a part of the spoil was then secreted in a ditch beside one of the -alleys of the Champs d’Elysées. Sergent, with his colleagues, hastened -to the spot indicated, and found there the Regent diamond and the -magnificent agate cup then known as the Chalice of Abbé Suger.</p> - -<p>Search was thus stimulated to further exertions, but without avail and -twelve years passed without affording the least clew to the robbers. At -this time a forgery was committed upon the Bank of France, and several -persons were arrested for the act. Among them was a veteran soldier who -had formerly served in the Pandours, and who was called by his comrades -“Baba.”</p> - -<p>When arraigned before the court, Baba made the following singular -confession after betraying his accomplices in the forgery: “This is -not the first time,” he exclaimed in an excited manner, “that my -confessions have been useful to society; and if you condemn me I shall -implore the clemency of the Emperor. Without me Napoleon would not -be on the throne, for it is to me alone the success of the battle of -Marengo is due. I was one of the robbers of the Garde Meuble. I aided -my accomplices to bury in the ditch in the Champs d’Elysées the Regent -and the other objects which, being easily recognized, would have led -to detection. Upon the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span> consideration of a promise which has been -perfectly kept, I revealed this hiding-place. The Regent was found; -and, gentlemen of the court, you are not ignorant of the fact that the -magnificent diamond was placed in the hands of the Dutch by the First -Consul to procure the funds which were so much needed after the 18th -Brumaire.”</p> - -<p>Baba was nevertheless condemned to the galleys, but the sentence was -not enforced, and shortly afterwards he was sent to the prison in the -Bicêtre, where he remained until he died. Nothing further than this was -ever made known publicly, but suspicions of complicity in the robbery -were directed towards the Orleans family.</p> - -<p>Napoleon, when crowned as Emperor, and with the wealth of Europe at -his command, made great efforts to restore the National regalia to -their former beauty and value. The various countries of Europe were -ransacked for the lost gems; and it is stated that a number of them -were recovered. Great numbers of other gems were also bought and added -to the Regalia; so that in 1810 the inventory of the Crown exhibited a -list of 37,393 precious stones.</p> - -<p>The changes of the one hundred days and the Restoration left the -National property untouched. Under the reigns of Louis XVIII. and -Charles X. additions were made, and the casket contained 64,812 gems -and precious stones of all kinds. The inventory of 1849 presented -the same number of articles, with a total valuation of over twenty -millions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span> of francs, without estimating the value of the bijou.</p> - -<p>There must have been a large augmentation during this time, for the -present which Louis XVIII. ordered to be made deducted from the -collection diamonds of the value of three quarters of a million of -francs. This costly present was in the form of the Order of Saint -Esprit and constructed of superb diamonds.</p> - -<p>Of the robbery of 1792, the Sancy diamond and the unique blue one of -sixty-seven karats have never been recovered. Since the inventory of -1810 two beautiful gems have also disappeared. One of these was the -magnificent opal which Josephine wore, and which was known as the -Burning of Troy. The other was the beautiful brilliant of thirty-four -karats which was obtained by M. Elias for Napoleon. This was the -much-loved gem which the Emperor is said to have carried with him on -his person, and which was asserted to have been lost in the rout at -Waterloo.</p> - -<p>The magnificent blue diamond, which was regarded as one of the marvels -of the mineral kingdom, has never been recovered. Its early history -has also been lost, but the gem is believed to be the identical stone -which Tavernier brought from India and sold to Louis XIV. At that time -it was described as a gem of a beautiful violet hue, but of a bad form, -being flat and thin. Its weight in this condition was 112³⁄₁₆ karats, -which would probably afford a fine brilliant of the size of the missing -stone, 67²⁄₁₆ karats.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span> History has failed to trace the wanderings of -this gem since its departure from the Louvre, but suspicion rests upon -the superb blue diamond which was in the possession of the English -banker, the late <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hope. However, the English diamond weighs but -44¹⁄₂ karats. Therefore a loss of quite 22 karats was incurred in -recutting the stone in order to escape detection.</p> - -<p>The Regent diamond, which was found uninjured in the ditch of the -Champs d’Elysées, is in reality the most beautiful diamond yet known -in the world. It is not the largest, but it is the most perfect of all -the paragons, being almost faultless in its transparency and purity, as -well as in its exact and symmetrical form.</p> - -<p>It derives its name from the fact that it was purchased and added to -the French casket by the Regent of France. This magnificent gem was -found in the diamond mines of Puteal, about one hundred and thirty-five -miles from the city of Golconda. It weighed in its natural condition -four hundred and ten karats, but during the process of cutting it -was reduced to 136¹⁴⁄₁₆ karats. A Parsee merchant by the name of -Jamcund, who was a famous collector of diamonds, obtained possession -of the stone and brought it to Madras, where he sold it to the English -Governor, William Pitt, for $60,000. Pitt brought the stone safely -to London, and, after having had it cut, offered it for sale. The -Royal House of England declined to invest in the gem; but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span> after long -negotiations the Duke of Orleans, Regent of France during the minority -of Louis XV., purchased it in 1717 for the sum of 3,375,000 francs. -Seventy-four years afterwards a commission of experts reckoned its -value at 12,000,000 francs, and even this enormous sum is exceeded by -the valuation of the present day.</p> - -<p>Napoleon, after establishing his fortunes, redeemed the Regent from -the Dutch bankers, and had it set in the handle of the sword of state. -Since then it has been removed and so arranged in its setting as to be -placed at will either in the crown or used separately.</p> - -<p>To the historian this beautiful gem is singularly interesting, for -it has indirectly exercised a mighty influence upon the destinies of -Europe and the progress of civilization. It was of infinite aid to -Napoleon after the 18th Brumaire; and probably without the help of -the little glittering pebble as a collateral for the Dutch loan, the -decisive battle of Marengo never would have been fought. And it is no -less certain that William Pitt, England’s Premier, never would have -been the leading statesman of Europe had not his grandfather acquired -the diamond in India and established the prosperity of his family by -its sale. Pitt was the master of European politics; and even after -his life was crushed out by the defeat at Austerlitz, the heritage of -his genius and his hate was apparent in every coalition, every blow, -against Napoleon that finally culminated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span> at Waterloo. Therefore, in -reviewing the history of the Regent diamond, the philosopher might be -tempted to say that it was to the same gem, by a singular fatality or -caprice of fortune, the “Great Captain” indirectly owed his success and -his downfall.</p> - -<p>The jewels belonging to the Crown of France, as collected and restored -by Napoleon, and increased by the good taste of the succeeding rulers -of the country, are of great beauty and value. It is, indeed, one of -the finest collections of Europe. The casket, at the present time, -contains sixty perfect diamonds, varying in weight from 25 to 28 -karats, besides the splendid and matchless Regent. The actual crown -displays eight great diamonds of the purest water, weighing from 19 to -28 karats each, besides the Regent, which may be adapted at will.</p> - -<p>During the Universal Exposition at Paris, in 1855, the jewels of the -Crown were displayed to the public. Many of the gems were mounted for -the occasion in new parures; and the arrangement presented one of the -most charming exhibitions ever seen in civilized countries.</p> - -<p>We will now turn to the history of one of the lost diamonds of the -Crown, and relate the facts and hypotheses concerning it as fully as we -have been able to collect them. They form, indeed, a perplexing theme.</p> - -<p>The beautiful diamond inventoried as the Sancy, and of the weight -of 33¹²⁄₁₆ karats and valued at 1,000,000 francs, was also stolen -and never recovered.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span> This gem has been associated with the fortunes -of the redoubtable Burgundian warrior, Charles the Bold; and its -history has done more to perpetuate his name than the record of all -his misdeeds and his desperate battles. To prove, however, that this -is the identical gem lost to the Swiss will be a difficult task; for -the antiquaries have unearthed more Sancy diamonds than there were -“Richmonds in the field.” The name of Sancy has, indeed, become famous -by embracing in one story the fortunes of three distinct gems.</p> - -<p>The erudite King has patiently traced out the traditions connected with -the name of Sancy, and appears to prove that three stories instead of -one are included in the history of Baron Sancy. But the stone that was -stolen from the French casket in 1792 is inventoried at the weight of -33¹²⁄₁₆ karats, while the gem that has lately gone back to India, and -is supposed to be the stolen gem, weighs quite 54 karats. Here is a -new mystery for the antiquaries to clear away; or did Delattre and his -associates, who made out this inventory with exceeding care, write 33 -instead of 53?</p> - -<p>The histories of these diamonds are so interesting that we will attempt -to repeat them here, following, in part, the views of <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> King. Not -long after the invention, by Berquen, of diamond-cutting by the process -of abrasion, Charles the Bold, then in the full blaze of martial glory, -submitted to him three large rough diamonds. The native of Bruges -succeeded so well in polishing them, that Charles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span> presented him with -the princely sum of 3,000 ducats.</p> - -<p>One of these gems Charles gave to Pope Sextus IV., and it was mounted -in the Tiara, where it is said to remain. The second was presented to -Louis XI. of France; while the third was reserved by the Burgundian -hero, and set in a grotesque manner to be worn as a personal ornament.</p> - -<p>This jewel, of true barbaric design, was formed of a triangular shape, -with the newly cut diamond in the centre. This diamond was ⁵⁄₈ of an -inch in its widest diameter, and was shaped as a pyramid, with the apex -cut into a four-rayed star in relief. Around the gem were set three -large Balais rubies and four magnificent pearls, each more than half an -inch in diameter.</p> - -<p>One of the Fugger family, in 1555, made a careful drawing of the jewel, -with a written description of it, and these were afterwards published -by Lambeccius in his Bibliotheca Cæsarea; so there can be no doubt -about the appearance of the original diamond of Charles the Bold in its -early days.</p> - -<p>When the Duke led his band of freebooters into Switzerland on his -long-projected foray, he took most of his gems along with him, not -dreaming of disaster, and probably loving to view his treasures even -amid the hardships of a campaign. Rough soldiers are sometimes as -fond of the beautiful in art and nature as more delicate and refined -organizations; and Charles the Bold and Suvaroff are not the only -examples.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span></p> - -<p>The terrific onslaught of the Swiss at Grandson crushed the Burgundian -ranks so quickly that Charles had only time to escape with his sword, -leaving all his cherished treasures in the hands of the dauntless -mountaineers.</p> - -<p>In the sack of the camp which speedily followed the rout, a soldier -found the golden box in which the famous pendant was kept, but -regarding the jewel as a gaudy and worthless bauble, he tossed it away -under a wagon, and retained the box only. Shortly afterwards he began -to suspect that the contents of so beautiful a box must have some -relative value, and returning to the place he recovered the despised -jewel. He did not long retain his treasure, but sold it to a priest -for one florin. The priest also did not appear to have a high regard -for his purchase, for he disposed of it to the magistrates of his own -canton for three francs.</p> - -<p>When it became known that the Bernese Government had possession of -the Duke’s famous jewels, Jacob Fugger, one of the members of the -celebrated Nuremberg family, went to Bern and negotiated for their -purchase. The famous pendant, together with the Duke’s cap, which was -made of silk covered with pearls and Balais rubies, and a plume case -set with diamonds, pearls, and Balais rubies, were bought for the sum -of 47,000 francs. Fugger retained the pendant in his possession at -Nuremberg for many years, indulging in the hope, it has been said, that -the Duke’s great-grandson, the Emperor Charles V.,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span> would purchase it -as a family relic. When the celebrated capitalist died the ornament was -still in his possession; but his great-nephew, who inherited the jewel, -sold it to Henry VIII. of England. After the death of this monarch, -his daughter presented the diamond to her bridegroom; and thus, by a -remarkable coincidence, and after an absence of seventy-six years, the -royal gem is again restored to the rightful heir of its original owner. -So far the history of Sancy No. 1 can be clearly traced.</p> - -<p>Now for the stories relating to the Sancy diamond No. 2. But, before -proceeding further in this interesting and misty search, we will -explain the history of the nobleman who has inseparably connected his -name with so many gems.</p> - -<p>Nicolas Harlai, Seigneur de Sancy, was of French descent, and the -treasurer and intimate friend of King Henry IV. He had filled several -positions of high responsibility, and served as ambassador to several -of the Courts of Europe. He was also known as a man of culture, a lover -of the fine arts, and an amateur in gems.</p> - -<p>In the year 1589, Baron Sancy is said to have obtained a large diamond -from the Pretender to the Crown of Portugal, as security for a loan -of one hundred thousand livres. The antiquaries have thus far failed -to ascertain whence this gem was obtained; but it cannot be supposed -that it was the identical jewel Philip II. of Spain had received from -the English Princess, for the Spaniard was then the bitterest foe<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span> of -Don Antonio. Furthermore, Philip, when dying, in 1598, ten years later -than the above-mentioned period, gave to the Infanta a diamond of great -beauty saying that it once belonged to Queen Mary of England. At all -events, it is quite certain that the French Baron had in his hands a -large and valuable diamond.</p> - -<p>Not long after this acquisition, Henry IV. wished to engage the -services of a select body of Swiss soldiers, to serve in his army; and -as security for the pay of these hirelings, he sent the gem by a trusty -servant to Harlai, who was then in Switzerland. The faithful valet, -whilst on his way to Bern, was beset by robbers in the forests that -conceal the entrance to the pass of the Dôle, one of the mountains of -the Jura. He managed to swallow the diamond without being perceived by -the bandits, before he was stripped and assassinated.</p> - -<p>The Baron, on learning the fate of his envoy, mistrusted that he had -resorted to this expedient of concealing his treasure. He therefore -sent a party of soldiers to the place, disinterred the body, and -recovered the gem. It was immediately placed in the hands of the Jews -of Metz, as security for a large sum of money; and it is also related -that the gem was never redeemed. Here ends the history of the second -Sancy; and no further account of it can be found.</p> - -<p>Concerning the history of Sancy No. 3, it is related that when Baron -Sancy returned from Constantinople, where he had been as ambassador,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span> -he exhibited a large and beautiful diamond, which he had acquired for -the sum of $120,000. This statement is somewhat obscure, from the fact -that the ambassador was not Harlai de Sancy, but his son Achille, who -was also sent on various missions by Richelieu during the years 1626 -to 1635. However, it is certain that a new diamond was imported into -France by one of the Sancys, and that it was a remarkable gem. It was -described as being of the form of an almond, faceted all over its -surface with small facets, after the manner practised in India. The -weight of this gem has been variously stated; and these conflicting -statements have served to increase the mystery concerning the Sancy -gems. The weight of the diamond has been given as high as one hundred -and twenty-six karats; but Delisle assured Dutens that he saw M. -Jacquemin, the Crown jeweller, weigh the gem, and that it did not -exceed fifty-four karats. Nevertheless, the famous inventory of the -French gems in 1792 gives 33¹²⁄₁₆ karats as the true weight of the -famous Sancy diamond. How shall we explain this wide discrepancy?</p> - -<p>Forty-two years after the death of the Baron, the diamond passed -into the hands of Henrietta Maria, the queen-dowager of England, and -subsequently into the possession of James II. The unfortunate king, -while in exile, sold the gem to Louis IV. for the sum of $125,000; and -here its history ends.</p> - -<p>During the latter part of the seventeenth century,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span> Robert de Berquen, -a descendant of the famous lapidary, wrote his “Merveilles des Indes,” -and therein he describes the diamond brought from India by Baron Sancy, -as then in possession of the Queen of England, and being almond-like -in form, faceted on both sides, and of fifty-four karats in weight. -This account agrees with those of the French jewellers, and serves to -connect the history of the gem up to this period.</p> - -<p>Not many years after the bold robbery of 1792, a large diamond was -acquired, by some mysterious means, by the widow of Charles IV. of -Spain, who gave it to the notorious Prince of Peace Godoy. In 1838, -Princess Paul Demidoff is said to have purchased it for half a million -of roubles; and it is also certain that the Demidoff family sold it in -1865, to the Parsee millionnaire, Sir Jansetjee Jejeebhoy of Bombay, -for $100,000.</p> - -<p>Now the question arises, which was the true Sancy? And to settle the -inquiry satisfactorily, will be a difficult task. From all these -accounts, the reader may infer that there are three distinct diamonds -included under the history of Sancy. The first is the diamond of the -Duke of Burgundy, weighing, from its description, about thirty-three -karats, and of a well-marked form. This gem is clearly traced to Philip -II. of Spain. The second, which was of unknown weight, was last noticed -in the hands of the Jews at Metz. The third was of the form of a -brilliolette, and of fifty-four karats<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span> weight, and has lately returned -to the land of its birth, with the honors of the name of Sancy. Which -of these gems deserves the name of the Sancy diamond?</p> - -<p>Madame de Pompadour, in the bright days of her prosperity, possessed -some rare gems, but we can learn but little concerning them. Her will -indicates that the beautiful ring containing white and rose-colored -diamonds was given to the Duke de Goutaud, and also that the rare -diamond of an aqua marine tint went to the Duke de Choiseul.</p> - -<p>After having referred to the political importance of the Regent -diamond, it may be proper for us to briefly mention the famous affair -of the diamond necklace, which unjustly cast a stain upon the prestige -of royalty in France, and ultimately exerted a certain influence, among -other causes, that led to the downfall of the monarchy, and the fearful -scenes that followed. The details of this daring scheme read more like -romance than reality; yet they are well substantiated in history.</p> - -<p>It appears that Böhmer, a jeweller of Paris, had collected, in 1784, a -large number of beautiful diamonds, with which he formed a magnificent -necklace valued at 1,600,000 francs. The jewel had been offered to the -Queen Marie Antoinette; but she had declined the purchase as beyond her -means at the time. Her regrets at her inability to obtain the splendid -decoration reached the ears of Prince Cardinal de Rohan, who was then -living at Paris, in disgrace, for having divulged some court secrets<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span> -while he was ambassador at Vienna. The Prince was not only handsome -and conceited, but he was notorious for his gallantry and his follies. -Unfortunately for himself and the court, he sought at this time to -regain the favor of the Queen, and made it the grand object of his life.</p> - -<p>He had among his intimate acquaintances a bold, dashing woman by the -name of Madame de la Motte, who pretended to be a countess of the -family of Valois. She had married a man by the name of La Motte, who -was intimate with the notorious quacks Villette and Cagliostro, who -were then in the zenith of their fame. The Countess was well known -in Paris as a woman of immorality and deeply versed in the arts of -intrigue.</p> - -<p>She became acquainted with the facts of the Queen’s admiration for the -necklace and the infatuation of Rohan for the Queen; and upon these -she arranged her scheme for duping the Prince and obtaining possession -of the property. She soon won the confidence of Rohan, and represented -to him the Queen’s intense longing for the necklace, and the favor he -would gain in loaning the means which would enable her to obtain the -coveted jewel and pay for it at her leisure. She promised, furthermore, -through the aid of Cagliostro, to obtain an interview with the Queen on -this subject. The promised interview took place one night in August, -1784, in the garden of Versailles; but the Queen was represented by a -low character by the name<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span> of D’Oliva, who was almost a counterpart of -Marie Antoinette.</p> - -<p>Rohan was completely deceived, and agreed to purchase the necklace; -which he did not long after, giving his notes for half-yearly payments, -and receiving as security a bond from the pretended Queen, which, -however, was forged by La Motte’s husband. The Prince Cardinal then -intrusted the jewel to the Countess for conveyance to the Queen; -but she passed it over to her husband, who lost no time in hurrying -to London, where he immediately converted its gems into money. The -Countess, however, did not hasten to join her husband, but remained at -Paris, rejoicing in her audacity and good fortune, and with the hope of -plucking more feathers from her princely victim. Nearly a year passed -away before the secret was discovered.</p> - -<p>Böhmer, anxious for his pay, approached the King; and the fraud was -at once discovered. The Cardinal Prince was arrested just as he was -about to perform mass before the court, and sent to the Bastile. -After a short imprisonment, he was tried by a court of justice, but -acquitted of criminal offence. However, he was sent in disgrace to -reside at an abbey of his in Auvergne. Madame la Motte paid dearly for -her crime and her dalliance in Paris after the prize had been secured, -for she was sentenced to be branded on the shoulders, scourged in -public, and condemned to perpetual imprisonment. She bore her trials -with fortitude, and had the good fortune to escape from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span> her prison -in less than a year after her sentence. She joined her husband in -London, and there published a bitter pamphlet against the French Court, -and especially the Queen. It is generally supposed that the Countess -died in London in 1791, either from a fever or the result of an -accident caused by a drunken debauch. But a startling story comes from -Russia, giving another account of the last moments of this celebrated -adventuress.</p> - -<p>It appears that the Emperor Alexander, disgusted with the conduct -of three lady reformers who attempted to establish a revolution in -religious opinion at <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Petersburg, banished them to the Crimea. They -were Princess Galitzin, Madame de Krudener, and a mysterious personage -who went by the name of Countess Gauchin. After death, which occurred -during her banishment to the Crimea, the strange Countess proved to -be the notorious De la Motte, who many years before had been publicly -branded on the Place de la Grève in Paris.</p> - -<p>It would appear from statements in mediæval history that necklaces were -not much known in France, or at least were not in fashion, until the -times of Charles VIII. For one of the earliest known in that country -was that given by the above-named monarch to the beautiful Agnes -Sorel. The uncut gems, which were of great beauty and value, weighed -heavily upon the delicate neck and bosom of the fair creature; and she -complained of it to her lover as being an instrument of torture as well -as a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span> decoration. The King, fascinated with the charming effect of the -gems, together with the natural entrancing beauty of the maiden, begged -her to wear it, saying, with a supplicating smile, “One might surely -bear some little inconvenience to please those we love.”</p> - -<p>The late Madame Thiers possessed a rare jewel, which came to her by -inheritance, and which she wisely bequeathed to the Louvre collection. -This jewel is a necklace of precious stones of the sixteenth century -workmanship, and is regarded as without a rival in Europe except among -the regalia preserved at <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Petersburg.</p> - -<p>There are a great many diamonds owned in France among the nobility, the -landed proprietors, and the successful merchants. Paris has been for a -long time the chief market in the world for the sale of the gem; and -most of the stones cut at Amsterdam find their way, primarily, to the -Parisian bazaars. Many of these are taken as securities by the rich; -but the most of them are absorbed by the requirements of fashion and -the love of display.</p> - -<p>Adventurers, during the tide of success, prefer to invest their gains -in gems, and especially diamonds, rather than in lands or bonds. There -is a twofold reason for this preference. Great wealth can be concealed -in a handful of gems which can be easily transported; and the glitter -of the stones adds vastly to the fascinations of the investment. -Disastrous wars and commercial panics generally betray hoards<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span> of this -description; and new sources of the precious stones are thus opened to -commerce. It is reported that the Bonaparte family, since the disaster -at Sedan, have thrown upon the market diamonds to the value of several -millions of dollars.</p></div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br><span class="small">THE REGALIA AND OTHER GEMS OF ENGLAND.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The casket of gems belonging to the English Crown is not of -ancient date, for the followers of Cromwell—iconoclasts and -economists—ordered all the ancient regalia to be sold. However, some -of the finest of the gems were recovered not long after, and were used -in the decorations of the coronation of Charles II.</p> - -<p>The present crown of England was made by English artisans, in 1838, -with gems taken from old diadems and others bought by Victoria. It is -described by Professor Tennant as follows:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“The imperial state crown of Her Majesty, Queen Victoria, was made -in the year 1838, by Messrs. Rundell and Bridge, with jewels taken -from old crowns, and others furnished by command of Her Majesty. It -consists of diamonds, pearls, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds, set in -silver and gold; it has a crimson-velvet cap with ermine border, and -is lined with white silk. Its gross weight is 39 oz. 5 dwts. Troy.</p> - -<p>“The lower part of the band above the ermine border consists of a -row of 129 pearls; and the upper part of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span> band, of a row of -112 pearls; between which, in the front of the crown, is a large -sapphire [partly drilled] purchased for the crown by His Majesty, -King George IV. At the back is a sapphire of smaller size and 6 other -sapphires, 3 on each side, between which are 8 emeralds. Above and -below the 7 sapphires are 14 diamonds, and around the 8 emeralds 128 -diamonds. Between the emeralds and sapphires are 16 trefoil ornaments -containing 160 diamonds. Above the band are 8 sapphires surmounted -by 8 diamonds, between which are 8 festoons, consisting of 148 -diamonds. In the front of the crown, and in the centre of a diamond -Maltese cross, is the famous ruby said to have been given to Edward, -Prince of Wales, the Black Prince, by Don Pedro, King of Castile, -after the battle of Najara, near Vittoria, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1367. This -ruby was worn in the helmet of Henry V. at the battle of Agincourt, -<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1415. It is pierced quite through, after the Eastern -custom, the upper part of the piercing being filled up by a small -ruby. Around this ruby, to form the cross, are 75 brilliant-diamonds. -Three other Maltese crosses, forming the two sides and back of the -crown, have emerald centres, and contain respectively 132, 124, and -130 brilliant-diamonds. Between the 4 Maltese crosses are 4 ornaments, -in the form of French <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fleurs de lis</i>, with 4 rubies in their -centres, and surrounded by rose-diamonds, containing respectively, 84, -86, 86, 87 rose-diamonds. From the Maltese crosses issue 4 imperial -arches composed of oak-leaves and acorns; the leaves containing 728 -rose, table, and brilliant diamonds; 32 pearls forming the acorns, -set in cups, containing 54 rose-diamonds and 1 table-diamond. The -total number of diamonds in the arches and acorns is 108 brilliant, -116 table, and 559 rose diamonds. From the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span> upper part of the arches -are suspended 4 large pendent pear-shaped pearls with rose-diamond -cups, containing 12 rose-diamonds, and stems, containing 24 very -small rose-diamonds. Above the arch stands the Mound, containing in -the lower hemisphere 304 brilliants, and in the upper 244 brilliants; -the zone and arc being composed of 33 rose-diamonds. The cross on the -summit has a rose-cut sapphire in the centre, surrounded by 4 large -brilliants and 108 smaller brilliants.”</p> -</div> - -<p>The value of this beautiful ornament has been estimated by Barbot, the -French jeweller, at the sum of $600,000, which, however, is probably -very far below its real value.</p> - -<p>The great prize and boast of the English treasures is the diamond -called the Koh-i-noor, one of the spoils of the East India loot.</p> - -<p>From the many descriptions given of it and its real and supposed -history, it is better known to the English reader than any other -gem; yet there are in Europe several diamonds of greater size and -perfection, and a number of gems of greater beauty, and certainly of -a higher value. The Koh-i-noor is said to have been discovered in the -mine of Gani, near Golconda, about the middle of the sixteenth century. -It is thought by some to be a portion of the Great Mogul diamond; but -of the correctness of this view there is considerable doubt.</p> - -<p>The form in which it was found by the English at the time of capture -certainly conveys the idea that it may have been cleft from a larger -specimen;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span> but, according to Tavernier, the Great Mogul was ground down -and not rifted by means of its cleavage planes at all. At all events, -the gem, when it reached England, weighed one hundred and eighty-six -karats, and its sides were polished and faceted in the Oriental -manner, without regard to a symmetrical form. In this condition it was -uncouth, it is true, but it was supposed to be the famous Koh-i-noor, -“the mountain of light,” of Eastern romance and history. Now, in its -new shape, it is no longer one of the giants of its species, and the -prestige which the Hindoos bestowed upon it has also vanished. The -recutting of this gem, and the attempt to reduce its irregular form -into the shape of a brilliant, was most unfortunate. It is now only a -brilliant in name, and it is far too thin in substance to exhibit the -beautiful and natural refractive powers of the mineral.</p> - -<p>In reality, the form of the brilliant should be cut according to -mathematical laws; and its depth and breadth must be of a certain fixed -ratio to call forth the natural brilliancy and prismatic display of the -stone. This relative degree of form and its wonderful results is well -exemplified in the gems cut by Ralph Potter at the commencement of this -century, who was, without doubt, the best diamond-cutter the world has -seen. It is also laid down as a mathematical problem in the scale which -Jeffries has prepared.</p> - -<p>The Koh-i-noor, before cutting, weighed one hundred and eighty-six -karats; and was the second diamond<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span> in Europe. It is now reduced -to 102¹⁄₄ karats, with its splendors but little increased; and is -reckoned as the fifth in size among the European diamonds; and, to -our view, is inferior in value to many of the diamonds of less size, -and especially the green diamond of Dresden, or the blue of the Hope -collection. In fact, it is far exceeded in beauty and splendor by the -imitations of art. The prestige has been injured, if not destroyed, by -cutting; and its position among the great gems of the world reduced to -a comparatively low degree, notwithstanding its great weight.</p> - -<p>No amateur will say that the gem has gained any advantage in cutting, -when he sums up the arguments in favor of and against the operation. He -will not say the Koh-i-noor, exhibited in the London exhibition, was -superior in all respects to the time-honored gem displayed among the -crown jewels of the Tower of London a few years before. In reality, -its appearance in the Crystal Palace was inferior to that of its glass -models; and a comparison of its form with the examples offered by -Jeffries will at once show its imperfections.</p> - -<p>In its spread, as compared with that of a properly proportioned -one-hundred-karat brilliant, it is quite one third too large; or, in -plainer language, it is now a badly shaped stone, and cannot display -its latent splendors unless surrounded by a great number of wax candles.</p> - -<p>A comparison with the outlines of the Regent will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span> at once show the -want of harmony in its shape so far as development of brilliancy and -prismatic display are concerned; and to obtain the display of these -properties, without which the diamond is not much better than common -limpid quartz, the form of the gem must be invariably of a certain -size and depth. A lustreless mass of diamond, no matter how large it -may be, is not a choice example of the mineral, in comparison with a -smaller stone, radiant with its natural, or rather developed, beauties. -Size alone, without special excellence, brings no charm with it, but -rather places it among mineralogical curiosities. Therefore, we regret -exceedingly the recent cutting of the Koh-i-noor, which has injured its -prestige, and reduced its value incomparably.</p> - -<p>Had the lapidaries adopted the form of the Sancy, that is, the shape -of the almond, with small facets all over it, a far greater brilliancy -would have been obtained. Such is the opinion of Babinet and other -connoisseurs, who are able to judge on this subject. The Koh-i-noor, -before cutting, was submitted by Prince Albert to the examination -of several eminent men, amongst whom was Sir David Brewster; and a -variety of opinions were expressed upon the subject. It is generally -believed that ideas of fashion directed the shape of the stone to -be adopted; and that if its form had been left to Coster, the model -of the brilliolette would have been copied, and but little of the -stone sacrificed in the cutting. However, it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span> is too late to lament -the accident or the error; but we hope that the experience acquired -will preserve other specimens for the admiration of art, although it -availed nought in the case of the Star of the South, another stone -admirably adapted for the exhibition of the beauty of the brilliolette -model. This form, with numerous small facets, in both instances would -have given more luminous points, and therefore produced more splendid -effects.</p> - -<p>Babinet properly exclaims against the mode of cutting the large gems -with large facets, as thereby much of the glory of the gem is lost. Had -the Regent, even, been cut with smaller and more numerous facets, its -splendors would have been greater. As we have previously stated, the -most vivid play of light and color is exhibited in diamonds of about -ten karats or less; we may, perhaps, attribute the difference to the -violation of some law in optics, as well as to the difference in the -laminæ or substance of the larger stones.</p> - -<p>Babinet, in defence of his remarks on this interesting subject, states -that the beautiful rainbow hues are produced by the light entering -the upper surfaces of the gem, and, being reflected backwards from -the bottom surfaces, is then refracted, after traversing the side -facets. The white light is then decomposed into every variety of hue, -the perfection of which depends upon the condition of reflection and -refraction. If the facets are too large and the light too voluminous -there is danger of neutralization of these colors, and that white light -be reproduced.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span></p> - -<p>We doubt very much if this historic gem has been known to history for -more than five hundred years. If it is, as it has been alleged, a part -of the Great Mogul, its appearance among mankind dates from 1550. -Had it been known in the times when Timour so mercilessly attacked -India, it could hardly have escaped the rapacity of the Tatar. And -the history of this conquest, in the latter part of the fourteenth -century, leads us to believe that all, or nearly all, of the great -diamonds of Bengal have been discovered since that time. Had this gem -been added to the Mogul treasury at Delhi in 1304, from the conquest -of Malwa by Ala-ud-deen, it probably would have been known to Timour. -The last Tatar invasion, in 1736, under Nadir Shah, found the gem set -in the turban of the Great Mogul, and it was carried away to Khorasan -by the victorious host, together with all the fabulous wealth which -had been garnered up during nearly four centuries of prosperity. From -Nadir it was wrested by assassination, and passed from ruler to ruler, -with strange vicissitudes, until the Sikh power succumbed to the arms -of England; when it passed, in 1850, with other treasures, from the -stronghold of Lahore to the jewel-chamber of Windsor Castle.</p> - -<p>Ill fortune has always attended the possession of this gem, it is -said; and certainly the reduction of the stone in the blind attempt -to improve its brilliancy may be classed in this category. The -Hindoos have always maintained that it inevitably brought ruin to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span> -its possessor; and surely, the history of the Mogul Empire, the reign -of Nadir Shah, its conqueror, the Dooranee dynasty, and the rule of -the Sikhs give strength to the plausibility of the tradition. In the -chapter on the gems of Asia we shall again refer to this stone.</p> - -<p>England has had the opportunity, during her Indian conquests, of -collecting the most magnificent parure of gems the world has seen. The -pride of the French Crown, the matchless Regent, was brought to London -by the English Governor, Pitt, and offered to the Royal House; the -great Orloff, the boast of the Russian regalia, was brought from India -by an Englishman, Earl Effingham; and many other fine diamonds and -gems from Hindostan have been brought within the reach of the English -Crown before being offered elsewhere for disposition. The neglect to -secure these beautiful and matchless treasures is inexcusable even in a -commercial view, for a gem paragon is “an empire made portable.”</p> - -<p>Among the diamonds brought from India by Englishmen, the Pigott and the -Nassac deserve some mention.</p> - -<p>The Pigott was a splendid gem of 47¹⁄₂ karats, and derived its name -from its importer. In 1801 it was placed in a lottery in London, and -valued at $150,000. The lucky drawer of the prize was content to part -with it for $30,000 to an English jeweller, who afterwards sold it to -Ali Pacha of Egypt. The Egyptian prince conceived a strange attachment -to the gem.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span> He did not display it among the ornaments on his person; -but concealed it in a silken bag which he attached to his girdle. The -story goes that when Ali was mortally wounded by Reschid Pacha he -gave orders to have his favorite wife, Vasilika, strangled, and also -commanded Captain D’Anglas to crush the diamond in his presence. A -single blow of the hammer crushed to atoms this beautiful gem, which -was really one of the finest in Europe on account of the perfection of -its form and the absolute purity of its water. The model alone remains. -The fascinating Vasilika by some means managed to escape the sentence -of death.</p> - -<p>The Nassac diamond was brought from India by the Marquis of Hastings, -and formed a part of the Deccan booty. After passing through several -ownerships it was finally purchased by the Marquis of Westminster for -about fifty thousand dollars. It has since been recut into a triangular -form, and its original weight reduced from eighty-nine to about -seventy-eight karats. In its new form it has gained vastly in lustre -and brilliancy.</p> - -<p>The famous blue diamond known as the Hope diamond, from the fact that -it belonged to one of the distinguished family of bankers of that name, -is really one of the most valuable diamonds in Europe, for it is indeed -one of the marvels of the mineral kingdom. Its weight is 44¹⁄₂ karats, -but its history is unknown; and this obscurity leads to the suspicion -it may be the lost gem of the French casket since<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span> reduced in size. It -is now mounted as a medallion with a border of rose-cut diamonds and -twenty brilliants, each of one karat weight and of the finest water.</p> - -<p>This beautiful gem was shown to the public at the great Exhibition of -1851 in London, and the description given of it by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hertz is worth -repeating here. It is “a most magnificent and rare brilliant of a -deep sapphire-blue, of the greatest purity and most beautifully cut: -it is of true proportions, not too thick nor too wide-spread. This -matchless gem combines the beautiful color of the sapphire with the -prismatic fire and brilliancy of the diamond; and on account of its -extraordinary color, great size, and other fine qualities, it certainly -may be called unique, as we may presume that there exists no cabinet -nor any collection of crown jewels in the world which can boast of the -possession of so curious and fine a gem.”</p> - -<p>The value of this wonderful specimen of Nature’s work has been -variously estimated. It is understood that <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hope paid but $65,000 -for it, which is a mere bagatelle to its comparative worth. To our -view this matchless gem should be valued as highly as any of the fine -paragon diamonds of the world, and we do not include the Koh-i-noor as -among this number. In this estimate we refer only to the comparison of -actual merits and qualities, unbiassed by the whims of royalty or of -fashion.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span></p> - -<p>A hundred years ago and more the citizens of London, transported with -joy over the victory at Culloden by the Duke of Cumberland, hailed the -soldier as a hero and a deliverer, and presented him with a beautiful -diamond. It was a splendid gem of thirty-two karats weight, and cost -the city the sum of $50,000. Not many years ago, however, the House of -Hanover laid claim to the gem by reason of certain laws of inheritance; -and we are informed that Queen Victoria, after investigating the claim, -ordered the gem to be given up to the claimant.</p> - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hertz, of London, in the course of his long experience collected a -very costly, as well as unique and beautiful, collection of gems. His -cabinet of diamonds, embracing almost every shade and color, rivalled -in excellence the celebrated Wernerian cabinet at Freiburg, and that of -Abbé Haüy at the Jardin des Plantes at Paris; but was surpassed by that -of Helmreicher now preserved in the Imperial Museum at Vienna.</p> - -<p>As the reader may be interested in the tastes of the English nobility -in the good old times, we will look over a few of the pages of English -history, and relate some of the incidents of court life, and describe -the appearance of some of the distinguished characters of different -reigns.</p> - -<p>Eleanor of Provence exhibited great extravagance at her coronation -as Queen of King Henry III., who was called the greatest fop of his -time (1236). It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span> was probably Eleanor who established the fashion of -wearing chaplets of gold and gems over the hair. On the occasion of -her coronation she had on no less than nine garlands or wreaths formed -of gold and clusters of colored precious stones. She had, also, among -her regalia, a great crown glorious with gems, and girdles radiant -with the most beautiful specimens of the mineral kingdom. The wedding -present from her sister, Queen Marguerite of France, was a large silver -peacock, whose train was set with sapphires and pearls and other -precious stones. It was used as a reservoir for perfumed waters.</p> - -<p>It seems that the old Crusaders were wont to deck themselves with -gems; and Provençal traditions declare that the first intimation Queen -Berengaria had of the seizure of Richard Cœur de Lion was the sale of a -belt adorned with gems, which she knew he wore and would not part with -except by violence.</p> - -<p>The coronation of Henry VIII. was attended with extraordinary splendor, -and the King was arrayed with the finest gems that could be obtained.</p> - -<p>At the famous Tournament of the Cloth of Gold, the English and French -nobility attempted to outshine each other in the magnificence of their -dresses and decorations. And the vanity of the festival caused the -financial distress or ruin of many a gallant knight.</p> - -<p>At the banquet at this time King Henry gave Anne Boleyn a beautiful -jewel valued at 15,000 crowns.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span></p> - -<p>When Bluff King Hal went to meet his bride, Anne of Cleves, he was -arrayed so magnificently as to be likened by the wits of the time to -the “king of diamonds.” He wore a coat of purple velvet curiously -embroidered with gold and lace. “The sleeves were cut, and lined with -cloth of gold, and clasped with great buttons of diamonds, rubies, -and Orient pearls; his sword and girdle set with stones and special -emeralds; his cap garnished with stones, but his bonnet was so rich of -jewels that few men could value them. Besides all this he wore a collar -of such Balais rubies and pearls that few men ever saw the like.”</p> - -<p>Henry demanded of Francis I. of France, the gems and jewels which -had belonged to his sister Mary, who had married Louis XII. Among -them were a ruby two inches and a half long, some great pearls, and -large diamonds, forming together a casket which the Earl of Worcester -describes as the “goodliest and richest sight of jewels he ever saw.” -But they were never returned; and Francis refused to allow the claim on -account of the loss of the fine diamond known as the Mirror of Naples, -and which he valued at 30,000 crowns. What this diamond really was, and -its subsequent history, is still a matter of historical conjecture.</p> - -<p>Mary Queen of Scots, when married to the Dauphin of France in 1558, -was decked in a marvellous manner with all that art could afford at -the time. Her crown was of exquisite workmanship, and was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span> composed of -gold, with diamonds, pearls, rubies, and emeralds of immense value, -having a huge carbuncle suspended in the middle valued at half a -million crowns. Around her neck was hung the esteemed jewel known in -Scottish history as the “Great Harry.” The inventories of her property -show that she possessed a large number of valuable gems. It seems that -she lavished upon Bothwell, before they parted at Carberry Hill, jewels -of more than $30,000 in value.</p> - -<p>One of the most magnificent pageants known in English history was -that celebrated by the wealth of England and illustrated with the -poetry of Ben Jonson, and which was the occasion of investing the -eldest son of Queen Anne with the rights of the Prince of Wales, in -1609. The “Glorious Masque,” which took place at this time, has never -been excelled in England. The whole court of England and all the -aristocratic beauties of the day were engaged in the event. The palace -of Whitehall was transformed into a scene of enchantment under the -hands of the best artists of the time, guided by the taste of Inigo -Jones. This magnificent festival, characterized by so many beautiful -and dazzling scenes, was the happiest in the life of Queen Anne of -Denmark.</p> - -<p>A few years after this glorious celebration, which lingered in the -memory of the participants like a golden dream, Queen Anne died; and -the King, on opening her coffers and cabinets, discovered that all of -her beautiful gems and jewels had disappeared;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span> and notwithstanding the -Queen’s maid and attendants were arrested, and diligent search made in -all directions, there is no evidence that even a trace was ever found -of the missing treasure. No vestige was ever obtained of the jewels -which Herrick made for her, and which were worth nearly $200,000.</p> - -<p>When the Duke of Buckingham was sent to Paris, in 1625, to bring over -to England Queen Henrietta Maria, he carried with him twenty-seven rich -suits of clothing, as beautiful and valuable as the invention of the -times could make them. The suit arranged for his entry into Paris was -reckoned of a value of more than a quarter of a million of dollars. It -was made of white satin and uncut velvet, set all over with diamonds. -His spurs, hat-band, feather, girdle, and sword were all covered with -diamonds. For the wedding day, at Paris, he had a suit of purple -satin, embroidered all over with Orient pearls, and a cloak to match, -made after the Spanish fashion, all of the value of about one hundred -thousand dollars.</p> - -<p>Charles I. had many fine gems and jewels at his disposal; and, -according to the documents still extant, he made free use of them. The -very first year of his reign, he examined the contents of the jewel -house, with a view of pledging them in the future; and it is said that -his queen, Henrietta, raised in one year ten millions of dollars on the -royal jewels. The great collar of rubies was sold in Holland.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span></p> - -<p>Charles, in the days of his prosperity, was an eager purchaser of gems -and jewelry; and a record is preserved which shows that he bought in a -year and a half, a quarter of a million dollars’ worth of jewelry, and -chiefly to use as gifts. It is also related that he bought the great -diamond which Sir Paul Pindar brought home from Constantinople, and -which he valued at $150,000. The subsequent history of this rare gem is -to be placed among the mysterious things of the past.</p> - -<p>The queen of James II. was ornamented for the coronation in a manner -that would have startled even Lollia Paulina; and a half million -dollars were expended in dressing her up. The diadem also was a -wondrous piece of extravagance for the times, and cost more than five -hundred and fifty thousand dollars. The historian of the times states -that “the jewels she had on were reckoned at a million’s worth, which -made her shine like an angel.” The exiled Queen, in the after years of -her widowhood, said to the nuns of Chaillot, “My dress and royal mantle -were covered with precious stones; and it took all the jewels that the -goldsmiths of London could procure to decorate my crown.”</p> - -<p>When Queen Caroline was crowned as consort of George II., she made use -of all the material she could find in London. And Lord Hervey exclaims -that “the appearance and the truth of her finery was a mixture of -magnificence and meanness not unlike the eclat of royalty in many other -particulars,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</span> when it comes to be nicely considered, and its source -traced to what money hires and flattery lends.” For it is stated that -she used upon her head all the pearls and necklaces she could borrow -from the ladies of quality; and that she placed upon her petticoat all -the diamonds she could hire of the Jews and jewellers in town.</p> - -<p>When Philip of Spain went to England to receive his bride, Queen Mary, -the ceremonies on the occasion were conducted with great splendor. The -King was accompanied by sixty of the most distinguished grandees of -Spain, clad in royal array. He was dressed in a robe of rich brocade -bordered with large pearls and diamonds. His trunk hose were of white -satin worked with silver. He wore a collar of beaten gold full of -inestimable diamonds, and from which hung the jewel of the Golden -Fleece. Around his knee was the Garter, studded with beautiful gems of -various colors.</p> - -<p>The daughter of Henry VIII. inherited her father’s love for ornamental -display; and at the time of her marriage with Philip of Spain, she -appeared magnificently arrayed. She is described as wearing a robe -whose ample train was bordered with pearls and diamonds of immense size -and value. The large sleeves were ornamented with clusters of gold set -with pearls and diamonds. Her coif was bordered with two rows of large -diamonds; and she wore on her breast a splendid diamond of inestimable -value, which Philip had sent her as a gift. Mary,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</span> on her death-bed, -sent the most of her jewels to her sister Elizabeth of England; and -King Philip added to them a casket of very beautiful gems.</p> - -<p>Elizabeth, when she became Queen of England, gradually acquired a -passion for jewelry, which finally became absurd and grotesque. She -possessed at one time two thousand dresses and an immense quantity of -gems. The portrait of Queen Elizabeth at Henham Hall represents her -in a blaze of jewels. She appears with an enormous ruff, which rose -as a bird-like structure behind the fabric of jewels which adorned -her head, until it overtopped the cross of her regal diadem. A rich -collar of gold, woven in delicate filigree work, set with pearls, -rubies, and amethysts, adorned her neck. The bodice of her dress was -also ornamented with gold filigree set with many gems; and the sleeves -were profusely ornamented to match the bodice. Horace Walpole, in -describing her portraits, says, “There is not one that can be called -beautiful. The profusion of ornaments with which they are loaded are -marks of her continual fondness for dress; while they entirely exclude -all grace, and leave no more room for a painter’s genius, than if he -had been employed to copy an Indian idol, totally composed of hands and -necklaces. A pale Roman nose; a head of hair loaded with crowns, and -powdered with diamonds; a vast ruff, a vaster fardingale, and a bushel -of pearls,—are features by which everybody knows at once the picture -of Elizabeth.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</span></p> - -<p>Sir Walter Raleigh dressed himself in a gorgeous manner, and was -profusely decorated with gems. On court days, even his shoes wore gems -of the value of more than $30,000 (£6,600). His armor was of solid -silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls.</p> - -<p>The Duke of Buckingham, the favorite of King James, wore his diamonds -loosely attached, so that he might shake off a few at pleasure. His -cloaks were trimmed with great diamond buttons; his hat-bands were of -diamonds; also his cockades. Among his many rich suits was one of white -uncut velvet, set all over with diamonds, to the value of £80,000; -besides a great feather bespangled with diamonds, as well as his sword, -girdle, hat, and spurs.</p> - -<p>In olden times the shrine of Thomas à Becket was famous throughout -England and attracted countless devotees from all parts of the realm. -One hundred thousand persons of all ranks are said to have visited it -in one year, offering a vast variety of gifts. In the twelfth century -Louis VII. of France, disguised as a common pilgrim in the meanest -garb, visited the shrine and presented it with a famous precious -stone, called the Regale of France, and as large as a bird’s egg. Not -a fragment of this glittering and splendid shrine—a mass of gold and -jewels—remains at the present day to interest the antiquary; and its -treasures have been scattered to the winds, leaving no trace behind.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span></p> - -<p>The churches of England, as well as France and Spain, were at one time -enormously rich in precious stones and ecclesiastical ornaments of the -jewellers’ art; but wars and insurrections are fatal to collections of -the rare and the beautiful; and the fury and cupidity of the Leaguers, -the iconoclasts, and the revolutionists have destroyed these treasures -of art and nature, or dispersed them so that their identity is lost.</p> - -<p>The magnificence of the English clergy led Pope Innocent III. to -exclaim, “O England, thou garden of delights! Thou art truly an -inexhaustible fount of riches. From thy abundance much may be exacted.”</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br><span class="small">ASIATIC GEMS.</span></h2> - - -<p>To Asia we naturally turn for the history of the diamond, and a -solution of some of the phenomena connected with the mineral. But -here we have to contend with vexations at all points; and instead of -clearness, we have obscurity, disconnected histories, conflicting -traditions, and superstitious fancies. However, from the mass of -fragments which have been preserved, the patient antiquary eventually -may be able to arrange an interesting story relating to the gem in the -early days of its discovery and its adoption in ornamentation.</p> - -<p>We will now proceed to mention some of the celebrated stones whose -history has been more or less clearly defined; and regret to say that -there are a large number of others of great interest and value, but of -which we are unable to give a correct description.</p> - -<p>The Hindoos prize diamonds greatly on account of their supposed -spiritual properties, and they reluctantly part with them unless -compelled by dire necessity, or induced by the hope of greater -gain. Many of the fine diamonds brought to Europe from Asia<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</span> have -blood-stained histories, and some of them are connected with appalling -atrocities. Therefore we may with propriety say that few of the noble -gems would have found their way to Europe had the free will of their -rightful owners been consulted.</p> - -<p>The foremost gem in the history of the diamond was that which was -called the Great Mogul. This was the largest of all known diamonds, -and was found in the rich mines of Gani about the year 1650, or nearly -a century after their discovery. It became the property of Vizier -Mirgimola, who, although a Persian by birth, had by ability and tact -risen to the honor of general and vizier to the King of Golconda. By -means of his rapacity in war, and his success in working the diamond -mines, he became enormously wealthy, and accumulated immense numbers of -gems. The King finally became jealous of the wealth and power of his -favorite, and resolved to destroy him. But Mirgimola, warned of his -danger in time, succeeded in escaping with all his treasures to the -capital of Shah Jehan, the Great Mogul. The wily Persian gained the -favor and protection of the Hindoo monarch by magnificent presents of -gems, the chief of which was the immense diamond which has since been -called the Great Mogul.</p> - -<p>The original weight of this mammoth gem is said to have been 787¹⁄₂ -karats; but during the process of cutting it was reduced to 279 karats. -Tavernier relates that the work had been intrusted to a Venetian -lapidary by the name of Hortensio Borghis, who,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</span> ignorant of the duties -of his task, removed the flaws and external imperfections by grinding -the surface of the stone away. The labor required by this operation -seems almost incredible when we come to consider the hardness of the -stone, and estimate the difficulty of polishing it, especially with -the rude means then in use by the Oriental lapidaries. The cutting -of the Pitt diamond (now the Regent) required two years’ time, with -the aid of modern appliances and the facilities afforded by means of -cleavage, by which large fragments were removed and utilized. Therefore -the statement that this stone was reduced solely by grinding from -787¹⁄₂ karats to 279 karats is likely to meet with disbelief among the -lapidaries; for the operation must have required more than the fifteen -years which had elapsed from the discovery of the gem to the time -Tavernier examined it. Tavernier says distinctly that cleavage was not -resorted to in facilitating the reduction of the stone. We quote: “Had -the Sieur Hortensio been well acquainted with his profession he might -have obtained from this great stone some good pieces without doing -any injury to the King, and without having taken so much trouble in -grinding it away; but he was not a very skilful diamond-cutter.” This -statement establishes the fact that the secret of reducing diamonds by -cleavage was known at that time.</p> - -<p>Fifteen years after the discovery Tavernier saw the gem in the hands -of Aurungzeb, who was then Mogul, Shah Jehan having been deposed and -placed in confinement.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</span> The distinguished traveller was allowed to -examine the gem, weigh it, and make a drawing of it. It was then of -the form of half an egg, and very high-crowned, and had been cut with -many facets, quite regularly arranged over its superior surfaces. It -was also of fine water, and disfigured by only one crack on its lower -border, and a little flaw in the interior.</p> - -<p>The French traveller gives an account of the ceremony of his -examination as conducted with great precision and the utmost solemnity, -as though the gems were the crystallizations or the embodiments of -departed spirits. The gems were brought in upon two lacquered trays -covered with brocade, and were counted over thrice, and three lists -made of them by different scribes. This process was not particularly -flattering to the pride of the guest, but it serves to illustrate or -establish the fact that the Hindoo character for deception and theft -was quite as marked then as now.</p> - -<p>Since this period no further mention has been made of the gem by -any authentic writer; but it is supposed to have formed a part of -the plunder of Delhi, when Nadir Shah captured all the treasures -accumulated during four hundred years of prosperity, and which were -valued at from $150,000,000 to $350,000,000.</p> - -<p>The next largest diamond shown to Tavernier was one of only 54¹⁄₂ -karats, and all the rest were much inferior. Hence it is surmised that -the Koh-i-noor,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</span> the Shah, and the Daria-i-noor were then unknown, and -were discovered at a later period. But it is stated that the former -Mogul, who was still in confinement, retained many of the gems of -his own collecting, and that they may have been among them. Or they -may have been in possession of Mirgimola. At all events, the Mogul -disappeared with the last Tatar invasion; and new paragons, like the -Koh-i-noor, became known to the world. After the assassination of Nadir -Shah his treasures were scattered among many chieftains, and all record -of many of them has been lost.</p> - -<p>The fate of the Mogul is shrouded in mystery. The famous gem preserved -in the Persian treasury and called Daria-i-noor, “the ocean of lustre,” -which Forbes saw and described, is not the lost stone. By some it is -believed to be hidden away in some obscure fortress, to appear at -some future day when the possessor may display his hidden treasure in -safety. This view is certainly warranted by the discovery of the large -flat diamond of one hundred and thirty karats among the jewels taken -from the harem of Reeza Kooli at the capture of Coocha by the Persian -army in 1832. Also the finding of the celebrated crown of Chosroes by -Abbas in the treasury of one of the Princes in the Lauristan Mountains -near the Persian Gulf, where it had lain concealed for a thousand years.</p> - -<p>Were it not for the general accuracy and truthfulness of Tavernier, -and the drawing he has left of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</span> diamond, we might claim the Orloff -as the missing Mogul. Certainly the resemblance in form is very -remarkable; and the location of the flaws, with the rare circumstance -of shape, are facts very strongly in favor of the Orloff. The question -now arises, did Tavernier make an error in his weight and draw the -outlines carelessly or from memory? We have seen how confused history -has become regarding the identity of the Sancy diamond.</p> - -<p>The real Koh-i-noor of Hindoo history is probably the great Mogul -or the Orloff; and the name would be appropriately applied to the -dome-like shape of both of the stones, with their flashing beams of -light, rather than to the flattened form of the English stone now -called the Koh-i-noor, and which exhibited but little lustre. It -is highly probable that the diamond of Runjeet Sing, the English -Koh-i-noor, was one of the magnificent diamonds surrendered to Nadir -Shah by Mohammed Shah at the sack of Delhi in 1739, but there is no -positive proof of his obtaining the great heirloom of the descendants -of Aurungzeb.</p> - -<p>In reviewing the history of the Great Mogul gems, from the time of -Tavernier down to the present day, we are inclined to regard the term -Koh-i-noor, or “mountain of light,” as a misnomer, and that the gem -received this distinction only after its arrival at Kabul, or came -into the possession of Runjeet Sing; neither have we any evidence to -prove that the Koh-i-noor was the Great Mogul; for that appellation is -not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</span> given to it by the early writers. But it is not probable that the -term, so superlative of excellence and superiority, would be applied -to an inferior gem, while the great diamond of the Mogul, weighing two -hundred and eighty karats, was in existence.</p> - -<p>The history of all these great diamonds is very obscure; and as the -value of the Indian weights and measures varies so much at different -places and at different times, it is quite impossible to follow with -precision the fragments of history that relate to them.</p> - -<p>Several accounts have been given of the manner in which the Koh-i-noor -fell into the clutches of Runjeet; but that of <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Wilson, as published -in the official catalogue of the great Exhibition at London, is -probably correct. It is as follows:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“When Shah Soujah was driven from Kabul, he became the nominal guest -and actual prisoner of Runjeet Sing, who spared neither opportunity -nor menace until, in 1813, he compelled the fugitive monarch to resign -the precious gem, presenting him on the occasion, it is said, with a -lakh of rupees, or about £12,000 sterling.</p> - -<p>“According to Shah Soujah’s own account, however, he assigned to -him the revenues of three villages, not one rupee of which he ever -realized. Runjeet was highly elated by the acquisition of the diamond, -and wore it as an armlet at all public festivals.</p> - -<p>“When he was dying, an attempt was made by persons about him to -persuade him to make the diamond a present to Juggernaut; and it is -said he intimated by an inclination<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</span> of the head his assent. The -treasurer, however, in whose charge it was, refused to give it up -without some better warrant; and Runjeet dying before a written order -could be signed by him, the Koh-i-noor was preserved for a while -for his successors. It was occasionally worn by Khurruk Sing and -Shir Sing. After the murder of the latter it remained in the Lahore -Treasury until the supersession of Dhulip Sing and the annexation of -the Punjaub by the British Government, when the civil authorities took -possession of the Lahore Treasury, under the stipulation previously -made, that all the property of the State should be confiscated to the -East India Company, in part payment of the debt due by the Lahore -Government, and of the expenses of the war. It was at the same time -stipulated that the Koh-i-noor should be surrendered to the Queen of -England.</p> - -<p>“The diamond was conveyed to Bombay by Governor General the Earl of -Dalhousie, whom ill health had compelled to repair to the coast, and -was then given in charge to Lieutenant-Colonel Mackeson, C. B., and -Captain T. Ramsay, the Military Secretary to the Governor General, -to take to England. These officers embarked on board Her Majesty’s -steamship ‘Medea,’ and left Bombay on the 6th of April, 1850. They -arrived at Portsmouth on the 30th of June; and two days afterwards -relinquished their charge to the Chairman and Deputy-chairman of the -Court of Directors, by whom, in company with the President of the -Board of Control, the Koh-i-noor was delivered to her Majesty on -the 3d of July,—an appropriate and honorable close to its eventful -career.”</p> -</div> - -<p>We are led to infer from the accounts of history that some of the -Indian rulers collected enormous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</span> quantities of the precious stones. -It is stated that Mahmoud, in his campaign in India about the eleventh -century, captured the temple Bheen, which, according to Ferishta, -contained a greater quantity of precious stones and pearls “than was -ever collected in the royal treasury of any prince on earth.” They were -carried off to Ghizna.</p> - -<p>In another campaign the idol at Sumnat, fifteen feet high, was -captured, which being broken open yielded great quantities of rubies, -diamonds, and pearls which had been concealed in it. These were -carried to Ghizna. Ferishta says Ala-ud-deen obtained from the Raja of -Mahrattas fifty pounds of diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and sapphires, -and also one hundred and seventy-five pounds of pearls.</p> - -<p>In the middle of the sixteenth century Acber of India gave a splendid -banquet in honor of his birthday; and, if the reports concerning it are -correct, it was one of the most magnificent entertainments ever given -on the earth. Acres of land were covered with silken and flaxen tents, -and the horses and elephants were bespangled with gold and gems. The -tents of the Nabob were not only exquisitely made and adorned, but even -the carpets which covered the earth were richly embroidered with gold, -pearls, and precious stones. In describing the beauty and magnificence -of the Hindoo nobles, the historian states that they were adorned with -diamonds that “sparkled like the firmament.”</p> - -<p>Shah Jehan, the greatest of Mogul sovereigns since<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</span> Timour, collected -the wealth of India around him, and lavished it in a manner that reads -more like a chapter in the “Arabian Nights” than a page of historic -reality. At his death the treasury contained $150,000,000; and his -palace, with its embellishments and ornaments, was the most beautiful -the world has ever seen. The Peacock Throne was valued at $30,000,000, -and his crown at $12,000,000. The diadem had twelve points, each tipped -with a diamond of large size and the purest water. In the centre was -embedded a huge pearl, and the rest of the crown was a glittering mass -of rubies, diamonds, and other gems.</p> - -<p>The dress of the Emperor was in keeping with his extravagance: around -his neck he wore three strings of immense pearls; his arms were covered -with armlets of diamonds and bracelets of other gems; his sword and -buckler were incrusted with diamonds and rubies; and his sceptre was -entwined with a chain of pearls, rubies, and diamonds. Besides his -crown, he had a rich turban plumed with long heron feathers; on one -side was a huge ruby, on the other a diamond, while an immense emerald -decorated the front.</p> - -<p>The famous Peacock Throne of Indian history is no myth; for Tavernier -examined it with care, and has left a description of it so clear, that -its reality and its value are matters of fact. It was so called from -the figures of two peacocks with expanded tails standing behind it as -large as life. These figures<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</span> were constructed of gold and precious -stones of all varieties, and so arranged as to represent the natural -colors of the birds. The beautiful hues of the feathers were closely -imitated by the arrangement of fine rubies, diamonds, sapphires, -emeralds, and other gems.</p> - -<p>The throne was six feet long and four feet wide, and was constructed -of solid gold, inlaid with diamonds, emeralds, and rubies. Steps of -silver were placed in front of it; while a canopy of gold, fringed with -pearls, supported by twelve pillars emblazoned with flashing gems, -surmounted the whole. Between the peacocks stood a representation of -the parrot, carved from emerald or some green stone. On each side of -the throne was placed one of the sacred umbrellas, called chattars, -made of richly embroidered crimson velvet fringed with pearls. Their -handles were of solid gold, about eight feet long, and studded with -diamonds. This was the most costly and superb work of art of its kind -ever invented.</p> - -<p>Its rival was the Cerulean Throne of the House of Bhamenee in the -Nizam. It was constructed in the seventeenth century, and, according to -the description of Ferishta, the Persian historian, was nine feet long -by three feet wide, made of ebony, covered with plates of gold, and -incrusted with gems. Its value was estimated at quite twenty millions -of dollars. At the sack of Delhi, the Peacock Throne, with many other -priceless relics, fell into the hands of Nadir Shah and his ravenous -followers, and was carried off by them, and broken up.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</span></p> - -<p>We may form an idea of the magnificent costumes worn by the Eastern -monarchs, from the description given by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Elphinstone, the British -envoy to the King of Kabul, in 1808. At the reception given to the -embassy, the king was literally covered with gems. At first sight, he -appeared to be clothed with an armor composed of jewels; but, on close -inspection, his dress was found to consist of a green tunic covered -with large flowers in gold and precious stones. Over these a large -breastplate of diamonds shaped like two flattened <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fleurs de lis</i> -was worn. Upon each thigh, ornaments fashioned after the same manner -were placed; while large emerald bracelets appeared on the arms, and -many other jewels were adjusted to different parts of the body. In one -of these bracelets flashed the Koh-i-noor, then regarded as one of -the largest diamonds in the world. Over the chest were arranged some -strings of very large pearls, like loose cross-belts. The crown was -about nine inches high, and formed entirely of precious stones, like -the wonderful plumes of Prince Esterhazy. It seemed to be radiated, -like the ancient crowns; and behind the rays appeared peaks of purple -velvet. Several small branches with pendants apparently projected from -the crown; but the ornament was so complicated and so dazzling, that it -was difficult for the spectators to understand it, and quite impossible -to describe it.</p> - -<p>Other famous diamonds besides the Mogul are missing; and modern history -is unable to account<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</span> for them. What has become of the splendid flat -diamond weighing two hundred and forty-two karats, which Tavernier -examined in Golconda; or the immense Agrah of six hundred and -forty-five karats, in the rough, which the same traveller saw in India? -Were they also gathered by the followers of Nadir, and divided in the -spoliation of the property of the conqueror? We know that Persia, -enriched by the last conquest of India, is immensely rich in precious -stones of all descriptions; but the number, the character, and the -value of them, are as shadowy as those of Turkey. However, we have a -ray of intelligence from Bernier, who hastily estimated the value of -the Persian jewels at thirteen and one half milliards of francs.</p> - -<p>This prodigious estimate has been strengthened by the gorgeous -appearance of the last Persian ambassador to France. The costume of -this Emir fairly blazed with the brilliancy of the most costly gems, -and recalled the departed glory of the last Prince of Esterhazy. The -presents sent at the same time by the Sultan to the Empress Eugenie -were most magnificent, especially the diamond bracelets, and were -glorious emblems of Oriental favor.</p> - -<p>Among the diamonds possessed by the Persian Crown, besides the -Daria-i-noor, which is said to weigh two hundred and thirty-two karats, -we have information of three others of remarkable size and beauty. -They are named the Taj-Mah, or Crown of the Moon, of one hundred and -forty-six karats;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</span> the Sea of Glory, of sixty-six karats; and the -Mountain of Splendor, of one hundred and thirty-five karats, valued at -$729,000.</p> - -<p><abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Beke, at the meeting of the British Association, in 1851, read a -paper on a new diamond that had lately come into the possession of -Persia. He referred to the diamond slab of one hundred and thirty -karats that had been captured at Coocha, in 1832, and which he thought -might have been a part of the Koh-i-noor when in its natural state. -The only account of its history the Persians could obtain, was the -statement that it was found in the possession of a poor man, a native -of Khorasan, who used it for the purpose of lighting his fires, by -striking it against steel [the mineral does not possess the property], -and that it had thereby sustained some damage. The gem was presented by -Abbas Murza to his father, Futteh Ali Shah, and is presumed to be now -among the crown jewels of Persia.</p> - -<p>One of the latest accounts of the Persian treasures is given by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> -Eastwick, who was permitted to examine them. He found them placed in -a small, strongly built room, to which access was had by means of a -narrow, steep stairway and very small door. In this apartment, spread -out upon thick, velvety carpets, were displayed gems and jewels of the -value of $35,000,000. Conspicuous among them was the Kaianian crown, -which was shaped like a flower-pot, and topped by an immense uncut -ruby as big as a hen’s egg, which is supposed to have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</span> come from Siam. -Beside this tiara were spread two lambskins covered with beautiful -aigrettes of diamonds; and before them lay trays of pearl, ruby, and -emerald necklaces, with countless rings. The famous Kaianian belt was -also an object of wonder. This relic of barbaric splendor weighs about -twenty pounds. It is nearly a foot in depth, and is incrusted massively -with splendid diamonds, pearls, rubies, and emeralds.</p> - -<p>The exhibition of arms was worthy of the Oriental taste for martial -decoration, and recalled to memory the ancient fondness for such -things, and the sword and scabbard of Mithridates, which has been -mentioned in history as being of enormous value. Some of these, now -belonging to the Persian Shah, are magnificently decorated with gold -and gems, to the value of more than a quarter of a million of dollars.</p> - -<p>The arms of defence of the Oriental nations have been noted from the -earliest times for the beauty and splendor of their decorations, in -which lavish use has been made of the finest diamonds, emeralds, -rubies, and other precious stones, set in a variety of metals. The -excellence of these precious productions was made known to the nations -of the Mediterranean by means of commercial caravans long before the -invasions of Xerxes or Alexander; and some of them are objects of -admiration to the skilled artisans of the present day.</p> - -<p>In Lahore, Benares, and Lucknow are yet preserved the secrets of the -gold workers of Assyria and ancient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</span> Phœnicia, which have long been -forgotten in the countries where they were invented. The enamels of -these artisans, especially the green, red, blue, and turquoise hues, -are not surpassed in beauty of tint by the finest enamels of Paris.</p> - -<p>As Persia is the home of the turquoise, the traveller would expect -to see the finest representative of the mineral species in this -collection. And he will not be disappointed, for the specimen of -turquoise treasured here above all others is of a magnificent color, -from three to four inches long, and without a flaw. Its value is not -given; but we may draw an inference from Shylock’s turquoise, which was -worth “a wilderness of monkeys.”</p> - -<p>Besides the above enumerated articles the treasury contains numberless -objects of value not described, and among them piles of gauntlets and -belts, massive with pearls and diamonds.</p> - -<p>The present ruler of Persia, Nasiru’d-din, during his late visit to -Europe, displayed upon his person many of the chief treasures of his -crown. They were not, however, exhibited to advantage, for his costume -was an incongruous mixture of the amplitude of nomadic ideas with the -close-fitting symmetry of the French tailor. The ridiculous figure of -the Shah, surmounted by the ancient lofty Persian hat, heightened in -comicality by a pair of gold-bowed spectacles, presented a picture -that detracted from the splendor of the gems which he wore. His coat, -which was made after the style of the Parisian frock, was plaited over -the hips<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</span> and adorned with extraordinary gems. From waist to shoulder, -arranged in <i>echelon</i>, were placed five enormous diamonds, each -said to be larger than the English Koh-i-noor. The collar and sleeves -of this garment were also fairly incrusted by brilliants of great -beauty; while over his breast hung his various insignia and orders set -with the finest of gems. His sword-belt and sheath were formed of gold, -studded with diamonds, rubies, and emeralds; while his golden spurs -were formed of diamonds of such perfection as to flash like sunbeams as -he walked along.</p> - -<p>Many fine diamonds are undoubtedly to be found among the nabobs and -princes of India. And their concealment may have been advised by the -lessons of the past. Fears of English rapacity may have caused the -fracture of the famous Nizam diamond, or a report to that effect. This -beautiful gem, which is said to have weighed three hundred and forty -karats, belonged to the King of Golconda, and is said to have been -broken at the commencement of the last Indian revolt.</p> - -<p>In 1807 a fine diamond of seventy-seven karats was obtained by the -Ranee Ruthen from the bed of the river Sumbhulpore; and in 1809 a fine -gem of one hundred and sixty-eight karats was found in the sands of the -river Mahamuddee.</p> - -<p>The King of Ava possesses many diamonds, but of unknown value. Colonel -Symes saw, in his visit of 1795, many rude ornaments of remarkable -splendor and value. One of the state carriages fairly blazed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</span> with its -decorations of burnished gold, covered with diamonds and other gems.</p> - -<p>The Sultan of Mattan in Borneo is said to possess a remarkable diamond; -but there is some doubt as to its authenticity, like its great rival, -that of the King of Portugal. But <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hugh Low, Colonial Secretary -of the Island, declares in his work on Sarawak and its productions, -published in 1848, that the gem of the Sultans is a real diamond, -and of the great weight of three hundred and sixty-seven karats. It -was, at that time, in the rough state, and its shape was that of an -egg indented on one side. Its value was estimated by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Crawford -to be £269,378. Sir Stamford Raffles relates that the stone has -remained as an heirloom in the royal family for four descents, and -is almost the only appendage of royalty now remaining. The Governor -of Batavia, desirous of obtaining the gem, is said to have sent <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> -Stewart to Borneo to negotiate for it. But although the tempting offer -of $150,000, with two brigs of war with their guns and ammunition, -was made to the Sultan, he refused to deprive his family of the rich -inheritance which was supposed to be in the possession of the diamond.</p> - -<p>In the time of Sir Stamford Raffles few courts in Europe could boast of -a more brilliant display of diamonds than was exhibited by the ladies -of Batavia in the prosperous days of Dutch commerce, when the trade of -India and Eastern Asia was to a very great extent in the control of -Holland.</p> - -<p>We cannot properly close this chapter on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</span> gems of Asia without -making a brief allusion to that master-piece of architecture, the Taj -Mahal, the palace-tomb, which Shah Jehan erected at Agra in memory -of his beautiful and beloved wife. The Mogul Emperor promised the -dying Empress the most beautiful tomb the world had ever seen; and he -kept his promise. Even to-day, after so many centuries of neglect and -pillage, the fairy-like structure rises to the view more like one of -the dreams of the “Arabian Nights” than a material edifice constructed -by human hands.</p> - -<p>In its construction the wealth of India was placed at the service -of its architects, and thousands of laborers were employed for many -years. The chief architect was a Frenchman, M. de Bordeaux, who also -designed the famous Peacock Throne at Delhi. Enormous quantities of -precious and semi-precious stones of all descriptions were used in its -ornamentation, and inlaid in its walls, its columns, and ornaments. The -images were masses of glittering gems, and some of the mosaics were -marvels of beauty and human skill.</p> - -<p>In a curious manuscript, still preserved, is given an account of the -gems, jewels, etc., and their value, used in the construction. All -parts of Asia were searched for the richest gems,—Thibet for its -turquoises, Ceylon for its lapis lazuli, Persia for its amethysts, -Lunka for its sapphires, and Pannah for its diamonds. The famous Hindoo -temple of Sumnat was, in the days of its perfection, one of the most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</span> -renowned of all the shrines of India, and must have been a structure of -wonderful richness, when its fifty-six pillars, incrusted and inlaid -with multitudes of precious stones, sparkled in the morning light. Even -at the present day its ruins, though despoiled of their ornaments, are -very beautiful and impressive.</p></div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br><span class="small">MISCELLANEOUS.</span></h2> - -</div> -<p>The royal family of Brazil are said to possess diamonds of great -beauty, selected for their superiority from the best of the products of -the mines of the country. But we have not been able to obtain reliable -descriptions of them.</p> - -<p>The Crown of Portugal, by virtue of its inheritance, is said to own -immense numbers of the gem; and it is understood that they are held in -reserve, and only a certain quantity are to be sold from time to time -according to the demands of the market. In corroboration of this report -it is said that the Bank of Lisbon, sold, in 1863, rough diamonds to -the value of 1,800,000 francs out of the collection brought from Brazil -by John VI. in 1821. It was also stated that the value of the remainder -was estimated at 35,000,000 francs.</p> - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Mawe, at the time of his visit to Lisbon, stated that the treasury -of the King contained diamonds amounting in weight to four thousand or -five thousand karats. The same traveller and gem-expert says that a -vast number of the Brazilian diamonds have passed into the possession -of the King of Portugal. And<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</span> he furthermore states that he examined -diamonds belonging to this potentate, which were worth more than two -million pounds sterling.</p> - -<p>Among the crown jewels of Portugal there is a gem of large dimensions -which has been reported to be a diamond weighing 1,680 karats. <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> -Murray described it to be as large as an ostrich egg, and added that -<abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Mawe informed him that it was a white topaz. Romè de L’Isle, in his -treatise on Crystallography, published in 1783, describes the stone -as a diamond, but admits that it is suspected to be a white topaz. -It is a little singular that this discrepancy and obscurity has not -been definitely cleared up during all this time, when the character -of the stone can so easily be ascertained. As the massive variety of -diamond is found in masses of more than one thousand karats, it is even -probable that the crystalline and transparent variety may occur of -equal weight.</p> - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Murray mentioned a beautiful gem of two hundred and fifteen karats, -called the Round Brilliant of Portugal, and estimated its value at -£388,290. <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Mawe describes another a little less in size, and also -two nearly perfect octahedrons of one hundred and thirty-four and one -hundred and twenty karats each.</p> - -<p>The state waistcoat of Joseph I. had twenty buttons, each button being -composed of a solitaire diamond of the value of $20,000, and the -rest of its ornaments were corresponding in beauty and value. This -garment is said to have been the richest ever seen in Europe, with the -exception of the recent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</span> grand illumination by the Shah of Persia. It -has also been stated that the golden cane of John VI. had in its top a -splendid brilliant of the value of a million of francs.</p> - -<p>The largest of the Brazilian diamonds was discovered as late as 1852, -by a negress working in the mines of Begagem. Like most of the large -diamonds, its form was not symmetrical, and its shape was much modified -from the regular crystalline forms. In 1856 it was brought to France -and exhibited to the members of the Academy of Sciences. The gem then -weighed in its rough state 254¹⁄₂ karats, and appeared perfectly -transparent and without tint. It was placed in the hands of Coster, of -Amsterdam, for cutting, and reduced in weight to 127 karats. The form -given it was the brilliant; but the gem was cut too thin to exhibit -its full beauty. The spread of its table will be found, on comparison, -to be much greater than that of the Regent diamond, which weighs 136 -karats, or almost 10 karats more; therefore Babinet properly exclaims -against the taste which adopted an imperfect brilliant, at a great -reduction of weight, when the form of the brilliolette, like that of -one of the Sancys, would have preserved three fourths of its weight and -given it a more splendid lustre. It would then have been the second -diamond in weight and beauty in Europe. This gem is known as the Star -of the South, but is sometimes called the Halphen diamond, from the -name of the gentleman who bought it on its arrival in Europe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</span></p> - -<p>The gem treasures of the Elector of Saxony are among the most valuable -and unique in Europe. The commencement of their collection dates from -an early period. The famous silver mines, prior to the discovery of -America, placed the Saxon princes among the richest sovereigns of -Europe; and they took pride in exhibiting their magnificence, in -expending vast sums of money in the purchase of gems, jewels, and works -of art.</p> - -<p>The treasures thus accumulated during a long period of time are of -immense value; and the apartments where they are displayed remind -the observer of the gorgeous descriptions of Oriental magnificence. -And unless we except the unknown collection in the Turkish Seraglio -and those of the Crown of Russia, it is the most extensive and -interesting in the world. All that is rare and beautiful on earth is -here represented; and the total valuation of all the objects of art -and nature must amount to many millions of dollars. They are contained -in eight large consecutive rooms, each surpassing the previous one -in the splendor and richness of its contents. Among the diamonds are -some large and unique gems of the rose pattern. The gala dress and the -decorations of the Elector, which fairly dazzle the eye with their -floods of brilliancy, are also kept here. In the epaulette there are -three splendid brilliants which weigh nearly fifty carats each.</p> - -<p>But the chief attraction among all this vast collection of gems is the -famous green diamond. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</span> wonderful stone is of oblong form, 1¹⁄₁₂ -inches in length by ¹⁰⁄₁₂ of an inch in width, and weighs 31¹⁄₄ karats. -It is mounted in a clasp, set with large white brilliants. The price -paid for it is kept a profound secret; but it is reported that it was -obtained at Warsaw by Augustus the Strong, and that he paid 60,000 -thalers for it. Amateurs generally regard the blue diamond as the most -astonishing and perfect of the products of the mineral kingdom; but we -fail to perceive, in the exhibition of this color, any advantage over -the fine green or the pure red diamonds.</p> - -<p>There is another diamond in this collection which is one of the -finest in Europe, although it weighs but 48³⁄₄ karats. It is known -as the Saxon white brilliant, and is of rare perfection of form -and brilliancy. It is about 1¹⁄₁₂ inches square, and is set in the -insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece, surrounded with other fine -brilliants. Augustus purchased it, and is said to have given more -than $700,000 for it. This gem has a great reputation for its beauty. -Comparison with the Regent, the Orloff, and others, can alone determine -its degree of excellence.</p> - -<p>The fifth and sixth divisions of the eighth apartment are devoted to -the display of diamonds, and the insignia of Saxony. The decorations of -the Elector, consisting of buttons, collar, sword-hilt, and scabbard, -all glittering with diamonds, present a charming appearance. There are -also to be seen, profusely decorated with gems, the Saxon Order of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</span> the -Rue Garland, and the seven orders of the Golden Fleece.</p> - -<p>Among the royal treasures in Munich there are several beautiful pink -diamonds of large size, and a magnificent blue one of thirty-six -karats, which is set in the Order of the Golden Fleece.</p> - -<p>In the treasury of the royal palace may be seen many fine single -diamonds, together with magnificent emeralds and sapphires of great -value. The King’s and Queen’s crowns, resplendent with brilliants, -are kept here, with others of older date which belonged to the former -Counts Palatine. Among the relics are preserved the ancient diadems of -Henry II. and his Empress Kunigunda of the date 1010; also, the orb and -sceptre of the Emperor Charles VII., together with his crown.</p> - -<p>Prussia has but few diamonds, the policy of the Hohenzollerns having -been adverse to the purchase of gems as baubles. Austria, however, is -rich in diamonds, and possesses some extraordinary gems. The Imperial -Jewel Office at Vienna contains a rare collection of great value. Here -is preserved the famous Regalia of Charlemagne, which were buried -with the great conqueror in his tomb at Aix la Chapelle. Barbarossa, -in 1165, dared to violate the sanctity of this sepulchre, and removed -the barbaric jewels, which are of great interest to the antiquary and -the historian. For several centuries past they have been used at the -coronation of the German emperors. The crown is a magnificent specimen -of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</span> the art of the Middle Ages, and is ornamented with rough diamonds -and other gems in their natural state.</p> - -<p>The crown and sceptre of Rudolph II. may be seen here. They are also -adorned with uncut diamonds and gems, and were formerly worn by the -German emperors elect on their entrance into Frankfort.</p> - -<p>The chains, collars, decorations, regalia, belonging to the dresses -of the various Austrian Orders, namely, Golden Fleece, Maria Theresa, -etc., and worn by the Emperor, exhibit a splendid collection of -diamonds, topazes, emeralds, etc., unique in size and perfection.</p> - -<p>Here is also to be seen the famous yellow diamond known as the -Florentine. It is in the form of a double rose with facets cut all -around, and weighs 139¹⁄₂ karats. It is of a fine lustre, but of -a yellow tinge, sufficient to impair the beauty of the prismatic -reflections. The Emperor Francis, as Grand Duke of Tuscany, inherited -the gem, which accounts for its presence in Vienna.</p> - -<p>This gem has been confounded with the diamond given to the Pope by -Charles the Bold; but its history is very obscure, and its introduction -into Europe is unknown. There is, however, a story among the Italians -that it was first discovered by an amateur while hunting over the -relics and objects of virtu in a curiosity shop at Florence, where -it was regarded as a crystal of yellow quartz. Tavernier<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</span> saw it in -Florence in the middle of the seventeenth century, but does not mention -its history. Besides this gem there are several large diamonds in -Europe whose history has become very confused, and it is now difficult -to trace their identity in several instances.</p> - -<p>The Florentine is the rarest specimen of the kind known, and, although -it is not cut with regularity, its lustre and its brilliancy are -greatly increased by its star-like cut. It is 1¹⁄₆ inches in length, by -one inch wide, and is neatly set in a large <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">sevignée</i>, surrounded -by other fine diamonds. Its value is placed at $450,000. There is also -another large and fine diamond intended as a button for a hat, but its -history is unknown.</p> - -<p>The finest rose-colored diamond known belongs to the Austrian jewels. -It is of a beautiful rose-color, thirty-two karats in weight, and of -remarkable lustre. It is now placed in the centre of a knot of white -brilliants to which the decoration of the cross of Maria Theresa is -attached. Here is also the beautiful bouquet of flowers made for Maria, -and constructed out of colored diamonds and other precious stones.</p> - -<p>The finest collection of colored diamonds in the world is to be seen -here. It was made by a Tyrolese named Helmreicher, who went to Brazil -and spent the most of his life there in searching for them among -the different mines. They illustrate finely the wide range of color -possessed by the gem.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</span></p> - -<p>The Empress of Austria, in 1800, during the war with France, wishing to -emulate the manners of ancient warriors, sent to the Archduke Charles, -then in command of the army of Bohemia, a helmet set with magnificent -gems.</p> - -<p>In ancient times it was not rare for Eastern monarchs to array -themselves richly, which the stern Romans affected to despise, -believing in the virtues of unadorned steel. The decorations of -Artaxerxes Mnemon and Mithridates are said to have amounted to millions -of dollars in value. It is also reported that Alexander, at the battle -of Arbela, wore a helmet with a gorget of polished steel set with -gems. Murat, however, the gayest of all modern generals, obtained his -picturesque effects by means of colored fabrics and feathers rather -than from gold and gems.</p> - -<p>There were few persons among the frequenters of the courts of Europe -during the past three-quarters of a century who had not heard of the -value and the splendor of the Esterhazy jewels. It appears that near -the close of the last century Nicholas, Prince Esterhazy, assisted at -the crowning of Francis II. as King of Hungary. He was then captain -of the Guard of Honor, which was composed of twenty-four nobles and -princes of inferior rank, and on this occasion first appeared in his -ornaments of precious stones. The Prince, not content with the usual -decorations belonging to his rank and his corps, transformed all parts -of his equipments which were of metal into open gold-work incrusted -with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</span> gems. The effect was so beautiful as to stimulate the Prince -to continue and complete his designs in a magnificent manner. And -therefore he sought far and wide for the finest gems to adorn his -person.</p> - -<p>This passion for collecting and decorating soon ripened into a mania, -and developed a prodigality greater than the Curii or Fabricii -ever dreamed of. Ample means were at hand to foster this love of -magnificence, for the Prince was feudal proprietor of a third of -Hungary, being possessor of thirty-three manors, and lord of seventeen -grand seignories.</p> - -<p>The uniform of his rank as general of Hungarian huzzars, composed -of jacket, pelisse, and pantaloons, was woven with pearls of the -finest description; and among the multitudes of gems which formed the -decorations were fifty thousand fine diamonds of the brilliant form. -The weight of these mantles of magnificence was more than one man could -endure for a length of time; and its profusion of ornament recalled the -barbaric splendor of Lollia Paulina as she appeared at the banquet of -Caligula. Gems of all colors and varieties were employed by the Prince, -and many fine rubies, emeralds, and topazes were made use of. The most -valued and the most delicately formed of all his ornaments was the -aigrette of diamonds which replaced the ordinary plumes on his huzzar -cap. It was called the most beautiful jewel in the universe. These -artificial plumes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</span> which flashed like flames of fire, contained five -thousand diamonds of the purest transparency and most beautiful colors. -Their weight amounted to one pound and a half avoirdupois. Around the -huzzar cap were placed a wreath and a band, over which were ranged, in -many rows, the finest and most brilliant pearls. The sword and scabbard -were incrusted with the rarest brilliants. The broad band which hung -over the shoulder to the belt was a remarkable article of workmanship. -It was a simple band covered with fine pearls and the most precious -diamonds, one of which, at the shoulder, was valued at 20,000 livres -and another at the waist at 12,000 livres. Besides these ornaments he -had for decorations six orders,—of the Toison d’Or, of the Bath, Saint -Andrew, and others, all constructed of unequalled magnificence.</p> - -<p>These costumes were worn by the Princes Nicholas and Paul at the -coronation of Francis II., of George IV., of William IV., of Victoria, -and of the Emperors of Russia and Austria; and were the themes of -admiration, even among the glittering uniforms of higher ranks. But -finally, by the fatality that attends collections of all that is -beautiful on the earth, there came a change in the fortunes of the -heir of Esterhazy. Paul, the last Prince, died some years ago harassed -with debts. His estates were hypothecated; but his jewels passed into -the hands of his creditors, and many of them were sent to London to -be separated and sold. Since then most of the beautiful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</span> gems, which -sparkled so brilliantly in former times in the courts of Europe, have -been scattered over the world, and their identity lost, their history -forgotten.</p> - -<p>There is a very beautiful diamond of thirty-six karats owned in -Holland, but its history we have not learned.</p> - -<p>The famous crown of <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Stephen of Hungary, which disappeared during -the Revolution of 1848, is said not to have any diamonds among its -gems. Whether the absence of this stone is due to the extreme antiquity -or to the whims of the constructors of the crown, we are unable to -state.</p> - -<p>The late Duke of Brunswick had before his death a marvellous collection -of diamonds, partly acquired in gratification of his eccentric tastes -and partly obtained by inheritance. Among the latter was the famous -Cumberland diamond of thirty-two karats, which had descended to the -heir of the House of Hanover. We have not been able to obtain a -description of these treasures, nor can we learn of their disposition -by the remarkable will of their late possessor.</p> - -<p>Among the church regalia of Catholic Europe, and the offerings -presented in past times to the various shrines of the saints of their -religion, are yet preserved many gems of great beauty and value, and -among them a great number of diamonds. Some of them have been stripped -during the ravages of war, or by the iconoclastic fury of civil -disturbances; and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</span> the pious monks have, in instances, restored their -loss by the substitution of paste, which has pleased the pilgrim’s eye -quite as well. For instance, the celebrated shrine of the Three Magi at -Cologne has been despoiled of a great part of its vast treasures. And -the skulls of the kings, inscribed with their names—Gaspar, Melchior, -and Balthazar—written in rubies, were once crowned with gold diadems, -resplendent with brilliant gems, now replaced by silver, gilt, and -paste, or imitations. The custodians of the relics and jewels still -assert, through pious fraud or a convenient ignorance, that their value -amounts to 6,000,000 francs.</p> - -<p>Catholicism, when it had the means, spared no expense in decorating -its shrines and beautifying its relics. It well understood the effect -of the glitter of gold and the brilliancy of gems upon the human -imagination. The examples of this barbaric and yet cultivated taste -are to be seen in all parts of Europe. Relics and insignia were not -only lavishly adorned, like the Remonstrance at Prague with its 6,666 -diamonds, but the bones of their saints were committed to the earth -ornamented with costly gems, like those of Cardinal Borromeo interred -at Milan two hundred years ago. The shrine of Loretto in Italy has been -the most favored of all in Europe in attracting gifts from the rich -and powerful as well as from the sick and the conscience-stricken. If -reports are true, it has been and now is the receptacle of many of the -most beautiful treasures of the mineral<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</span> kingdom. As its history is not -generally known, we will briefly allude to it, and give a still briefer -description of its jewels.</p> - -<p>Casa Santa denotes the chapel of the Holy Virgin at Loretto in Italy. -Its chief room is the chamber in which the Blessed Virgin is said to -have been born, where she was betrothed to Joseph, where the angel -saluted her, and where the Holy Ghost overshadowed her, etc. Tradition -says it was carried, in May, 1291, through the air by angels from -Galilee to Tersato in Dalmatia, and four and a half years afterwards -was taken to Italy and set down in a wood in the district of Recanati, -a thousand paces from the sea.</p> - -<p>Strange to relate, it was more than two hundred years before any author -in that country took any notice of the event or of the building. It -was, when first brought to notice, simply a house of one room; but as -religious enthusiasm became excited it also became necessary to repair -its decayed condition and improve its appearance. Therefore, Clement -VII. caused a vaulted roof to be placed upon it and new foundations -to support its tottering walls. At a later period it was completely -encased in the finest Carrara marble, under the directions of the most -celebrated sculptors of the age and during the pontificates of Leo X., -Paul III., and Gregory XIII. The edifice which encloses the chamber -within its spacious walls was designed by Bramante, and its sculptures -were designed and executed by the most famous artists.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</span> This is -composed of Istrian stone resembling the Travertine stone so much used -at Rome.</p> - -<p>Within the ancient chamber, which is regarded as one of the holiest of -all the holy precincts known, stands the sacred image, called the Great -Madonna, five feet high, made of cedar, and carved, as tradition says, -by <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Luke, who was a carver as well as a physician. Upon her head -is placed a triple crown of gold, enriched with diamonds and pearls, -a gift from Louis XIII. of France. Over her shoulders an ample robe -is cast, glittering with jewels of all descriptions and said to be of -inestimable price.</p> - -<p>The niche in which the image is placed is also decorated with gems, -and among them are seventy-one of the finest of the Bohemian topazes -[quartz].</p> - -<p>Adjoining the Virgin on the right side appears a statue of an angel -cast in pure gold. This is also profusely enriched with diamonds and -other gems. Some of these, which are said to have cost 50,000 ducats, -were the offering of Eleanora of the House of Este, the Queen of -King James II. of England, when she sought for the intercession of -the Virgin to grant her an heir. The Pretender to the British Crown -was born not long after, to the delight of all those who believed in -miraculous intervention.</p> - -<p>On the left side of the Virgin a silver statue of an angel is placed, -and still further on the right appears another costly image. This last -was the gift of Louis XIII. of France, in gratitude for the birth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</span> of -the Dauphin, afterwards “Le Grand Monarque,” Louis XIV.</p> - -<p>Seven lamps of solid gold are continually burning with a sacred flame -before the image of the Virgin, and other parts of the room are -illuminated with thirty-seven silver lamps.</p> - -<p>Although many of the reports concerning the valuables belonging to this -famous shrine are probably fiction, there is no doubt of the immense -value of the gems and jewels that have been presented to it. The -donations to the wealth of this famous shrine have been given from all -parts of the world where the Catholic religion has been venerated. And -all classes, both rich and poor, have zealously invoked the blessing of -the mysterious spirit by their liberal bequests.</p> - -<p>The rich Abbey of <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Denys, before the Revolution, is said to have -possessed a rare and costly assemblage of gems, jewels, and jewelled -relics. They were reported to have been the accumulation of many -centuries, dating back to the Carlovingian kings.</p> - -<p>Among them were said to have been valuable presents from the Emperors -of Byzantium. But this is doubtful, for the Greeks despised Catholicism -and the Crusaders. There may have been, and probably were, fine gems of -various kinds from the spoils obtained by the Franks in the conquest -of Constantinople. There is no doubt, however, as to the richness of -the works of mediæval art; for we find sufficient evidence in the old -work of Dom Doublet’s,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</span> “Tresor of <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Denys,” although the collection -itself has long since been dispersed and almost forgotten.</p> - -<p>The iconoclastic fury of the Revolution collected many of the treasures -of this Abbey, with those of other chapels of Paris, and offered them -at public sale in 1794. It is said that this collection embraced -a great quantity of precious stones,—rubies, topazes, sapphires, -etc.,—both in the rough crystal and rudely cut, thus proving their -Oriental origin. It is also stated that this much-to-be-lamented -assemblage of beautiful things brought but 80,000 francs.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br><span class="small">CUTTING OF THE DIAMOND.</span></h2> - -</div> -<p>The art of polishing the diamond was discovered by man at an earlier -age than history has generally ascribed to it. Positive evidence, -however, is wanting as to exact dates; and the proof is chiefly -presumptive. However, there is no doubt but that it was far anterior -to the times when Berquen announced his improvements on the process. -We are quite willing to admit that the process of abrading the diamond -against diamond was really discovered by the native of Bruges; but we -cannot entertain the idea that the Hindoos were too stupid to pulverize -the diamond and use its powder in polishing the gems. The natives -had made use of powdered corundum in the earliest days, and it is -preposterous not to admit they pulverized the diamond also.</p> - -<p>Most of the gems of antiquity, whether rubies or diamonds, are cut -rudely; and often, with the latter gem, the natural faces of the -crystal are alone polished. Tavernier found that the native Hindoos -polished the natural faces of the crystal if it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</span> clear, and covered -the flawed and the defective with facets to disguise them. And so -common was this practice, that the traveller was always suspicious of -the quality of the stone, whenever it was offered to him cut in this -manner.</p> - -<p>The improvement with many of these diamonds is so slight, that we -consider the fact to be one of the reasons why certain natural -crystals, like those in the crown and clasp of Charlemagne, for -instance, were left in their rough state; the advantage derived from -cutting not being equal to the time and labor expended.</p> - -<p>It is true that we have no direct evidence of the cutting of the -diamond in ancient times, and those that have descended to us from -undoubted early Roman periods are in the shape of natural crystals; but -still there is indirect testimony bearing in favor of the view.</p> - -<p>The ancient gem engravers were wont to use splinters of broken -diamonds in their labors upon various kinds of gems; and they probably -powdered the adamas, as well as varieties of corundum, for the purpose -of polishing the hard stones. Scarcity of the mineral, rather than -ignorance of its properties, may have prevented its general use.</p> - -<p>Janon de <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Laurent, in his work on engraving tools, maintains that -the ancient instruments for the purpose of cutting gems were the same -as the modern; and not only the wheel was used, but diamond dust was -also employed in the process. There is no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</span> doubt that the wheel and -other tools were in use in Asia for a long period before their adoption -by the nations on the Mediterranean. So far as we know, Persia was -the birthplace of gem engraving. Why are there not more examples of -polished diamonds, if the process is so ancient? the reader may ask. We -may in part answer this question by saying, that the process of cutting -regular facets on the gems was not early known, or the custom adopted; -and, the polishing being so difficult, that the lapidaries were content -to polish the natural faces only. Polished crystals of diamonds of this -character have descended to us from early times, and other examples are -to be seen in ancient jewels. So little beauty was obtained by this -polishing, that not much was gained in the vast labor required; and -the native crystals were often used without any aid from the lapidary. -We may see them in their rough crystalline forms in the crowns of -the Gothic princes, the Iron Crown of Italy, and the ornaments of -Charlemagne, besides other relics of ancient and even mediæval times.</p> - -<p>This custom of using the rough gems prevailed to some extent in recent -times; and De Laet states that as late as the middle of the seventeenth -century rough spinels were preferred to the cut for ornamentation. -However, we will briefly allude to one or two instances in history, -which lead the reader to infer that the diamond received a definite -polish at an early day. Chrysostom, an authentic writer of the fourth -century, in describing the magnificence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</span> of the Greek emperors at -Byzantium, mentions the dazzling splendor of the diamonds scintillating -by agitation. If the historian does not use this description for the -gems in general, we may infer that the diamonds had been polished; -since the unpolished stones do not exhibit much, if any, play of the -prismatic hues. The maxim, “diamond cut diamond,” is of ancient origin, -and may perhaps be referred to the saying in vogue among the Greeks -as early as the seventh century, “that for the purpose of cutting -diamonds, a diamond was most effectual.”</p> - -<p>The accounts of the Oriental historians concerning the fêtes of Timour -in the fourteenth century, where diamonds were showered in profusion -upon the guests, leave no doubts as to the art of polishing the gem as -early as that period.</p> - -<p>The inventory of the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">joyaux</i> belonging to the Duc d’Anjou, in -1360, shows that diamonds were then cut, although rudely. It makes -special mention of several diamonds, and one in particular set in a -reliquary, and cut in escutcheon. Other polished diamonds are described -in the account given of the splendid entertainment given at the Louvre, -by the Duke of Burgundy, to the King and Court of France.</p> - -<p>There is also evidence to prove that diamond lapidaries were at work -in Paris, when Berquen came to reside there. However, it was not until -1475, after Berquen returned to his native city, Bruges, that the mode -of polishing diamonds by direct<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</span> abrasion became known in Europe. And -when Charles the Bold intrusted the three famous gems to his skill, -and rewarded him with 3,000 ducats for his labor, the name of Berquen -became famous and widespread throughout Europe.</p> - -<p>Nearly two centuries after this success, Cardinal Mazarin attempted -to establish the business of diamond-cutting in Paris, and confided -to the lapidaries he had invited to reside there, twelve of the -finest diamonds belonging to the Crown to be recut. These gems, from -their beauty, and the circumstance of cutting, were called the twelve -Mazarins. History has neglected to record the fate of these magnificent -gems save one. In the inventory of the French jewels in 1791, there -is the solitary description, “the tenth Mazarin.” The others have -disappeared.</p> - -<p>The Cardinal made every attempt to establish the favorite project -on a firm basis; but they were in vain; for the Dutch marine had -complete control of most of the exports of India, and decided in favor -of Amsterdam. Moreover, the establishment of the diamond trade in -Holland was one of the indirect results of the revocation of the Edict -of Nantes, and it was controlled by Israelite refugees from France. -The business gradually languished at Paris, and of the seventy-five -diamond-cutters of Mazarin’s industry, but five were left in 1775; and -soon after this, in spite of individual efforts and influences, it -ceased altogether. Even at the recent period of 1852, Paris did not -possess a single diamond-cutter. At this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</span> time M. Philippe resolved -to make the attempt to revive the good intentions of Mazarin, and has -thus far succeeded well. But, in spite of all the English and French -opposition, the diamond trade is still controlled by the Amsterdam -Jews, several thousand of whom are engaged in the business of cutting -the stones.</p> - -<p>Diamond-cutting was also practised to some extent in London during the -last century and the early part of this; but concerning it we have -learned but few particulars. It was conducted on strict mathematical -principles, however; and the gems cut during this time in London are -eagerly sought for by amateurs, under the name of the “Old English -Style.” The brilliants of Ralph Potter, cut at the commencement of this -century, are by far the finest exponents of the art as well as of the -natural powers of the gem. Since the discovery of the African mines the -London establishments have been actively engaged, and we also learn -that branches of the business have been located in other cities of -England.</p> - -<p>The process of diamond-cutting is a very simple matter to those -acquainted with the nature of the gem. To cut the facets, two stones -are cemented on two sticks and rubbed against each other until a -facet is cut; then the position of one of the stones is changed, and -another flat surface cut. The process is thus continued until the gem -is faceted all over, at the expense, however, of the other stone, -which does most of the cutting. After the facets are cut, and a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</span> -definite form given to the stone, the gem is placed in the hands of the -polisher, who fastens it in solder, and then places it upon a small -steel disk which revolves horizontally with a rapidity of 1,500 to -3,000 times a minute. This disk is moistened with diamond powder mixed -with oil, and one facet is polished at a time. The diamond-cutting -proper is a rapid operation; but the polishing is slow and tedious. One -cutter can generally furnish sufficient work for four or five polishers.</p> - -<p>There are a number of forms adopted by the lapidaries for these gems, -but the two principal ones are the brilliant and the rose. The first -pattern, which was invented in Europe in the seventeenth century, is -perhaps the best of all to call forth the powers of the gem. The second -is of unknown age, and was practised by the Hindoos in ancient times. -It affords the largest beams of light for the weight, but it lacks in -colored reflections when compared with the brilliant.</p> - -<p>For the perfection of the rainbow play of hues, it is essential that -the facets of the superior and inferior parts of the stone should -correspond in exact proportions and at fixed distances, so as to -multiply the reflections and refractions, and produce the colors of the -prismatic spectrum. Therefore the perfect cutting of the diamond is a -mathematical problem, governed by rigid laws.</p> - -<p>All limpid and white gems must be cut according to this rule, but in -case of colored stones the case is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</span> far different; for perfection -of color is to be attained, and brilliancy is a secondary thought. -Therefore a fine ruby or sapphire may be decidedly thin in form, and -yet be a gem of great beauty and value. It is very rare we obtain -the full perfection of brilliancy and color in the colored gems; for -generally the depth of the finest hues prevents a display of the -refractive powers of the stone.</p> - -<p>The process of rifting diamonds by splitting them in their cleavage -planes was known long ago to the Hindoos; but, strange to say, it -was forgotten by modern lapidaries until revived by Wollaston not -many years ago. By this means masses of the crystal may be removed to -escape a flaw or remove a spot, and yet preserve material that may be -utilized, and which would have been lost by the process of grinding -away the exterior.</p> - -<p>Some diamonds of the spheroidal form are deficient in cleavage -planes, and are quite impracticable for cutting; and the fact of the -impossibility of polishing them is sufficient proof of their peculiar -origin, and that their form is not due to aqueous action.</p> - -<p>Others, known as bort, seem to be of concentric arrangement, as though -crystallization radiated from the centre; and it is very difficult to -polish them. The Hindoos avail themselves of this natural cleavage, and -form table diamonds by adroitly striking along one of the planes of the -stone with a sharp-edged tool, thereby separating the layers of the gem -as the slate is rifted by the miner.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</span></p> - -<p>The operation, which seems so simple, really requires considerable -skill and much of that acquired instinct or tact which is best -exhibited by our Western Indians, who chip, with marvellous rapidity -and certainty, a glass bottle into symmetrical arrow-heads. This method -of reducing diamonds by cleavage was early known to the Hindoos, and -is mentioned by Tavernier in an unmistakable manner in his published -travels.</p> - -<p>The process of reduction by this means is very rapidly accomplished by -the skilful workman. At a glance he ascertains the direction of the -laminæ, which remind one of the layers of the onion, and then cuts -a small notch with another diamond in the place he selects. In this -minute rift he places the edge of his blunt steel knife, and, tapping -the back of it with a light iron rod, the diamond is split with perfect -ease. By this process flaws and imperfections in the external layers of -the stone are removed without delay. In reducing the natural diamond -to a regular form much of its substance is lost, and sometimes as much -as one half of the weight of the stone. This loss, however, depends -greatly upon the natural form of the crystal. The perfect octahedrons -lose but one fifth of their weight when transformed into the shape of -the brilliant; but the rhombohedrons lose over one third in taking the -same form.</p> - -<p>The following will give the reader an idea of the losses of the rough -stones when converted into fine gems. However, it must be remembered -that these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</span> great stones are generally of irregular shape and are -rarely of fine crystalline forms. The Mogul weighed in the rough 780¹⁄₂ -karats, but was reduced in cutting to 279⁹⁄₁₆ karats. The Regent -weighed 410 karats, reduced to 136¹⁴⁄₁₆ karats. The Koh-i-noor weighed -186¹⁄₂ karats, reduced to 102¹⁄₂. L’Etoile du Sud, 254¹⁄₂ karats, -reduced to 124⁴⁄₁₆.</p> - -<p>The process of cutting diamonds of large size is always attended -with risk, and is necessarily a costly operation. The Regent cost in -cutting $25,000, and occupied two years’ time. The Star of the South, -which was cut by Coster, occupied but ninety days, and the Koh-i-noor -only thirty-eight working days. This great feat in diamond-cutting -was performed by the ablest of the Holland lapidaries, with the aid -of steam power. Although the time expended was less than forty days, -yet the cost of cutting is said to have been $40,000, which sum was -lessened by the sale of the rifted fragments.</p> - -<p>The Oriental lapidaries, destitute of mechanical appliances of any -considerable aid, consumed years in cutting some of the paragons of -India. This condition of affairs will explain the reason why the -Armenian lapidaries asked the immense sum of $80,000 to cut the slab of -diamond weighing 130 karats, which was captured by the Sultan of Persia -at Coocha, in 1832.</p> - -<p>The process of diamond-cutting has within a few years been established -in the United States, and is due to the energy and superior inventive -talent of <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Henry D. Morse, of Boston. This gentleman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</span> conceived the -idea of arranging a machine for the cutting and polishing of these -gems, to enable the American jewellers to have their work performed at -home, instead of sending it to Europe.</p> - -<p>While engaged in perfecting his appliances, chance threw in his way -an itinerant vendor of porcelain, who had in former years served as -laborer in the diamond ateliers of Amsterdam. The sight of the rough -gems and the apparatus recalled to the Jew the scenes of his youth, and -awakened a desire of renewing his former occupation; and he offered to -perform the part of diamond-cutter. But, as the process was carefully -considered, it was discovered that the Jew could only cut the facets -of the diamond, and the art of the subsequent polishing he did not -understand. It seemed strange that an artisan who possessed the rare -ability to tell at a glance how large a gem the stone would cut, how to -avoid internal imperfections, and how to take advantage of its cleavage -planes, could not polish the facets after he had cut them. But such was -the fact; for the two processes of cutting and polishing are widely -different, and require separate instruction. However, the deficiency -was soon supplied by an acquaintance, who was induced to leave Holland -and act as polisher in the American diamond adventure.</p> - -<p>The establishment was now complete, but the business was at first -confined to recutting and repolishing gems that had been damaged by -long use or accident. The inventive genius of <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Morse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</span> made several -important changes in the machinery required by the lapidary, and -displaced the rude and cumbersome apparatus of the old system. At first -but two or three men were employed; but after the discovery of the -South African diamond mines, the rough gems imported to this country -soon furnished material for a more extensive establishment than was at -first contemplated; and so the workshop was enlarged, and the workmen -increased, until twenty-four polishing wheels were put in operation -by steam power, and a force of thirty persons employed in the various -parts of the process. At first none but foreigners were employed in the -labor; but <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Morse believed that American ingenuity could master all -the difficulties of the process, and finally succeeded in educating -a corps of workmen who soon proved to be far superior to any of the -artisans imported from the diamond-cutting establishments of Amsterdam. -Now the atelier of <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Morse may be considered as essentially American -both in its artists and its arrangements.</p> - -<p>Many fine gems of large size have been polished by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Morse, and among -them four of the great weight of fifty karats each. And very recently -he has ventured to attempt the cutting of a great diamond from South -Africa, weighing one hundred and twenty-five karats. The operation was -a successful one, and after three and a half months’ labor a beautiful -gem of seventy-seven karats weight was obtained, which is greatly -admired by amateurs and experts, not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</span> only on account of the rare -beauty and perfection of the mineral itself, but also as a remarkable -specimen of workmanship in shaping its present form.</p> - -<p>The process of cutting the diamond is divided at Amsterdam into several -distinct branches, and workmen are educated to perform one part, but -not another. Thus the cleaving, the cutting, and the polishing have -special operators, who become expert in performing well the parts -assigned to them without attempting the others.</p> - -<p>This ceremony and care adopted by the Jews has undoubtedly produced -skilful workmen; but we see no reason why all the parts may not be -perfectly acquired by an intelligent mechanic. The art of cleavage, -however, requires tact, and ought to include some knowledge of -mineralogy.</p> - -<p>For the particulars of the art of diamond-cutting, we will refer our -readers to the interesting chapters by Jeffries, Mawe, and Barbot; but -we will, however, briefly mention some of the forms adopted for the -diamond, and how they are produced.</p> - -<p>The table and the rose patterns were the first regular forms adopted -by the lapidaries. The first was simply the top of the stone ground -flat with a corresponding flat bottom of less area, with its four upper -and lower sides parallel to each other. As the light passed through -the stone without much refraction, the beauty of the mineral was not -developed by this pattern.</p> - -<p>It has been stated that the rose shape was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</span> invented in Paris under the -auspices of Cardinal Mazarin, but Tavernier describes the diamonds of -Aurungzeb of India as being of the rose-cut. Therefore we must give a -more ancient date to the pattern than Mazarin’s day. The form of the -rose-cut is simply that of a hemisphere covered with small facets. Its -flattened base is therefore admirably adapted for incrustation work, -and the foil on which it is generally set serves as a refracting mirror -for the entering rays of light.</p> - -<p>The rose pattern has several names which indicate the number of facets -which they may bear. If it has but twelve or less facets it is called -an Antwerp rose; if but eighteen or twenty it is a semi-Holland, and a -Holland rose if it bears twenty-four facets. At the present time these -gems are not in much demand, unless for incrustation work, for which -they are superior both in effect and in adaptability to the surface of -the object to be ornamented.</p> - -<p>The form which appears to exhibit the splendors of the gem to the -best advantage is that known as the brilliant, and is rightly named -from its effects. It was discovered in Italy in the latter part of -the seventeenth century by Peruzzi of Venice, which city was then one -of the chief gem marts of the world. The conclusions which led to -the adoption of the shape were derived from experiments upon colored -stones. This form of the brilliant is that of the ancient deep table -modified by receiving thirty-two facets above and twenty-four below its -girdle. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</span> great relative depth of the gem, aided by the numerous -facets of the sides, appears to increase the natural refractive power -of the stone by confining, as it were, the rays of light inside of it.</p> - -<p>Another pattern, called the brilliolette, shows the beautiful qualities -of the gem to great advantage. It is formed like two rose diamonds -joined together at the base; or may be flattened and elongated like the -almond, and faceted all over with small facets. This is the form of the -Sancy, and should have been given to the Koh-i-noor and the Star of the -South. The Austrian yellow diamond is of this pattern, and was probably -cut in India, but when and where is still a mystery. And it is thought -that the famous twelve Mazarins were also cut after this shape.</p> - -<p>The star pattern, which was invented by Caire, is but little used at -the present time.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.<br><span class="small">TESTING OF THE DIAMOND, ETC.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The testing of the diamond is generally an easy matter to the expert, -but the merchant and the amateur are often unable to decide quickly -concerning the character of a gem that may be offered to them. The -learned Abbé Haüy was often called in consultation upon matters of this -kind, and even appeared in court as an expert of diamonds. Fortunately, -the methods of ascertaining the diamond beyond a doubt are now so easy -and numerous that few attempts are made like those of the last century, -when white topazes and zircons were sold or substituted for diamonds.</p> - -<p>We may be permitted to say that the first and surest test of the -gem is that of hardness, and that the diamond scratches all other -substances with ease. The application of this test is not always made -with facility, but a little practice with a rough crystal of diamond -will soon enable the experimenter to perform it satisfactorily. -In performing the test for hardness for all gems it is well to be -provided with a fine English file, and splinters of quartz, topaz, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</span> -sapphire. The file, adroitly applied, will detect the character of gems -below the quartz in hardness, and the splinters above mentioned will -determine all others but the diamond.</p> - -<p>In applying these tests, it is well to touch the middle of a facet, if -the gem be polished, and remember that the edges of many of the gems -are very brittle. The diamond, for instance, although it is so very -hard when its surface is directly tested, yet its thin edges, when cut -into a gem, are broken down with the greatest ease; therefore the test -of hardness should be applied to the polished face of the stone.</p> - -<p>But when the stone has been polished and set in such a manner that the -test of hardness cannot be easily applied, then the easiest method of -distinguishing its character is to expose it to the rays of artificial -light and observe their effects. If the stone, when placed at a certain -distance from the candle, flashes out the prismatic hues in a marked -manner, then the observer may safely conclude that the object is either -a diamond or one of the artificial gems known as strass. To distinguish -them by means of the eye alone will be a difficult task, for both -possess very high refractive powers and exhibit remarkable displays -of the prismatic hues; but the application of a fragment of diamond, -sapphire, or topaz to the object will at once make known its character, -and even the test of the steel file will betray the softness of the -glass.</p> - -<p>The transparent zircons closely approach the diamond in brilliancy, -and are among the rarest of gems;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</span> in fact, a fine specimen of perfect -purity would be worth more to the amateur than a diamond of equal -weight. The pure yellow are declared by King to be among the rarest and -most beautiful of gems on account of their remarkable brilliancy and -lustre. He also states that they are seldom found above two karats in -weight.</p> - -<p>The white zircon, which resembles the diamond so closely, is always -minute and rarely above one karat in size. All that are known in -commerce come from Matura, in Ceylon, and are sometimes called Matura -diamonds. In times past they were in great demand for incrustation -work of watches and jewelry, for when cut in the form of roses and set -upon brilliant foil they could not be easily detected by the eye from -the diamond. At the present day they are seldom seen in commerce, but -whether from scarcity, or from an improvement in the ideas of honor -in the jewellers, we are unable to state. We know, however, that they -are still mined by the natives of Ceylon, and are used in Asia for -ornamental purposes. The white spinel is sometimes mistaken for the -adamas; but its inferiority in hardness and its want of the prismatic -hues render its detection easy. The white topaz, when of two or three -karats weight, resembles the diamond in the rough very closely, -especially when in the modified or globular forms of crystallization. -The degree of specific gravity is exactly the same; but the test -of hardness and the want of the prismatic display serve to dispel -all doubts as to its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</span> nature. Neither of these gems, nor the white -sapphire, has that peculiar sharp flash of the diamond which is known -as the adamantine eclat. It has been stated by Hoppè that some of the -Brazilian diamonds do not exhibit any more play of color when cut than -rock crystal; but we have no doubt but that the writer is in error, -and has probably been deceived by some of the white spinels or topazes -which are sometimes found in the diamond mines of Brazil and are of -great brilliancy.</p> - -<p>To estimate the value of a rough diamond and ascertain its purity -is often a difficult task, and one that requires both education and -tact. For the surface of the natural gem, especially the modified and -spheroidal crystals, is generally dull and chatoyant. This singular -appearance, which has been erroneously represented as a thin crust, is -in reality produced by the salient edges of the laminæ of which the -stone is composed. The same or a similar effect may be artificially -produced in the polished diamond by heating it to a white heat, as has -been seen in the diamonds injured in the great fires of Hamburg and -Chicago.</p> - -<p>Barbot, the French jeweller, declared that he had discovered a means -by which the apparent rough, translucent coating could be changed into -perfect transparency so as to give a clear view of the condition of the -interior. This statement, however, is very much doubted by lapidaries.</p> - -<p>When the rough diamond is placed in turpentine,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</span> alcohol, or even -water, it appears more transparent than before and like a bubble -of air. We have therefore sometimes thought that Barbot had really -discovered some fluid of high refractive power, immersed in which the -rough diamond became transparent. For it is a well-established fact -known among chemists, that rough gems of a lower refractive power, like -sapphire, chrysoberyl, spinel, etc., if placed in a fluid possessing -an equal refractive energy, like that of muriate of antimony, become -clear, and the observer is enabled to look through them. This discovery -strengthens Barbot’s statement and places it within the possibilities; -but as yet we know of no fluid that possesses a refractive power equal -to the diamond. Topaz, emerald, and other gems of low refractive power -can be readily examined by using the oil of cassia, which has the -refractive energy of 1.64.</p> - -<p>The rough diamonds often exhibit various colors, but generally of -faint tints. Sometimes the hue is not perfectly distributed throughout -the stone, but may be confined to a part of it, as in the sapphire, -or even in one of its laminæ. It is a singular fact that the external -coverings of the mineral often contain the shades which render the -rough gem of a disagreeable hue, and which may be made to disappear by -the process of cutting. Therefore, it sometimes requires experience -and tact to determine the value of a rough diamond which possesses a -decided hue. However, those stones which exhibit a greenish or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</span> reddish -color are considered safe stones for investment, and will develop -into superior gems after cutting. The bluish and the blackish are -thought to be harder than the others; while the yellowish and grayish -colors indicate inferior stones. The brownish and yellowish hues may -disappear in process of cutting, but there is greater uncertainty in -these shades than in the others. Sometimes a stone which promises to -yield a perfectly white gem, after cutting turns out to be of a decided -disagreeable tinge. Therefore the cutting of a rough diamond is often -attended with some hazard.</p> - -<p>The Hindoos have a practice of examining their stones before purchase -by placing them in an aperture in the wall, with a lighted lamp in -the rear. And to ascertain their color they take them under the cover -of a tree thick with foliage, where the verdure of the shade quickly -reveals any other tinge, especially the bluish. It is quite difficult -to distinguish the snow-white, except by contrast. The officers of -the Junta Diamontina, in Brazil, have a rough way of testing the -native diamonds from quartz, white topaz, and spinel, by rubbing them -together close to the ear. The sharp tone which is thus produced is -characteristic, but the test requires a keen and practised ear.</p> - -<p>Specific gravity is one of the best tests for determining the nature -of polished stones. By this means some of the precious minerals can be -detected with ease, like the zircon and the emerald, notwithstanding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</span> -their color. But when applied to the diamond the experimenter should -remember that its weight is exactly that of the white topaz; yet -to distinguish them, the degree of hardness or the phenomena of -electricity will at once enable the expert to discriminate with ease -and without a doubt. For the best methods of ascertaining the specific -gravity of the stones, we must refer the reader to elementary works on -chemistry and physics.</p> - -<p>The test of its electrical phenomena is an important one, as one can -thereby almost instantly detect it from other gems, especially the -white topaz. When rubbed it exhibits vitreous electricity like glass, -but loses it in a very few moments.</p> - -<p>Another curious phenomenon, called single refraction, enables the -observer to distinguish the mineral from all other gems except the -garnet and spinel, the others having double refraction, or, in other -words, giving a double image of a candle-light when it is viewed -through their facets.</p> - -<p>For the purpose of observing this phenomenon, Sir David Brewster -invented an instrument which he called a lithoscope. It consisted of a -small glass prism which moved around a fixed joint so that the lower -surface of it could be laid upon the surface, or a facet of the stone -to be examined. In this position, the two surfaces being parallel, the -image reflected from the lower surface of the prism would coincide with -that reflected from the surface of the stone. A drop of the oil of -cassia or of sulphuret of carbon is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</span> placed between the prism and the -facet, and then the observer turns a screw to raise the prism a little -round its joint. The effect of this is to separate the image of a light -or a small luminous aperture as given by the prism from that given by -the facet; and the difference in the intensity and the color of these -two images is an infallible indication of the nature of the stone. The -image from the diamond will be many times brighter than that reflected -from the face of the prism when testing any of the other precious -stones.</p> - -<p>A simpler mode is sometimes adopted by experts, but it requires some -dexterity to exhibit the property. The method is this: the diamond is -held up to the eye, and a needle point or a small hole pierced in a -card is looked at. If the object is seen double, as if there were two -needle points or two holes, then the stone examined is not a diamond, -as but one aperture should be seen.</p> - -<p>With the aid of the tourmaline tongs, however, we have an easier -method—subject to a few exceptions—of detecting the properties of -refraction of all gems even when they have been cut. The transparent -tourmaline, when cut in thin plates parallel to the axes of its -natural crystals, possesses the strange and extraordinary power of -extinguishing or causing to disappear one of the rays of polarized -light, while the other is preserved. Therefore, when a body possessing -single refraction, although perfectly transparent, is placed between -the two thin slices<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</span> of tourmaline composing the tourmaline tongs or -polariscope, no light passes through; the instrument does not afford -the least glimmer of a ray of light. But when the transparent body -interposed in the polariscope is of double refraction, light passes -through as if by magic.</p> - -<p>When the gem has been cut for ornamental purposes it is often difficult -to adjust the faces of it to the plates of the polariscope. Then -recourse may be had to the use of a glass cell containing a fluid of a -high refractive power, like the oil of cassia, turpentine, sulphuret -of carbon, etc. The stone immersed in these fluids admits the light -in all directions, and is then easily viewed through the plates of -the instrument. These fluids, however, are not of sufficiently high -refractive powers to do justice to the diamond and the zircon, but they -answer admirably for all gems of a less refractive power, like the -varieties of sapphire, spinel, topaz, garnet, tourmaline, emerald, etc.</p> - -<p>The tourmaline tongs furnish the expert with a rapid and easy method -of detecting many of the gems by reason of the phenomena of their -refraction. But the experimentalist must be on his guard lest he -pronounce substances to be of double when they really possess but -single refraction. Glass has a tendency to crystalline regularity when -heated and cooled suddenly, and may therefore acquire the property -of polarizing the ray that passes the first plate of tourmaline and -dispose of a part of that which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</span> passes the second. Certain minerals -of the cubic system produce the same result by reason of a certain -rare but forced arrangement; and some crystals, like the topaz, when -cut in a certain direction to their optical axes cease to exhibit the -phenomena of double refraction.</p> - -<p>One of the chief tests used by the jewellers of olden times to -distinguish the diamond was the test of the tincture. This tincture was -a varnish made of ivory black and mastic, and when applied to the back -of the diamond seemed to increase its lustre, while other gems were -impaired in their natural effects. Modern investigators, however, have -shown that this procedure is a fallacious one, and is in reality one of -the absurd traditions which have been attached to the gem from early -times, like some of the supposed spiritual properties.</p> - -<p>A perfect diamond must stand the tests for purity, faultlessness, and -transparency, and when these are carefully applied to the stone perfect -gems will be found to be very rare.</p> - -<p>As we have said before, the diamond is the foulest of gems, and is -exceedingly liable to be injured by faults, such as are described -in the technical terms of the jewellers as ashes, gray spots, rusty -places, flaws, cavities, fissures, veins, feathers, foreign bodies, -wavy and vitreous spots. Very few diamonds can stand the test of the -microscope and be pronounced perfect. Still these microscopic faults -are not to be considered in the commerce of the gem, but only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</span> in the -study of its origin and nature. The jeweller may properly pronounce -perfect the gem whose faults cannot be detected by the human eye. Even -the magnificent Regent has one small foul speck in it, according to -Jeffries; and Sir David Brewster found in the Koh-i-noor three specks, -or rather cavities, in its central portion, which appeared to view in -more or less distinctness according as the light reached them.</p> - -<p>After a diamond has been cut it is not easy to ascertain its degree of -perfection without careful examination, and this occupies considerable -time. And gems which appear at first glance to be pure and perfect are -often found to be defective after examination.</p> - -<p>Babinet, of the French Institute, adopted the following method to study -the effects of the diamond, and it was his intention to apply the test -during his leisure moments to the principal diamonds in France; but -other important labors diverted him from his purpose. He pierced a -hole in a white card, a little larger than the diamond to be examined, -and then passed a ray of sunlight or of the electric lamp through this -hole. In the pathway of this ray, at a certain distance from the hole -behind the card, he placed the diamond so that the ray of light fell -upon the anterior surface of the stone. The rays reflected from this -anterior surface, or, in other words, the table of the diamond, and -those which pass through the stone are reflected back on the card, -where they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</span> exhibit a white image of the table surrounded by small -bands iridescent with the prismatic colors. By this simple method -Babinet found that if the diamond had been well cut the colors were -considerable in number, were well separated, and equally spread around -the white reflection of the table. As each of these bands indicates -one of the lustres of the stone, it is easy to estimate them both in -number, quality, and symmetry. Therefore the observer can not only -detect the errors of the cutting of the gem, but decide upon the form -best adapted for the stone.</p> - -<p>The term used to express the weight of the diamond and all the gems is -derived from the word <i>Keration</i>, a kind of vetch, whose seeds, -being generally of a uniform weight, furnished the Orientals with the -means of estimating the value of precious stones. It is supposed to -represent the equivalent of four Troy grains, but by actual measurement -the diamond karat weighs but 3¹⁄₃ Troy grains at the present day, and -it may descend even lower in the scale, unless the unit be established -by law. The history of the series of diminutions by which the karat -has reached its present weight is obscure, but as the term is supposed -to represent four Troy grains it should equal them in reality. That -it is a mere conventional weight is shown by its variance in European -countries, as well as in the gem-producing countries of Asia. In -making use of the term to express the weight of precious stones we -would suggest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</span> that it be written karat, as more in accordance with -its derivation, and that the commonly accepted word carat be used when -we wish to define the alloy of certain metals, like that of gold and -silver coins.</p> - -<p>Before proceeding to the subject of the valuation of diamonds, we -will say a few words concerning the imitations produced by the skill -of man. Many attempts at imitating the diamond have been made by -experimentalists for a long time past, and much ingenuity shown by -them. To those of our readers who desire to study especially these -experiments we will refer them to the works of Silliman, Hare, Latour, -Saix, Despretz, Dumas, Ebleman and Gaudin, Mohler, <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Clair, Deville, -Gaunal, Becquerel, Joyce, Cagnard de la Tour, Mactear, Hannay, and many -other well-known experimenters.</p> - -<p>Despretz’s experiments, which were based upon certain combinations -of carbon, are deserving of mention. The chemists have discovered -that in combining sulphur and carbon a colorless liquid is produced -resembling water, and apparently containing nothing but sulphur and -carbon. Therefore, Despretz reasoned, if he could get rid of the -sulphur by some manner, the carbon might be crystallized. And to -obtain this result, the action of the volcanic battery offered the -most plausible means. With the aid of this battery the experimenter -really succeeded in obtaining on a thread of platina, passed through a -solution containing carbon, some small crystalline<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</span> depositions, which -by their form and hardness seemed to be embryonic diamonds. But here -the experiment ended. Nature refused to reveal her secrets.</p> - -<p>The alchemists of the Middle Ages seeking the transformation of gold -from baser metals, have been well represented by the chemists of the -present century attempting to imitate the diamond. Philosophy and -science have united their efforts in these fascinating experiments; but -Nature still defies the most determined efforts of art in respect to -the reproduction of the diamond.</p> - -<p>The mineral appears to be an allotropic form of a simple elementary -body which Nature offers to us with lavish hand. And when we consider -the triumphs of chemistry, the process of transforming this element -into the coveted form does not seem to be so very difficult to the -casual thinker. But Nature is stubborn in revealing her simple acts. -However, we are not without faith in these determined efforts of -scientific skill; for we know that art now produces the brother of -the diamond, graphite, at will. And we see that at the soda works at -Aussig this form of carbon is obtained as a secondary product by the -decomposition of cyanogen and its combinations. We do not, however, -look forward with much pleasure to the realization of this idea; for -success in producing the diamond will annihilate at a single blow an -important article of commerce, and rob ornamentation and investment of -one of its most desired objects.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</span></p> - -<p>Art, however, in its researches on this subject, has succeeded in -producing a glass which, when cut, approaches very closely the -brilliancy and prismatic display of the diamond. The artificial gems -made from this glass, which is supposed to have thallium as a base, -instead of lead, are really superior examples of art. “Nothing but -glass,” is a phrase too often used contemptuously and unjustly; for -these imitations are quite as charming as the adamas itself. In the -flash of their rainbow hues, they surpass some of the great diamonds, -like the Koh-i-noor; and in brilliancy they exceed all other gems. -Their refraction reaches 2 on the established scale, while that of the -diamond is reckoned at 2.4, and that of the sapphire, 1.79. They lack, -however, hardness; and the effect of time dims their lustre. But this -defect may yet be remedied; for the ancients made glass quite as hard -as quartz. And when we come to examine those wonderful specimens of -ancient glass, with their exquisite colorings, exhumed by General Di -Cesnola in the Phœnician tombs of Cyprus, who will venture to establish -a limit to the art of glass-making? Even within the past few years, a -process has been discovered by which the elasticity and hardness of -glass have been increased to a remarkable degree; and if the defect of -brittleness can be overcome, a new era in glass-making will have been -reached.</p> - -<p>Artificial diamonds are often worn at the present day; and the fair -wearer consoles herself with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</span> hope that, when sunnier days come, -the artificial will give place to the real. It will not be soon -forgotten by the votaries of fashion, that the Duchesse de Berri, -arriving in France, received for her bridal ornaments only the -imitation, and that she wore them.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.<br><span class="small">VALUE OF THE DIAMOND.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The history of the commercial value of the diamond, extending back -to a distant period of time, forms an interesting chapter for the -philosopher as well as the merchant. It would appear that the gem had -been comparatively independent of the caprice of fashion, and that it -has had for many years a value quite as fixed as gold or silver. This -comparative valuation only applies to the snow-white diamonds, and to -those whose imperfections are not readily discernible to the naked eye.</p> - -<p>In estimating the value of diamonds, Barbot divides their shades into -fifteen degrees, as follows: In the first degree he places the rare -diamonds which exhibit the vivid gleam like the flash of polished -steel; second degree, snow-white, first water; third degree, white, -first water; fourth degree, white, with faint shades, red, yellow, -and blue; fifth degree, white, yellow, or green, second water; sixth -degree, grayish-yellow or green, second water; seventh degree, orange -yellow; eighth degree, translucent topaz<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</span> yellow; ninth degree, -translucent deep green; tenth degree, translucent brick-red; eleventh -degree, translucent deep red; twelfth degree, quite opaque, dingy blue; -thirteenth degree, quite opaque, deep bottle green; fourteenth degree, -quite opaque, brown or blackish; fifteenth degree, quite opaque, black -as jet.</p> - -<p>In ancient times, the gem probably had no fixed commercial value, -and was sought for as a curiosity or as a talisman. In the fifteenth -and sixteenth centuries, the goldsmiths of Italy, which was then the -richest country in the world, established a comparative valuation for -the four precious stones, ruby, emerald, diamond, and sapphire. From -these accounts we learn that the diamond of one karat was valued at -100 gold scudi, and that the emerald was estimated at 400, and the red -sapphire, or ruby, at 800, or eight times the price of the adamas. -These valuations, if we estimate the scudi at nine English shillings, -make a diamond of one karat worth $225, and the ruby of the same weight -at $1,800, or nearly two thousand dollars, a statement which is quite -incredible.</p> - -<p>In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and even before these dates, -Venice was the chief gem mart of Europe. Her merchants had control of -a great part of the trade with the Eastern countries; and most of the -Oriental luxuries passed through their hands. From the account of the -auction sale, in the year 1606, of the effects of a diamond<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</span> merchant -in that city, we learn the value of diamonds of one karat weight at -that time. They were then valued at £21 13<i><abbr title="shillings">s.</abbr></i> 4<i><abbr title="pence">d.</abbr></i>, which -was an enormous sum, compared with the value of money at the present -day.</p> - -<p>In 1750, the price of the stone in Europe was $40 for one-karat gems. -This was just before the discovery of the Brazilian mines. The sudden -influx of the gems reduced the price shortly after to $5 per karat; -but the market soon recovered from the panic, and in 1791, at the time -the inventory of the French jewels was made, the price had arisen to -$30 for the same class of diamonds. Since this period, the prices have -varied, from the influences of the wars of Europe, sinking at the time -of the disturbances of the Revolution of 1848, to $20 and $25 per -karat. But after the year 1850, the price of the gem steadily advanced, -and in 1865, its quotations were almost the same as that of Venice in -1606. This comparison, however, should not be made without remembering -the vast difference in the value of money of the two periods.</p> - -<p>The valuations of the diamond for more than a century past have been -based upon the form of the brilliant, while those of the star, table, -rose, and others, have been valued at lesser and sometimes almost -nominal prices.</p> - -<p>The price of the rose diamonds has been affected by the views of -fashion for a long time, and at the present day we are unable to -establish any fixed scale.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</span> We will, however, append the views of some -of the gem experts as to the valuation of this pattern, during the past -two centuries.</p> - -<p>Robert de Berquen, in 1669, valued the rose cut</p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr><td class="tdl">of  1 karat at  100 francs.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> ”   2    ”   ”    500    ”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> ”   4    ”   ”  1,500   ”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> ”   8    ”   ”  6,000   ”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> ”  10   ”   ”  9,000   ”</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>This estimate, however, was not founded upon any principle; and it was -not until the celebrated Tavernier formed his rule for the valuation of -the rose cut, that the diamond had any definite value. Tavernier, in -1692, took for an example a rose of one karat, of fine water, white, -and of good form, and fixed the valuation at 150 francs, and for gems -of greater weight multiplied this figure by the square of their weight. -The justly celebrated jeweller and traveller also followed the same -rule with fine diamonds that were not of regular form. The brilliant -cut was not then known.</p> - -<p>In 1858, in France, the comparative values were: for one karat, fine -brilliant cut, 300 francs; for one karat, fine rose cut, 200 francs.</p> - -<p>The following list has been kindly furnished me by Henry D. Morse, -Esq., of Boston, as giving the value of diamonds in the United States -at the present time, January, 1884. The prices have fluctuated -considerably during the past year, and the estimates<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</span> given are -wholesale prices, and regarded as being quite low for fine stones:—</p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr><td class="tdl">Lots averaging ¹⁄₂ karat each, $60 per karat.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">    ”         ”         ³⁄₄    ”      ”      80      ”    ”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">    ”         ”         1      ”      ”      100    ”    ”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">    ”         ”       1¹⁄₄    ”      ”      110    ”    ”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">    ”         ”       1¹⁄₂    ”      ”      125    ”    ”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">    ”         ”       1³⁄₄    ”      ”      145    ”    ”</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">    ”         ”         2      ”      ”     175     ”    ”</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>Above two karats the prices are not much increased per karat, because -of their not being as much in demand. Stones of five karats and -upwards, being very slow to sell, at the present time can be bought at -$175 to $200 per karat, of the same qualities as the two-karat stones -quoted above. Very extra white perfect stones, when well cut, bring, -when sold singly or few at a time, from 20 to 25 per cent more than the -prices quoted. The lower grades of stones are generally sold in lots, -and the sizes do not make much difference in price. The larger they are -the less desirable, and oftentimes stones of from five to ten karats -are sold cheaper than stones of one to two karats; the price depending -upon the shade of color and skill in cutting. Lots of this description -can be bought for from $75 to $90 per karat. If the tinge is a little -more decided they will bring but $60 per karat. The yellow diamonds -even ranging as high as ten to twenty karats bring about $45 per karat. -Flawy stones bring from $15 to $35 per karat, according to their color, -size, and brilliancy. Fine rough<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</span> stones of assorted sizes, varying -from three to ten karats, bring from $30 to $45 per karat according to -their shape and perfection. Smaller sizes are reckoned in value from -$15 to $20 per karat. Cheaper grades and off-colored crystals are sold -as low as $8 to $12 per karat. The bort diamonds vary in value; those -coming from Africa bring but $1.50 per karat, while the same variety -found in Brazil bring $6. The carbon variety of the best sizes bring -about $20 per karat. Fifteen years ago the same mineral could be bought -for $2.50 per karat; while the Brazilian bort was quoted at $9.</p> - -<p>Of colored diamonds, those slightly tinged with various colors, -especially the yellow and brown, were valued in London and Amsterdam, -in 1872, as follows:—</p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr><td>Under 1 karat 30s. to £2 10s. per karat.</td></tr> -<tr><td>1 to 2        ”    40    ”   4 10      ”    ”</td></tr> -<tr><td>2 ”  3        ”    £3    ”   5 10      ”    ”</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The following account of Cape of Good Hope diamonds which were sold by -auction at Covent Garden, February, 1872, may interest the reader in -comparison with other sales at various periods of time:—</p> - -<p>One white rough diamond, 9¹⁄₂ karats, £60; one slightly off color, 7¹⁄₄ -karats, £37; a curious cabinet specimen of native diamond in matrix, -£14, one large rough gem, drop shape, 14¹⁄₂ karats, £42. Among the cut -diamonds the following were sold: a magnificent brilliant, 8 karats, -430 guineas; a fine yellow brilliant of great lustre, 7¹⁄₂ karats, -140 guineas; a brilliant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</span> of great spread and good water, about 7¹⁄₂ -karats, 140 guineas; a large, lustrous brilliant of fine color weighing -about 7 karats, 480 guineas; a court tiara of five graduated brilliant -stars, 185 guineas; a brilliant necklace of forty graduated collets, -£300.</p> - -<p>The following sale by auction, in London, of some of the Imperial -jewels belonging to the Empress Eugenie, may also interest the reader; -and we have therefore thought proper to insert the account. It took -place in July, 1872, at the rooms of Christie, Manson, & Co.:—</p> - -<p>Lots 16 and 17. A bracelet, with forget-me-nots formed of turquoises -and small diamonds, and another, with pearls and diamonds,—175 -guineas. (Attenborough.)</p> - -<p>22, 23. A heart-shaped locket, formed of bands of brilliants, and a -pair of gold solitaires, with large diamond centres,—215 guineas. -(Copeland.)</p> - -<p>24. A very small keyless watch, with E. in diamonds, with gold chain, -set with rubies and emeralds,—120 guineas. (Agnew.)</p> - -<p>26. A chased gold snuff-box, the top set with flowers in brilliants, -with the Pasha of Egypt’s cipher in brilliants on blue enamel,—165 -guineas. (B. Benjamin.)</p> - -<p>33. A brooch, with pendants, formed of five large turquoises and -brilliants,—105 guineas. (Streeter.)</p> - -<p>35. A brilliant brooch, with sprays set with brilliants,—120 guineas. -(Attenborough.)</p> - -<p>36. A pair of large pink pearl ear-rings in enamelled setting with -brilliants,—105 guineas. (Thompson.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</span></p> - -<p>37. A heart-shaped pendant, formed of a fine large turquoise surmounted -by brilliants,—250 guineas. (Martin.)</p> - -<p>38, 39. A large black pearl, with brilliant top, and a heart-shaped -brilliant locket,—300 guineas. (Woodgate.)</p> - -<p>40. A pair of shell-shaped brilliant ear-rings with pearl centres and -drops,—106 guineas. (B. Benjamin.)</p> - -<p>41. A brilliant brooch, formed as a corn-flower and group of -foliage,—348 guineas. (Phillips.)</p> - -<p>43-45. A ring with a large brilliant, a fine single stone brilliant -ring, and a ring with a large brilliant and two fine emeralds,—485 -guineas. (Woodgate.)</p> - -<p>46. A ring, with a splendid ruby and two brilliants,—300 guineas. -(Challens.)</p> - -<p>47, 48. Three very fine emeralds, set as a ring, and a pair of hairpins -formed as rosebuds, of pink pearls and brilliants,—275 guineas. -(Gibbons.)</p> - -<p>49. A marquise ring, with a pink diamond surrounded by brilliants, -formerly the property of the Empress Josephine,—400 guineas. (Martin.)</p> - -<p>50. A beautiful pendant, the centre a fine emerald, surrounded by bands -of brilliants, with emerald and pearl drop,—605 guineas. (Brown.)</p> - -<p>51, 52. A group of three wheat-ears tied with a ribbon formed of -fine brilliants, making a brooch or head ornament, and the companion -group,—975 guineas. (Lennox.)</p> - -<p>53, 54. A group of two wheat-ears, en suite, and the companion -group,—£810. (Martin.)</p> - -<p>55. A fine pendant, with a large square emerald,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</span> surrounded by -brilliants, with very large pearl drop,—620 guineas. (Ford.)</p> - -<p>56. A scroll-pattern brilliant brooch, for a miniature, with large -pearl drop,—470 guineas. (Challens.)</p> - -<p>57. A broad chain-band bracelet, with sapphire and two large -brilliants,—340 guineas. (Lomax.)</p> - -<p>58. Two fine emeralds and three large brilliants, mounted as a -bracelet,—810 guineas. (Hancock.)</p> - -<p>59. A beautiful cross, formed of eleven large brilliants,—900 guineas. -(Carter.)</p> - -<p>60. A ribbon tie brilliant brooch,—335 guineas. (Grindley.)</p> - -<p>61. A handsome pendant of brilliants and pearls, with a fine large -black pearl centre and drop,—420 guineas. (Martin.)</p> - -<p>62. Two fine large brilliants and an emerald mounted on a buckle set -with small brilliants,—430 guineas. (Harborough.)</p> - -<p>64. A splendid brooch, formed as a rosebud and leaves, composed -entirely of brilliants,—820 guineas. (Attenborough.)</p> - -<p>65. A magnificent bracelet, with sapphire centre, surrounded by rubies, -brilliants, and emeralds,—£650. (Rothschild.)</p> - -<p>67. A fine large pearl, mounted as a hairpin of chased gold, with chain -set with small diamonds,—188 guineas. (Chapman.)</p> - -<p>68. A splendid fly brooch, the body a very large opal, the head -and wings set with rubies, brilliants, emeralds, sapphires, and -opals,—£320. (Greenwood.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</span></p> - -<p>69. A beautiful watch, in blue enamel setting, surrounded by eleven -large brilliants, suspended from a hook, set with a cluster of -brilliants,—£1,660. (James.)</p> - -<p>70, 71. A fine polished emerald, surrounded by brilliants, and a -bracelet with splendid ruby centre and large brilliants,—975 guineas. -(Hancock.)</p> - -<p>72, 73. A brooch, formed as an anchor, composed entirely of brilliants, -and the companion brooch,—£2,150. (Eaton.)</p> - -<p>74. A tiara, formed of a band of brilliants, the centre a cluster of -fine brilliants and emeralds, surmounted by a large oval emerald, with -brilliant sprays and pearl drop,—780 guineas. (Challens.)</p> - -<p>75. A bracelet, the centre a very fine sapphire surrounded by large -brilliants, with trellis pattern open-work bands, studded with -brilliants,—£1,105. (Martin.)</p> - -<p>76, 77. A brilliant set as a brooch, with fine pearl drop, and a -brilliant brooch with colored stone centre and pearl drop,—730 -guineas. (Keane.)</p> - -<p>78. A brilliant tiara, formed as a group of leaves,—£970. (Carter.)</p> - -<p>79. A pearl necklace, composed of forty-one large pearls of the highest -quality, with cluster brilliant snap,—£2,400. (Marquis of Bristol.)</p> - -<p>80-84. A pair of polished emerald drops, four pairs of larger ditto, -and a single ditto,—750 guineas. (Masters.)</p> - -<p>85-89. Two pairs of emerald drops, with brilliant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</span> tops, three pairs of -larger ditto,—550 guineas. (Carter.)</p> - -<p>90-92. Three pairs of very large emerald drops,—£1,275. (Garrard.)</p> - -<p>93-103. A brooch, with a fine large emerald surrounded by brilliants, -nine larger ditto, and one with a square emerald,—5,000 guineas. -(Keane.)</p> - -<p>104-106. A brooch with emerald centre, surrounded by fine brilliants, -with emerald and brilliant drop, and two larger ditto,—£3,525. -(Graham.)</p> - -<p>107. A tiara, composed of ten fine large emeralds, surrounded by bands -of brilliants,—£2,625. (Keane.)</p> - -<p>108. A brilliant brooch, formed as a group of leaves, with six large -brilliant drops and pendants, set with smaller brilliants,—1,050 -guineas. (Keane.)</p> - -<p>109-111. Three brilliant pendants composed of very fine large stones, -with brilliant drops and pendants of false pearls,—2,600 guineas. -(Keane.)</p> - -<p>112. A bracelet, composed entirely of brilliants, the centre an oval -sapphire,—£2,250. (Carter.)</p> - -<p>113. A pair of long ear-rings composed of very large -brilliants,—£3,255. (Stevens.)</p> - -<p>114. A brilliant brooch, formed as a double pink,—£1,470. (Stevens.)</p> - -<p>The whole realized upwards of £50,000 ($250,000) gold.</p> - -<p>The quantity of diamonds now in circulation in fashion, and hoarded -by commerce, is enormous, and may be estimated by the ton. Yet the -requirements of society and the arts are so vast that the gem<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</span> -apparently seems to be a rare stone, while in reality it ranks low down -in the scale of rarity.</p> - -<p>Although we believe that there are immense diamond placers yet to be -discovered in Africa, Asia, and America, we do not think that the gem -will ever lose its high rank in the wants of fashion and ornamentation, -or that its price will ever again descend to the valuation of 1848 -except in transient times of far-extended commercial distress. The -misfortunes of any one country will not affect the established price to -any great extent, since the demand from other countries is so great as -to preserve a well-marked equilibrium.</p> - -<p>India, with its millions of people who prefer to invest their gains in -a gem to all other known property, will furnish an eager market for the -diamond for many ages to come. The history of the influx and absorption -of silver by that country furnishes an interesting parallelism.</p> - -<p>Most of the people of the earth entertain superstitious fancies, and -especially invest the gems with spiritual powers or special attributes. -Hence the innate love of ornament, combined with the desire of -possessing a rare treasure, will always give to the gems a prestige -and a commercial value above all other things. Puritanical morality -may rail against the gems as luxuries; but the nature of man must be -changed before these ideas can be universally adopted. The refinements -of civilization, as well as the follies of barbaric ages, call for -the ornamentation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</span> of jewels and gems. And modern economy may, with -Tiberius, complain in vain of that “rage for jewels and precious stones -which drains the empire of its wealth, and sends, in exchange for its -baubles, the money of the commonwealth to foreign nations.”</p> - -<p>A brilliant writer has lately stated that “Pictures, gems, china, -bronzes, <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bric-à-brac</i> of every sort, rare shawls, rare -engravings, and even rare fruits, flowers, and dogs are steadily -tending upwards in value, as if their price depended upon a want -and not a caprice. It is the most curious illustration of the -unchangeableness of the law which governs even caprices that we are -acquainted with; and tends to indicate that the desire for the rare, -which we all notice and smile at, in bibliopoles, antiquarians, -entomologists, and every variety of the genus collector, is not an -exceptionable eccentricity, but a permanent attribute of the human -mind, though only noticed in those who have wealth to indulge in some -unusual or splendid form. It is like the desire of accumulation, one -of the passions, and not one of the mere tastes of men; and may be -relied on in business, almost as certainly as self-interest, vanity, or -ambition.”</p> - -<p>The relative worth of the diamond has never been better described than -by the following lines from the pen of an able English author:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“It is in truth the very essence of property. It is riches condensed -and wealth secured; too small to be seen by the midnight burglar; too -easily hid to be seized by the tyrant; and too quickly carried away to -be wrested<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</span> from the patriot exile or torn from the hunted outlaw. In -vain would the vanquished monarch strive to remove his bags of gold, -or transport his territorial domains; but a diamond is an empire made -portable, with which he might purchase a better kingdom, and mount a -prouder throne. Had the treasure of Crœsus been invested in brilliants -he might have founded a nobler Lydia beyond the reach of his Persian -invader.”</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_EMERALD">THE EMERALD.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“The emerald burns intensely bright,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">With radiance of an olive light;</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">This is the faith that highest shines,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No need of charity declines,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And seeks no rest and shuns no strife,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In working out a holy life.”</span><br> -</p> - -<p class="center"> -<span class="smcap">Marbodeus.</span><br> -</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_EMERALD2">THE EMERALD.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Dutens and several others who have written upon gems and precious -stones during the last two centuries, have asserted that the ancients -were unacquainted with the true emerald, and that Heliodorus, when -speaking nearly two thousand years ago of “gems green as a meadow in -the spring,” or Pliny, when describing stone of a “soft green lustre,” -referred to the peridot, the plasma, the malachite, or the far rarer -gem, the green sapphire. But the antiquary has come to the rescue with -the treasures of the despoiled mounds of Tuscany, the exposed ashes of -Herculaneum and Pompeii, and now exhibits emeralds which were mounted -in gold two thousand years before Columbus dreamed of the New World, or -Pizarro and his remorseless band gathered the precious stones by the -hundred-weight from the spoils of Peru.</p> - -<p>Although these specimens of antique jewelry set with emeralds may be -numbered by the score or more in the museums and reliquaries of Europe, -but very few engraved emeralds have descended to us from ancient times. -This rarity is not due to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</span> hardness of the stone, for the ancient -lapidaries cut the difficult and still harder sapphire; therefore we -must believe the statement of the early gem-writers that the emerald -was exempted from the glyptic art by common consent on account of its -beauty and costliness.</p> - -<p>Stones possessing a green color have been used for ornamental purposes -from the very earliest periods of the social life of man. And as we -review the archæological history of the human race, it would seem as -though minerals of this hue had been especially selected among all -others for ornamental purposes.</p> - -<p>For instances of this primitive selection, we will refer to the green -stone hatchets found among the ancient tombs of Brittany; the axe heads -of jade in New Caledonia; the green serpentine implements of Africa; -the articles carved from green zoisite, revered among the Chinese from -time immemorial; as well as the green jade and amazon stones, which -the Mexicans wrought with wondrous skill into strange and grotesque -forms, and which they prized above even their magnificent and matchless -emeralds. It is also clearly evident that the emerald was discovered in -very ancient times, and that it was early adopted in ornamentation, and -was prized as among the most valuable of the gems, if not the highest -in estimation, for its color and fancied virtues.</p> - -<p>Pliny was undoubtedly familiar with the true<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</span> emerald, and expressed -his satisfaction in the following language:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“There is no color so pleasing to the eye as that of the emerald. -Whoever delights in the verdure of herb and leaf must enjoy infinitely -more the contemplation of emeralds; for no verdure can compare to -theirs. They are the only stones that charm the eye without wearying -it. It loses its lustre neither in sun nor in shade, nor in artificial -light. It shines continually with the same soft glow.”</p> -</div> - -<p>In the time of Alexander, the emblems of authority of the Persians -consisted of golden imitations of vines, loaded with clusters of -emeralds, carbuncles, and other gems. At the famous marriage feast -of Alexander and his eighty companions with their beautiful Persian -brides, emeralds appear to have been the favorite gem used, and to have -been esteemed above all other ornaments except the beautiful pearls of -the Persian Gulf.</p> - -<p>In ancient times this gem was not only prized as an ornament, but also -as a talisman, and even as a medicine in the powdered state. Its beauty -captivated the vain and frivolous, and its supposed virtues endeared -it to the rich and the wise. It was supposed to exercise a good effect -upon the eyesight; hence it was worn as a seal to be looked at; when -worn as an amulet it endowed the wearer with courage, drove away evil -spirits, assuaged terror, and prevented attacks of epilepsy.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</span></p> - -<p>Pliny states that Paulina, at the Banquet, was literally covered with -emeralds and pearls, arranged over her dress in alternate rows.</p> - -<p>The famous and fatal ring which Polycrates cast into the sea, as an -offering to the gods in return for forty years of prosperity, was set -with a beautiful emerald.</p> - -<p>The ancient Etruscans carved the emerald at a very remote period, and -the fact is proven by the scarabeus in the Townley collection.</p> - -<p>The Castellani collection exhibits ear-rings of gold set with pendants -of emeralds which were found in the tombs at Bolsena.</p> - -<p>In the Devonshire gems there is a large emerald cut into a Gorgon’s -head, in high relief,—evidently a gem of great antiquity and of -exceeding value at the time of its conversion into a work of art.</p> - -<p>Within the sarcophagus of Maria Honorii fifty rings set with different -stones were found, and among them an emerald set in gold and engraved -with a head supposed to be that of Honorius himself. It was probably -fashioned for a royal signet and buried with the remains of its owner.</p> - -<p>The famous mirror or lens, in or through which the cruel and -near-sighted Nero was wont to view the bloody combats in the arena at -Rome, is supposed to have been cut from an emerald; but it was probably -a lens cut from green glass.</p> - -<p>It appears, however, from the researches of the antiquaries, that the -gem was very rare until the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</span> Imperial epoch, when they were introduced -from Asia and other countries in accordance with the luxury and -extravagance of the age. Castellani’s collection displays some fine -examples of the jewelry of this period set with emeralds. Among them -there is a beautiful necklace formed of sixteen natural crystals of -emerald fastened in gold; and also another composed of ten natural -crystals of emerald set in double chains of gold. Among the engraved -gems may be seen an emerald intaglio, representing a Nereid on a sea -bull, and two other intaglios of beryl, with pictures of Mars, and a -portrait of Julia Paula.</p> - -<p>From the earliest times of history monarchs and potentates of all -ranks and races, from Solomon to Montezuma, were wont to wear signet -rings, which were sometimes engraved, and were then often used to -impart authority either by the exhibition of the ring itself, or its -impression upon papyrus, parchment, or wax. The most celebrated ring of -this description we have any authentic knowledge of, was that formed -of a large emerald set in gold and worn by Alexander the Great, whose -portrait was engraved upon the stone. The hero, when dying, bestowed it -upon his favorite general, Perdiccas, and thereby invested him with the -authority of succession. History refuses to make known the fate of this -splendid gem. It is probable that Ptolemy Soter obtained possession -of it when Perdiccas was slain in Egypt, and that eventually Augustus -Cæsar may have worn it for his first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</span> imperial seal, which was an -emerald engraved with the head of Alexander.</p> - -<p>After the death of Pompey in Egypt, his seal ring, which represented -a lion holding a sword in his paw, was taken to Rome and presented -to Cæsar, who burst into tears on receiving the signet of his former -associate and unfortunate rival.</p> - -<p>The practice of interring with the dead some of the jewels worn in -life, has been practised in recent times. When Cardinal Borromeo was -buried at Milan two hundred years ago or more, a large gold cross, -containing seven large and fine emeralds surrounded with diamonds, was -placed in his tomb. When Lord Palmerston was buried at Westminster -Abbey, the officiating clergyman threw into the grave several diamond -and gold rings as a peace offering. In ancient times the custom was -of frequent occurrence, and to this habit we owe the preservation of -many beautiful gems and jewels, which have in this manner escaped the -pillage and fury of thieves and iconoclasts.</p> - -<p>The mineral has borne the name of emerald since the middle of the -seventeenth century, at which time it was adopted by the mineralogist, -Wallerius. But whence it is derived, and on what particular grounds, we -are not informed. In Asia, in ancient times, it was described under the -Sanskrit name, “marakat,” which is connected with “esmark,” signifying -a sea monster, or “makara,” meaning the sea. As it passed westward, -among the Persians it became “zabargat,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</span> and still farther on its -journey it was changed by the Greeks and Latins into “smaragdus.” The -derivation of its ancient terms is also exemplified by the use or -purposes in which the gem and its varieties were used. It was therefore -frequently chosen by the antique gem cutters and engravers, as the -proper material for the representation of all maritime subjects or any -allusions to the sea gods.</p> - -<p>The emerald is now one of the rarest of gems; and its scarcity gives -rise to the inquiry as to what has become of the abundant shower of -emeralds which fairly rained upon Spain during the early days of the -conquest of Mexico and Peru, bringing down the value of fine stones to -a trifling price. As with all commercial articles, there is a waste and -loss to be accounted for during the wear of three centuries; but this -alone will not explain their present rarity in civilized countries. -Even in the times of Charles II., when the destitution of the country -was extreme, the Dukes of Infantado and Albuquerque had millions in -diamonds, rubies, and precious stones, yet hardly possessed a single -sou. So impoverished was the land, and so slender were the purses of -all, that the Duke of Albuquerque dined on an egg and a pigeon, yet it -required six weeks to make an inventory of his plate. At this period, -when the nobles gave fêtes the lamps were often decorated with emeralds -and the ceilings garlanded with precious stones. The women fairly -blazed with sparkling gems of fabulous value, while the country was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</span> -starving. Most, if not all, of this missing treasure was transferred -to Asia, and with the silver current which flowed steadily from the -Spanish coffers into India went many of the emeralds also; for in those -regions this gem is regarded as a foreign stone, and the natives, -investing it with the possession of certain talismanic properties, -prize it above all earthly treasures.</p> - -<p>When the Spaniards commenced their march toward the capital of Mexico, -they were astonished at the magnificence of the costumes of the -chiefs who came to meet them as envoys or join them as allies; and -among the splendid gems which adorned their persons they recognized -emeralds and turquoises of such rare perfection and beauty that their -cupidity was excited to the highest degree. During the after years of -conquest and occupation the avaricious spoilers sought in vain for -the parent ledge where these precious stones were found. Recent times -have, however, revealed the home of the Mexican turquoise, which has -proved to be in the northern part of Mexico, as the Totonacs informed -the inquiring Spaniards. The first of these mines, which is of great -antiquity, is situated in the Cerrillos Mountains, eighteen miles -from Santa Fé. The deposit occurs in soft trachyte, and an immense -cavity of several hundred feet in extent has been excavated by the -Indians while searching for this gem in past times. Probably some -of the fine turquoises worn by the Aztec nobles at the time of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</span> -Spanish Conquest came from this mine. Another mine is located in the -Sierra Blanca Mountains in New Mexico, but the Navajos will not allow -strangers to visit it. Stones of transcendent beauty have been taken -from it, and handed down in the tribe from generation to generation as -heirlooms. Nothing tempts the cupidity of the Indians to dispose of -these gems, and gratitude alone causes them to part with any of these -treasures, which, like the mountaineers of Thibet, they regard with -mystical reverence. The Navajos wear them as ear-drops, by boring them -and attaching them to the ear by means of a deer sinew. Lesser stones -are pierced, then strung on sinews, and worn as necklaces. Even the -nobler Ute Indians, when stripping the ornaments of turquoise from the -ears of the conquered Navajos, value them as sacred treasures, and -refuse to part with them even for gold or silver.</p> - -<p>All the Spanish accounts of the invasion of Mexico agree in the -great abundance of emeralds, both in the adornment of the chiefs and -nobles and also in the decoration of the gods, the thrones, and the -paraphernalia. The Mexican historian Ixtlilxochitl says the throne of -gold in the palace of Tezcuco was inlaid with turquoises and other -precious stones; that a human skull in front of it was crowned with an -immense emerald of a pyramidal form.</p> - -<p>The great standard of the republic of Tlascala was richly ornamented -with emeralds and silver-work. The fantastic helmets of the chiefs -glittered with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</span> gold and precious stones, and their plumes were set -with emeralds. The mantle of Montezuma was held together by a clasp of -the green chalchivitl (jade), and the same precious gem, with emeralds -of uncommon size, ornamented other parts of his dress.</p> - -<p>The Mexicans carved the obdurate jade and emerald with wonderful skill, -using, like the Peruvians, nothing but silicious powder and copper -instruments alloyed with tin. They also worked with exquisite taste -in gold and silver, and they represented Nature so faithfully and so -beautifully that the great naturalist Hernandez took many of these -objects thus portrayed for his models when describing the natural -history of the country.</p> - -<p>When Cortez returned home he displayed five emeralds of extraordinary -size and beauty, and presented them to his bride, the niece of the -Duke de Bejar. On his famous expedition along the Pacific coast and up -the Gulf of California he was reduced to such want as to be obliged to -pawn these jewels for a time. One of them was as precious as Shylock’s -turquoise, and Gomara states that some Genoese merchants who examined -it in Seville offered forty thousand golden ducats for it. One of the -emeralds was in the form of a rose; the second in that of a horn; the -third like a fish with eyes of gold; the fourth was like a little bell, -with a fine pearl for a tongue, and it bore on its rim the following -inscription in Spanish: “Blessed is he who created thee!” The fifth, -which was the most valuable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</span> of all, was in the form of a small cup -with a foot of gold, and with four little chains of the same metal -attached to a large pearl as a button: the edge of the cup was of -gold, on which was engraved in Latin words, “Inter natos mulierum non -surrexit major.” These splendid gems are now buried deep in the sand -on the coast of Barbary, where they were lost in 1529, when Cortez was -shipwrecked with the Admiral of Castile whilst on their way to assist -Charles V. at the siege of Algiers.</p> - -<p>Mariana, in his history of Spain, declares that Cortez had, besides -the five great historical emeralds, also two emerald vases which were -valued at 300,000 ducats. Whether these remarkable treasures were -swallowed up by the sea with the other five when the conqueror of -Mexico was shipwrecked, history does not relate.</p> - -<p>Among the presents sent to Charles V. of Spain by the first Spanish -commissioners, Puerto Carreso and Montijo, in 1519, and also by -Montezuma through his governor Teuthlili, were the following articles, -according to the description given by Peter Martyr, the learned -Italian, who enjoyed the friendship of Columbus and the confidence of -the Spanish Court. The Chronicles of Gomara also contain the same list: -a gold necklace composed of seven pieces with 183 small emeralds set -in it, and 232 gems similar to small rubies, from which hung 27 little -bells of gold and several fine pearls; another necklace composed of -four pieces of gold with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</span> 102 red gems like small rubies, 172 emeralds, -and 10 fine pearls, with 26 little bells of gold attached.</p> - -<p>The historians, Gomara and Martyr, mention among the prizes which fell -into the hands of Cortez, an immense emerald of a pyramidal form, -whose base was as large as the palm of the hand; and which may have -been the identical stone which crowned the skull which stood before -the throne in the palace of Tezcuco. At all events, an emerald of this -description Cortez sent as a present to the Emperor of Spain, together -with his letters of explanation, after the fall of the city of Mexico. -The letters and the various presents were intrusted to the care of -two of his confidential officers, Quinones and Avila. Arriving at the -Azores, Quinones lost his life in a brawl, and jeopardized the mission; -but Avila escaped and put to sea, to be captured shortly after by a -French privateer; and the rich spoils of the Aztecs were presented to -the King of France, instead of the Emperor of Spain. Francis I. gazed -with delight upon the splendors of the gem, and with a feeling of envy -exclaimed that he “would like to see the clause in Adam’s testament, -which entitled his brothers of Castile and Portugal to divide the New -World between them.” What has become of this historic stone?</p> - -<p>The quantity of emeralds obtained by the Spaniards in their pillage of -Mexico was large; but it was trifling when compared with that collected -by Pizarro and his remorseless followers in the sack of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</span> Peru. Many -large and magnificent stones were then obtained by the Spaniards; but -the transcendent gem of all, called by the Peruvians the Great Mother, -and nearly as large as an ostrich egg, was concealed by the natives, -and all the efforts of Pizarro and his successors to discover it proved -unavailing.</p> - -<p>Previous to the plunder of America by Cortez and his followers, -emeralds were not numerous in Europe; but early in the sixteenth -century they began to appear in Spain, and were soon afterwards -distributed among the powerful and wealthy throughout Europe. England -seems to have had at one time a large share of them, and perhaps many -of them were taken by her freebooters from the richly laden Spanish -galleons. In the days of Queen Elizabeth emeralds were exhibited in -profusion, if we can give credence to the chronicles and inventories of -that period.</p> - -<p>The parure of emeralds which the Queen of Navarre bequeathed in 1572, -to her daughter Catherine, must have been of wonderful beauty and -perfection.</p> - -<p>What is the stone lately given to Mustapha, the ex-premier of Tunis, -by the Bey, and described as the famous emerald once belonging to the -Spanish Crown? Was it one recovered from the shipwreck of Cortez, or -was it one of those given away by the Spanish rulers in the early days -of the conquest of Peru, when they imagined the emerald mines were as -broad and exhaustless as the silver beds of Potosi?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</span></p> - -<p>The finest emerald in Europe is said to belong to the Emperor of -Russia. It weighs but thirty karats; but it is of the most perfect -transparency, and of the most beautiful color. There are many other -fine emeralds among the imperial jewels of the Czar, some of which -are of great size and rare beauty. The ancient crown of Vladimir -glitters with four great stones of unusual brilliancy. The grand state -sceptre is surmounted by another emerald of great size. The sceptre -of Poland, which is now treasured in the Kremlin, has a long green -stone, fractured in the middle. It is not described, and may be one of -the Siberian tourmalines, some of which closely approach the emerald -in hue. The imperial orb of Russia, which is said to be of Byzantine -workmanship of the tenth century, has fifty emeralds. This fact alone -would seem to prove that emeralds were known in Europe or Asia Minor -long before the discovery of America; but, on the other hand, the -ancient crown which was taken when Kazan was subjugated in 1553, -is destitute of emeralds. And hence we are inclined to believe the -imperial orb to be of modern workmanship, especially as some of the -ancient state chairs do not exhibit emeralds among their decoration of -gems and precious stones.</p> - -<p>The immense uncut Peruvian emerald, given by Rudolph II. to the Elector -of Saxony, is still preserved in the Green Vaults at Dresden.</p> - -<p>Queen Elizabeth of England sent to Henry IV.,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</span> the champion of the -Reformed faith, a beautiful emerald, which she herself had worn. She -gave it as a token of esteem, and reminded the gay monarch that the gem -possessed the virtue of not breaking so long as faith remains entire -and firm.</p> - -<p>It has been stated that the Emperor Charlemagne regarded the gift -from the Empress Irene as the dearest of all his talismans. This -treasure consisted of a piece of the true cross, enclosed in a large -emerald, which was attached to a strong chain of golden links. When -his sepulchre was rifled of the treasures deposited with the deceased -monarch, this relic was removed with the rest of the jewels; and -in 1811 was presented to Napoleon by the Burghers of the city of -Aix-la-Chapelle. Bonaparte one day playfully threw it over the neck -of Queen Hortense, declaring that he had worn it on his breast in the -bloody battles of Austerlitz and Wagram, as Charlemagne had worn it on -the field of battle in the Middle Ages. Hortense wore it until the day -of her death.</p> - -<p>The emeralds of the French Crown at the time the famous inventory was -taken in 1781, do not appear to have been of very great purity. Several -of them exhibited fine color, but had many faults. Five of the best -were valued at that time at fifty thousand francs, or ten thousand -dollars, each.</p> - -<p>In the famous Hungarian crown, the large sapphire is surrounded with -four green stones of oblong form, whose species are unknown. It is -also a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</span> mystery how they came there, as they are not mentioned in the -inventory made of the jewel when Queen Elizabeth of Hungary pledged it -to the Emperor Frederick IV.</p> - -<p>The Sultan of Turkey is known to possess some exquisite emeralds; and -Rambusson, a French writer on gems, declares that they are the finest -in the world. One of them is said to weigh one hundred and twenty-five -ounces, and is probably another lump of antique glass. Another of three -hundred karats weight, and of less doubtful character, is a gem of -great purity and perfection of color. It adorns the handle of a poniard.</p> - -<p>In the museum at Florence there is a small vase carved in emerald, and -also another ornament of similar form, fashioned from a fine beryl. -The mineralogical collection at Munich boasts of some immense emeralds -which are supposed to have been obtained from Spain, and part of -her Peruvian booty. There are also some splendid specimens of uncut -emeralds in the cabinet of minerals at Vienna. The Saxon and the Papal -crowns contain very beautiful emeralds.</p> - -<p>Probably the most beautiful specimen of the natural emerald in the -world is that presented to the renowned shrine of Loretto in Italy, by -Don Pierre Daragon, when Spanish ambassador at Rome. He was formerly -viceroy in Peru and obtained the treasure at that time. The specimen -is a mass of white limestone, crowned with great crystals of emeralds<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</span> -more than an inch in diameter and of exquisite color and lustre.</p> - -<p>The name of Emerald Isle is generally supposed to have been derived -from the ever green appearance of its shores but an antiquary asserts -that it arose from the ring which was set with “Optimo Smaragdo,” and -which Pope Adrian sent to King Henry II. as the instrument of his -investiture with the dominion of Ireland.</p> - -<p>There is a very fine and large crystal of emerald in the museum at -Leiden, but its history is unknown.</p> - -<p>Dhuleep Singh of India possesses a flattened crystal of three inches in -length by two in width, and half an inch in depth, which is regarded as -of great value in India. It is said to be of very fine color and with -but few imperfections.</p> - -<p>The Duke of Devonshire’s crystal in its natural state is reckoned as -one of the finest, if not the finest single specimen in the world. It -is from Muzo in New Granada, and more than two inches in length. Its -form is that of a hexagonal crystal, and its weight is 8 oz. 18 dwts. -The color of the stone is beautiful, but several flaws impair the value -as a gem.</p> - -<p>During the visit of the Prince of Wales to India, many fine emeralds -were exhibited to the royal party by the Hindoo nobility. At the -grand reception given them at Madras, the Prince of Virianagram wore -a bracelet composed of three splendid emeralds of very great size. -At Kandy, in Ceylon, the Buddhist priests brought forth from their -sanctuary for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</span> inspection of the Prince, an immense emerald four -inches long by two inches in depth.</p> - -<p>A ring cut out of a single emerald, 1¹⁄₄ inches in diameter, with the -name of the Emperor Jehangir engraved upon it, was presented to the -East India Company.</p> - -<p>One of the most costly and difficult works in engraving upon the -emerald in modern times, was that executed by Carlo Costanzi during the -last century. Upon a table of emerald two inches in diameter, the head -of Pope Benedict and those of <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Peter and <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Paul were engraved. Two -years and a half were required by the lapidary for the execution of his -task. The engraved gem may now be seen in the treasury of <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Petronio -at Bologna.</p> - -<p>Some very fine emeralds are said to be preserved in the royal -collection at Madrid, one quite as large as the Devonshire emerald and -without many flaws.</p> - -<p>The Spanish freebooters, returning home from their American fights -laden with gems, did not forget the shrines of Spain in their peace -offerings. Marshal Lannes, in sacking the church of our Lady of the -Pillar, which was one of the richest in Spain, obtained an immense -booty. Madame Junot declares in her memoirs that it was not far below -five millions of francs in value.</p> - -<p>Harsh stories are also told of the acts of vandalism of Marshal Junot -while he was military governor of Spain. It is related that when -he visited the Cathedral of Toledo, the church dignitaries freely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</span> -exhibited to him the magnificent jewels and treasures which belonged -to the church and had been accumulating for many ages. The crown of -the Virgin, which was beautifully constructed of gold and adorned with -exquisite gems, was placed in his hands for close examination. The -summit of this admirable and holy piece of human art was surmounted by -a large emerald of almost transcendent beauty. The French freebooter -examined the beautiful jewel for a few moments, and then coolly -twisted off the emerald from its setting and placed it in his pocket, -exclaiming, with a Parisian grimace, “Ceci doit être à moi.”</p> - -<p>Finely formed crystals of emerald, when not too large, were in early -times mounted in gold and in jewelry without receiving any artificial -polish from the lapidary. Examples are often found in the tombs of -antiquity. The Princess Bariatinsky has a valuable necklace of ancient -emeralds fashioned in this manner.</p> - -<p>The Orientals, taking advantage of the facility with which the prisms -are broken at right angles to the axis, frequently used slices of the -crystals, sometimes artificially polished, but often with the natural -planes of cleavage preserved. This practice was quite common prior to -the fifteenth century. They also adopted the unfortunate custom of -engraving them with condensed quotations from the Koran, and often -drilled holes through the centre of the stones so as to string them as -necklaces or as ear ornaments.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</span></p> - -<p>One of the finest gems that adorned the gorgeous harness of Runjeet -Singh was a beautiful emerald maltreated in this manner. Major Pearse -found in a Punjaub tope a reliquary formed from an emerald three inches -long and two inches thick, with the ends rounded off. It was originally -a gem of fine color, but had been bored half through its axis to -contain two finger joints of some revered Buddhist saint or petted -monkey.</p> - -<p>The emerald has been a subject of controversy among the chemists and -mineralogists, and its character, especially the cause of its beautiful -color, is not clearly defined even at the present day. But that -distinguished chemist, Professor Lewy of Paris, seems to offer, thus -far, the most correct and plausible theory. More than ten years ago -he boldly asserted that the hue is not due to the oxide of chromium, -and with this opinion he confronted such eminent men as Vauquelin, -Klaproth, and others of high rank in the scientific world. Not -content with his researches in his laboratory in Paris, he resolutely -crossed the ocean and sought the emerald in its parent ledges in the -lofty table-lands of New Granada. Here he obtained new information -of a geological character which goes far to strengthen his position. -The experiments of M. Lewy indicate, if they do not prove, that the -coloring matter of the emerald is organic, and readily destroyed -by heat, which would not be the case if it was due to the oxide of -chromium. All my own fire-tests with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</span> Granada emerald corroborate -the views of M. Lewy, for in every instance the gem lost its hue when -submitted to a red heat.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, the recent researches of Wöhler and Rose give negative -results. These experienced chemists kept an emerald at the temperature -of melted copper for an hour, and found that, although the stone had -become opaque, the color was not affected. They therefore considered -the oxide of chromium to be the coloring agent, without, however, -denying the presence of organic matter. The amount of the oxide of -chromium found by many chemists varies from one to two per cent, while -Lewy and others found it in a quantity so small as to be inappreciable, -and too minute to be weighed.</p> - -<p>Before the ordinary blowpipe the emerald passes rapidly into a whitish -vesicular glass, and with borax it forms a fine green glass, while its -sub-species, the beryl, changes into a colorless bead; with salt of -phosphorus it slowly dissolves, leaving a silicious skeleton.</p> - -<p>M. Lewy visited the mines at Muzo in Granada, and from the results of -his analyses, together with the fact of finding emeralds in conjunction -with the presence of fossil shells in the limestone in which they -occur, he arrived at the conclusion that they have been formed in the -wet way,—deposited from a chemical solution. He also found that when -extracted they are so soft and fragile that the largest and finest -fragments can be reduced to powder by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</span> merely rubbing them between the -fingers, and the crystals often crack and fall to pieces after being -removed from the mine, apparently from loss of water. Consequently, -when the emeralds are first extracted they are laid aside carefully for -a few days until the water is evaporated.</p> - -<p>This statement relative to the softness of the gem and its subsequent -hardening has been met with a shout of derision from some of the -gem-seekers,—none louder than that of Barbot, the retired jeweller. -Barbot seems to forget that the rock of which his own house in Paris is -constructed undergoes the same change after being removed from the deep -quarries in the catacombs under the city.</p> - -<p>This phenomenon is observed with many rocks. Flints acquire additional -toughness by the evaporation of water contained in them. The yellow -gneiss of Ceylon is soft when quarried, but hardens on exposure to the -atmosphere. The Egyptian verde antique marble, which was named after -Augustus and Tiberias, was easily quarried with steel implements, but -quickly hardened on exposure to the external air. The mosaic plates -of this mineral which are inlaid in the decorative work of the Tuscan -Gothic buildings are yet quite hard. The steatite of Saint Anthony’s -Falls grows harder on exposure, and other minerals, when quarried -from considerable depths, become firmer on exposure to the action of -the air. Observations of this kind led Kuhlman to investigate the -cause; and he believes that the hardening<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</span> of rocks is not owing -solely to the evaporation of quarry-water, but that it depends upon -the tendency which all earthy matters possess to undergo a spontaneous -crystallization by slow desiccation, which commences the moment the -rock is exposed to the air.</p> - -<p>The coloring matter of the emerald seems to be derived from the -decomposition of the remains of animals who have lived in a bygone age, -and whose remains are now found fossilized in the rock which forms the -matrix of the gem. This rock in Granada is a black limestone, with -white veins containing ammonites. Specimens of these rocks, exhibiting -fragments of emeralds <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in situ</i> and also ammonites, are to be -seen in the mineralogical gallery of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. -Lewy believes that the beautiful tint of these gems is produced by an -organic substance, which he considers to be a carburet of hydrogen, -similar to that called chlorophyll, which constitutes the coloring -matter of the leaves of plants; and he has shown that the emeralds of -the darkest hue, which contain the greatest amount of organic matter, -lose their color completely at a low red heat, and become opaque and -white; while minerals and pastes which are well known to be colored by -chromium, like the green garnets (the lime-chrome garnets) of Siberia, -are unchanged in hue by the action of heat.</p> - -<p>At the present time the composition of the emerald is supposed to be -a silicate of alumina and glucina, with traces of organic matter and -also other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</span> earths and oxides; but silica, alumina, and glucina are the -principal component parts. It resembles quartz in some of its physical -properties, having a specific gravity of 2.6 to 2.7, and a refractive -energy of 1.58, but its degree of hardness is slightly greater, ranging -from 7.5 to 8.0, while that of quartz is but 7.0.</p> - -<p>The Peruvians maintain that the emerald ripens and deepens in color -after having been mined and exposed to the air and light. Whether -this assertion has been corroborated or not we cannot yet say; but it -is a well-substantiated fact that some minerals do gain in color and -hardness on exposure, and equally well proved that many others lose -their tints very perceptibly. Strange to say, the cystine calculi -undergo a similar change of color, and assume a fine greenish-blue tint -when exposed to the light, changing from a fawn color. The specimens -in Guy’s Museum described by <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Marcet in 1817 were of a pale -brown, but according to the report of Golding Bird they now resemble -the green sulphate of iron. <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Peter observed the same mysterious -change of color in the two cystine calculi preserved in the museum of -Transylvania University, and noted the fact that the change takes place -on the side exposed to the light.</p> - -<p>But one locality thus far has been discovered in the United States or -even in North America, and this occurs in North Carolina. For several -years previous to the year 1880, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> J. A. Stephenson, a collector of -minerals, had obtained in Alexander<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</span> County a number of beryls and -crystals of transparent minerals which had the shape of beryl with a -tint of the emerald hue, also other crystals of acicular form which -exhibited the true color of the finest Granada specimens of emeralds.</p> - -<p>Some of these minerals were shown in 1880 to William E. Hidden, a -young naturalist then engaged in searching the mineral belts of North -and South Carolina and Georgia for rare minerals. The beauty of these -specimens led the young enthusiast to make a thorough search for the -parent ledge; and, after a few weeks of earnest labor in cutting deep -ditches in the soil near the spot where a number of crystals had been -found, he was rewarded with the discovery of the original deposit in -a rock of gneiss. In this rock, in which felspar preponderates, he -found implanted in open pockets and lenticular fissures crystals of -emeralds, quartz, rutile, monazite, beryl, and also many crystals -of long and slender shapes which appeared to be diopside, but which -exhibited colors of white, yellow, and green of the most beautiful -emerald hues. The mineral which appeared to be diopside was submitted -to the examination of the distinguished chemist, J. Lawrence Smith, -who soon pronounced it to be a new form of spodumene, and named it -Hiddenite after the young explorer. Since then the explorations have -been continued, and have yielded many very beautiful specimens of -both the emerald and the hiddenite. At the depth of thirty-three feet -below the surface of the rock several<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</span> pockets were discovered which -yielded some beautiful emeralds and hiddenites. They occurred at the -bottom of the pockets, just as the finest crystals of tourmaline are -found in the cavities of the granite ledges at Mount Mica in Maine. -Twelve of these pockets were found within an area of forty feet square, -extending to thirty feet in depth. The largest crystal of emerald found -was more than three inches in length and three quarters of an inch in -breadth, but its color, although of the true emerald hue, is, however, -rather faint. Some of the smaller crystals are of much deeper tint, -and resemble the pure specimens from Granada. But the most interesting -treasures of the mineral kingdom revealed by this exploration were -the crystals which analysis proved to be composed of a silicate of -alumina and lithia, otherwise known as spodumene. Some of these -crystals were white or light yellow, others were of a rich yellow hue -shading into brown, while others exhibited the purest prismatic green -of various depths of hue. In some of the green crystals the color has -been uniform, while in others it is more intense at one end of their -extremities.</p> - -<p>Quite a number of the crystals and their fragments have been cut and -polished into gems which rival, by their lustre and beauty of color, -the best of the South American emeralds. On account of their extreme -rarity, as well as their beauty, they have been sought for by amateurs, -and have commanded high prices. As the field of deposit thus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</span> far known -is quite limited, we fear that the yield of this charming mineral will -not meet even the demands of science.</p> - -<p>Professor Cleaveland, who was one of the best authorities of his day, -maintained more than half a century ago that emeralds which exhibited a -lively and beautiful green hue were found in blasting a canal through -a ledge of graphic granite in the town of Topsham in Maine. Several -of the crystals presented so pure, uniform, and rich a green, that he -ventured to pronounce them precious emeralds. But to-day we are unable -to verify the assertion, or point to a single specimen similar in hue -to the emerald from the above-mentioned locality.</p> - -<p>The nearest approach to the emerald in color, with the exception -of the incomparable green tourmalines from Maine, and the emeralds -and hiddenites of North Carolina, are the beryls of North and South -Royalston, in the State of Massachusetts. These beautiful stones -exhibit the physical characteristics of emeralds, with the exception -of the color, in which they differ very perceptibly. But to appreciate -fully the difference in hue we must compare the two gems. Then the -lively green of the beryl fades away before the overpowering hue of the -emerald, whose rich prismatic green may be taken as the purest type of -that color known to the chemist or the painter.</p> - -<p>Several years ago we visited the localities in Massachusetts which were -famous in the days of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</span> Hitchcock and Webster. We found that the beryls -occurred in a very coarse granite, where the quartz appeared in masses -and the felspar in huge crystals. These also occur in finer granite, -and exhibit no indications of veins or connection with each other. -They are few in number, and are soon exhausted by blasting, being -generally very superficial. After removing several tons of the rock at -the locality at North Royalston, where the beryls appear on the summit -of the loftiest hill, our labors were at length rewarded with two -beautiful crystals. One of them was a fine prism an inch in diameter, -of perfect transparency and of a deep sea-green color, which, however, -is far from being similar to the transcendent hue of the Granada -emeralds, which exhibit an excess of neither blue nor yellow. The other -was yellowish-green, resembling the chrysoberyls of Brazil.</p> - -<p>Other but imperfect crystals were brought to light, some fragments -of which exhibited the deepest golden tints of the topaz, and others -the tints of the sherry-wine colored topazes of Siberia. Magnificent -crystals have been found in these localities in times long past, and -from the fragments and sections of crystals found in the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> -of early explorations, we observed the wide range of color, and the -deep longitudinal striæ which characterize the renowned beryls from the -Altai Mountains, in Siberia. Lively sea and grass green, light and deep -yellow, also blue crystals of various shades, have been found here.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</span></p> - -<p>At the quarries on Rollestone Mountain in Fitchburg, beryls of a -rich golden color have been blasted out. Some of these approach the -chrysoberyl and topaz in hardness and hue. Others so closely resemble -the yellow diamond that they may readily be taken for that superior -gem. The refractive power of these yellow stones is remarkable; and the -goniometer will probably reveal a higher index than is accorded to all -the varieties of beryl by the learned Abbé Haüy.</p> - -<p>Beautiful transparent beryls have been found among the granite hills of -Oxford County in Maine; and the late Governor Lincoln, nearly half a -century ago, possessed a splendid crystal, quite three inches in length -and of great purity and brilliancy. Some very beautiful transparent -blue crystals of beryl have recently been found in the western part of -Oxford County, Maine, which have yielded gems of considerable value. -Probably active search for this mineral in this region will bring to -light some charming specimens.</p> - -<p>New Hampshire is famous for its gigantic beryls; and the localities -of Acworth and Grafton have yielded some enormous crystals. One was -removed by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Alger, of more than a ton in weight; and a still larger -one was observed by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hubbard, who estimated its weight at two -and one half tons. These gross specimens are generally opaque, with -patches of translucent or even transparent mineral on their sides. -The regularity of their crystalline forms is also much impaired or -distorted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</span></p> - -<p>At Haddam, in Connecticut, beautiful crystals of beryl have been -discovered; and one of these of fine green color, an inch in diameter -and several inches in length, was preserved in the cabinet of Colonel -Gibbs. Professor Silliman possessed another fine one, seven inches in -length.</p> - -<p>The mountains in Colorado have yielded some fine specimens. But the -finest of the beryl species come from Russia. In the Ural Mountains -the crystals are small, but of fine color; in the Altai Mountains they -are very large and of a greenish-blue; but in the granitic ledges of -Odon Tchelon in Daouria, on the frontier of China, they are found in -the greatest perfection. They occur on the summit of the mountain -in irregular veins of micaceous and white indurated clay, and are -greenish-yellow, pure pale-green, greenish-blue, and sky-blue. The -chief matrix of the beryl all over the world is graphic granite, but it -may occur in other rocks. The light green stones of Limoges, in France, -appear in a vein of quartz traversing granite. At Royalston we observed -them to spring seemingly from the felspar and project into smoky -quartz, becoming more transparent as they advanced into the harder -stone.</p> - -<p>The beryl possesses the same crystalline form and specific gravity -as the emerald, but its hardness, especially in the blue and white -varieties, is sometimes greater. They are both silicates of alumina, -and the only perceptible difference in the two stones<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</span> is in the -color. Cleaveland thought that as the emerald and beryl had the same -essential characters, they might gradually pass into each other; and -Klaproth, finding the oxides of both chrome and iron in one specimen, -was led to take the same view. The crystals of true emerald are almost -always small, with the exception of those found in the Wald district -in Siberia, whilst those of the beryl vary from a few grains to more -than a ton in weight. The crystals of both are almost invariably -regular hexahedral prisms, sometimes slightly modified. Those of the -beryl we sometimes find quite flat, as though they had been compressed -by force; then again they are acicular and of extraordinary length, -considering their slender diameter. Sometimes their lateral faces are -longitudinally striated, and as deeply as the tourmaline, so that the -edges of the prism are rendered indistinct. Other crystals are curved, -and some perforated in the axis like the tourmaline, so as to contain -other minerals. Sometimes they are articulated like the pillars of -basalt, and separated at some distance by the intervening quartz. These -modified forms give rise to curious speculations as to their formation -and origin. If we admit the action of fire (which is improbable), then -the separation may be easily explained; but if we insist that they were -deposited in the wet way and by slow process, how can we account for -the dislocation? “By electricity,” whispers a friend,—“by telluric -magnetism, that wonderful unexplained and mysterious force which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</span> has -caused the grand geological changes of the globe, and is still at work.”</p> - -<p>Sometimes the crystals of beryl are of two distinct colors, but -generally they are of one color, often shading into white at either -extremity. They may exhibit the richest golden-yellow, or a light -cerulean blue, or a clear sea-green like those described by Pliny, now -called aqua-marines. “Qui viridatem puri maris imitantur.”</p> - -<p>One distinction between beryl and quartz is afforded by the appearance -of its fracture. A crystal of beryl breaks into smooth planes, the -faces of which are at right angles to the axis of the prism; while the -fracture of the surface of broken quartz is invariably conchoidal.</p> - -<p>Blue beryls were highly prized by the ancients. Beautiful specimens -are found in the glens of the Mourne Mountains in Ireland. But finer -gems are brought from the granite district of Nertschinsk, in Siberia, -and also from various localities in the Uralian and Altaian Mountains, -where the Romans were supposed to have obtained them in early times.</p> - -<p>Its name is derived from the Persian “belur,” which the Romans changed -into “beryllus.” Sometimes it occurs of a rose color. A few have -been found at Elba and one at Haddam by Colonel Gibbs. One of the -most beautiful specimens of beryl known was discovered in Siberia. -It consisted of a magnificent crystal of smoky quartz, in the base -of which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</span> appeared several fine crystals of beryl, of an exquisite -yellowish-green and greenish-blue.</p> - -<p>In the princely collection of <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Vaux, of Philadelphia, may be seen a -crystal of beryl from the Mourne Mountains of Ireland, two inches in -length by five eighths of an inch in diameter. It is of a celestial -blue color, much deeper in hue at one extremity than at the other. But -the gem of this collection among the beryls is a specimen purchased -in Russia, in 1875. It is a six-sided prism nine inches in length and -six inches in circumference. The color is of a rich oily green, and -several inches of its upper extremity is transparent, while the rest -is translucent. It rests upon a mass of granite, and is a specimen of -extraordinary size and beauty.</p> - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Clay of the same city has a remarkable prism of Siberian beryl two -inches in diameter, which exhibits a tint of celestial blue externally -but which appears of a decided green hue in its interior.</p> - -<p>At the Centennial Exhibition Brazil exhibited a fine crystal of a warm -celadine green color. Russia displayed some very beautiful specimens of -the yellow, green, and blue beryls from Siberia. Some very beautiful -crystals of emerald, both solitary and fixed in the matrix, were also -exhibited from the same country.</p> - -<p>Several of the mineralogical cabinets of Europe possess fine suites -of the emerald and beryl in a great variety of forms and degrees of -perfection. Those of the École des Mines at <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Petersburg, the Jardin -des Plantes at Paris, and the British Museum,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</span> are of very great -commercial value and mineralogical interest.</p> - -<p>At the French Exposition in 1867, the celebrated jeweller, Froment -Meurice, exhibited a beautiful specimen of modern glyptic art cut in -beryl. It comprised the bust of the Emperor Napoleon III. carved in -pure aqua-marine. The image was placed upon a miniature pedestal of -blood-red jasper, before which the imperial eagle spread his wings and -perched upon a base of red jasper, which was studded with stars of -topazes, bosses of pearls, and bordered with roses formed of minute -amethysts.</p> - -<p>A beautiful blue stone adorns the summit of the crown of England, and -has been described as a sapphire of unusual purity. But mineralogists -affirm, that the gem is a blue beryl, and it is surmised by others that -it is the identical and famous stone which Edward the Confessor wore -in a ring. It is of a lovely color, oval in form, and measures 2¹⁄₁₀ -inches in length by 1¹⁄₂ in width, and 1¹⁄₅ in depth.</p> - -<p>A superb aqua-marine formerly adorned the tiara of Pope Julius II. -and was considered as one of the most celebrated in the world, -notwithstanding it exhibited a slight flaw. This gem, which was of -an exquisite sea-green color, was 2¹⁄₁₀ inches in length and 2²⁄₅ in -depth. After having been kept in the Museum of Natural History in Paris -for more than three hundred years, Napoleon presented it to Pope Pius -VII.</p> - -<p>The Asiatics, and especially the Turkish officers, prize the prisms of -beryl as handles to their scimetars<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</span> and daggers. This fondness for -decoration of sword-blades and arms is by no means confined to the -soldiers of the East. The officers of Napoleon’s armies exhibited the -same taste. Murat adorned the hilt of his sword with one of the finest -beryls ever seen in Europe. Another famous aqua-marine formed the -handle of the sword of the poet Moncrif, who, like another celebrated -swordsman, the painter Caravaggio, compelled admiration of his works at -the point of his sword. This blood-stained gem bore as inscription the -epitomized history of the author, a quotation from the poet Theophile, -“Tous mes jours sont des Mardis-gras.”</p> - -<p>One of the most beautiful beryls known is that purchased by the English -banker, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hope, and placed in his collection of gems. It weighs six -and one half ounces, and cost its princely owner nearly twenty-five -hundred dollars. It is reported to have come from the mine of Cangazum, -in the district of Coimbatoor in India, a locality which has been long -famous for its fine beryls.</p> - -<p>The most magnificent aqua-marine described in history is that belonging -to Dom Pedro. It was found in the diamond districts of Minas Geraes, -in Brazil. In form and size it resembles the head of a calf. Only on -one side does it preserve any trace of a crystalline form; the rest -is water-worn. It is said to be of a fine color, without a flaw, and -perfectly transparent.</p> - -<p>For many ages the shrine of the Abbey of <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr><span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</span> Denys, at Paris, received -rare and valuable gems as offerings; and at the time of the French -Revolution the collection had become very valuable. The iconoclasts -ordered it to be separated and sold. It brought 80,000 francs, and -was scattered along the commercial highways of the world, never again -to be reunited. One of the finest aqua-marines, mounted in sapphires -and pearls, and engraved with the portrait of Julia, the daughter of -Titus, was fortunately rescued, and may now be seen in the collection -of the National Library of France. This splendid gem is of the unusual -magnitude of 2¹⁄₂ inches by 2¹⁄₈. For quite a thousand years it formed -a part of a golden reliquary celebrated as “l’escrain de Charlemagne.” -History relates that it was presented by the great Emperor before his -death to the Abbey of <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Denys. This is one of the finest specimens of -an ancient intaglio carved upon beryl that has survived the destructive -pillage of armies and the wreck of time since the early days of the -Roman Empire. It is said that specimens of antique engraving upon this -gem are about as rare as those carved upon the emerald, and their -rarity is believed to be due to their great value, as well as to their -scarcity in the gem markets in ancient times.</p> - -<p>Several royal relics of the lower Empire containing emeralds are still -preserved, to attest the use of the gem in those days as well as the -esteem in which it was held. The famous Iron Crown of Lombardy, made -perhaps before the sixth century,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</span> contains several emeralds. This -renowned relic is simply a circlet of gold, covering an iron nail -of the cross, beaten out thin. The crown of the queen of one of the -Gothic kings of Spain, of the seventh century, was recently exhumed -at Toledo, and also exhibits emeralds among other gems. And there are -other examples to prove the use of the emerald in mediæval times for -ornamental purposes.</p> - -<p>No other gem has been counterfeited with such perfection as the -emerald; and in fact it is utterly impossible to distinguish the -artificial from the real gems by the aid of the eye alone; even the -little flaws, which lull the suspicions of the inexperienced, are -easily produced by a dexterous blow from the mallet of the skilled -artisan. Not only emeralds, but most of the gems and precious stones, -are now imitated with such consummate skill as to deceive the eye; and -none but experts are aware of the extent to which these fictitious gems -are worn in fashionable society, for oftentimes the wearers themselves -imagine that they possess the real stones. There is not one in a -hundred jewellers who is acquainted with the physical properties of the -gems; and very few can distinguish the diamond from the white zircon or -the white topaz, the emerald from the tourmaline of similar hue, the -sapphire from iolite, or the topaz from the Bohemian yellow quartz. -Jewellers are governed generally by sight, which they believe to be -infallible, whilst hardness and specific gravity are the only sure -tests.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</span></p> - -<p>Artificial gems, rivalling in beauty of color the most brilliant and -delicately tinted of the productions of Nature, are now made at Paris -and in other European cities. The establishments at Septmoncel in the -Jura alone employed a thousand persons, and fabulous quantities of the -glittering pastes were made there and sent to all parts of the world.</p> - -<p>A fine specimen of prase, when cut, affords a fair imitation of -the emerald. The green fluor-spar which Haüy called “emeraude de -Carthagène” may also be substituted, but the application of the file -detects the trick with ease. Some of the green tourmalines approach the -emeralds in hue very closely, and by artificial light it is impossible -to distinguish them from each other. Fragments of quartz may be stained -by being steeped in green-colored tinctures. The Greeks stained quartz -so like the real gem, that Pliny exclaimed against the fraud, while -declining to tell how it was done. The Ancona rubies at the present day -are made by plunging quartz into a hot tincture of cochineal, which -penetrates the minute fissures of the rock.</p> - -<p>But notwithstanding the high art reached by modern glass-makers, they -are yet far behind the ancients in imitating the emerald in point of -hardness and lustre. Many emerald pastes of Roman times still extant -are with difficulty distinguished from the real gem, so much harder and -more lustrous are they than modern glass. The ancient Phœnician remains -found in the island of Sardinia by Cavalier<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</span> Cara, in 1856, show fine -color in their enamels and glass-works. The green pigment brought home -from the ruins of Thebes by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Wilkinson, was shown by <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Ure to -consist of blue glass in powder, with yellow ochre and colorless glass. -From Greek inscriptions dating from the period of the Peloponnesian -war, we learn that there were signets of colored glass among the gems -in the treasury of the Parthenon.</p> - -<p>Of all the emerald imitations that have descended to us from antiquity, -none are more remarkable, none more interesting to the antiquary and -historian, than the famous Sacro Catino of the cathedral of Genoa. This -celebrated relic is a glass dish, or patera, fourteen inches in width, -five inches in depth, and of the richest transparent green color, -though disfigured by several flaws. It was bestowed upon the Republic -of Genoa by the Crusaders, after the capture of Cæsarea in 1101, and -was regarded as an equivalent for a large sum of money due from the -Christian army. It was traditionally believed to have been presented -to King Solomon by the Queen of Sheba, and afterward preserved in the -Temple; and some accounts relate that it was used by Christ at the -institution of the Lord’s supper. The Genoese received it with so -much veneration and faith, that twelve nobles were appointed to guard -it, and it was exhibited but once a year, when a priest held it up in -his hand to the view of the passing throng. The State, in 1319, in a -time of pressing need, pawned the holy relic for 1,200 marks of gold<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</span> -($200,000), and redeemed it with a promptness which proved its belief -in the reality of the material, as well as in its sanctity. And it -is also related that the Jews, during a period of fifty years, lent -the Republic 4,000,000 francs, holding the sacred relic as a pledge -of security. Seven hundred years passed away, when Napoleon came; and -as he swept down over Italy, gathering her art treasures, he ordered -the “Holy Grail” to be conveyed to Paris. It was deposited in the -Cabinet of Antiquities in the Imperial Library, and the mineralogists -quickly discovered it to be glass. It is due to the memory of Condamine -to state that he was the first to doubt the material of the Sacro -Catino; for, when examining it by lamplight in 1757, in the presence -of the Princes Corsini, he observed none of the cracks, clouds, and -specks common to emeralds, but detected little bubbles of air. In -1815, the Allies ordered its return to the cathedral of Genoa. During -this journey the beautiful relic was broken; but its fragments were -restored by a skilful artisan, and it is now supported upon a tripod, -the fragments being held together by a band of gold filigree. This -remarkable object of antiquity, which is of extraordinary beauty of -material and workmanship, furnishes a theme over which the antiquaries -love to muse and wrangle.</p> - -<p>Another of the antique monster emeralds, weighing twenty-nine -pounds, was presented to the abbey of Reichenau, near Constance, by -Charlemagne.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</span> Beckman has also detected this precious relic to be -glass. And probably the great emerald of two pounds weight brought home -from the Holy Land by one of the dukes of Austria, and now deposited in -the collection at Vienna, is of the same material. Another, more than -eight inches long, was preserved in the chapel of <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Wenceslaus at -Prague. The hardness of our glass is yet far inferior to that of the -ancients; and even the ruby lustre of the potters of Umbria, which was -so precious to the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dilettanti</i> of the Cinque Cento period, has -not been recovered.</p> - -<p>The enormous emerald dishes and statues and obelisks described -by Herodotus, Theophrastus, Appian, and others were undoubtedly -constructed of glass, and exhibited to the ignorant multitudes as -formed of monster emeralds.</p> - -<p>One of the most curious of these impositions was the sculptured lion -on the tomb of Hermias on the island of Cyprus, which had emerald eyes -which shone so brightly as to frighten away the fish in the sea near by.</p> - -<p>The wonderful “Table of Solomon” which formed a part of Alaric’s Roman -spoils, and was taken by his Goths to Spain, where it was captured by -the Arab invaders and afterwards sent to Damascus, was probably another -specimen of the ingenuity of the glass-workers of Alexandria or Tyre. -It is described by one of the Arabian historians as of a marvellous -beauty, being formed of a single slab of solid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</span> emerald, encircled with -rows of pearls, and supported on many feet composed of gems and gold.</p> - -<p>The famous Barberini vase, found in one of the tombs of the Roman -emperors, and exhibiting white figures upon a dark-blue ground, was -long thought to be carved from some variety of sardonyx, but proved -in modern times to be of hard antique glass. Of similar material -the unique ewer in the Brescian Museum and the vases in the Palace -Borbonico are composed, and all of these are of great antiquity. The -sapphire cup of Theolinda, the once celebrated Queen of Lombardy, now -preserved in the Cathedral at Monza, is glass.</p> - -<p>There are but very few stones whose colors resemble that of the -emerald, and therefore frauds are easily detected. A well-selected -specimen of prase may be passed as an inferior emerald, as well as -the translucent stones cut from the Chinese jade; but their want of -transparency offers a serious objection to them as a gem. The green -tourmaline, when it approaches the emerald in hue, is of equal value. -The green zircon and the green spinel would be far superior to the -emerald in brilliancy, and therefore of greater value to the amateur. -The chrome-green garnet of Hungary and the emerald-green garnet of -Siberia would command a high price, if of pure color, as they surpass -the glucina emerald in eclat and are moreover exceedingly rare. The -peridot may assume the exact hue of the Granada emerald. The glass -imitations are almost <i>fac-similes</i> in hue, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</span> are far superior -in brilliancy to the mineral itself; but their softness, which readily -yields to the file, betrays their nature without difficulty.</p> - -<p>Since the time of the Spanish Conquest, New Granada has furnished the -world with the most of its emeralds. The most famous mines are at -Muzo, in the valley of Tunca, between the mountains of New Granada -and Popayan, about seventy-five miles from Santa Fé de Bogota, where -every rock, it is said, contains an emerald. At present the supply of -emeralds is very limited, owing to restrictions on trade, and want of -capital and energy in mining operations.</p> - -<p>Blue as well as green emeralds are found in the Cordillera of the -Cubillan. The Esmeraldas mines in Equador are said to have been worked -successfully at one period by the Jesuits. The Peruvians obtained many -emeralds from the barren district of Atacama, and in the times of the -Conquest there were quarries on the River of Emeralds near Barbacoas. -Emeralds of a poor quality are found at Limoges in France, and also in -Norway. In some of the felspar quarries in Finland they occur in large -thick crystals, several feet in thickness, of a fine color, but not -transparent.</p> - -<p>Emeralds are found in Siberia, and some of the localities may have -furnished to the ancients the Scythian gems which Pliny and others -mention. In the Wald district magnificent crystals have been found -embedded in mica-slate. One of these—a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</span> twin-crystal, now in the -imperial cabinet at <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Petersburg—is seven inches long, four inches -broad, and weighs four and a half pounds. There is another mass in the -same collection which measures fourteen inches long by twelve broad -and five thick, weighing sixteen and three-quarter pounds troy. This -group shows twenty crystals from a half inch to five inches long, and -from one to two inches broad. They were discovered by a peasant cutting -wood near the summit of the mountain. His eye was attracted by the -lustrous sparkling amongst the decomposed mica where the ground had -been exposed by the uprooting of a tree by the violence of the wind. He -collected a number of the crystals, and brought them to Katharineburg -and showed them to M. Kokawin, who recognized them and sent them to -<abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Petersburg, where they were critically examined by Van Worth and -pronounced to be emeralds. One of these crystals was presented by the -Emperor to Humboldt when he visited <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Petersburg, and it is now -deposited in the Berlin collection. Quite a number of emeralds are -now brought from the Siberian localities, and it is believed that -enterprise and capital would produce a large supply of the gem.</p> - -<p>Near Salsberg, in the Tyrol, the emerald occurs in a mica-slate which -appears on the face of a very steep precipice difficult of access, -and about 8,700 feet above the sea-level. They are of good color, but -much impaired in their transparency by foreign<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</span> matter and imperfect -crystallization. Some of the finest stones yielded by this locality -were exhibited as cabinet specimens by the Emperor of Russia at the -Paris Exposition.</p> - -<p>The supply of emeralds from South America is very limited, and -may be ascribed to want of skilful mining, as well as to climate, -the political condition of the country, and the indolence of its -inhabitants. The localities cannot be exhausted, for they are too -numerous and extensive. The elevated regions in Granada admit of -scientific exploration by Europeans, and at the present day the -only emerald-mining operations conducted in South America have been -prosecuted near Santa Fé de Bogota by a French company, which has paid -the Government $14,000 yearly for the right of mining, all the emeralds -obtained being sent to Paris to be cut by the lapidaries of that city. -In the Atacama districts, and along the banks of the River of Emeralds, -the physical obstructions are difficult to overcome; and pestilential -diseases of malignant character forbid the long sojourn of the -European. Yet the introduction of Chinese labor may prove successful -and highly remunerative, since the coolie reared among the jungles and -rice-swamps of Southern China is quite as exempt from malarial fevers -as the negro.</p> - -<p>Hassaurek was surprised not to find emeralds for sale at Guayaquil, -as they had been found in abundance in Equador at the time of the -Conquest. The Alcalde of the region around the River Bechile gave<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</span> -Stephenson, the traveller, three emeralds which were found in the sands -at the mouth of the river.</p> - -<p>Concerning the emerald mines whence the ancients drew their supplies -of gems, there remains but little positive information. They were -undoubtedly established in Arabia, Africa, and Scythia, but all record -of them is lost. As regards the Egyptian mines, modern travellers have -proved their existence. At the ancient mines at Gebel Zabara, which -were worked in the time of the Ptolemies, M. Callaud found the tools of -the miners as they had left them, and also many inferior emeralds among -the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> of the pits. Mehemet Ali attempted to reopen them, -but was unsuccessful, as the matrix of the gem proved to be exhausted. -This discovery establishes the truth of Pliny’s remark concerning some -of the localities of the emerald. They are the same gems whose beauty -was praised by the Persian poets. We have no evidence of ancient mines -of emeralds in Asia; and Tavernier, who sought in vain to discover -them, ventured to state that he believed that some of the emeralds -he saw in India must have come from Peru, by way of the Philippine -Islands, long before the Conquest by the Spaniards.</p> - -<p>Other mines undoubtedly were worked in Africa; and we know that in the -time of Justinian, the Abyssinians searched the coast, even as far as -the equator. The African emeralds were not of the first quality; and at -a later period of Roman history the Scythian emeralds were reckoned as -the first in value<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</span> and beauty, the Bactrian second, while the African -were classed as third. About the fourth century the throne of the White -Huns was famous for the splendid Scythian emeralds which adorned it.</p> - -<p>The price of the emerald has no fixed and extended scale, like that -of the diamond, and the fluctuations of its value during the past -three centuries form an interesting chapter in the history of gems. -In the time of Dutens (1777) the price of small stones of the first -quality was one louis the karat; one and a half karats, five louis; -two karats, ten louis; and beyond this weight no rule of value could -be established. In De Boot’s day (1600) emeralds were so plenty as -to be worth only a quarter as much as the diamond. The markets were -glutted with the frequent importations from Peru, and thirteen years -before the above-mentioned period one vessel brought from South America -two hundred and three pounds of fine emeralds, worth at the present -valuation more than seven millions of dollars. At the beginning -of this century, according to Caire, they were worth no more than -twenty-four francs (or about five dollars) the karat, and for a long -time antecedent to 1850, they were valued at only $15 the karat. -Since this period they have become very rare, and their valuation has -advanced enormously. In fact, the value of the emerald now exceeds that -of the diamond, and is rapidly approaching the ratio fixed by Benvenuto -Cellini in the middle of the sixteenth century, which rated the emerald -at four times, and the ruby at eight<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</span> times, the value of the diamond. -Fine stones (the emerald is exceedingly liable to flaw, the beryl is -more free, and the green sapphire is rarely impaired by fissures or -cracks) of one karat in weight are worth at the present day $200 or -more. Fine gems of two karats weight will command $500; while larger -stones are sold at extravagant prices.</p> - -<p>Most of our aqua-marines come from Brazil and Siberia, and small stones -are sold at trifling prices. Some of them, however, when perfect and -of fine color, command fabulous sums. The superb little beryl found at -Mouzzinskaia is valued by the Russians at the enormous sum of $120,000, -although the crystal weighs but little more than one ounce. Another -rough prism preserved in the Museum at Paris, and weighing less than -one hundred grains, has received the tempting offer of 15,000 francs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_OPAL">THE OPAL.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“What radiant changes strike the astonished sight!</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">What glowing hues of mingled shade and light!”</span><br> -</p> - -<p class="center"> -<span class="smcap">Falconer.</span><br> -</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_OPAL2">THE OPAL.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>What is the composition of this wonderful stone, which displays such -wondrous hues? What is the nature of this remarkable mineral, which -seems to concentrate within its substance all the glories of the -rainbow, and which rivals in its hue the finest gem of the mineral -world? The Turk believes that it falls from heaven in the lightning’s -flash, and it is often regretted by the mineralogist that the theory -cannot be sustained. Surely a gem so beautiful, so delicate and so -pure ought to be of celestial origin, and free from the impurities and -imperfections of the earth. Alas, we have but one precious stone that -comes to us from the far-off region of celestial space,—olivine,—and -that as yet has been found only in minute grains.</p> - -<p>But if we cannot ascribe the origin of our beautiful gems directly to -the stars and other bodies in space, we may affirm that their birth or -development in the bosom of our earth may be due in a great measure to -extra-terrestrial influences. And as regards the precious opal, if we -cannot prove it of divine origin, we can with truth affirm that there -is a deep mystery<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</span> connected with the mineral both in its composition -and its physical properties. The liberal-minded physicist to-day finds -himself somewhat baffled when attempting to explain the phenomena of -the gem in accordance with our imperfect knowledge of natural laws. -Apparently it is nothing more than hydrated silica or quartz; but it is -of a lower specific gravity, and some of its varieties are so tender -and delicate in structure as to be at the caprice of the atmosphere.</p> - -<p>It has been maintained that the peculiarities of the opal depend in -a great measure upon the quantity of water it contained, and which, -mixed mechanically with the silica, varies from three to twenty per -cent. But some chemists who have interested themselves in the study -of the composition of the mineral do not regard the presence of water -as absolutely essential for the development of the varied flashes of -color. We will only state in this brief sketch that there is certainly -a mystery connected with the part water plays in producing and -perfecting the beauty of the opal. This quantity or factor of water -varies greatly in the different varieties of opal. Apparently when heat -is applied to the mineral the brilliancy of its hues is increased, -either from evaporation of its water or some structural change. But -if the degree of heat is too great, or its application too prolonged, -the hues of the opal vanish and cannot be recalled by human skill. The -same results from the effects of heat may be noticed in other gems -of greater density and hardness, as the emerald, the topaz,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</span> and the -tourmaline. It has been maintained that a faded opal may be restored to -beauty by immersion for a time in water, with the view of restoring the -fancied loss by evaporation; but we fear that the experimentalist will -be often disappointed with his results. However, there is one singular -variety of the mineral known as the hydrophane, which does not exhibit -colors until after it has been immersed for a time in water, and when -removed from its bath and becomes dry again its hues vanish. Therefore, -we may justly affirm that there is a mystery in connection with the -influence of water in producing the color of the opal. The optical -properties of this mineral do not afford decisive distinction, and it -never crystallizes in regular and definite form like quartz, neither -does it exhibit a trace of double refraction.</p> - -<p>We will say no more at present concerning the composition of this -interesting substance except to allude briefly to the experiment of -Damour, who found the opal to turn black when sulphuric acid was -applied to it; hence he inferred that the substance contained some -organic matter, but precisely what he could not determine, although -he suspected the presence of bituminous matter. Similar foreign -bodies have been detected in many other precious stones. In fact, -many of our gems are impaired by impurities; and so generally, that -a stone of absolute purity is of rare occurrence. Even the diamond, -which is regarded as the emblem of light and purity, is reckoned by -microscopists as one of the foulest of gems.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</span></p> - -<p>Werner divided the opal into four sub-species, and Jameson has -separated it into seven varieties. The principal divisions, however, -may be classed as follows: precious or noble opal, presenting refulgent -tints; fire opal, with fire-like reflections; girasole, with reddish -reflections when exposed to the sunlight; common opal, translucent -and without reflections; wood opal or petrified opal, possessing the -characters of common opal; hyalite, clear and colorless as glass. -There is another kind of opal which we have never seen, but which is -described as the asteriated opal. We are not able to give a minute -description of its appearance or draw a comparison between it and that -of asteriated quartz, sapphire, or garnet. It is said to display great -beams of light which undulate over its surface like the flashings of -lightning piercing the storm cloud. The variety known as the moss opal -sometimes displays in its interior dendritic crystallization of a dark -substance resembling delicate mosses, ferns, or trees. And the gleam of -the colored rays flashing amidst these miniature forests and groups of -foliage often present charming effects.</p> - -<p>The grand characteristic which gives to the gem its value and renown is -the wonderful play of the colored reflections which it displays, and -which embrace all of the prismatic tints of the solar spectrum. As we -view its vivid rainbow flashes when the gem is held in the sunlight, -we must admit it to be the most magnificent of gems, and join with the -Latin philosopher, who remarked that it was made up of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</span> the glories -of the most precious stones. For as the light falls upon it in varied -directions, its reflections recall the lively green of the emerald, or -the tender blue of the sapphire, the rich yellow of the topaz, or the -gorgeous red of the ruby.</p> - -<p>This mineral has not only been an object of delight to the fashionable -world, but it has also been a wonder and a perplexity to the -philosophers. In admiring its beauties and attempting to account for -its phenomena, Newton was led to the series of experiments and to that -train of sublime reasoning that gave to science the most brilliant -and extraordinary of his discoveries. The colored refractions of the -gem reminded the philosopher of the iridescence of the soap-bubble, -and the soap-bubble suggested the undulatory theory of light. Newton, -after long study of the opal, is said to have declared that its hues -were produced by the refractions and reflections of light at the -numerous minute fissures which traverse the stone in all directions. -But this theory is denied by many at the present day, and especially by -Mohrs, who maintains that the thin films of air filling the cavities -of the stone would produce iridescence only. Other opticians believe -the colored reflections to be due to laminæ formed by incipient -crystallization, as seen in the equally remarkable mineral known as -labradorite. Babinet believes the brilliant colors of the opal to be -due to the narrow fissures in the stone, like those produced in the -partial fracture of glass or quartz. He also refers for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</span> example to -the colors of thin transparent plates, and believes that the colors -of flowers are produced in like manner from the overlaying of the -transparent tissues of which the petals are composed. This, then, -according to the French philosopher, is the secret of the gorgeous -hues of vegetation from their first development to the period of their -final decay. The diamond, when cut in a regular form, displays the most -magnificent flashes of the prismatic hues by artificial light; and -although the mineral is composed of an infinite number of laminæ, no -one maintains the theory that the color is produced by thin films of -air like those in the soap-bubble. We also may observe the same hues -sparkling among the dew-drops in the morning sunlight, and likewise -in the artificial diamonds, which are composed of solid glass and -apparently homogeneous.</p> - -<p>In examining the interior of an opal, we often fail to perceive any -cause for the reflections of color, especially in the limpid varieties. -The flashes appear when the light enters the stone at a certain angle, -but when viewed in any other direction the gem presents the usual -appearance of common transparent quartz. In other varieties of the -mineral, however, especially the milky or translucent, a cause for -the colored reflections is easily observed. We have under observation -the beautiful opal known as the “Oberon,” and beneath its translucent -surface appear thin films of a faint reddish hue suspended at different -depths within its interior. They are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</span> so well defined that their edges -may be recognized, and they lie like thin clouds suspended in a hazy -sky. But as the gem is turned so that the light strikes the film at a -different angle, the scene is instantly changed, and a mass of flame -replaces the sombre tint. It is a little curious that some of the films -exhibit the different colors of the spectrum as the angle of light is -changed, while others display only the green and blue color, no matter -how the light strikes them. In fact, the films or patches, which are -apparently alike, produce different results from the same rays of -light; and some display the continuous spectrum, while others exhibit -but one color. It is a little singular that all transparent minerals -when fractured do not exhibit alike in their fractures the prismatic -gleams displayed by quartz and glass. We have before us a beautiful -transparent white crystal of adularia or moon-stone from <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Gothard, -and although it is fissured and fractured in a thousand places, yet we -observe little iridescence in it even when exposed to the sunlight.</p> - -<p>The localities where the precious opal is now found are but few, and -none of them were probably known to the ancients. All record of the -old opal mines is now lost; but there were undoubtedly deposits of the -mineral in Arabia, Syria, and in Asia, whence the ancients derived -their gems. The famous Hungarian mines were not discovered until late -in the fifteenth century, and the country was quite unknown to the -Romans.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</span></p> - -<p>The principal mines explored at the present day, and whence most of our -opals are now derived, are those of Hungary and Honduras. The Hungarian -mines are of great extent and are now scientifically explored, but -those of Central America are undetermined and but rudely mined. It is -believed that there are other mines in Central America besides those of -Honduras, for the natives at times bring fine specimens to the coast -from localities widely separated. It is quite true that most of the -opals of America are less hard than the Hungarian, but they are no -less brilliant, and some of them withstand atmospheric effects and the -wear of time quite as well. The Honduras opals are found near Gracias -a Dios in porcelain earth, and are extracted in irregular masses, -sometimes uniform or globular concretions, with rough and deeply -indented surfaces. These masses do not exhibit the least tendency to -crystallization like quartz, and they are generally quite small. Their -natural colors are pale, and vary from brown to a pearly gray. They -often exhibit a rich and varied play of the rainbow hues, even in their -natural and rough condition. But sometimes, when this rough exterior is -removed by the lapidary’s wheel, and the gem is highly polished, the -colors vanish as if by magic. The polished stone no longer displays -a single ray of the brilliant fires which illuminated every angle of -the stone when in its rough state. This singular disappearance may be -explained by the theory that the surface has been too highly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</span> polished, -and the substance of the stone is rendered too transparent to permit -the requisite degree of reflection, for when the surface is slightly -roughened the play of colors again returns. The finest specimens -are therefore those which are translucent, or those which, being -transparent, are backed by an opaque ground which refracts the light.</p> - -<p>The opal-bearing districts in Central America are far more extensive -than is generally supposed. The Province of Honduras abounds in them, -and we have evidence of others occurring in the State of Guatemala on -the Pacific coast. The following descriptions of some of the opal mines -of Honduras were published by <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> J. Le Conte, in 1868, in his report -of the Inter-oceanic Railroad survey:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“Extensive beds of common opal and semi-opal are seen along a belt -extending through the central part of the department of Gracias; but -these varieties, though very beautiful and possessing high interest -to the mineralogist, are without commercial value from the ease with -which artificial products may be made which precisely resemble them. -The localities worthy of exploration are those in which the opal -forms veins (not beds) in compact but brittle trachyte of a dark -color. The veins, as will be seen, are not confined to such rock, but -seem to have their origin in it, and are probably not found except -in connection with it. The best-known mines of precious opal are in -the department of Gracias; several localities have yielded valuable -gems, but they are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</span> all remote from the line of road. Some are in the -vicinity of the town of Gracias, others near Intibucat; but the most -important are at Erandique. The working is now carried on in a very -small way; but the locality is extensive, and in my opinion mining -on a large scale would be attended with profit. The country near by -abounds with beds of common opal, as in many other places, but the -gems occur in somewhat irregular veins running in a northeast and -southwest direction, and with a nearly perpendicular dip. The veins -are not continuous, but branch off and disappear at short intervals; -neither are the contents of uniform quality, but the valuable parts -are usually in belts in the vein, and limited on each side by portions -of ordinary opal without play of colors. These lines of light are -sometimes numerous and narrow, alternating with the common opal -forming a very beautiful gem. Many again, even of large size, are -uniform in structure, and exhibit a play of colors as brilliant as the -finest opals from Hungary. The hill in which they are found is about -two hundred and fifty feet high, and two or three miles in length, and -for a width of half a mile for its whole length opals have been found -wherever excavations have been made. The rock in which they occur is -a hard, brittle trachyte of a vitreous lustre, and splintering into -acute fragments when struck; a bed several feet in thickness overlying -this rock is of a gray color and soft consistence, and also contains -opal veins; it is probably a trachyte changed by atmospheric action.</p> - -<p>“Other localities within two leagues of Erandique have furnished very -fine opals, but as they are not now worked I did not visit them. Many -places on the road between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</span> Intibucat and Las Piedras appear favorable -to the existence of opal mines; but only careful scrutiny by a number -of explorers can discover them. I would mention as most worthy of -future attention the vicinity of Lepasale and of Yucusapa and the -ascent of the great mountain of Santa Rosa. Greater expectations and -indeed almost certain success will attend the search for opal mines -in the valley leading from Tambla towards the pass of Guayoca, nearly -on the line of the proposed road. Within half a mile of Tambla are -immense beds of common opal of various shades of color. Near Guayoca -are banded opals of alternate layers of opaque and semi-transparent -white, having the appearance of onyx; these occur in a red vitreous -trachyte and sometimes in contact with the masses of petrified wood -which strew the ground for a considerable distance. Veins of a -pearl-colored opal, with red reflections, are also found here; they -have no commercial value, but serve as indications of better things in -the neighborhood.</p> - -<p>“Between the two localities mentioned (that near Tambla and that of -Guayoca), <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> W. W. Wright, chief assistant of the survey, has, by -following some obscure indications, arrived at a vein of very pretty -glassy opals and yellow fire opals, not of great value, but serving to -strengthen the opinion expressed of the ultimate discovery of precious -opals in the vicinity. Near Choluteca are found fire opals, some of -which I was told possess merit. One (not of the best) given me is -precisely similar to those obtained by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Wright near Tambla. Within -one league of Goascoran, as I am informed by Fernando Gaillardo, a -resident of that town, is a mine producing opals with a good play of -colors.”</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</span></p> - -<p>Another remarkable deposit of opal was found by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Wright about five -miles east of Villa San Antonio in the plains of Camayagua. Though not -of high value, it may be of use for ornamental purposes, being of a -fine red color with transparent amethystine bands. It occurs in veins -in gray porphyry, sometimes several inches thick, and may be procured -in large quantities. Precious opal has been discovered in the iron -mines at Barcoo in Queensland, and a number of specimens were exhibited -at Philadelphia, at the Centennial. Some of these specimens were very -fair, and gave promise of choice gems. The blue tints displayed by some -of them were of great purity. They appeared to be of the hard variety, -and therefore less liable to be affected by the ravages of time, or -influence of exposure.</p> - -<p>We will not fatigue our readers with a long dissertation on the -formation of the opal. We will however, quote one theory which all may -understand.</p> - -<p>The boiling waters of the Iceland geyser are projected into the air -at a considerable height, and are heavily charged with silica. As the -waters fall upon the earth, large piles of earthy and stony material -are formed in process of time. When these silicious masses are broken -open, translucent and transparent portions of silica are found, -exhibiting the colored reflections of the noble opal as long as they -remain hydrated, or, in other words, as long as they retain a certain -quantity of water in their composition.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</span> This observation has led -M. Descloizeaux to the belief that opals found in volcanic rocks or -igneous rocks have had their origin in phenomena analogous to those of -the Iceland geysers. The matrix of the opal is a varied one. The gem is -not only found in porcelain earth, but it occurs in fissures and seams, -in what appear to be old igneous rocks. It has also been deposited in -recent periods, as in the limestones of the argillaceous beds, and even -in the formations of the silicious waters of the hot springs of the -present time. The decomposed cement of the old Roman ruins around the -hot springs of Polombieres, uniting with certain chemical properties of -the waters, has changed into opal and hyalite. Trees within historic -times have been transformed into opal or semi-opal; and on the island -of Unja one may see blocks and trunks of trees (some even showing the -marks of the hatchet) converted into opal. Silicified trees forty or -fifty feet in length, may be seen stretched from Cairo to Suez. In many -other parts of the world trees and plants have been transformed by the -mysterious processes of nature into a silicious substance possessing -the characters of opal; but none of these vegetable metamorphoses -exhibit the rainbow hues to any marked degree. Quartz, when flawed in -the interior, sometimes exhibits a remarkable iridescence, and may -imitate the opal, especially if viewed at a distance. Such specimens -of iridized quartz are called “iris,” and they may be artificially -produced by a sudden blow upon the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</span> stone, or by heating it and -suddenly dropping it into cold water. The superb iris ornaments worn by -the Empress Josephine were of remarkable brilliancy and play of colors. -In ancient and mediæval times, iridescent quartz was held in great -esteem; and fine specimens mounted in antique jewelry are preserved at -the present day. It is described in the “Lapidarium” of Marbodeus as -follows:—</p> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“By the Red Sea the swarthy Arabs glean</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The iris, splendent with the crystal’s sheen;</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Its form six-sided, full of heaven’s own light,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Has justly gained the name of rainbow bright.”</span><br> -</p> - -<p>The fire opal occurs in its greatest perfection in the porphyritic -rocks at Zimapan in Mexico. It is generally of a translucent -hyacinth-red color and flashes forth dazzling beams of fiery -carmine-red with yellow and green reflections. This Mexican gem is the -most beautiful and gorgeous of all the varieties of opal; but, alas! -it is also the most sensitive, and is frequently irreparably injured -by water or exposure, or even by sudden atmospheric changes. So easily -affected are the opals by the vicissitudes of the weather that they -are almost always brighter in summer than in winter. But there are -some varieties that are not so easily influenced, and are not injured -by contact with water. The fact that this variety of opal is injured -in course of time by contact with moisture or careless exposure is not -remarkable when some of the harder gems undergo a change from similar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</span> -exposure. The hard amethystine quartz, when worn as a finger ornament, -will completely bleach out and become colorless in a few years. The -black opal is the product of art, and for this purpose harlequin opals -are used. The harlequin opal is simply the matrix of other gems spotted -here and there with flakes of color dispersed over an opaque ground, -and its name was suggested by the resemblance to the motley tints of -the harlequin’s dress. Masses of the matrix, with fragments or specks -of opal interspersed in its substance, are soaked for a time in a -saccharine solution, and afterwards in diluted sulphuric acid. The -porous parts of the matrix absorb a minute quantity of the solution, -which is afterwards charred by the sulphuric acid; while the solid and -transparent parts remain unchanged and exhibit an increased play of -colors upon the black ground.</p> - -<p>The ancients undoubtedly obtained their opals from Syria and Arabia -or other Eastern countries, for the Hungarian mines which now supply -the world with most of the finest gems were not discovered until the -fifteenth century. The famous mines are situated on a mountain which -is one of the spurs of the Carpathians. They belong to the Seignory -Peklin, and are near the village of Czernizka. In the early days of -their discovery, and for a long period afterwards, they were explored -casually and from time to time. At the present day, however, the -explorations are conducted with regularity and the appliances of -skilled labor. The surface of the mountain has been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</span> removed to a great -extent during this long-continued search of many centuries, but as yet -no explorations have been attempted into the interior of the ledges. -The true matrix appears not to be more than four to eight yards in -depth below the alluvial soil. It is arranged in continuous beds of -little hardness, but resembling porphyry in color. The opal formation -appears to extend to a considerable distance beyond the flanks of the -mountain; for, in the cultivated fields below, the laborers often find -beautiful gems washed out by violent rain-storms from the exposed and -superficial soils.</p> - -<p>The opals from these mines are the hardest and most enduring of all the -known localities of the earth, yet they have to be carefully tempered -to heat and moisture before they can be utilized. M. Frangoll Delius, -the Commissioner of the Austrian mines, states that these opals, when -first extracted from their rocky beds, are soft, friable, and tender, -and not in a condition to be worked. But after they have been exposed -to the air and sunlight for some days or a definite time, they become -harder, and the stones also become decidedly smaller from contraction. -This exposure is required to be carefully regulated lest the stone -become fissured by sudden contraction. When exposed to the effects of -artificial heat, colors appear sooner than when it is submitted to the -action of the sun’s rays. It is curious to watch the gradual unfolding -and the display of these beautiful hues. At first the stone is limpid -and rayless as pellucid quartz. But<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</span> as the quarry water is evaporated -by the effect of heat or time, and the stone contracts in volume, the -iridized reflections then begin to appear, increasing in perfection and -variety, until the requisite degree of moisture is expelled. If this -evaporation is carried too far by heat the splendors of the gem vanish -completely, never to be recalled. It is a singular fact that exposure -to the sun’s rays gives the opal much finer hues than the action of -artificial heat. And it is also a remarkable circumstance that of -all the variety of prismatic hues displayed by this gem, the violet -invariably appears the first, according to M. Delius.</p> - -<p>The ancients rarely engraved upon the opal, influenced perhaps partly -from its enormous value in those times, and partly from its soft and -fragile nature. They imitated the gem, however, with such perfection -that Pliny declared that it was almost impossible to distinguish -the false from the real. Modern gem imitators have utterly failed -in producing anything approaching the precious opal in beauty. The -assertion of Pliny in regard to the imitation of the glories of this -gem has always been received with incredulity by the moderns on account -of the failures of our most skilled artisans; but the discoveries among -the ancient Phœnician tombs in the island of Cyprus by Di Cesnola -rather strengthen Pliny’s remark.</p> - -<p>In this collection we may view a great and elegant variety of -glass-ware exhumed from the tombs of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</span> the Phœnician nobility who -lived three thousand years ago or more. Many of these vessels gleam -with what appear to be iridescent tints of gold, blue, red, and other -colors of the loveliest tints, recalling to mind the most beautiful and -gorgeous reflections of the opal. Some of the articles are entirely -of one color, while others are composed of patches of various hues -resembling enormous opals with broad gleams of pure color. Peligot -maintains that these superb colors are clue to the effect of great -age; and the substance of the glass being separated into laminæ, the -colors may be explained by the law of iridescence. But we are half -inclined to believe that they may be due to the skill of the artisan in -a great measure,—hence the variety of color in different vessels of -the same age. In the famous collection of Signor Castellani there is a -solid glass ring quite two inches in diameter taken from the ancient -Etruscan tombs. This interesting relic exhibits patches of color as -bright as the prismatic gleams, and they do not appear to arise from -any disintegration of the material, but rather to be produced by the -design of the workman. We surely will not ascribe to effect of age -the decided iridescent glaze which we see in the Maiolica pottery of -Hispano-Moresque objects of the thirteenth or fifteenth centuries, or -in the Gubbio products of the sixteenth century.</p> - -<p>The famous opal of history was that which was worn in a ring by the -Roman Senator Nonius in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</span> days of the Triumvirate. Its size scarcely -exceeded that of a hazel-nut, yet its beauty and perfection were such -that it was considered a marvel among the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">dilettanti</i> of Rome, -and valued at the enormous sum of nearly a million dollars. Marc -Antony, remembering the sacrifice of the matchless pearl by Cleopatra, -and still enslaved by her irresistible charms, sought to obtain the -opal, intending it as a present to the siren queen of Egypt. But Nonius -refused to part with the treasure which was the idol of his heart, -and sought safety in flight. The beauty and charm of the gem may be -estimated by the fact that banishment then to a Roman was worse than -death. History makes no further mention of this wonderful opal, and -even if preserved among the spoils of ancient Byzantium its glories -have probably vanished ere this, yielding to the destructive effects of -time.</p> - -<p>The finest opal of modern times was that which was worn by the -Empress Josephine in the days of Imperial splendor. It was indeed a -magnificent gem. Its flashing beams of light were so strong and vivid -as to give the appearance of living flames of fire, and hence the name -of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">l’incendie de Troie</i>,—“the burning of Troy,”—was bestowed -upon it. The base of this opal was completely opaque, but the superior -portion was perfectly transparent, and through it were reflected a -multitude of fiery gleams of red light. The fate of this beautiful -gem is unknown. There are two splendid opals still to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</span> seen among -the Crown jewels of France, notwithstanding the frequent change of -dynasties. One is placed in the centre of the Order of the Toison d’Or, -and the other forms the clasp of the royal mantle.</p> - -<p>In the imperial cabinet at Vienna is exhibited the grandest specimen of -this gem yet discovered. It was found in the mines of Hungary in 1770, -and purchased by the Austrian Government. It measures 3³⁄₄ inches in -length, and is 2¹⁄₂ inches in thickness. Its weight is about seventeen -ounces, and its value is estimated at about $300,000. Although it -is injured by several cracks and fissures, it possesses a brilliant -play of color, and is justly regarded as the finest specimen known, -even surpassing the beautiful fire opal brought home from Mexico by -Humboldt, and which is still preserved in the museum at Berlin.</p> - -<p>At the close of the last century, but before the Revolution broke out -in France, Mons. D’Auguy, a financier of Paris, came in possession -of a most remarkable opal of the harlequin variety. It was of oval -form, ⁷⁄₈ of an inch in length by ⁵⁄₈ in breadth. This gem was of -wondrous beauty, and was pronounced perfect by the connoisseurs. It -is now in the hands of the family of Count Waliski. At the same time -the well-known amateur Fleury owned a rival to Auguy’s opal, which it -exceeded slightly in size.</p> - -<p>Another magnificent opal is described by Jackson as having been -exhibited at Vienna. It was nearly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</span> an inch in length, and was of the -harlequin order, having three longitudinal bands from which flashed -resplendent flames of light and color. It was pronounced by the -virtuosi of Dresden and Vienna to be the third in rank of all the fine -opals then known.</p> - -<p>In the Musée de Minéralogie of Paris may be seen a splendid opal which -has been carved into a bust of Louis XIII. when a child. King very -properly exclaims against the barbarism and extravagance where work and -material mutually destroy each other’s beauty and value. The Spanish -historians, in their marvellous stories of the wonders seen in Mexico -at the time of the Conquest, describe the image of the mystic deity -Quetzalcoatl (God of the air) on the great pyramid of Cholula, as -wearing a mitre waving with plumes of fire, and which was supposed to -have been produced by masses of the fire opal.</p> - -<p><abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Le Conte brought home from his geological surveys in Honduras, a -number of beautiful opals from the mines in that country. They have -since been cut and mounted in gold with diamond settings, in the form -of a necklace, which is regarded by connoisseurs as one of the most -valuable jewels in the United States.</p> - -<p>At the Centennial Exhibition of the United States, Austria exhibited -some very beautiful opals of various kinds, both polished and in the -natural state. One of the polished gems was two inches in diameter and -valued at $25,000. It was of a faint milky white<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</span> tint, like most of -the Hungarian opals, and displayed a charming arrangement of colors.</p> - -<p>The splendors of the opal are best seen when exposed to the direct rays -of the sun, and viewed through a magnifying glass of low power. The -dazzling scene has no equal in art or nature, for the vivid hues of the -solar spectrum are here displayed with the most charming effect. The -colors are in broad patches and not blended with their complementary -hues as seen in the continuous spectrum, and the effects of the pure -green, red, blue, and yellow, flashing forth in perfect purity and -intensity, without definite arrangement, remind the observer of the -brilliancy of the kaleidoscope. In this fascinating display of hues one -might expect to see the colors pass into each other as in the solar -spectrum, and as the field of view is changed; but such is not always -the result. The red may exhibit a tinge of yellow, or the green a shade -of blue before they disappear from view; but generally the patch of -color ends abruptly, preserving its purity of tint to the last.</p> - -<p>The alternate and irregular flashing of all these varied hues always -presents a harmonious spectacle, such is the wondrous power of Nature -in all her arrangements and groupings. The stone, when arranged by -the art of the lapidary, is almost always cut with a convex surface. -However, when the opal is attached to an opaque substance which serves -as a reflector to the rays of light, the stone may then have its -surface cut almost flat. The colors displayed by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</span> this gem embrace -quite all of the tints seen in the solar spectrum, and they are as -pure. The shades of green, blue, yellow, and red will bear comparison -with the hues of the solar spectrum, and the gems of other minerals -are rare that can bear this decisive test. Sometimes but one color is -visible in the stone, and then it is called emerald or golden opal, -according to the tint exhibited.</p> - -<p>The purchase of opals in the rough natural state is attended with -danger, for often the glittering mass, after being shaped and polished -by the lapidary, is transformed into a transparent but hueless stone. -The cutting of the opal is always a hazardous operation, from the -fragility of the material and the special tact required in determining -the shape to be given the gem. We will relate an instance to illustrate -the history of the whole.</p> - -<p>A traveller from Central America brought home a splendid rough fire -opal which dazzled the eye with its fiery reflections. We took it to -an honest lapidary, who received it with a doubtful look. The next day -the opal was returned, having been shaped into the usual oval form, -but only a faint gleam of any of the colored rays flashed from its -surface, or the interior. “Is this the gem we gave you yesterday?” we -demanded of the artisan. With a smile the lapidary took the transparent -stone and roughened its finely polished surface upon the wooden -wheel. In an instant the lost fire returned as if directed by magic’s -wand. The perfect transparency of the gem,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</span> with its high polish, -had allowed the rays of light to pass directly through it, and there -was but little refraction, but on roughening the surface the light -was interrupted and the peculiar property of the mineral displayed. -Unfortunately the lesson was not concluded here. At the last touch -of the wheel the beautiful gem flew into two parts, and its glories -departed in an instant. Saddened with the day’s experience, we took -the two fragments, cemented them together, and tossed the stone into a -drawer which contained other mineral specimens of no great value. Some -months after, while searching for a misplaced mineral, a gleam of light -suddenly flashed out as we opened the drawer. It was the neglected and -abused opal, which now gleamed with the energy of a living coal of -fire. It had recovered its beautiful reflections, and still adorns, -notwithstanding its fracture, a most cherished jewel.</p> - -<p>Whence this mysterious change? the reader may ask. We can only say that -the complete transparency of the stone had been lessened, and perhaps -the change was due to the action of some of the ingredients of the -cement with which we united the fragments of the broken gem.</p> - -<p>Some of the Central American opals have the reputation of fading and -becoming translucent and opaque in course of time, or according to the -circumstances of exposure. We will relate an instance which forms a -part of our experience and education in the study of gems.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</span></p> - -<p>A few years ago, two Spaniards arrived in New York with a bag of rough -opals brought from Central America, but from what particular locality -we never learned. The specimens varied in size from that of a bean to -that of an English walnut, and were extremely beautiful. They had a -fresh appearance, as though they had been recently extracted from the -mines, and many of them had portions of the soft sandy matrix still -attached to them. They excited suspicions of not having been properly -tempered and hardened by exposure; but their beauty, which reminded -one of the perfect glow-worm, or lumps of phosphorus moistened with -oil, did not allow the spectator to hesitate about the purchase of -them, especially as they were offered at a moderate price. We invested -in the purchase of several charming specimens, and never wearied in -examining their exquisite effects. Still, we felt a vague suspicion -of the enduring qualities of our newly acquired treasures. The most -beautiful stone, the size of a small almond, we carried in our pocket -for a long time, not only for our gratification but for the purpose of -studying the effect of the atmosphere upon its reflections. Soon after -our acquisition, we fancied a slight shadow or nebulosity appearing -in one end of the stone. We carefully watched it, and before long an -indistinct cloudiness began to appear, like the dim and distant haze -of a summer sky on the commencement of a storm. Even then we thought -it might be mere fancy on our part. But when the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</span> shadow changed -to opacity, and the transparency of the gem, with its beautiful -reflections, vanished, never to return, we were compelled to admit that -even substances of the mineral kingdom had their diseases as well as -forms of the organic world.</p> - -<p>This is indeed but one example to illustrate a theory; but most of -those we purchased at that time of the Spaniards have altered in -appearance, and some of them quite as seriously. Therefore we have -arrived at the conclusion that recently mined opals should be bought -with caution; and that the perfection of a rough opal as a gem cannot -be safely estimated until after it has been cut by the lapidary.</p> - -<p>No definite idea can be given in relation to the price of the opal, -so much depends upon the degree of its brilliancy and play of colors. -The gem is not sold by weight, but its value is estimated by its size -and the perfection of its charms. An opal half an inch in diameter -exhibiting fair colors may be worth $5, and another of the same size, -of greater perfection, may bring $5,000, or more. The palmy days of the -opal were during the period of Roman luxury, as the beauties of the -diamond were not then fully revealed, and the opal flashed forth its -marvellous beams of color both by daylight and artificial light. The -gem then commanded enormous prices. According to the tables of Dureau -de la Malle, the opal of Nonius was valued at twenty million sesterces, -or about eight hundred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</span> thousand dollars. Enormous as this sum of money -appears, Catherine of Russia would have given as much for the gem, if -its beauty had been in keeping with its reputation.</p> - -<p>The commerce of the opal affords a curious example of credulity and -superstition, which is in singular contrast with the progressive ideas -of our advanced civilization. In times past the changes that sometimes -occur in the opal from physical causes have impressed the minds of -some excessively superstitious people as due to supernatural causes. -And from these trivial fancies the most beautiful and <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">recherché</i> -of all that Nature has offered to us in the mineral kingdom has been -placed under ban. This superstitious dread may be of ancient origin, -and whence its source we know not. But it is a matter of history that -the opal was the favorite gem among the Romans in their best periods -of intelligence and refinement. So far from being feared at that time, -it was eagerly sought for, as it was supposed to possess the power -of warning against disaster, and exhibiting the rosy herald of joy. -Hence it has been thought that a feeling of superstition as well as of -avarice influenced Nonius when his paragon was demanded of him.</p> - -<p>It is possible that the dread of the opal may be derived from the -superstitious fancies that have descended to us from neolithic times, -like the superstitions connected with the ancient stone implements -which are now called in Western Europe<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</span> elf-stones. In Scotland at the -present day the ancient arrow-heads of stone are known as elf-bolts -or fairy shots, and believed to protect the wearer from disease or -misfortune. Thus it appears that stone weapons of an extinct race -are used as ridiculous charms by later nations far advanced in -civilization. History shows us how elves and fairies were created in -the popular imagination from neolithic sources, and how weapons and -ornaments of stone, amber, and metal became invested with mystic powers -as objects of handicraft of the elves themselves. These objects are -not only regarded as fairy charms among the races of the East, but the -belief in their powers and use is quite as strong and tenacious among -the Celtic portions of Europe. In other countries these primitive -ideas of fairies and charms have become modified, and blossomed into -poetic fancies to please chiefly the innocence of childhood. Some of -these the genius of Shakspeare and other poets have made beautiful, -and to these we offer no objection. Poetic license may sometimes -invest an object with a positive effect which eventually may assume -the appearance of fact. Thus the allusion to changes in the beauty of -the opal in connection with misfortune, which was made by Sir Walter -Scott, in his novel “Anne of Geierstein,” was taken to heart seriously -by many of his readers, and the gem was placed under ban. The popular -imagination became so strongly affected that the commerce of the opal -in England became very seriously injured; and even<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</span> at the present -day many a timid maiden hesitates over the selection of the opal for -ornamentation. Every mineralogist and man of science will rejoice to -learn that Queen Victoria exhibits sterling good sense in selecting the -opal among her choicest family gifts, thereby presenting a pleasing -contrast to the superstitious and foolish fancies of the Empress -Eugénie.</p> - -<p>To the amateur who loves the rare and beautiful, with a feeling -untrammelled by any of the misty traditions of the past or the caprices -of fashion of the present, the opal is the dearest of all the gems. For -it is not only rare, but it displays the glories of all the other gems; -and it is the only one that defies the skill of the modern artisan to -imitate. Its flash instantly betrays its character, and places it above -suspicion, while quite all of the precious stones regarded as gems are -now imitated so perfectly as to require close and careful inspection, -and sometimes the application of scientific tests.</p> - -<p>When we recall the phenomena of the opal, and the wonders of its -reflections, with their strange and sudden disappearance, we may pardon -the credulity of the Arabian romance writers in ascribing to the gem -supernatural powers. It was a beautiful theory with them that it falls -from heaven in the lightning’s flash, and is the veritable Ceraunia. -Its charming and mysterious play of colors suggested to their ardent -imaginations the glories of Paradise, and hence they invested it with -wonderful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</span> talismanic properties, and believed it to be the abode of -afreets and genii. Alas for romance! Science clearly demonstrates that -many of the phenomena which puzzle the superstitious are simply due to -atmospheric influences and to the natural laws which regulate the decay -of organic and inorganic forms.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_SAPPHIRE">THE SAPPHIRE.</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“The azure light of sapphire stone</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Resembles that celestial throne,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">A symbol of each simple heart</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">That grasps in hope the better part,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Whose life each holy deed combines,</span><br> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And in the light of virtue shines.”</span><br> -</p> - -<p class="center"> -<span class="smcap">Marbodeus.</span><br> -</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_SAPPHIRE2">THE SAPPHIRE.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The colored varieties of sapphire were probably known to primitive -man, and were gathered in their rough state to serve as rude ornaments -long before the diamond, with its less attractive natural appearance, -was recognized as a treasure or a gem. The mountain torrents, laying -bare the superficial strata of the gem beds, early exposed to view -the sapphires of bright and attractive colors, which readily caught -the close, observing eye of the savage; while the diamond, lustreless -within its apparent crust, was unnoticed and unknown until civilization -became far advanced and revealed the hidden splendors of the gem by the -application of art.</p> - -<p>We may therefore infer with a reasonable degree of probability that the -colored sapphires, though perhaps not the most ancient in mineralogy, -were in reality among the earliest gems known to man. The researches -of the antiquary and the archæologist rather strengthen this view, for -specimens of these stones are found among the ruins of the ancient and -long-forgotten cities of Arabia and Persia, while the diamond is not.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</span></p> - -<p>This beautiful mineral has been known in the land of its birth from -time immemorial as “korund;” and under this harsh name were included -all those beautiful gems known to commerce as the Oriental ruby, topaz, -emerald, and sapphire. The ancients in the days of Pliny bestowed upon -the blue variety the more euphonious name of “hyacinthus.” Modern -nomenclature, however, has adopted the term “sapphire” for all the -transparent forms of the mineral, reserving the name “corundum” for the -opaque and translucent or non-crystallized varieties.</p> - -<p>In making use of this word, we have another illustration of the strange -adoption of a term which is destitute of any relationship to the -characters of the object it is intended to describe. The “sapphirus” of -the ancients referred to lapis-lazuli, a blue opaque mineral spotted -with minute metallic flakes; and the only significance it bears in -connection with any of the forms of corundum is the simple fact that -it means azure. If we follow the antiquaries still farther into the -mists of early language, in seeking the etymology of the name, we -shall probably find even less satisfaction. The nature of this gem, as -well as most of the other precious stones, was mere conjecture to the -ancients, and they formed their estimate of them chiefly from their -hardness and color.</p> - -<p>Among the early Greeks, Theophrastus strove in vain to discover some -satisfactory basis of arrangement for these minerals, and to explain -their forms,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</span> their constituents, and the manner of their creation. But -his efforts and those of his contemporaries were of little avail; and -so Ictinus, when he constructed the marvellous façade of the Parthenon, -and Phidias, while he adorned it with immortal statues of marble and -other stones, were alike ignorant of the nature of the materials -they employed in their work. Several centuries later the treatises -of the Latin philosopher Pliny show that science had made but little -progress in this respect. The people of India and of the valley of the -Euphrates, however, undoubtedly studied at a very early period the -internal structure of the precious stones, and the revelations thus -obtained had some effect in shaping their religion and their views of -civilization.</p> - -<p>In searching for the mysterious in the gems, the Assyrians discovered -the cuneiform crystals in the interior of transparent sapphires, and -adopted the forms for their own use, believing them to be the language -of the genii. We have little doubt but that the cuneiform character -which now reveals the history of the extinct Oriental empires had -its origin from the wonderful crystallizations sometimes seen in the -internal structure of the sapphire. These crystals are sometimes -visible to the naked eye; but when the polished surface of the mineral -is exposed to a magnifying lens of even low power, they appear with -startling distinctness, and exhibit forms of perfect arrow-head shape -of all colors. The field of vision may at first include but a single -arrow-head<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</span> crystal of perfect symmetrical outline floating in the -azure of the stone; but as the field is shifted myriads of crystals may -suddenly come into view, presenting a scene of such remarkable beauty -and fascination that the observer ceases to wonder at the credulity of -Arabian superstition. These crystallizations may occur in sapphires -of any hue, and then again we may search in vain for them in many -other specimens of the same mineral. Some specimens may contain a very -few of these arrow-head forms, while others seem to be composed of -multitudes and masses of them. One large red sapphire of four karats -weight submitted to our inspection appears to be composed of clouds -of these cuneiform crystals; and under the magnifying power of about -twenty diameters it presents fields of arrow-heads flashing forth the -most brilliant hues, and changing into new scenes of startling and -transcendent beauty as the focus is varied. Whatever startled the -imagination of the ancients with a new and mysterious beauty was at -once invested with supernatural power.</p> - -<p>In connection with this theme it is interesting and instructive to -trace back the history of the gems and precious stones even within -the period of the past two hundred years, and read the descriptions -and definitions bestowed upon them by mineralogists. Some of the most -gifted of men, like Linnæus and Wallerius, labored diligently to place -them correctly in science; but their efforts to define and arrange them -properly seem at the present day like schoolboy fancies.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</span> Daubenton -conceived the brilliant but erroneous idea of arranging them according -to their color, taking the solar spectrum for a standard. His idea -was to place them in seven genera, according to the seven principal -prismatic colors, and constitute species according to the different -shades. This able man was not then aware that the sapphire and the -tourmaline exhibit quite all of the colors of his seven genera.</p> - -<p>Romè de L’Isle was the first mineralogical writer who classed the gems -systematically; but it has since appeared that the amateur, Chevalier -Baillou, preceded him in his crystallogical ideas; for in 1747 this -observer described, in the catalogue of his collection, his views in -relation to the properties of gems, and how their characters might be -readily ascertained by the tests of hardness and specific gravity, -and also by the form of their crystallizations. The distinguished and -learned Abbé Haüy became interested and even fascinated with the study -of the history and physical properties of the gems and the precious -stones; and to his genius we are indebted for much of the information -we have at the present day on this subject. He was deeply interested -in the nature and characteristics of the Oriental precious stones; -and being dissatisfied with the harsh term and the vague synonomy of -“korund,” as applied to some of them, he proposed the more elegant -name, “telesie.” But science, often disdainful of new terms, finally -adopted the name proposed by Wallerius; and at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</span> present time all of -the fine and transparent varieties of corundum are called sapphire.</p> - -<p>This remarkable mineral is found in mineralogical specimens in China, -Siberia, America, and other parts of the world; but all of the fine -gems, with perhaps few exceptions, come from Burmah, Pegu, Siam, lower -Bengal, and Ceylon.</p> - -<p>The island of Ceylon is the most famous of all the localities thus -far known, and it is in reality the most wonderful gem deposit in the -world. It was known in the period of the Roman Empire, as the land of -the luminous carbuncle. This island, which is situated at the southeast -extremity of the peninsula of Bengal, and separated from it by a broad -but shallow strait, is about as large as England in its area. In the -southern centre of the island a group of lofty mountains appears, -rising to the height of about 8,000 feet above the level of the sea. -On one side this great upheaval descends in successive ranges of hills -until the flanks of the mountains subside into the alluvial plains; -whilst on the other side the mountain range is characterized by abrupt -precipices sometimes of several thousand feet in height. The great -gem-producing districts of the island extend along the base of this -mountain range for about fifty miles; and the central and richest part -is considered to be located around Ratnapoora, which is scarcely two -hundred feet above the level of the sea. This want of elevation in the -Ceylon gem strata or placers becomes a marked feature when considering -the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</span> high plateaux in which the diamond occurs in other parts of the -world, also coupled with the fact that the two gems are not found -together in the same placers. Here are situated the celebrated mines -which have yielded vast quantities of the sapphire, especially the -blue variety, for an indefinite period of time. They are not small and -trivial deposits, but extend over large areas. Some of the plains which -cover the deposits are more than thirty miles in extent, and form a -large tract of country. Among them are the Kondapalle, Elk, Tolapella, -Horton, Bopatalava, Moonstone, Newera Ellia, and many others.</p> - -<p>The amount of labor expended in excavations on these plains is -stupendous, and evidences still remain which indicate vast operations -and remunerative labor in far distant times. The eastern portion of -the plain at Newera Ellia furnishes a good example of the extent of -the explorations. This region is still called the vale of rubies, and -was mined on a grand scale by the ancient kings of Kandy. Many acres -of this plain have been completely upturned, and the surface is still -indented with numberless pits of large size, varying from three to -seventeen feet in depth. The period of these extensive operations is -unknown, and is so far distant as to be beyond the mention of history -or tradition.</p> - -<p>Most of the gem-bearing districts are classed as wild lands, and belong -to the English Crown. As yet the authorities have never bestowed a -thought upon their value as a source of revenue, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</span> search for -gems is free to the world. Although much territory has been mined in a -rude manner in past times, the fields are by no means exhausted, and -offer excellent inducements to skilled labor. If some of the energy and -determination now exhibited in the South Africa diamond mines could be -transported to Ceylon, the gem marts would soon display the splendors -of ancient times.</p> - -<p>Ratnapoora, which is the gem mart of Ceylon, and situated in the midst -of the mines, means literally the city of rubies. The mines adjacent to -it and in the district of Saffragan are the principal ones now worked -in the island, but the gems are found under the western plains that -extend from Adams Peak to the sea. The plains and valleys southeast of -Ratnapoora are all gem fields; and the beds of the torrents sometimes -contain so great a quantity of broken fragments of sapphire, garnet, -zircon, etc., that the sifted sands are used by the lapidaries in -polishing gems.</p> - -<p>The mining operations are generally carried on by the native Cingalese, -who labor in the light of a pastime and only during intervals of their -agricultural employments. Some few, however, undertake the labor as a -regular business, but they belong to a low and dissipated class, and do -not work systematically or with regularity. Therefore, the gem-mining -of Ceylon cannot be regarded as a fixed and permanent business.</p> - -<p>When an exploration has been determined upon,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</span> a small party of -villagers set out for the promising region provided with the implements -of mining and the means of camping out. The times selected for the -operations are after the heavy rains which prevail in June and October, -and the floods have subsided. The beds of rivers or smaller streams -are often chosen as easier of access than the plains. If the river-bed -is selected, the first act of the explorers is to seek for the proper -locality where the gem-bearing strata may be found. To ascertain -this, the Cingalese thrust a long iron rod of ten or twelve feet in -length into the earth, and test the nature of the sub-soil. By means -of long practice, the natives can adroitly penetrate the earth to a -considerable depth, and, by the resistance to the movement of the rod, -can detect the gem deposit of which they are in search.</p> - -<p>If the indications are good, the natives proceed to build a hut if they -are at a distance from their village, and prepare for the operations, -which often extend over many weeks. After diverting a part of the force -of the stream so as to form a quiet pool, they proceed to excavate the -sand and gravel within a certain area. In order to accomplish this they -use hoes with handles fifteen or more feet in length. The top strata -are hurriedly raked up and thrown away; but as the pit deepens and the -gem stratum is approached, the work is performed with greater care. As -soon as the hoes bring up fragments and bowlders of white quartz, or -strike a thin<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</span> ferruginous crust, every particle of the gravel drawn -up is carefully preserved. The gravel and sand thus obtained are then -placed in large baskets woven of split bamboo and shaped to a conical -point at the bottom. The basket thus filled is placed in the current of -water, and its contents washed by imparting to it a circular motion. -This washing process is kept up until the stones, gravel, and lesser -particles are cleansed. During this operation the gems, which are much -heavier than common stones, settle at the bottom of the basket, and are -there collected together, so that when the superincumbent gravel is -removed, the sapphires, garnets, zircons, etc., are easily discovered -at the bottom and removed. This is the manner in which the wet diggings -are carried on, and is the easiest mode of exploration; but it is by no -means as sure or often as profitable as the operations in dry ground -on the river banks or in the plains. The dry diggings are much more -laborious, as the soil is firmer and the gem strata must be transported -to water to be washed and sifted. These dry deposits are found the -richest beneath the alluvial plains, which seem to have been in distant -times shallow lakes and lagoons.</p> - -<p>The gem stratum called mellan is always well defined, and occurs at -a certain depth, which seems to correspond to the bottom of the lake -at a definite period. This depth varies from two to twenty feet, and -is perhaps even greater; but the natives rarely excavate below the -depth of twenty feet. This peculiar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</span> formation, which is generally -horizontal, is composed of a conglomerate of quartz gravel resting upon -or mixed with a stiff clay, often indurated by a ferruginous oxide. In -among this cascalho, or just below it and adhering to it, are found -the fine pebbles and crystals of sapphire, tourmaline, garnet, zircon, -spinel, and chrysoberyl. Under these rocks and in peculiar hollows in -the plastic clay, which the natives call elephants’ footsteps, the gems -are found clustered together heterogeneously, and often so perfect in -form as to appear as though created there. At other places they are -collected together in these pockets in such a manner as to suggest the -idea that they had been washed in by a current of water.</p> - -<p>All these varieties of gems, some of them widely differing from each -other in composition and form of crystallization, are here embedded -together, and seem to have one common origin. This is the true matrix, -and the gems are not found in other portions of the soil unless some -disturbing force has removed them, like a strong current of water -breaking up the cascalho and transporting the gems to alluvions of its -own deposit.</p> - -<p>It is maintained and generally believed by mineralogists that the -sapphire is formed in crystalline rocks; that in process of time the -matrix is disintegrated, the gems set free, and washed down to the -alluvial soils where they are now found. It is also thought that the -gem-seekers might with patient care trace the precious stones to their -source<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</span> in the primitive ledges or the mountains, as the gold miner -often follows for long distances the particles of gold in the soil -until he discovers the parent vein in the solid ledge. But in Ceylon -this view is not entertained by the natives; and all scientific efforts -to find the sapphires in the mountain ledges have utterly failed. All -trace of the sapphire and its attendant gems ceases as soon as we reach -the limit of the gem stratum, and what seems to have once formed the -shore of the lagoon. Beyond this plainly marked outline we may search -in vain for the least sign of a connection with the older rocks either -adjoining or at a distance. The result is the same if we examine the -ledges on the same level or those of a higher elevation.</p> - -<p>In some countries, in the granular limestone of New Jersey for -instance, or the ripidolite of North Carolina, the granite of Siberia, -or the dolomites of Switzerland, we find sapphire, or more properly -corundum, of undecided colors, of inferior transparency or even of -opacity; but it is very rare that a specimen is found of sufficient -purity for ornamentation. The most transparent and perfect of these -sapphires are generally impaired by cleavage planes which traverse the -stone in several directions, preventing refraction of light, and often -so marked as to appear like flaws. This circumstance indicates that the -forces that deposited corundum and the fine sapphires were certainly -different in character, or that the conditions in which they were -exerted were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</span> not the same. For in Burmah, Pegu, India, or Ceylon, and -wherever the perfect sapphires are found, they have one common matrix, -and that is the peculiar ferruginous conglomerate.</p> - -<p>This conglomerate is recognized as a recent formation; and how came -these gems, which are believed to be as old as creation itself, to be -found among it? This formation is not only recent, but it is actually -taking place all over the world at the present day, and examples may -be found in almost every country. We find in many places the peculiar -strata of sand, gravel, and masses of stone in proper position to -change into conglomerate, which requires the action of water highly -charged with iron and lime or silica. Darwin found these stony layers -in process of forming on the beaches of the Cape de Verde Islands, -and in vain attempted to knock out a bolt of iron which had been cast -ashore from some wreck not long before, and had in a short space of -time become firmly fixed in the conglomerate. We may observe the -same process taking place to-day on the coast of Cornwall, and among -the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> of the ledges of the Abrolhos Islands. In dredging -rivers large masses of solid conglomerate are often brought to light. -The Thames has furnished many examples; and not many years ago a -cannon-ball embedded in a crystalline calcareous rock was taken from -the bed of the Mediterranean not far from the mouth of the Rhone. Fresh -water laden with <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> of vegetable matter also possesses -the same cementing action as sea<span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</span> water, and an excellent example is -seen in the allios now forming in the Landes of southern France. This -allios is also a conglomerate, which has formed and is now forming at -the depth of about three feet below the surface. Here the conglomerate -of sand, pebbles, and angular fragments of rock is firmly cemented -together by the rain-water, which filters down from the surface of -the earth laden with vegetable matter. The cascalho in which the -diamond is found is of similar character, and has a similar origin, -for we likewise find there traces of vegetable <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i>, and the -diamond itself contains germs of fungi and vegetable fibres of higher -organizations.</p> - -<p>But whence come the elements which form the gems? the inquirer will -say. Can we gather figs from thistles? Marco Polo in the thirteenth -century visited these gem beds, and has left his views in the -following lines: “In ista insula nascuntur boni et nobiles rubini et -non nascuntur in aliquo loco plus. Et hic nascuntur safri et topazii, -amethisti et aliquæ aliæ petræ pretiosæ et rex istius insulæ habet -pulchriorem rubinum de mundo.” Buffon, four centuries later, in -seeking for the causes of the formation of this mineral, observed the -peculiarities of the matrix on this island, and boldly stated that -the origin of the precious stones like the rubies, the sapphires, and -topazes of the East is the same as that of the diamond. He also stoutly -maintained that these stones form and are found in the conglomerate in -which is collected the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</span> other matters. The researches -of Sir Samuel Baker and others on these deposits seem to indicate, if -they do not prove, that the sapphire in particular was formed in the -sands, clay, or conglomerate where it is now found, and was not set -free by the disintegration of the old crystalline rocks. Nordenskiold -recognized these gem beds as true placers, but was inclined to think -the gem strata had decayed and left the gems free. An article published -some years ago in “Once a Week,” and supposed to have been from the pen -of Sir Samuel Baker, who had lived many years at Ratnapoora, and had -attentively examined the gem-bearing formations, gave the following -account:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“A common but erroneous belief is that the gems are formed in the -mountains and washed down by the abrasion of the rocks and deposited -in the alluvial bottoms. If it were so, they would have been traced -to their source and sought for in the mountains, where they would -naturally be found in greater quantities; but the natives never -think of searching for precious stones in such places, and in the -localities where they are found there does not appear to have been -any local alteration in the veins of gravel since they were first -thrown there; and my own conviction formed from observation on the -spot, and for this and other reasons following, is that the sapphire -and other gems have been formed and are still forming in the places -where they are now found. In the first place, rounded sapphires and -sapphire crystals with facets of brilliant lustre are found lying side -by side.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</span> Secondly, both the rounded stones and the numerous perfect -crystals, with their pyramids unbroken, show that they were never -broken from other rocks, but were formed unattached to any matrix, in -a soft medium such as fine sand or clay. I have seen hundreds of these -taken loose from the same spot. Thirdly, crystals of sapphire are -found with their edges reduced, yet with brilliant facets, which is -inconsistent with their reduction by rolling. Fourthly, sapphire being -much harder than any other stone with which it could come in contact, -it is not easy to understand how any attrition could be brought to -bear upon it to bring it to the beautifully translucent polish which -the rounded stones usually bear more especially considering the short -distance from the mountains to the alluvial bottoms between which the -water-wearing process is supposed to be effected.</p> - -<p>“It is remarkable that the rounded sapphires and rubies are always -the densest and of the finest water and color; showing that they were -formed by different chemical forces from the others. In short, there -is no more reason for supposing rounded sapphires to be water-worn -than for supposing that the bowlders of jasper, for instance, on the -Egyptian desert were so formed, when a fracture shows them to have -been formed in concentric layers and to be in their original state. -The same remarks apply to the crystals of some other minerals, as -zircon, tourmaline, and spinel.”</p> -</div> - -<p>The mineralogist, in contesting this opinion, will point to the round -pebbles of sapphire as evidence of disintegration and subsequent -aqueous action. But upon careful inquiry we shall find that these -nodular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</span> masses are regular concretions and natural formations, which -do not owe their form to the abrasion of exterior force, but are the -results of crystalline action. We shall also find that these peculiar -stones always form the finest specimens of the class of gems to -which they belong, whether sapphire, diamond, tourmaline, topaz, or -chrysoberyl.</p> - -<p>In regard to beauty of color, density, hardness of texture, and -brilliancy, these apparently water-worn masses are decidedly superior -to the perfectly shaped crystals, and among all the true gem mines of -the world this rule is observed. In the conglomerate of Ceylon we often -find gems whose appearance indicates the shock and abrasion of waves or -currents of water, while we find in adjoining places perfectly formed -crystals whose facets display a lustre as brilliant as on the day of -their creation. Some, then, have perhaps been moved about by aqueous -action, while others have never stirred from their first position.</p> - -<p>Among all the multitudes of sapphires taken from the mines of Ceylon, -we have never seen or heard of a specimen fairly attached to any rock -as a matrix. Sometimes the ferruginous cement which is one of the -necessary components of the matrix unites accidentally the rough gem to -a mass of quartz, but all the sapphires we have seen exhibit no sign of -having been attached permanently to any mineral substance. In fact, all -the rounded stones and the more perfect crystallized specimens have the -appearance of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</span> having been formed in a soft medium like sand or clay.</p> - -<p>Whence come the masses of quartz that are always found in the -conglomerate, and which sometimes occur of a large size? may be -asked by the inquirer. This is a question which cannot be answered -satisfactorily, especially when the adjoining ledges do not contain the -material. We can, however, solve the problem by supposing that beds of -quartz have been formed on the beds of the lagoons, and were afterwards -broken up by the action of the waves, frost, or other agencies. -The clay, which is often a component of this matrix, is sometimes -argillaceous and at other times kaolin. We are generally inclined to -believe that these substances are always the results of decomposition; -yet there are abundant evidences to show that they may be original -deposits. The distinguished geologist Jameson was forced to admit this -from his extended observations. We find blue, reddish, and yellowish -mud in cavities of the hard crystalline rocks enveloping crystals of -quartz and topaz, as at Greenwood, in Maine, or Schneckenstein, in -Germany. The phenomena are well marked in the felspar quarries at -Bowdoinham, in Maine, and also at Schemnitz, in Hungary, in a vein four -or five inches wide traversing porphyry. Whence comes this substance, -when there is no opportunity for infiltration, if it is not an original -deposition? Perhaps by pseudomorphism.</p> - -<p>How and why were these sapphires deposited in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</span> globular forms when the -law of crystallization is so rigid and inflexible? This is a question -which requires considerable assurance to answer, in the view that they -are original depositions; but Nature offers many examples to sustain -the theory if we search her domain; for instance, how were the rounded -nodules of flint formed in the chalk-beds? Their shape is not due to -attrition, and their peculiar arrangement forbids the belief that they -have been rolled or abraded by the agency of water. In the interior of -solid ledges we find nodules of quartz with rounded edges, as though -they had been exposed to some dissolving agency or abrading force; yet -they have been beyond the reach of external violence. Hence we must -conclude that their globular form is perhaps due to some deviation in -the usual process of deposition or crystallization. Huronite occurs in -spherical masses in hornblendic bowlders; and we may find nodules of -tourmaline in the interior of the most perfect crystals of the mineral. -There are other examples.</p> - -<p>The Cingalese do the mining and sell the gems to Moors, who resort -to Ratnapoora to attend the jewel fair, which is held at the annual -Buddhist festival of the Pera. Purchasers not only from all parts of -Ceylon, but India, come to buy gems at this time. It has therefore -become the great jewel mart of the world; and one can find there many -of the rare and beautiful gems found in other parts of the world: the -emeralds of Peru, the topazes of Brazil, the opals of Honduras, the -turquoises of Persia,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</span> the jade of China; in fact, most of the gems -that have a commercial value, or any tradition attached thereto, are to -be found at these fairs. They are of greater importance than the famous -fairs at Novgorod in Russia, to which the gems and precious stones of -Northern and Central Asia are annually sent.</p> - -<p>The Hindoos are the best buyers of gems of all the nations of the -world. Their rajahs and princes pay the highest prices for the -paragons; and the poor native had rather invest in a gem, which to -his simple belief adds to his security and happiness, than hoard -gold coins, which are no better for concealment. The Moors are also -generally the lapidaries. The tools which they use in cutting the gems -are rude and primitive, and often the stones are much impaired under -their hands; but some of the workmen are skilful and are able to copy -with exactness the most perfectly cut gems of the European lapidaries. -Workmen of the inferior class may be found in the little towns all over -the island; but the artists of the first rank are located at Callatura -and Colombo. Immense numbers of garnets, zircons, and inferior -sapphires, with other gems, are cut by these rude artisans, who place -but little value on their time, and therefore work for a trifle. These -precious stones are then sold on the island or exported to foreign -lands, but are generally taken to India by travelling merchants, who -exchange them for produce or money. The demand is so great from the -populous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</span> Mohammedan nations, that many of these gems are really higher -in price in India than in the gem marts in Europe, as in the time of -Tavernier, three hundred years ago. Another potent reason prevents the -market from being glutted: the Hindoo parts with his gem reluctantly, -and only in case of necessity or in hope of greater gain; and the -wealthy Parsee prides himself upon his display of gems, as well as -upon his degree of caste. The quantity of gems treasured up by the -inhabitants of India must be immense.</p> - -<p>The composition of the sapphire, when found in the clear, transparent -form, is pure alumina. Its degree of hardness is 9, being inferior only -to the diamond; and its range of colors is very extensive, embracing -most of those seen in the solar spectrum. Its specific gravity varies -from 3.9 to 4.3; and, with the exception of the zircon, it is the -heaviest of all the gems. It is also compact and exceedingly tough in -its texture, and resists the shocks and wear of time better than any -other gem, not excepting even the diamond, which is harder, but far -more fragile. In point of brilliancy, it is below the zircon, garnet, -and the spinel, its refractive index being 1.77 to 1.79. This mineral -possesses remarkable electrical properties, but not so marked in degree -as in the tourmaline or topaz; when this property is excited in the -polished specimen, the attraction continues for a considerable length -of time. The property of double refraction is not often very distinct, -and by means of this peculiarity it is sometimes detected from the -spinel.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</span></p> - -<p>The term corundum is now applied to the coarser and less transparent -kinds of the stone, which have been used as a polishing material from -time immemorial. The granular variety known as emery is largely mixed -with iron ores, and is far inferior to the transparent and purer -varieties as an abrading agent. It is always of a blackish or dark-gray -hue, and is often mistaken for iron ore. Asia Minor furnishes nearly -all of the emery used in the arts. It is found there in masses or -bowlders, either free or in granular limestone. In the United States it -is found along the gold belt in the Southern States; and in Chester, -a town of Massachusetts, it occurs in a large and valuable vein -associated with diaspore, ripidolite, etc., which generally accompany -it. At this mine at Chester, translucent sapphires of bi-pyramidal form -are sometimes found. <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> C. J. Jackson found one small blue crystal -quite transparent and doubly terminated.</p> - -<p>The corundum belt of the United States has been traced, with wide -intervals, however, from Philadelphia to Northern Georgia. All along -this distance of several hundred miles, masses of corundum, more or -less transparent, have been found during the past forty years, but -active search failed to reveal the mineral in its matrix. A few years -ago exploration in the extreme southwestern part of North Carolina -discovered the long-looked-for corundum <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in situ</i>. It was found on -the side of a mountain, in a mica-like substance called ripidolite. The -corundum from this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</span> locality appears in geodes and also in well-marked -crystals, ranging from small size to even the weight of three hundred -pounds. It is often of perfect transparency, but may be translucent -or opaque. The transparent crystals and masses, although possessing -limpidity, are traversed in all directions with cleavage planes, which -prevent their use in ornamentation. The colors are also irregularly -distributed in patches, clouds, or in thin veneers; many specimens have -been seen of variegated hues,—red, white, yellow, and blue,—and even -the whole of these colors have been seen in a single specimen.</p> - -<p>From the great number of specimens submitted to our examination we -have no hesitation in saying that gems cannot be quarried at will from -these mines. The inequality of color and the frequency of cleavage -planes will forbid. Small gems of few grains weight may be cut from -some of the transparent masses if the clear portions are selected with -care, and cut with that skill which is required in the shaping of gems -whose color is unequally distributed. But it is doubtful if fine gems -are found in this formation, for the conditions which deposited the -corundum here, and the more perfect specimens in the true gem strata -elsewhere, are quite different.</p> - -<p>The colors of the North Carolina corundum are often very fine, and -we have seen specimens of a superb blue that retain their hues -by candlelight. None of the reds we have ever seen have the true -pigeons’-blood tint, but are tinged with blue, and are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</span> therefore of a -finer shade when seen by artificial light than by daylight. The yellows -are also of a decided shade, and generally form a portion only of the -crystal or mass of sapphire.</p> - -<p>Some fine crystals have been found here, but we have seen none so -perfectly crystallized as the pyramidal specimens from the Asiatic -mines. Several large crystals have been exhumed, one of which -weighs three hundred pounds, and is well defined in its form of -crystallization. It is now preserved in the valuable cabinet of -Professor Shepherd, of Amherst College.</p> - -<p>A few years ago the gold-miners, while seeking for gold in the -river-beds and alluvial deposits among the mountains of Montana, -observed little transparent crystals of stone among the nuggets and -flakes of gold, as they cleared out their rude apparatus used in -washing the auriferous soils. But little notice was taken of these -limpid stones, as their colors were generally faint; but the observing -gold-seekers remarked their great weight and the remarkable coldness -to the touch, as they passed them around to each other in wonderment. -For a long time the miners flung these minerals away with other refuse, -unconscious of their character or their value; but one day there -appeared in the dark sands of the gold-pans a stone which flashed forth -such brilliant red gleams as to excite anew the curiosity and cupidity -of the miners. This discovery led to inquiry, and the gold-seekers -learned too late concerning the value of the treasures<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</span> they had -carelessly thrown away. Afterwards the gems were preserved and sent -with the gold-dust to the States. They proved to be sapphires. Some -of them were finely crystallized in long, regular prisms, but the -most of them were without definite form. None of the several hundred -specimens that have been submitted to us exhibited smooth faces, like -the brilliant facets of crystals found in cavities of the crystalline -rocks or in the gem mines of Ceylon; but all exhibited a roughness of -the exterior, as though they had been abraded by aqueous action.</p> - -<p>The colors of these sapphires are generally faded or faint; some are -snow-white, but the most of them are of a faint bluish or greenish -cast. We have, however, seen small gems of fine red, yellow, hyacinth, -light-blue, and celadine green. We have also information of a beautiful -red sapphire of six karats, but failed to trace it after it was sent -from Montana.</p> - -<p>This discovery establishes the fact beyond a doubt that the gem occurs -in quite perfect form in the territories of the United States. Most -of the specimens we have seen were collected at El Dorado Bar, which -has since been abandoned by the gold-seekers. From this superficial -search and incomplete information concerning the locality of the gem, -we are unable to determine whether regular gem mines are to be found in -this country, or along the slope of the mountains, which extend either -north or south to a great distance. We have been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</span> assured, however, by -officers of the army, that fine sapphires have been brought to them -by the Indians in Colorado living on the same range and formation -that stretches into Montana. Therefore we shall not be surprised if -well-directed search along this formation should reveal gem beds of -value; and the mere circumstance that the gold-washers do not discover -them is of but little weight; for gem-seeking and gold-mining are two -different explorations.</p> - -<p>It is a little singular that none of the beautiful gems occur in huge -specimens, like some of the products of the vegetable kingdom. Nature, -however, in the mineral line, or certainly with the gems, creates -her perfections in small bodies. We sometimes find a clear crystal -of topaz, tourmaline, or emerald of a few ounces or even pounds in -weight, but they are very rare; while the generality of all the choice -specimens are comparatively of a diminutive size. When occurring above -a certain weight they become defective either in color, limpidity, -or form. They are precious stones, it is true, so far as composition -is concerned, but they are not gems according to the acceptance of -the word. By the word gem we not only mean a precious stone, but its -transformation into a form possessing limpidity, brilliancy, attractive -color, or some other charm.</p> - -<p>As regards the sapphire, its perfect forms occur in diminutive -size. This mineral is also found in Bohemia, near Merowitz, in an -argillaceous or marly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</span> cement, with garnets, zircons, and even fossil -shells. Tavernier relates that he saw in possession of General -Wallenstein, when at Prague, some beautiful rubies, which were obtained -in Bohemia. Fine stones of even five karats weight have been discovered -at these mines. Concerning the mines of Lower Bengal we have but little -information, and will not venture to give a description. We think they -have the same characteristics as those of the gem beds of Ceylon. The -Ilmenes Mountains, in Siberia, furnish sapphires of a strong blue. In -Greece and Saxony they are also found in small quantities of undecided -colors, and generally opaque. Impure specimens of well-defined colors -are found in the volcanic <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> of Expailly, in France, or -among the snow-white dolomites of <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Gothard; in the granite ledges -close to the base of the glacier of Bois, in the Alps of Savoy, we may -observe regular prisms of sapphire, quite transparent and sometimes of -a decided blue or a tender green.</p> - -<p>The massive and opaque varieties known as adamantine spar are said -to be found in granitic rocks in China, and on the coast of Malabar; -but very little is known concerning the exact condition of these -localities. Fibrolite and magnetic iron are said to accompany the -corundum in several of its localities. Brard believes that the blue -diamond of Pliny of the Island of Cyprus is no other than the blue -sapphire. And this belief is not without foundation, as some of the -varieties of corundum are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</span> found on the islands and coasts not far -distant. Occasionally stones of fine blue tints and of considerable -size are found. In 1853, a large and beautiful piece was found in the -gem strata near Ratnapoora, and sold to a Moor at Colombo for $20,000. -Fragments as large as goose eggs are also sometimes found in the -Saffragan district, but are of an inferior character, according to <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> -Davy. Mawe describes one of three hundred and ten karats. We have in -our collection a transparent, light-blue, and finely shaped crystal of -three hundred and eight karats, but we fear that it will not match the -distinct crystal of three inches in length which belonged to Sir Abram -Hume.</p> - -<p>The suite of blues exhibited by this gem is very extensive, and -embraces all known shades and even the purest prismatic hue. The deep -regal blue is too intense a color for a night gem, as by artificial -light it becomes black. But there are sapphires of a celestial blue -possessing perfect limpidity and rich velvety reflections that retain -their splendid colors by night as well as by day, and they merit the -distinction bestowed upon them by the ancients when they consecrated -them to Jupiter. These superb gems are, however, exceedingly rare, and -are eagerly sought for by amateurs at prices far above that of the -colorless diamond. The general color of the blue sapphire is a light -shade, from which it passes through various gradations to a blue black. -Perfect stones of fine colors are quite rare, for they are apt to be -clouded,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</span> and the color distributed unevenly in the mass. Frequently -the color is in one extremity of the crystal, or appears as a spot on -the surface of a nodule. In other specimens it is arranged in bands or -thin clouds. Hence much skill is often required to cut them so that the -gem may display a proper distribution. Frequently the color is left in -the bottom of the gem, and when the stone is set the color is diffused -by refraction through the upper portions, so as to give the gem the -appearance of being colored throughout.</p> - -<p>One of the most perfect and beautiful specimens of sapphire is the -magnificent blue gem now in the Natural History Museum of Paris. It -was given by M. Weiss in exchange for a collection of choice minerals. -It is of the form of an oblique angular parallelopipedon of 132¹⁄₁₆ -karats. Haüy thought it had been cut and polished; but Satrin believed -that only its natural faces were polished, and that the form of the -primitive crystal was not altered. This is the most probable view, -for no lapidary of even ordinary skill would select the rhomboidal -form for so beautiful and valuable a gem. This remarkable gem, without -defects, notwithstanding its great size, was found in Bengal by a poor -wooden-spoon maker. It finally was acquired by Rospoli, of Rome, but -was purchased for the French Crown after several vicissitudes. It was -obtained at the price of 170,000 francs, which price is certainly below -its true value. France also possesses several other superb sapphires -of large size.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</span> There is also in Dresden a fine sapphire, a gift from -Peter the Great.</p> - -<p>There was in the ancient Hungarian crown a fine large sapphire, -surrounded with four oblong green gems, the nature of which has not yet -been made known. These mysterious green stones, rendered still more -interesting by the disappearance of the crown, are perhaps of modern -introduction, as they are not mentioned in the inventory of the jewel -when Queen Elizabeth pledged it to the Emperor Frederick IV. Hence the -inquiry arises, are they green sapphires, emeralds, tourmalines, or -antique glass?</p> - -<p>In the Universal Exhibition at London, in 1855, two immense and -beautiful sapphires were displayed among the collection of gems and -jewels which had been gathered from all parts of the world; they -belonged to Miss Burdett Coutts, and were valued at nearly $200,000. -At the same exhibition might have been seen a beautiful oval sapphire, -and another in the form of a drop, and of very unusual size and beauty, -belonging to a rich Russian countess.</p> - -<p>The Imperial Crown of the First Order of the Czar of Russia contains an -enormous blue sapphire of great beauty and value. The Russian treasury -also possesses some others of great size and rare beauty. Among them -is the famous light-blue stone which formerly belonged to the cabinet -of the English banker, the late <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hope. There is also a very large -and celebrated sapphire, said to be of marvellous beauty in the Vienna -Kronenschatze. Most of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</span> the treasuries and regalias of Europe contain -fine sapphires of value and beauty. Among the Crown jewels of France, -there are two superb gems of twenty-seven karats each, one of nineteen -karats, and about a dozen ranging in weight from nine to thirteen -karats each.</p> - -<p>The Hindoos took great pleasure in carving images of their idols, and -in making grotesque forms as well as talismans, from the precious -stones found in their country; and very many examples are shown to the -traveller. The sapphire was often chosen for this purpose; and neither -its excessive hardness nor its high price offered any serious obstacles -to the determined votary or the superstitious grandee. There is a -statuette of Buddha, one inch in height, carved by the Hindoos out of -a perfect sapphire, in the British Museum, which came from the sack of -India. One of the richest reliquaries of any age or any country is the -golden case at Kandy in Ceylon, which contains a tooth of Buddha, but -which the naturalists declare to be the tooth of a monkey. Never was -fancied sanctity so dearly enshrined. The dental specimen is enclosed -in five golden cases fitting each other <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en suite</i> and incrusted -with the finest rubies, sapphires, and other gems Ceylon and India has -afforded.</p> - -<p>Philostratus describes a chamber in the ancient Royal Palace of the -Parthians at Babylon as follows: “It has a roof fashioned into a -vault like the heaven, composed entirely of sapphires, which are the -bluest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</span> of stones, and resemble the sky in color. This is the chamber -in which the King delivers his judgment.” The Asiatics, in all periods -of their semi-civilized history, made a lavish use of this gem in the -decorations of their dwellings and their temples. Even the partial -ruins of some of these edifices still to be seen in various parts of -India, exhibit great beauty in their impaired mosaics of precious -stones.</p> - -<p>The red sapphire is known in commerce as the Oriental ruby, and when in -perfection is the most magnificent of gems, and is rarely approached in -the beauty of its gorgeous hue by any other gem. The term ruby is an -indefinite one, and refers to any stone of a rich red color. All these -gems were classed together in the time of Pliny, under the generic name -of “carbunculus,” but the red sapphire was reckoned a variety, and -especially referred to under the name of “lychnis.” It is seldom found -exceeding three karats in weight, and the distinguished mineralogist, -Beudant, declares that a perfect red sapphire of thirty troy grains -is unknown, and would be of inestimable value. It is a singular fact -that while the blue variety should occur in masses and crystals of even -several ounces in weight, the red is rare even at four karats. Modern -mineralogists now maintain that all of the large historic rubies are -spinels, but it is within the bounds of possibility that large red -sapphires do occur sometimes as exceptions to an apparently rigid rule; -for we have lately received from the Ceylon mines a transparent crystal -of pink<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</span> color which weighs two hundred and forty-one karats. It is -also stated that the King of Arrakan possesses two magnificent prisms -of one and a half inches in length and an inch in diameter.</p> - -<p>But of all the fine red sapphires which are known and proved, there -are but few above five karats. The largest one of which we have -any definite knowledge is the beautiful gem set in the Toison d’Or -of the French Regalia, and which weighs 8³⁄₁₆ karats (= 26 grains -troy). The inventory of the French gems in 1791 justly illustrates -the comparative rarity and diminutive size of the stone; for in this -splendid collection, which had accumulated during a long period of -time, and was then the richest in Europe, there were but four red -sapphires above five karats, and only five above four karats. This -variety is singularly liable to imperfections, and far more so than -either the blue or the yellow. It is rare to find a ruby of the pure -and characteristic pigeons’-blood tint that does not in some degree -exhibit silky and opalescent fibres. This defect, which generally -appears as a milkiness in the interior of the gem, is due to minute -crystals dispersed throughout the stone, and which become apparent when -the mineral is viewed parallel to the primitive axis of the crystal. -Hence, in cutting the rough stone, considerable care must be exercised -by the lapidary, so as to shape the gem and render its opalescence -invisible. Rubies of exquisite color are often rendered comparatively -valueless on account of fibres, clouds, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</span> chalcedony-like bands. -All the red sapphires, however, are not affected in this way. The -blood-red are much more liable than those which have a tinge of -blue. We have examined a number of red sapphires perceptibly tinted -with violet, which were completely free from internal defects. This -opalescence is never possessed by the spinel, and is therefore one of -the distinguishing marks in testing the nature of the red gems. The red -tourmaline is also strangely liable to internal fibres, hollow threads, -clouds, and longitudinal streaks, and sometimes presents an appearance -similar to that of the ruby. The red sapphire is also distinguished -from the other varieties by being decidedly heavier, and also by being -softer than the deep-blue.</p> - -<p>Ceylon is famous for the abundance of blue sapphires, while the red -variety is comparatively rare. In Burmah, however, the red variety is -the most abundant and of the finest hue. The Ceylon rubies are regarded -as inferior in tint to those found in Ava and Pegu of the Burmese -Empire; but they are less inclined to be opalescent, and are therefore -more brilliant. The violet tinge of the Ceylon rubies lessens their -beauty when viewed by daylight; but it disappears in a great measure -by artificial light, and the hue then becomes of a fine prismatic red, -accompanied by the most vivid lustre; therefore we may say in general -terms that the Burmese rubies are the most beautiful by daylight, and -that the Ceylonese are superior by night.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</span></p> - -<p>The finest mines of rubies in the world are near the Capelan Mountains -in Ava. But concerning their extent, history, and exploration, very -little is known. Colonel Symes, who visited the country in 1795, with -the British Embassy, stated that the richest and most valuable of the -mines were then situated in the vicinity of the capital; but that there -were many other mines in various parts of the kingdom. The information -concerning these remarkable deposits is vague and uncertain even at -the present day; but sufficient is known to establish the fact that -the geological formation is very similar to the gem beds of Ceylon and -Lower Bengal. According to the publications of the Asiatic Society of -Bengal, the principal mines of Burmah are situated about seventy miles -east of the capital; and the deposits are discovered by sinking pits -at various depths in the earth until the gem stratum is reached. It -appears to be precisely like the conglomerate of Ceylon, and occurs at -a depth varying from two to forty feet below the surface.</p> - -<p>It is stated that all of the fine gems above a certain weight are -monopolized by the king, who styles himself “Lord of the rubies,” and -consequently but very few find their way to the marts of other nations. -It is also stated that the gems are polished at Amarapoora, where there -are about twenty lapidary establishments; and that pulverized blue -sapphire, or the massive corundum spar, which is a trifle harder than -the red variety, is used<span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</span> as the abrading material. All of the mines -are jealously guarded from the visits of Europeans; and when Professor -Oldham was allowed to examine some of them in 1855, he could learn of -but one European who had previously seen them. This favored person -was a deserter from the British army, and was employed by the king as -superintendent of the mines.</p> - -<p>This gem is so highly prized in Burmah that when a fine gem is -discovered a procession is formed of grandees, elephants, and soldiers, -and sent out to meet it and escort it to the royal treasury. The -long and exclusive possession of these mines has enriched the Crown -immensely; but nothing is known with certainty. Colonel Symes, -however, saw some of the state carriages of the King of Ava, which -were splendidly decorated with jewels. One of these carriages was a -magnificent and singular production of art. Its decorations were so -profuse and contained so many precious stones set in silver and gold, -that it presented one entire blaze of the most brilliant colors. A -vast variety of gems were used in the construction of this truly -Oriental vehicle; and among them were to be seen diamonds, rubies, -white and blue sapphires, emeralds, amethysts, garnets, topazes, and -crystals of all kinds. Another of these queer barbaric monuments of -art was lately exhibited at Rangoon. It is known as the Royal Hitee. -This grotesque piece of architecture, with fantastic name, is a light -edifice thirty-five feet high,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</span> formed of seven terraces, surmounted -by an umbrella, which is the emblem of royalty. The terraces were -richly inlaid with gold and precious stones; and the sacred umbrella -was profusely decorated with valuable rubies, pearls, diamonds, and -emeralds.</p> - -<p>Rambusson has recently stated that none of the mines yielding rubies -have been worked for one hundred and fifty years; and that all of the -gems now offered in commerce have been collected previously. We think -this author is somewhat mistaken in this statement; for we know that -the Ceylon gem-deposit yields more of these gems at the present time -than for a long time past; and we do not quite believe that search -for them has been entirely suspended in Siam or in Burmah. During the -last years of the occupation of Ceylon by the Dutch, they exacted -from the tribes of the interior of the island an annual tribute in -the form of a certain quantity of precious stones. Hence the King of -Kandy forbade further exploration for gems by the natives; and so the -gem-fields lay neglected for a long time. Lately, however, under the -English rule, the ancient fondness for gem-mining has revived among the -Cingalese, and some fine gems have been discovered. In 1875 a native -hunter found in a remote district of Siam some remarkable mines of red -and blue sapphires; and explorations brought to light many valuable -stones, which found their way to the gem marts of Rangoon and Calcutta. -Splendid specimens were shown to Admiral<span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</span> Coote; and the consul at -Bangkok saw a magnificent stone of three hundred and seventy karats, -which yielded a blue gem of one hundred and eleven karats weight, and -of the finest water.</p> - -<p>Rubies are even now scarce in India, and probably always will be, -since the demand for them is very great among the wealthy of the -populous nations of that country. Even three centuries ago Tavernier -found it profitable to buy them in Europe and sell them again in the -country whence they had been taken perhaps many centuries before. Red -sapphires not only exhibit singular internal structures, but they may -be colored strangely, thus puzzling the experimentalist to account -for the distribution of coloring matter. Davila possessed a fine and -rare ruby which exhibited a clear white band between two parts of red. -Another gem showing a strange arrangement of color was to be seen in -the cabinet of Chantilly. It was half red and half yellow. Stones of -such distribution of color are marvels of rarity; but it is quite -common to meet with them partly red and blue or white, or blue and -yellow. They sometimes display a vague dichroism which is not so well -defined as in the iolite or tourmaline. The naturalist Fanjas found -at Expailly, in France, a transparent sapphire which, viewed in one -direction, exhibited a green hue approaching the emerald in its beauty -of tint, but when seen in another light it appeared of a very beautiful -blue. In the Orleans collection there was a curious sapphire which had -been engraved with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</span> figure of a woman, the head being formed of -white, and the dress of intense blue. It is related that M. Bossi, of -Milan, who was an excellent connoisseur in gems, saw in possession of -Prince Metsch a superb sapphire which appeared to be dotted with flakes -of gold. We sometimes notice this singular appearance in the interior -of other gems, and find by the use of the microscope that it is due -to internal flaws or reflections from plate-like crystals within the -stone. We are inclined to believe that this gem of Prince Metsch is -to be classed with the sapphire owned by Abbé Pullini, which had been -engraved upon by the ancients. This stone, when viewed in a certain -direction, exhibited flakes of gold in the interior, which disappeared -when the view was changed, which would hardly have been the case if the -reflections had been produced by opaque bodies. We have before us a -polished Siberian beryl which shows flakes of silver-white in certain -lights, but which appear of dark-brown when the axis of vision is -changed.</p> - -<p>The Crown of England possesses some large and beautiful colored rubies, -but they are probably spinels. The large one standing in the centre of -the Maltese cross on top of the British crown is probably a spinel, -but nevertheless of great beauty. It is also a gem of considerable -historic interest, if we can believe the traditions that cluster around -it, and it is believed to be the identical stone given to the famous -Black Prince of England, by King Pedro of Castile, after the battle of -Najara. Tradition also<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</span> asserts that King Henry V. of England wore it -in the front of his helmet, in the bloody battle of Agincourt, about -a hundred years later. Its earlier history seems to be lost. Perhaps -this is the identical ruby given in 1360 to Rudolph II. of Austria -by the Queen Dowager of France. When Peter the Great visited England -he gave one of the members of the royal family a very beautiful ruby -which he carelessly took from his vest pocket. The last message sent -by Mary, Queen of Scots, before execution to the Duke of Guise was -accompanied with a beautiful ruby ring, as proof of the credibility of -the messenger.</p> - -<p>The King of Burmah is said to possess an immense ruby of wonderful -beauty, of the size of a pigeon’s egg, but there is no authentic record -of it. Tavernier mentions a ruby of 50 karats and another of 17¹⁄₂ -karats, which he saw in possession of the King of Visapour; but as all -gems of fine red color were then classed as rubies, we are ignorant -of their nature. Among the numerous articles of loot obtained by the -French in the sack of the Summer Palace at Pekin, was the necklace -of the Emperor of China. This celestial jewel was formed of green -jade stones of delicate color, perforated and strung upon a cord, to -the centre of which was attached a monster red stone, of the nature -of which we are not informed. It has been stated that the East India -Company has the largest specimen of red sapphire known, but we are -unable to vouch for the statement. The largest ruby seen in India by -Garcia was of twenty-four karats<span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</span> weight. Chardin, however, describes -a magnificent one among the crown jewels of Persia, in the year 1666. -This matchless gem was as large as a hen’s egg cut in half, and was of -superb color. On its superior face the name of “Chaic Sophy” had been -engraved by one of its former possessors.</p> - -<p>The Crown of Russia possesses the finest and most valuable collection -of rubies in the civilized world. Some of them are of enormous size and -are probably spinels, but they are nevertheless of great beauty and -value. The degree of color gives the true value to the gem, no matter -what its composition may be, if its hardness is equal to quartz. Among -the red gems of lesser size there are undoubtedly red sapphires of -value, but we have no positive details concerning them. In fact, all -of the red stones of fine hues are classed as rubies without regard to -their nature. The famous ruby placed under the cross in the Russian -crown of Anna Ivanovna is said to have been bought at Pekin by the -Russian ambassador for 120,000 roubles. It is indeed a wonderful gem, -and is one of the marvels of the mineral world, whether its material be -corundum, tourmaline, or spinel. It is now known that the Chinese have -mines of rubies in the mountains of the Province of Yu-Nan, and it is -possible that this gem may have come from that locality. The tourmaline -deposits of Nertschinsk, which yield gems of splendid red hues, are -not far distant from Pekin, and those mines may claim the honor of -producing this rare stone.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</span></p> - -<p>The throne of gold, called by the Persians Takdis, was supported on -feet formed of rubies. One of the seal rings of Chosroes II. was a -pink ruby, with the legend engraved upon it, “Riches are the source of -prosperity.” The fifth seal ring was a red ruby, bearing the legend, -“Splendor and prosperity.”</p> - -<p>The flowers, composed of the finest gems afforded by the mines of -India, and placed by Shah Jehan on the tomb of his beautiful wife, in -that wonderful mausoleum, the Taj Mahal, were the most precious ever -made. The roses of these garlands were made of the finest rubies; and -the leaves were composed of emeralds, which were made to glisten with -diamond spray. The screen which was built around the tomb was carved -from marble, and as delicately wrought as a veil of lace; and along its -borders, lilies, tulips, roses, and other beautiful flowers, composed -of precious stones, were inlaid in the marble.</p> - -<p>The tomb of Mahomet, at Medina, must contain some superb gems and -works of the goldsmith’s art. Here is to be seen that masterpiece of -embroidery, the veil of Kunderas, which is composed of inwrought pearls -and various precious stones of the value of ten millions of rupees. The -faithful relate, that when the rays of the morning sun glance over it, -its wonderful beauty seems enhanced by invisible influences. The famous -sympathetic ruby of the sacred Kaaba, now preserved in the temple at -Mecca, and believed to have fallen from the heavens at the beginning -of the world, is undoubtedly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</span> an aerolite. The fiery red hue which it -exhibited when traversing the sky, coming from unknown space, gave rise -to the tradition of its being a latent ruby whose gleams of beauty had -been temporarily suspended.</p> - -<p>The yellow variety of sapphire is quite common, and exhibits many of -the finest shades of yellow; but they are generally very faint in -tint and often like the lemon in hue. They are exceedingly liable -to imperfections, and especially to that opalescence which so often -disfigures the red sapphire. Fine specimens, therefore, possessing -transparency and beauty of color, are rare gems. But when it does occur -in perfection, it forms a magnificent gem, which is only surpassed by -the yellow diamond and zircon. Its rich golden hues, with soft and -satin-like flashes, are far superior to the Brazilian topaz.</p> - -<p>The Museum of Natural History in Paris possesses one of the finest -yellow sapphires known. It is a wonderfully lustrous gem of fine color, -and measures nearly an inch in length by half an inch in breadth. There -is also in the same cabinet a strange gem which was once placed among -the crown jewels of France. It was mentioned in the famous inventory -of 1791, as a singular corundum of 19²⁄₁₆ karats weight, and of 6,000 -francs value. It had been polished in the form of an elongated oval, -and exhibited the remarkable appearance of being deep-blue at the -extremities and yellow in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</span> centre. This singular distribution of -color is not often seen in fine specimens, although it is frequently -met with among the inferior. We have also had the pleasure of examining -another large gem, cut into the form of a brilliant, whose diagonal -corners were blue and yellow, and yet, such was its play of dichroism, -that light reflected through these two colors produced but a faint -tinge of green.</p> - -<p>This double arrangement of coloring is sometimes seen with blue and -red sapphires, or yellow, blue, and white; but we have learned of but -one fine gem displaying the red and yellow. Several of the transparent -crystals from North Carolina exhibit the two hues in the same crystal; -and we have seen one that was actually red, yellow, white, and blue. -But the specimen was not sufficiently perfect to form a gem. Sometimes -the yellow hues are of a greenish cast, and then they resemble the -finest of the golden chrysoberyls, or they may approach the more -verdant shade of the peridot. It is said by the antiquaries that none -of the collections of ancient Greek and Roman engraved gems possess a -single specimen in yellow sapphire. This singular absence may be partly -accounted for by its rarity in perfection, and also from its liability -to appear pale when set in gold.</p> - -<p>In the French casket of gems, in the year 1791, mention was made of -a superb yellow sapphire of 27¹⁴⁄₁₆ karats, two of 13 karats each, -and one of 11 karats, all of which were valued at 8,900 francs.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</span> The -beautiful specimen now exhibited in the Cabinet of Minerals, in the -Garden of Plants at Paris, which is of the purest and richest color, -joined with wonderful lustre, is supposed to be the gem mentioned above -among the crown jewels. The French amateur and writer on gems, Caire, -once possessed a remarkable and charming yellow sapphire of the great -weight of twenty-nine karats. Its former Hindoo owner had seriously -impaired its beauty by drilling a hole in one extremity for the purpose -of suspension; and had also engraved on its sides inscriptions in -Arabic, which were probably condensed quotations from the Koran to -preserve the possessor from harm.</p> - -<p>The green variety is probably the rarest of all the forms of sapphire, -and finely tinted stones are very seldom seen. They are generally of -a faint sea-green tinge, and resemble beryls in their hues. But when -they do occur of grass-green color, they form magnificent gems and far -exceed the true emerald in lustre and brilliancy. We very much doubt, -however, if they ever approach the emerald in its exquisite shade of -green. We have examined many green stones from the Ceylon gem mines, -and with one exception have found them to be green spinels, zircons, -and tourmalines of various intensities of shade. The one undoubted -specimen referred to was of an impure hue. The celebrated Romè de -L’Isle possessed two beautiful crystals of green sapphire. When they -display the sea-green hue or the mountain-blue of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</span> the beryl, they are -then called Oriental aqua-marines, but fine stones of this description -are not common. We have seen some small but very beautifully tinted -gems of this class from the gold fields of Montana. Barbot speaks -with ecstasy of two green sapphires from Matura in Ceylon, and which -far exceeded any other gem in their velvety color, limpidity, and -brilliancy. It is possible that these two gems may have been zircons, -as these stones abound in Matura, and are of the most vivid lustre when -perfect. But stones of fine green hues of this mineral are exceedingly -rare. We have also seen a specimen of transparent corundum from Siam -which was dichroite, blue and green one way, and entirely green the -other. It called to mind that found at Expailly in France, by the -naturalist Fanjas, and which appeared of an almost emerald green when -viewed in one direction, or of a most beautiful blue when the axis of -vision was changed.</p> - -<p>The name girasole is applied to those gems that exhibit a peculiar -radiance when exposed to the sunbeams. This curious play of light is -seen in the transparent and translucent stones, but especially in -the translucent. When the gem which possesses this quality is cut in -the boss form it shows a glimmering light brighter at one part than -at another, owing to a peculiar internal refraction. The effect is -very beautiful when the gem is of fine color, and the bright spot -moves mysteriously over a more sombre ground as the stone is turned -in various directions.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</span> The sapphire rarely shows this property to -the same perfection exhibited by one of the varieties of opal. We -have seen two specimens from the North Carolina corundum mines, which -would have been very superior gems if they had not been traversed in -all directions by numerous cleavage planes. They were quite an inch -in diameter, of a nodular form, and had been deposited in a ledge of -ripidolite.</p> - -<p>One of the most remarkable varieties of the sapphire is known as the -asteria, which was so named by Pliny from the fact of its displaying -diverging rays of light. This phenomenon is only seen in stones of -semi-opacity or inferior clearness, and the star-like rays are so -arranged as to be inclined to each other at an angle of 60 degrees. -These stones may be of various colors,—blue, red, or gray,—yet the -rays of the star are always white or faintly tinged, and stream forth -in beautiful contrast to a ground of delicate blue or decided red. -The stars appear the most distinctly to view when the polished gem is -exposed to direct sunlight or a small bright flame. This mysterious -play is seen in but few of the gems, and the sapphire exhibits it -in its greatest perfection. It is indeed a curious thing to see a -six-rayed star with long silken beams of light suddenly appear to view -as the gem is turned to the light, and as quickly disappear as the -focus is changed. No wonder the ancients believed the appearance due -to supernatural powers. The microscope, however, has disclosed to the -moderns the cause of the asterism. This instrument<span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</span> reveals multitudes -of minute crystals within the stone, arranged in three different but -equal angles. To obtain the stellate appearance in perfection, then, -the stone must be cut and polished in cabochon or dome-like form. -The apex of the gem is then in a direct plane to these angles, being -perpendicular to the axis of the primitive form of the crystal, and -therefore the rays of light are reflected from the sides of these -multitudinous crystals producing the asterism.</p> - -<p>As we have said before, some other minerals exhibit this phenomenon -at times. We find it in rare specimens of quartz and in some of the -mica group. In some rare fragments of quartz from Siberia the stellate -appearance is seen in extraordinary perfection. The six-rayed star is -not only seen by refracted light, but is even visible by transmitted -light. Sometimes these stones also exhibit reflections of red and blue -as the direction of the stone is changed, thus combining the girasole -and asteria in the same gem. Lancon relates that M. Desmaret possessed -a little plate of this variety of quartz, of so great beauty and -perfection as to refuse 25,000 francs for it. There is in the Museum -of the Jardin des Plantes a remarkable diamond asteria; and there are -also in this collection and in the cabinet of the École des Mines some -superb blue and red sapphire asterias.</p> - -<p>The pure white sapphires are not often found. When well cut they -exhibit a vivid eclat, and are sometimes mistaken for diamonds; but -they are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</span> easily detected by the expert, since they do not possess -even three fourths of the degree of brilliancy of the diamond, nor -the prismatic play of color. Some of the faint-colored stones lose -their tints when subjected to a high degree of heat, and improve in -brilliancy and lustre. It is said that the Orientals practise this -trick extensively, and sell the altered gems for diamonds. We are not -aware of the refractive index of these fire-tested stones having been -measured with the view of ascertaining the degree of change; but it -is certain that their lustre is increased in a marked degree. Heat, -however, does not affect all colored sapphires. Some of the red are -often changed to deeper hues, and others are not affected. Brogniart -found that the French sapphires from Expailly were actually rendered -more intense in color by the action of fire. After numerous experiments -with the faint-colored sapphires from Montana, we also have come to -the conclusion that the stones from this locality are not perceptibly -affected by long-continued heat.</p> - -<p>Sir David Brewster, in conducting his famous experiments in optics, was -of the opinion that the white sapphire, on account of its structure and -its refractive power, was superior to all other transparent minerals -for lenses for the microscope. The diamond, which one would naturally -suppose to be the most perfect material for the purpose, on account of -its high refractive power and apparent clearness, is really faulty, and -comparatively worthless on account of its internal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</span> structure. If the -white sapphire is of such excellence in this respect, on account of its -compactness and refractive power, why will not the white zircon prove -far superior as a lens, as it is the most compact, transparent, hard -mineral known, and its refractive power is much greater than that of -the sapphire? Black sapphires are now and then mentioned by authors, -but we are inclined to believe that they are very rare; for Davy -declares that he met with but two or three specimens in his travels -in India or Ceylon. Blue stones of very deep hue appear sometimes -quite black; but when they are placed in a strong light, and viewed in -another direction, the blue tinge clearly appears. The violet sapphire -of perfect hue is a very rare gem, and may be regarded as an accidental -stone, being formed of an admixture of the blue and the red. Davy, -in all his extended researches in Ceylon, found but two specimens of -violet sapphire; and in our examinations of the rough gems from the -mines, we are inclined to think the purple spinel is often supposed -to be a purple sapphire. Romè de L’Isle found that this variety of -sapphire is oftener ruby-violet than sapphire-violet, or that the red -tinge prevailed more distinctly than the blue. The lilac-blue are -exceedingly rare, and are eagerly sought for by amateurs.</p> - -<p>There are some sapphires which exhibit a double play of colors when -viewed by natural and then by artificial light. For instance, they may -display a decided blue color by day and an amethystine tint<span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</span> by night. -D’Auguy possessed a stone that showed in the daylight a beautiful, -clear, and sparkling blue, but by candlelight it changed to a royal -purple. The cause of this phenomenon is perhaps due to an excess of -latent red in the stone, which, however, is not visible in the daytime; -but which is called forth by the difference in the illuminating lights, -as is shown in their spectra. The hyacinth sapphire is seldom seen, and -when perfect is regarded as among the marvels of the species. Dutens -possessed a fine one which had been engraved upon by the Greeks.</p> - -<p>The subject of the glyptic art, or engraving upon stones, is very -interesting to the student who seeks for evidences and traces of the -social life of man in early ages. The engraved cylinders of Babylon -and Nineveh, with their cuneiform legends, carry us back to traditions -two thousand years before the Christian era; and from the engraved -scarabei of Egypt and Etruria we form some ideas of the people whose -history has otherwise been lost. We may, perhaps, consider the true era -of the glyptic art as dating from the time of the Macedonian princes -and the Persian conquests, although it had been practised in a rude way -from far earlier times. This art of cutting figures upon bright and -richly colored, though minute stones, was quite as much admired among -the ancients as the laborious skill, with its powerful blows, which -produced the heroic statues out of bronze or marble. And perhaps we may -say that these gems, in their estimation, were of greater value, not -only on account<span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</span> of their beauty and rarity and their minuteness, but -also on account of their hardness, which defied the steel instruments -of the ordinary sculptor, and yielded only to the dust and splinters of -the hardest minerals, like the sapphire and the diamond. We may also -safely affirm that the gem-engravers of the Alexandrian and Augustan -ages were, in all that concerns excellence of design and composition, -rivals of the most famous workers in marble and bronze. These admirable -and wonderful artists contrived to enclose within the narrow limit of a -little stone all the complicated details of an event in history, or of -a fable in mythology; and to make them stand forth in beautiful relief -as a cameo, or to sink them down as an intaglio, with all that truth of -design and power of expression which characterize the excellence of the -largest works of the most consummate masters.</p> - -<p>By means of these engraved gems, miniature but accurate copies of some -of the celebrated masterpieces and noblest works of ancient sculptors -have been preserved to us, while the originals have been destroyed, -and even the record of them lost. An instance may be observed in the -engraved gem in the Orleans cabinet, which is the only representation -we now have of the famous statue of the Repose of Hercules, by -Lysippus. As a learned critic has said, in these gems we have the -emanations, ever fresh and unfaded, of the feelings and the taste -of those ages when the love of the beautiful was the all-prevailing -and almost sole religion, and flourished unfettered by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</span> tradition, -prejudice, and conventional rules; whilst from the universal demand -during those same ages for engraved gems, whether for signets or for -personal ornaments, artists of the highest ability did not disdain the -narrow field of the precious stone as the arena for the exercise of -their power. The unparalleled vigor and perfection of many of these -performances are a sufficient proof that they proceeded directly from -the master’s hand, and were not mere slavish copies, by a mechanic, -after designs created by the genius of another. The lovers of the fine -arts may derive much benefit from the study of the antique in this -particular branch of workmanship. What is there more pleasant than the -contemplation of the work of the artists of antiquity; and to behold, -shut up, as it were, within the narrow compass of a small gem, all the -majesty of a vast design and a most elaborate performance? During the -flourishing periods of the Greeks countless statues were carved by -numerous artists; and it has been stated that Lysippus alone executed -fifteen hundred, all perfect, and some of them colossal. Throughout -Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy every town had its temple, gymnasium, -or forum peopled with statues of those among her sons who had in any -way distinguished themselves in arms, letters, or public games. These -became the spoil of the later Romans, and an incredible number were -transported to Rome from time to time. Nero is said to have selected -from Delphos alone five hundred bronze statues for transportation to -Rome. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</span> Etruscan bronzes were quite as plentiful; and Flaccus is -said to have carried away in triumph two thousand statues from the sack -of Volsinii.</p> - -<p>From these statements in ancient history concerning the number of large -works in statuary, we can form some idea of the inexhaustible treasury -of portraiture in another and oftentimes less costly material. It is -estimated that for a period of three hundred years, the engraved gems -were manufactured in countless numbers all over the Roman world. It is -a little curious that licentious scenes and figures are never or rarely -found on antique gems.</p> - -<p>Among the gems preserved in the museum of the Vatican may be seen two -engraved intaglios of early date, upon sapphires of an amethystine -hue. Among the most beautiful of the engraved sapphires that have been -preserved to us from ancient times is that of Cneus, now placed in the -cabinet of the Strozzi, in Italy, which represents the figure of young -Hercules. In the collection of gems at Turin there is a white sapphire, -on which a fine head of Tiberius has been engraved. There may be seen -among the crown jewels of Russia a beautiful sapphire of two shades, -engraved with a representation of a female figure enveloped in drapery. -The figure is engraved in the darker shade of the stone, while the -drapery is carved from the lighter part. The French cabinet boasts of -a very fine blue sapphire with an engraving representing the Emperor -Pertinax.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</span></p> - -<p>King, the excellent and tireless antiquary, mentions, in his chapter -on the hyacinthus, several beautiful and unique engraved sapphires. He -states that engraved gems of this class, dating to times previous to -the Imperial epoch, are extremely rare; still, there are extant some -undoubted specimens, among which are a small Etruscan scarabeus and a -magnificent head of Jupiter, executed in the purest Greek style. The -accidental discovery of the last indicates how many more of the fine -gems of antiquity may yet appear in course of time to gladden the -lovers of the glyptic art. This gem was an inch in diameter, and of -fine color; but to utilize it to the wants of the Turkish possessor, -who wished to set it in the handle of his dagger, the engraved side -was set downward and thus preserved from injury, while the back of the -stone was rudely faceted by some Eastern lapidary. A Medusa’s head of -the same style of execution, upon a stone of remarkable beauty, is -one of the chief glories of the celebrated Marlborough collection. -In the same museum there is another larger and deeper-hued sapphire -bearing the head of Caracalla, the short, curly hair of the irascible -tyrant being represented by a series of minute holes closely drilled -together. One of the most famous of all engraved gems of this material -is the signet ring of Constantius. The stone is one of great beauty and -perfection, and weighs fifty-three karats. Its engraving represents the -Emperor as spearing a monstrous wild boar before a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</span> reclining female -figure, personifying Cæsarea of Cappadocia, the scene of exploit. -It bears an inscription in proof of its royal use,—the letters -“Constantivs Avg.” King mentions another fine specimen of the time of -Hadrian, representing “Hebe feeding the eagle.” It was heart-shaped in -form, of fine color, and quite an inch and a half in diameter.</p> - -<p>The museums of Europe contain many examples of mediæval and modern -engraved sapphires, one of the finest of which is the famous portrait -of Pope Paul III. among the Pulsky gems, and attributed to Il Greco. -It is a very beautiful stone, and three quarters of an inch square. In -the Marlborough cabinet there is an extraordinary specimen of a thumb -ring of high antiquity, cut from a single stone, but of rather a pale -tint. Rings containing both plain and engraved sapphires have been the -appointed symbol of church authority from a very early day. They have -often been bestowed as the badge of pontifical rank, and the custom has -descended to the present day. King devotes an interesting chapter to -the history and description of this class of ornaments and symbols; and -to his pages we must refer the interested reader.</p> - -<p>Engraved red sapphires of ancient date are extremely rare, so rare -that the experienced antiquaries, Lessing and Clarac, deny the -existence of any antique intaglios of this variety. Investigation -has proved that many of the supposed engraved rubies are really red -spinel, garnet, or zircon. Nevertheless,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</span> there are a few examples to -prove that the ancients did make use of the gem in the glyptic art, -although the act was regarded as one of extreme extravagance, from -the rarity, costliness, and beauty of the material. The Devonshire -parure exhibits a convex red sapphire of about three karats weight, -of pure pigeons’-blood tint, and engraved with a Venus Victrix in the -latest Roman manner. Another shows a full-length figure of Osiris, in -half-relief, of the time of Hadrian. In the museum of the Jardin des -Plantes there are said to be two engraved red sapphires.</p> - -<p>There are but few gems with which the blue sapphire can be confounded. -The blue diamond can be easily detected by its superior brilliancy and -hardness. It is very rare that the tourmaline appears of a deep blue, -and still more rare for the topaz to assume the appearance except of -the very light varieties, and the same may be said of the beryl. The -iolite, which, however, is a very rare mineral, may resemble the blue -sapphire, but its inevitable dichroism betrays its character. Turn the -gem before the eye, and the deception vanishes; the blue disappears as -if by magic, and the stone is gray. Kyanite sometimes appears of the -most beautiful blue tints, but its softness indicates its nature, and -prevents its use as a gem. The glass-workers, however, produce the most -beautiful and attractive imitations of sapphire, and of all colors, -lacking but one desideratum, and that is the thus far unattainable -degree of hardness. The red,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</span> green, yellow, and white varieties may -all of them be closely approached in color by other gems, and the best -methods of detection are the tests of specific gravity, degree of -hardness, and the optical phenomena.</p> - -<p>The blue variety of sapphire being less sought after in ornamentation -than the diamond, has not had a fixed scale in valuation. Still, prior, -or for a few years prior, to 1850, the ordinary sapphire was placed -by jewellers upon the same valuation as the emerald, or at about $15 -the karat. Since this period its value has quadrupled, but has not -kept pace with that of the emerald. The pale-blue stones have only a -nominal value, and the same may be said of the very dark blue. But -those sapphires which exhibit the perfect tint of the prismatic blue -can command very high prices.</p> - -<p>The ancient Romans excelled in their imitations of the ruby, both -in hardness, color, and lustre; and a number of examples are yet -preserved in some of the European cabinets. The bold robber, Charles, -the Duke of Burgundy, was the possessor of several famous gems which -he carried with him on his campaigns, and used as personal decorations -on particular occasions. One of the choicest of them was a monster -ruby more than an inch in diameter, which the famous Margaret of Anjou -had given him. On that fatal day at Grandson it was placed with the -historic diamond in a golden box, and left in the tent of the Duke, -where it was captured by the mountaineers. The gems were carried to -Berne by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</span> victorious Swiss, and afterwards offered for sale to the -rich Nuremberger, Jacob Fugger. Then it was discovered by the expert -that the ruby was indeed a lump of red glass of ancient make, and -probably of the date of the Roman Empire.</p> - -<p>As the red sapphire is one of the rarest as well as the most beautiful -of all gems, its value is in keeping with its attributes. As it -overpowers all other gems with its gorgeous red, which is a pure -prismatic hue, so it transcends all others in price. There are but -very few gems with which it can be confounded in color. But no matter -what the material may be, provided it displays the royal tint. It is -extremely rare that the red tourmaline or spinel exhibit the perfect -tint which is the characteristic of the red sapphire. The zircon -sometimes displays a fine red color, and may imitate the sapphire. It -is also within the range of possibilities that the diamond and garnet -may closely resemble the true ruby. We have seen small garnets that -exhibited the pigeons’-blood tint. The scarcity of the ruby is so great -that fine gems are only to be acquired by the very wealthy. In the -times of Cellini, three centuries ago, the price of the red sapphire -was eight times that of the diamond. And to-day we may safely adopt -Cellini’s estimate, for the gem is so rare that we cannot readily -compute its value in comparison with the diamond, which is so abundant.</p> - -<p>King, in commenting upon the valuation of precious stones during the -past three hundred years,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</span> mentions two fine rubies which were sold in -London recently for enormous sums of money. One of three karats brought -$1,500; while another of finer tint, of less than four karats (11 -grains), was sold for $5,500, or for $500 a grain, which price is quite -equal to Cellini’s estimate made in the year 1560.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX.</h2> -</div> - - - -<p class="center">A.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Abbas Murza, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Abbé Haüy, views of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Abbey of <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Dennis, gems of, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Acber, banquet of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Achille de Sancy, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Adamas, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Adamantine flash, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">spar, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Adolphus, marriage of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Advice of Rabelais, <a href="#Page_1">title page</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Agrah diamond, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ahmed’s ring, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Alaric and his Goths, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Alexander, Emperor, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">fêtes of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>,</li> -<li class="isubb">helmet, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">marriage of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>,</li> -<li class="isubb">ring, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Palace, collections of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Alfred de Vigny, poem on the diamond, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Alla-ud-deen, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Amsterdam diamond cutters, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ancient gem localities, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">gems and regalia, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">glass, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">monster emeralds, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Anna Ivanovna, Empress, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Anne Boleyn, jewel of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Antitheses of carbon, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Aqua marines, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-<a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Arabian romance writers’ fancies on gems, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Asiatic gems, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Assyrians and gems, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Asteria sapphires, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">quartz, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Augustus the Strong, gems of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Aurelian, triumph of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Austrian gems, etc., <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<p class="center">B.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Baba, trial of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Babinet, views of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bahia, mines of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Baillou’s views on gems, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Baker, Sir Samuel, views, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Barbarossa, Emperor, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Barberini vase, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Barbot, views of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bariatinsky, jewels of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Baron d’ Eschwège, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Batavian display of diamonds, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Begagem mines, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Beke, <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr>, account of large diamonds, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Belisarius, triumph of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</span></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bernier’s estimate of Persian gems, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Berquen, lapidary, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Beryl, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">name derived from, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">of English Crown, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Beudant, <abbr title="professor">Prof.</abbr>, views of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bheen, temple of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Biot, views of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Blue beryls of Ireland, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">diamond of France, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">of <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hope, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">of Munich, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Boetius de Boot, views of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bohmer, French jeweller, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bordeaux, architect of Peacock Throne, etc., <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Borghis, Hortensio, lapidary, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Brewster, Sir David, views of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bronze horses of Venice, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Brunswick, Duke, gems of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Buchanan, views of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Buffon’s views, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Burial of Cardinal Borromeo, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Lord Palmerston, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Burning-of-Troy opal, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Byzantium, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> -</ul> - -<p class="center">C.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Cæsar, ring of, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cagliostro, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Canopies of the Persians, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cape de Verde, conglomerate, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Capture of Ctesiphon, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Caravans of the ancients, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Carbon, combinations of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Carbonado, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cardinal Borromeo, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cardinal Mazarin, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Carpet taken at Ctesiphon, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cascalho, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cassia oil, refractive power of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Castellani, collection of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Catherine, Empress, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cedrenus, the historian, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cellini’s value of emerald, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">ruby, <a href="#Page_426">427</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ceraunia, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cerulean throne of the Nizam, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ceylon mines, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Chalice of Abbé Suger, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Charlemagne, jewels of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Charles I., gems of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Charles VIII. of France, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Charles the Bold, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">bogus ruby, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Chladni, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Chosroes, palace of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Chrysoberyl, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Chrysostom, the historian, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Church regalia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>-<a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Churches of England, ornaments of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cingalese gem miners, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Clay as an original deposit, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Claudian’s description of treasures of Theodosius, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Claussen’s views on the diamond, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cleaveland’s views, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Colesberg Kopje mines, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Coliseum decorated with gems, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Collection of armor, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Collections of the Arabs, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Mamelukes, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Color of fossils, etc., <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">gems, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Comnenus, Emperor, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Conglomerate strata, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Connecticut beryls, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Constantine, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Constantinople, conquest of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Constituents of perfumes, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Coocha diamond, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cortez, emeralds of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</span></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cortez’s presents to Charles V., <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Corundum, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cossacks, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Coster, the lapidary, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Count de Douhet, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Crawford’s estimate of Borneo diamond, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Crown of Anna Ivanovna, frontispiece.</li> -<li class="isuba">Austria, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Chosroes, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Goths of Spain, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Kazan, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Khan of Tartary, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Lombardy, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Muscovites, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Portugal, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Russia, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Saxony, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba"><abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Stephen, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Victoria, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Vladimir, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cumberland diamond, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cuneiform crystals, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cup of Chosroes, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Theolinda, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cutting of the diamond, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Kohinoor, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Mogul, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Regent, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Star of the South, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cystine calculi, change in color, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">D.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Daubenton’s ideas of the gems, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Davy, <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">De Drèe’s Cabinet, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">De Laet, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Delattre, report on the French gems, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Delisle, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Demidoff, Prince, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Despret’s experiments, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Development of insect life, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">vegetation, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Devonshire gems, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Diamond, antiquity of, as a gem, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">appearance of, in nature, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">asteriated, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">black, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">blue, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">bort, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Cascalho, or conglomerate, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">celebrated Agrah, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">blue, of France, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Daria-i-noor, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">De Drèe, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Holland, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Hope, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Kohinoor, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-<a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Mogul, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Mountain of Splendor, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Munich, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Napoleon, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Nassac, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Orloff, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Paul Pindar, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Pigott, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Polar Star, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Prince Riccia, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">red, of Russia, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Regent, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Sancy, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Sea of Glory, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Shah, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Stewart, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Sultan of Mattan, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Sultan’s, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Taj-Mah, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">yellow, of Austria, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Chancourtois, views, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">cleavage of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">color of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">rough diamonds, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">comparative brilliancy of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">density of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Cumberland, Duke of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">cut diamond, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">deposition of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">diminutive size of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">dispersive power of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Du Toits Pan placer, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">electric properties of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> -<li class="isubb">hardness, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">formation of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">forms of brilliant style, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">brilliolette style, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">rose style, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">table style, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">globular forms, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">green, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">imitations of, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">worn by Duchesse de Berri, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">influence of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">injured by fire, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">in time of Emperor Severus, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Pliny, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">localities of Africa, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Algiers, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">America, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Arabia, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Australia, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Borneo, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Brazil, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Golconda, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">India, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Ireland, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Java, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Russia, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">necklace of Rohan, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">old English style, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">origin of, Arago’s views, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Buffon’s views, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Davy’s views, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Goppert’s views, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Hartt’s views, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Humboldt’s views, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Lavoisier’s views, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Newton’s views, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">pans, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">phosphorescence of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">physical properties, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">pink, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">placers, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">prismatic display, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">purity of, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">quantity of, in use, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">red, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">refraction of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">rough, value of, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">specific gravity of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">spiritual properties, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">swindle of Arizona, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">testing of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">value of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>-<a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">yellow, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Diminutive size of precious stones, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Dogni collection, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Dolomieu, views, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Don Antonio, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Duke of Anjou, diamonds of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Brunswick, diamonds of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Buckingham, jewels of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Burgundy, fête of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Duten’s views of the emerald, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">E.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Earl of Effingham, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Eastwick’s account of Persian Treasury, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Eleanor of Provence, jewels of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Electric properties of diamond, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Elf-bolts, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Elphinstone, British Envoy, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Emerald Isle, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Emeralds, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">abundance of, in Peru, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">ancient, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>-<a href="#Page_291">291</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">at Dresden, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">at Florence, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Kandy, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Leiden, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Madrid, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Munich, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Rome, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Vienna, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">carved by the Mexicans, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">color and composition of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">derivation of name, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">engraved by Carlo Costanzi, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">found by Maj. Pearse, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">given to Hortense, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Napoleon, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">imitations of, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>-<a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">in times of Queen Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">localities of Africa, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Finland, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">France, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">in ancient times, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Norway, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">United States, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Siberia, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">South America, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Tyrol, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">mentioned by Heliodorus, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Pliny, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">of Dhuleep Singh, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Duke of Devonshire, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Cortez, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Emperor Jehangir, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">French crown, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Mustapha of Tunis, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Pedro II., <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Prince of Virianagram, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Princess of Bariatinsky, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Queen of Navarre, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Rudolph II. at Dresden, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Runjeet Singh, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Russia, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Shrine of Loretto, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Sultan of Turkey, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">pillage in Mexico and Peru, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">of Marshal Junot in Spain, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">of Marshal Lannes in Spain, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">price of, at various times, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">rarity of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">sent by Elizabeth to Henri IV., <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">supply of, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">the Great Mother, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Empress of Austria, gift to the Archduke, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Enamels of the ancients, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Englehardt, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">English clergy, magnificence of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Engraved gems, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">abundance of, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Esterhazy, jewels of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">F.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Fairs of Armenia, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">gems, etc., in Ceylon, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Russia, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ferishta, historian, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fêtes of Alexander, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fitchburg beryls, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Florentine diamond, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Francis I., emerald of, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Franka, <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Nello, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Freaks of nature, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">French Regalia, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">display of, in 1855, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">inventory of, in 1791, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">in 1810, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">in 1849, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">stolen, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</span></li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">G.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Garcias, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gem engraving, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Fair’s of Ceylon, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Fairs of Russia, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">mining in Ceylon, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gems as abodes of spirits, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">meaning of, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>,</li> -<li class="isuba">of Palace of Tezcuco, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Genseric, pillage by, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gifts to Charles V., <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Girasole sapphires, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Glass gems, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">ancient, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Globular forms of minerals, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">petrifactions, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Glorious Masque, pageant of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Glyptic art, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Godoy, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gold nuggets, deposition of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">placers, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">of Danube, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">of Tesino, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gomara, chronicles of, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Goppert’s views of gems, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gothic and Grecian forms, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">treasury at Toledo, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gouttes d’eau, topaz, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Grandson, battle of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Graphite, production of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Great Harry, jewel, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Great Mogul diamond, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Green diamond of Dresden, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">garnets, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">prase, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">sapphires, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">stones sought for by primitive man, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Greenockite, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">H.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Halpen gems, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hamlin, <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Cyrus, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hardening of rocks on exposure, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Harlai de Sancy, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hartt, <abbr title="professor">Prof.</abbr>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Haüy, Abbé, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Helmreicher collection of diamonds, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Henrietta Maria, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Henry VIII., <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Heraclius, capture of Persian treasures, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hermitage, gems of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hervey, Lord, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Herz collection of gems, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hidden, Win. E., naturalist, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hiddenite, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>-<a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">High refractive power of fluids, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hindoo’s love of gems, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hitee, the royal, of Ava, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Holy synod of Moscow, ornaments, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Honorius, rings of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hope beryl, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">blue diamond, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">collection, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Horse gear of the Turks, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hughen’s views, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Humboldt’s emerald, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">views, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hungarian opal mines, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hyacinthus, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">I.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Ictinus, constructor of the Parthenon, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Imitation gems, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Indian arms, decoration of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Iolite, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Iridescence of minerals, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">quartz, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Iris, Marbodeus’s description of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">ornaments of Empress Josephine, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Itacolumite, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</span></li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">J.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">James II., <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">jewels of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Jansetsee Jejeebhoy, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Jarlet, lapidary, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Jewish Temple, spoils of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">John VI., golden cane, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Joseph I., diamonds of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Justinian, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">K.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Kaaba, sacred stone, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kaianian Belt, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Crown, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Karat, weight of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kazan, Cathedral of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Crown of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">King, views of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">King of Ava, gems of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Kabul, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kohinoor diamond, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-<a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Korund, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kremlin, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kyanite, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">L.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Lahore, Treasury of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lamartine, historian, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lapis lazuli, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lavoisier, views of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Le Conte’s description of Honduras Opal mines, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">opals, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lecourbe, General, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lewy’s views on the emerald, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>-<a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">L’Isle, Romè de, his views, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Linnæus’s views, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lithoscope, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lollia Paulina, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Louis VII., <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Low’s work on Borneo, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lucretius, poet, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">M.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Maine beryls, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Maiolica pottery, colors of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mandanga diamond mines, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mansur Ben, views of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Marbodeus’s poem on emeralds, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">sapphire, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Marc Antony’s opal, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Marco Polo, celebrated traveller, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Maria Theresa, cross of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mariana, account of emeralds, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Martyr, account of emeralds, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mary Queen of Scots, jewels of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Matura diamonds, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mawe’s visit to Lisbon, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mellan, or gem conglomerate, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Minas Geraes diamond mines, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mirror of Naples, diamond, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Missorium, or emerald table, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mithridates, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Montezuma’s mantle, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Morse, H. D., diamond establishment, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mosaics of precious stones, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Murat, General, uniform of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Murchison’s views, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Muzo, emerald mines of, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">N.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Nadir Shah, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Narbonne, pillage of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Nassac diamond, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Navajos, turquoises of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</span></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Nero’s Lens, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">New Hampshire beryls, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Newera Ellia sapphire mines, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Newton’s views, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Nizam diamond, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">North Carolina sapphire mines, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">O.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Oldham, visit to the Burmah ruby mines, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Oliva, actress, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Opal, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">ancient mines of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Babinet’s views of, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">beauty of, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">black variety of, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">cause of its colored reflections, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">commerce of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Count Waliski, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Damour’s experiments with, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">dandritic, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Delius’ account of Hungarian opals, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Descloizeaux, views of, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">described by Jackson, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">division of, by Jameson, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Werner, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba"><abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Le Conte’s, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">engraved, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">formation of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Harlequin variety, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Hydrophane variety, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">imitations of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">mines of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Central America, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Gracias a Dios, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Honduras, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Hungary, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>-<a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Queensland, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Zimapan, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Mohr’s views of, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Newton’s views of, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">of Austria, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Opal of D’Auguy, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Empress Josephine, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Fleury, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">France, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Humboldt, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Nonius, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">U. S. Centennial Exhibition, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">on image of Mexican deity, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">physical properties of, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">purchase of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">splendors of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">superstitious fancies regarding, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>-<a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">treatment of, when mined, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">value of, in rough state, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Nonius’s gem, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">varieties of, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Orb of Russia, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Order of the Golden Fleece, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Origin of diamonds, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">gems, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Orloff diamond, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ottoman display of gems, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">P.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Passion for gems, etc., <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Paulina, gems of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Peacock Throne, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Peligot’s views on ancient glass, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Persian emblems of authority, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">treasures, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>-<a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Peruzzi, inventor of the brilliant, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Peysonnel, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Phidias, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Philip of Spain, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">wedding of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pictet, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Piggot diamond, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pitt, Wm., and Regent diamond, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Placidia, marriage of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</span></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Plato’s views on gems, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pliny’s views on gems, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Plumbago, or graphite, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Plunder of Delhi, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Polariscope, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Poles, customs of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Polycrates, ring of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pompadour’s jewels, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pompey, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">ring of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pope Julius II., beryl of, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Potemkin, gems of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Potemkin’s plume, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Priest’s treasury in the Kremlin, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Prince Esterhazy jewels, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Prismatic display of the diamond, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-<a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">Q.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Queen Caroline, jewels of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Elizabeth, jewels of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Mary, jewels of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">R.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Raleigh, Walter, dress of, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ralph Potter, lapidary, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Rambusson’s remarks on ruby mines, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ramusso, Venetian historian, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ranee Ruthen’s diamond, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ratnapoora, sapphire mines of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ravenna, capture of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Refractive power of gems, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>-<a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Regale of France, gem, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Regalia of Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">England, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">France, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Russia, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Regent diamond, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Richelieu’s wreath, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ring of Ahmed, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Polycrates, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Rohan, Cardinal de, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Rome, triumphs of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Romè de L’Isle, description of diamond, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Rose-colored diamonds, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Rose diamonds, Antwerp form, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Holland form, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Round brilliant, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Royalston, locality of beryls, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ruby, lustre of the potters of Umbria, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">of Crown of Persia, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Crown of Russia, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">East India Company, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">King of Burmah, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Prince of Wales, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">price of, <a href="#Page_426">427</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">seen by Garcia, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Runjeet Singh gems, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-<a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">S.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Sacred standard of Persia, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">vestments, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sacro catino—emerald dish, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Saffragan sapphire mines, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sancy diamonds, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sapphire, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">black variety, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">carved by the Hindoos, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">colors of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>-<a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">composition and characters of, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">deposition of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>-<a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">engraved, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>-<a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">formation of, in Ceylon, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">imitations of, natural and artificial, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</span></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sapphire, mines of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Ava, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Bengal, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Bohemia, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Burmah, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>-<a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>-<a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">China, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Colorado, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Montana, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">North Carolina, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Siam, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">red, known as Oriental ruby, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>-<a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">refraction of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">roof of the Parthian Palace, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">varieties, early known, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sapphires of the French Crown, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Hungarian Crown, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">King of Ava, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">Miss Coutts, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> -<li class="isubb">the Russian casket, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">price of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>-<a href="#Page_426">427</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sapphirus, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sarmatia, ancient, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sassanian kings, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Saxon white brilliant, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Saxony, Elector of, gems, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sceptre of Vladimir, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">School of Mines, <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Petersburg, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Scythian incursions, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Selwyn’s views of gold deposits, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Serena, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Shah Jehan, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Nasiru’d-din of Persia, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Soujah, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Shrine of Thomas à Becket, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Siberian beryls, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Silicified trees, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sinan Pasha, jewels of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sir Stamford Raffles, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Smith, J. Laurence, discovers Hiddenite, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sokolli, gems of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sorel, Agnes, necklace of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Soujah and the Kohinoor, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Spanish Conquest of Mexico and Peru, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Specific gravity of diamonds, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">emerald, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">opal, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">sapphire, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Spiritual properties of gems, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Chapelle of Paris, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Laurent, views of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Mark’s Palace, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Melania, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Sophia, mosque of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Stamboul, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Star of the South, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Stewart diamond, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sultan of Mattan diamond, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sumnat, idol and temple of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Superstitious fancies about gems, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Suvaroff gems, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sword of Solyman, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Symes’s visit to Ava, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Symes’s, Col., visit to Burmah, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">T.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Table of Solomon, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Taj Mahal, palace tomb, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Talasca, standard of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tavernier, the traveller, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Telesie, a name proposed by Abbé Haüy, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tennant, <abbr title="professor">Prof.</abbr>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Theophrastus, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Thiers, Madame, necklace of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Throne of Nadir Shah, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Russia, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</span></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Throne of Takdis, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Turkey, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Timour, Fêtes of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">spoils of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tiridates and the Parthian nobles, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">march to Rome, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Titus and the spoils of Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tomb of Mahomet, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Topaz, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tourmaline, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_426">427</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">tongs, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tournament of the cloth of gold, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Townley collection of gems, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Treasury of the Seraglio, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Troitza, treasury of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tschudi, <abbr title="professor">Prof.</abbr>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Turkish casket of jewels, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Turquoise of Mexico, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">Persia, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">U.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Ural Mountains, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">V.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Vaal region diamond fields, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Value of gems in 15th century, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Vaux, mineral collection of, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Veil of Kunderas, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Venice, a gem mart, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Verneuil’s views of diamond, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Volo, plain of, in Poland, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Voysey’s views of diamond, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">W.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Wallerius, views of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Walpole, Horace, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Weight of large diamonds, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Werner collection of gems, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wilson, <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr>, descriptions of the Kohinoor, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Winter Palace, collection in, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wollaston, <abbr title="professor">Prof.</abbr>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wooden-spoon seller’s sapphire, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wright’s discovery of opal mines, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">Y.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Yellow diamond of Austria, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> -<li class="isuba">sapphires, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Yriarte, history of Venice, etc., <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -</ul> -<p class="center">Z.</p> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Zenobia, captivity of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Zircon, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_426">427</a>.</li> -</ul> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - - -<p>Errors in punctuation and accentuation have been fixed.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_140">Page 140</a>: “Boras Godunoff” changed to “Boris Godunoff”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_255">Page 255</a>: “gobular forms of crystallization” changed to “globular forms -of crystallization”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_281">Page 281</a>: “as it their price” changed to “as if their price”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_298">Page 298</a>: “Kasan was subjugated” changed to “Kazan was subjugated”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_343">Page 343</a>: “State of Gautemala” changed to “State of Guatemala”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_410">Page 410</a>: “a single speciimen” changed to “a single specimen”</p> - -<p>In the <a href="#INDEX">Index</a>, “Runjeet Sing” changed to “Runjeet Singh” and the page -numbers for the turquoise references have been corrected.</p> - -<p>The cover image was created by the transcriber from the original and has been placed in the public domain.</p> -</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEISURE HOURS AMONG THE GEMS ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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