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diff --git a/old/69493-0.txt b/old/69493-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3c51634..0000000 --- a/old/69493-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3090 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Lessons in chalk modeling, by Ida -Cassa Heffron - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Lessons in chalk modeling - The new method of map drawing - -Author: Ida Cassa Heffron - -Release Date: December 7, 2022 [eBook #69493] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Steve Mattern and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team - at https://www.pgdp.net - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LESSONS IN CHALK -MODELING *** - - - - - - - LESSONS IN - CHALK MODELING - - THE NEW METHOD OF MAP DRAWING - - [_100 ILLUSTRATIONS_] - - WITH INTRODUCTION - AND - Suggestions on the Use of the Map - - BY - IDA CASSA HEFFRON - (Late of the Cook County Normal School, Chicago, Ill. Lecturer - and Instructor in Pedagogics in Art, University Extension - Division, University of Chicago.) - - EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING COMPANY - BOSTON - NEW YORK CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO - - COPYRIGHTED - BY EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING COMPANY - 1900 - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PART I. - - INTRODUCTION. - - 1. Necessity for the Study of Structural Geography as Preparatory - to the Drawing of Maps 9 - - 2. Necessity for Field Lessons and Importance of Forming, in - Connection with Them, the Habit of Modeling and Drawing 13 - - 3. Importance of Learning to Interpret Pictures as an Aid to - Imaging the Continent 27 - - 4. Maps—of the Past and Present. The Chalk Modeled Map 34 - - PART II. - - FIFTEEN LESSONS IN CHALK MODELING. - - REMARKS 52 - - I. Representation of Surfaces with Hints on the Delineation of - Distances. Land Sloping from the Observer. Light and Shade 54 - - II. Land Sloping toward the Observer. Quality of Line. Relations - and Proportions 59 - - III. High and Low Water-partings, with Map Showing Divide 63 - - IV. Meeting of Land and Water. Lakes. Springs. Islands. High and - Low Tide 66 - - V. Sketches Illustrative of Wind and Water Erosion 69 - - VI. Scenes Typical of the Different Zones 76 - - VII. River Basins. Coasts 82 - - VIII. Suggestions on the Use of the Chalk Modeled Map of North - America in Fourth and Fifth Grades 87 - - IX. Map of North America 96 - - X. Natural Features of Interest in North America 104 - - XI. Map of Mexico, with Suggestions for Teachers of Fifth and - Sixth Grades 108 - - XII. Map of Section of the United States of America for Use in - Preparatory Lessons on the Civil War 117 - - XIII. Map of South America 123 - - XIV. Map of Eurasia, with Sections in Detail 127 - - XV. Maps of Africa and Australia. Summary of Instructions 132 - - Books of Reference 137 - - - - -PREFACE. - - -In preparing the following lessons, in answer to the demand of the public -school teacher for such assistance, the aim has been to present them in -such a manner that both teacher and pupil may, through the understanding -and acceptance of the steps involved, become expert in the development -and delineation of _original_ maps showing surface structure in relief. - -To this end, suggestions vital to the success of the would-be mapmaker -will be found in the Introduction. - -In Part II. it is aimed to show that, with a clear mental image of -surface forms and areas, the expression of the same will be a simple and -easy matter, and a valuable preparation for the mapping of large areas or -continents. - -For the illustrations a medium has been used, which, in many respects, -closely resembles in its results on paper the texture of chalk on the -blackboard. - -The author desires to acknowledge her indebtedness to Francis W. Parker, -the head of the Chicago Institute, late Principal of the Chicago City -Normal School, for help derived from the study of his works, and for -the rare educational privilege enjoyed while working as a member of his -Faculty. Especially were the discussions under his leadership, at the -ever-to-be-remembered weekly meetings, a continual source of inspiration. - -Under the new light thrown upon the subject of geography, as presented by -Colonel Parker, the impulse was first received which afterward bore fruit -in the development of a new method of map drawing; a method which it was -desired should be an adequate expression of the solidity and continuity -of the continental land mass. - -The necessity for such a map Colonel Parker had himself realized for -years and had sought its delineation. With a desire to meet the pupil’s -needs in this respect, upon further study of structural geography the -idea was conceived of drawing maps which would show mass without outline, -and which would also represent relief. - -This method of map drawing was called “Chalk Modeling,” and from the -first crude effort in this direction by the author, in the year 1891, at -the Cook County Normal School, the “Chalk Modeled Map” passed through -many stages of development until it reached its present form. - -Thus to Colonel Parker himself is primarily due whatever of educational -value has resulted from the invention of the author or development by -others of what is called “The Chalk Modeled Map.” - -Acknowledgments are also due Miss Louise Barwick, for the zeal displayed -in forwarding the development and delineation of the Maps of the -Continents, and for valuable assistance rendered in the drawing of the -same, as illustrations for this work. - - I. C. H. - -_Chicago, Ill._ - - - - -TO THE TEACHER IN GENERAL, AND TO THE MEMBERS OF THE C. C. N. S. ALUMNI -ASSOCIATION IN PARTICULAR, IS THIS BOOK RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY - - THE AUTHOR. - - - - -PART I. - -INTRODUCTION. - -[Illustration] - - - - -NECESSITY FOR THE STUDY OF STRUCTURAL GEOGRAPHY PREPARATORY TO THE -DRAWING OF MAPS. - - -The fundamental object in the study of Geography, as we understand it, -is to acquire mental images of the present appearance of the earth’s -surface; its structure, the rocky material of which it is composed, and -the causes and effects of its changes, as a preparation for the home of -organic life. - -It is a study of the earth as a material basis for the evolution of man, -and the development of civilization. It leads up to a search for the laws -and workings of the creative forces—forces relating to our planet and to -the sun, the central source of light and heat. - -This study has a different meaning to different persons. To one it means -the study of all that lies between the covers of a book, or memorizing -other people’s sayings. To another it means “Connected information -regarding the condition of man’s life on this planet”—again “Geography -is a description of the earth’s surface, or anything that affects or is -affected by it.” A more common definition is, “Geography is a description -of the earth’s surface and its inhabitants.” - -An ability to recognize in present environment that which leads to -an understanding of geographical conditions in general, is much to be -desired and is the aim of the teacher of the present day. Geologists -tell us that the same processes are going on now that have ever been in -operation, in the fitting of the earth for the habitation of man. That -these changes are taking place is implied in the very fact that we are -studying the earth’s present appearance. - -The study of the history of these changes, and of the nature of the -earthy material as shown in rock and soil, and in vegetation, and of the -influence of heat, light, air and moisture, means the study of all the -natural sciences; not as special isolated studies, but bound together in -one great whole. So closely are they related, merging into and impinging -upon each other as they do, that there seems to be no place or line of -separation between them. - -The larger part of the surface of the earth (nearly three-fourths) is -covered with water, and the action of this mighty agent, under the -influence of that great dynamic force and life-giving energy, heat, opens -an immense field for investigation. - -These combined influences constitute the study of the environment of all -organic life; and knowing these in a given case, we get an approximate -idea of the stage of development. The development of man, the highest -type of organic life, depends largely upon structural, climatic, -vegetable and animal environment. - -To know these is to understand his habits of life, his reasons for choice -of homes, and to judge of his probable advancement in civilization. - -The powerful influence which the physical features of the earth’s -surface have exerted in shaping the current of historical events, can -hardly be realized, until thoughtful investigation of the subject -has been made. The knowledge of geographical conditions, as climate, -mountains, valleys, rivers and seas, with vegetable and animal life gives -us the theatre of action for events in history. - -As the mere existence of mountain range, desert, sea or river, may -be essentially the influence which has led to the growth or downfall -of empires, it is clearly seen that a sound knowledge of structural -geography is absolutely necessary for all intelligent study of history; -no general relation of important occurrences can be traced without it. - -Nearly, if not equally necessary is it in the study of literature. In -order to properly appreciate the works of our best writers, both of prose -and poetry, an acquaintance with nature, a scientific and geographical -knowledge, local and general, is very essential. It forms a basis for -the correct understanding of books, since the best writers and thinkers -of all ages have been students of nature. Their writings are filled -with lessons and illustrations, as well as generalizations drawn from -close observations of her methods. If, then, a knowledge of structural -geography is requisite to the true understanding of man’s relation to -man and the world around him, it becomes important that the subject be -presented in such a manner as to attract and hold the interest of the -pupil; and properly presented there can be nothing more interesting than -the study of his immediate environment—that which touches him in his -every day experience. - -This study of his immediate environment is essential to the forming of -mental images of areas and surface forms outside and beyond his sense -grasp and to a comprehension of the structure and surface contour of the -world at large: such mental images being fundamentally a necessity to the -delineation of adequate structural maps of the whole or any part of the -earth’s surface. - - - - -NECESSITY FOR FIELD LESSONS AND IMPORTANCE OF FORMING, IN CONNECTION WITH -THEM, A HABIT OF MODELING, PAINTING AND DRAWING. - - -The study of geography, which in the past consisted mainly in the -memorizing of meaningless names with little or no exercise of the -reasoning faculties, or opportunities for making generalizations through -acts of comparison and inference, has been superseded by instruction of a -more rational order. - -We have learned that to memorize names and locations of mountains, rivers -and lakes, without seeing their relation to a whole, or to make only -superficial observations of extended areas of land, results merely in -indefinite mental impressions, leaving out the very basis of all concise -and clearly defined geographical knowledge. - -To the end that definite mental images may be acquired, field excursions -under the direction of competent leaders are now advocated, and when -entered upon with an intelligent purpose are held to be indispensable -factors in the correct study of geography. - -[Illustration: SECTION OF STREAM SHOWING RAPIDS.] - -Under these conditions (the intelligent purpose and the competent -leader), the pupil who visits a lake is likely to have a more adequate -mental image of old ocean, than one who has never seen a lake or other -large body of water. One who has seen low hills with their out-cropping -rock, and the action of small streams upon them, will have a better idea -of what mountains and rivers may be. - -In the new education the pupils are thus in the field lesson brought face -to face with nature. Through these lessons the powers of the imagination -are quickened and strengthened by the continual observation of surface -forms, the true basis for all attempts to image the structure of the -earth. - -Inferences are made at every step of the way as to the history of the -physical features observed, and the nature of the forces that have acted -upon them to shape and distribute. Areas and forms of land are constantly -being compared as to shape, size, width, length and height, and simple -generalizations, formed from direct observations, are combined with other -generalizations, to form those that are higher or more comprehensive. -This is but a brief suggestion of the part the field lesson bears to -education in general. - -In the particular study of geography it must be borne in mind that no -essential knowledge can be gained except through close observation of the -earth’s surface forms. As the true teacher of science in his classes in -botany or zoology leads his pupils to an individual study of plants and -animals, and also to a study of these in their surroundings, their social -relations, so also the student of geography goes directly to nature for -all fundamental knowledge pertaining to the subject. - -Field lessons, though conducted mainly as contributing to the student’s -fund of knowledge, are also a source of pleasure, and may be made the -foundation of a more healthful love for and delightful companionship -with nature. They are not alone a mine of knowledge but also a perfect -well-spring of inspiration. - -In every stream, plain and valley, new beauties of form and color are -continually presenting themselves. Varying tints of landscape vistas, -drifting cloud masses, softly rounding hills, majestic mountain forms, -the play of sunlight and shadow; all make subtle appeal. Entering into -harmony with creation we are led into harmony with its source. - -Everything combined, all the wealth of color, warmth of sunlight, song -of birds, hum of insects and breath of growing things, conspire to the -unfoldment of the being on all the planes of life’s expression, for, -the first and controlling impulse is toward expression; expression on -the physical, mental and emotional planes—in fulfillment of the law of -growth, for expression is a necessity to growth. - -_Expression._ Geography has been said to be an analytical study of the -earth’s surface, or the study of the separate landscape elements, such as -form, color and organic structure. - -Geography is emphatically a study of form, the forms of the earth’s -surface features, each to be studied in relation to other and contrasting -forms, as well as in relation to their environment. - -Upon the pupils’ return from the field, the forms and areas observed -may be modeled in sand, sketched on paper, or chalk modeled on the -blackboard. Maps may be drawn of the areas studied and sketches may be -made in color of stretches of different soils and verdure, together with -the atmospheric effects observed. Tints of sea, sky and cloud, color and -shades of rock and foliage are all speaking in tones which the child may -interpret and render intelligible to others, through the medium of brush -and paints. - -It is of great importance to his future growth that the student acquire -the habit of freely expressing himself through the art modes of modeling, -painting and drawing, since much of his mental power depends upon such -expression; for by holding in mind, while in the act of expression, the -images acquired through observation, more of the details of the object or -scene as well as the generalities are recalled. - -[Illustration: RIVER BASIN.] - -Expression thus reacts upon self, causing the mental picture to be -intensified and expression to become more definite and complete. No -other means are so adequate to this end: _i.e._, the forming of distinct -images in the mind, unless it may be the giving of oral and written -descriptions. These, of course, should be demanded of the pupil as well. -By this demand the pupil sees the necessity of closer observation and -investigation that he may give a fuller and more truthful expression, -and with careful leading he becomes a critic of his own thought and -skill, which is a step pre-eminently educative. - -_Aim of Field Lesson._ A direct purpose or aim of the field lesson in -teaching geography should be to form a clear idea or mental picture of a -river basin as a basis for imaging other river basins, and as a unit for -the study of the continent, or of all land surface: and to know the river -basin is to know its history; that is, the history of the river itself, -its valley, and the story of its building and shaping. - -It may not be possible for all students to make a study of the whole of -a river or brook basin, yet it may be done by sections—getting a general -idea of the slope of the river bed, water-parting, slope and valley. -The action of the forces of nature may also be seen in the changes now -going on in the different sections—the cutting back of the stream at -its source, its eroding power, its carrying power, and its building or -leveling power. - -If it is not possible to take the children to the field for nature study, -they may find fruitful sources of study without. - -_City Schools._ Nearly every school-house has some surroundings that may -be studied to advantage, except those in closely built city streets; but -even in such cases there is always the work of rain, heat, frost, and -wind to study, as well as insect life. The drifting of sand and snow, the -frost on the window-panes, the forming of ice around doors and windows -and the effect of heat in its melting, rain-drops, clouds, puddles of -water in the slight depressions of sills and walks, with tiny streams -flowing therefrom, are all to be observed. - -Where did the dirt on the windows and sills come from, especially after -some snow-storm? Tiny seeds in the corners where the winds have left -them; insects in the spring;—where did they come from? Where were they -all winter? These and many other hints might be given for such study. - -[Illustration: THE CUTTING BACK OF A STREAM AT ITS SOURCE.] - -_The country_ furnishes a rich field for investigation. Around every -building and in many localities that can be easily reached, most of the -types of the earth’s surface forms may be found. Care must be taken that -they are considered as _types_, or the pupil might answer the question, -“How high are mountains?” as the child did who said in reply, “Two inches -high.” - -In the lower grades of school, much of the geography work should be the -direct lesson in the field followed by lessons in school. The higher -grades, also, should continue the frequent field excursions which are -begun in the lower. - -[Illustration: SOURCE OF BROOK IN NEARLY LEVEL COUNTRY.] - -Visits may be made to the hills, groves, lakes and ponds of the vicinity, -and upon returning to the school-room, these and surrounding areas may -be modeled in sand or clay, painted in water-color or drawn on the -blackboard. - -[Illustration: FARM IN CENTRAL NEW YORK.] - -Brook basins may be studied as presenting many if not all of the features -of the river basins. Maps may also be made of these areas, as well as -detailed drawings of special features. - -As has been said, the pupil should model and draw continually, in -connection with or after every lesson in the field. It is the very best -method by which to attain mental growth, and should of course, be the -genuine expression of his own mental images gained through observation. -He should model and draw all surface features or areas seen in his -excursions. He may model, in sand, putty or clay, maps of the areas of -the school-yard, farms or parks in the vicinity; or chalk model them, -then indicate upon them the boundaries of any sub-divisions they may -have, such as fields, clumps of trees, houses or other buildings. - -[Illustration: MAP SHOWING ITS RELATION TO THE BROOK AND RIVER.] - -_Imaginary Areas._ Let the pupil also sketch on the blackboard, imaginary -scenes and typical features of other areas and countries under the same -or contrasting climatic and other conditions; always questioning, as he -draws his mental picture—if of a river, for instance—what is the cause -of its rapidity, what its probable depth and effect on the soil, why it -cuts here or builds there, and why the slopes back of it are terraced as -they are. - -If he represents islands, he should ask himself the question why they are -rocky or alluvial; _i.e._, what their origin; and never represent in any -expression that which is contradictory and so untrue to nature. - -Landscapes typical of the different zones of temperature, showing -characteristic structure, vegetation, homes, habits and occupations of -inhabitants may be drawn. - -Maps, also, of these areas and those adjoining, may be chalk modeled. -As the mind becomes stored with separate images acquired through actual -observation of areas of the earth’s surface, gradually, by the combining -and blending of these, a new mental image, a comprehensive picture is -formed, corresponding in the main to the general features of the whole -earth, with its uplifted masses and lower plains, its natural divisions -of continents, seas and oceans, its atmospheric and climatic conditions. - -If the habit has been formed of chalk modeling imaginary areas, as well -as those within the sense grasp, it will be a comparatively easy matter -to chalk model a map of the whole continent. On this the student may mark -the boundaries of all political divisions as he studies them, and locate -the important cities and places of interest. - -_Practical Suggestions._ Before we leave the subject of field lessons, -some practical suggestions in regard to them are here offered. - -Actual observations may be made on the action and effects of rivers, -underground water, rain, wind, heat and frost. - -The effects of glacial action, and the eruptive forces of nature may also -be seen in places. - -To study river action it is not necessary to visit a river (if there -be none near); any small stream of water, any tiny rivulet beside the -roadway, tells its story of wearing and building, its vertical cutting -and its swinging from side to side. It has its miniature valley, its -basin and water-parting and possibly a delta at its mouth. It may also -have its cascade or waterfall. - -[Illustration: RIVULET SHOWING FALL OF WATER AND DELTA.] - -The wearing of rock, through the influence of rain, frost and heat, may -be seen in any stone building, fence or pavement. - -Effects of heat and moisture on vegetation, as influencing the growth -of plants and trees, should be noticed. The growth of shrubs and trees -during a dry season can be measured and compared with that of wet seasons. - -The observer should mark the effect of vegetation in the action of rain -on a grassy slope—how the grass protects the soil, preventing it from -being washed away, and how, by holding back the water so that it flows -more slowly, it is less destructive in its action. - -To add to the interest, the pupil may be led to imagine the effects upon -climate and streams, of the denuding of large areas of their forests; -also how rock sculpturing, in the forming of gorges, cañons, etc., would -be modified by the volume and force of streams. - -Observation should also be made on the making of soils, their -constituents and relative proportions of loam, sand, gravel and clay, and -the relation of these to plant and animal life. - -The part that the common earth-worm bears in constantly uniting, -enriching and otherwise preparing the soils for the support of vegetable -life, may be seen in many areas. (It has been computed that in one year -several tons of soil are brought up and distributed by them, within an -area of an acre of land.) - -A study made of the action of underground water, as shown in common and -intermittent springs, would be full of interesting suggestions. - -The effect of glaciers may be seen in part and their tremendous influence -imagined, by the presence of the countless numbers of striated boulders, -pieces of rock and pebbles, which are strewn all over our prairies -hundreds of miles from any mountains which could have been their home. - -It is not necessary to witness the devastation of a cyclone in order to -study the effects of wind action. The piling of sand on the sea-shore, -the drifting of snow or the whirling of dust in the street illustrate -this. The observer may notice where the dust blown from the street has -choked and buried the grasses and weeds beside it, and imagine what might -be the fate of forests in the path of encroaching sand-dunes. - -[Illustration: SAND-DUNE ON THE SHORE OF LAKE MICHIGAN.] - -Pupils may be told of the dunes which travel great distances: that one -way by which this is known is by noting trees and houses that were once -back of the traveling sand-hills and are now in front of them; also tell -of the sites of ancient cities long buried and now being excavated and -brought to light again. - - - - -IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING TO INTERPRET PICTURES AS AN AID TO IMAGING THE -CONTINENT. - - -The ability to image the continent or any part of it, from the reading -of pictures, is of great importance. It is an inexpressible aid to the -imagination in the study of areas that lie outside of the sense grasp. -Good pictures should be chosen: pictures showing several different -views of the same section of a country; pictures that are a truthful -representation of both detail and generalities. (Many wood cuts are as -good as photographs for this purpose. Great care, however, should be -taken that they are faithful transcripts.) - -After a close study of them, questions may be asked the pupil as to -climate, structure, nature of rock and soil; whether it may be supposed -to be an arid or fertile region; whether the river basins are young or -old; what agents were most active in shaping its features, and what its -probable destiny: or the pupil may be led to give his own inferences as -to conditions, without direct questioning. - -In this way contrasting sections of country may be studied and compared, -thus making the mental picture more vivid and complete. - -[Illustration: MAP OF ABYSSINIAN HIGHLAND. - -(Drawn from information gained through interpretation of pictures and -written description.)] - -It is understood that these mental images gained from such study of -pictures, have as a basis, images acquired from actual observation of the -earth’s surface. From this mental picture, supplemented by images gained -by oral and written descriptions, maps may be chalk modeled which will -contain all the essential features of structure. - -[Illustration: YOUNG RIVER BASIN.] - -Valuable information for the making of maps has been gained in this way; -indeed, adequate maps cannot be made without this means of acquiring -the necessary knowledge, which the delineator has not been able to gain -through travel and personal investigation. - -Through this study or reading of pictures a natural interest is aroused -in the mind of the pupil to see located on the map (that is, to see in -relation to the whole) countries and places of special interest; such as -natural wonders of structure, and remarkable instances of man’s skill -and power in overcoming obstacles and improving his environment. - -Especially will this be the case if the teacher accompanies the -descriptions with rapid illustrations on the blackboard. - -[Illustration: TEPEE OR WIGWAM OF THE SIOUX INDIANS.] - -Necessity for skill in drawing on the part of the teacher, becomes very -evident as the desirability of frequent illustrations is felt, and the -fact is also realized that by it untold influence for good is exerted -over the mind of the pupil. It is an aid to correct mental picturing, -which the teacher cannot afford to omit. - -[Illustration: COAST OF ALASKA. - -(Showing its drowned valleys caused by the gradual sinking of the land, -also glaciers, Alaskan hut and totem pole.)] - -Special features are more readily understood when drawn in detail: as -mountain peaks, stern or forbidding in outline, or lofty and grand -in their mantles of snow and rivers of ice (Mt. Blanc); valleys -with wooded slopes and streams of water; lakes, waterfalls (Niagara -Falls); glaciers and icebergs, with typical scenes of Arctic regions, -including inhabitants with their homes (Muir Glaciers), (Alaskan huts -and totem-poles); deserts and oases, with typical trees and surrounding -objects (palm trees, pyramids, camels); Indian homes and environment; -dykes of Holland, Suez Canal, St. Gothard Tunnel, Great Wall of China, -etc. - -[Illustration: THE CHALK MODELED MAP.] - - - - -MAPS OF THE PAST AND PRESENT. - - -As it is impossible to adequately teach the surface features of a country -with only a vague idea of its structure, and with no aids in the form of -pictures, drawing or modelings by which these surface features may be -illustrated, there arises the necessity for maps. - -These, to be of any real service, must be a representation of the form -and character of the area which is the subject of study, and must -indicate the relation of part to part, parts to the whole, and the whole -to parts. - -As symbols and more than symbols, they must bring to the mind vivid -pictures of the real country or continent, not as too commonly taught; -“A mental picture of the map, so clear and consistent ... that he (the -pupil) can read the answers to all questions concerning it, from his -mental map, as easily as he could from the printed one, if it were before -him.” - -This is to limit and cramp the mind’s action, as the pupil sees only -the map and its corresponding concept of map, its size, boundaries and -patches of colored paper. It gives no idea of relation or correspondence -between the map and the actual world of life, form and color. - -_Aim of Teacher._ In using maps it should be the aim of teachers -to create in the mind a complete, harmonious picture; the blending -together of the several concepts of structure, climate, drainage, soil, -vegetation, animal life, races of men, etc., corresponding to reality, -or real life in the real world. - -_The flat political maps_ of the past made no attempt to show any -structural features except those of horizontal or level plains, markings -which show the locations of mountain ranges and volcanoes, and lines -indicating rivers and outlines of continents or coasts. - -These maps have had comparatively little meaning to the young pupil. -There was in them no suggestion of solidity or mass; the contents to him -seemed flat and thin, and confined between coasts which were sharply -defined. Tent-like mountains crossed ghost-like surfaces, and thread-like -rivers were made to zigzag along in an erratic and irresponsible way, -showing to him no reason whatever for their being. - -Many teachers or pupils have not known how to interpret maps. They have -not realized that, where rivers rise in certain localities (especially -if more than one rises in the same place), there is a reason for their -rising just there and for their flowing in different directions; that -their source is probably at an elevation or rise of land (called a divide -or water-parting), that there is likely to be more rainfall on the side -of the mountain range that has the more rivers, and that this has a close -relation to the direction of the prevailing winds. - -_Natural Boundaries._ In the past study of these maps, outlines of -political divisions have been memorized. It was not realized that many -of the boundaries of those areas were fixed in the beginning by the very -nature of the surface structure, and that they are where they are, simply -because they could not well be anywhere else. (See Mexico, India, Italy.) - -[Illustration: MAP OF THE CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL. - -(With larger map showing its relation to Lake Michigan and the -Mississippi River, also sections in detail.)] - -_History._ We have seen that the study of history cannot be successfully -taught without a knowledge of structural geography on the part of -teacher and pupil; so we may say the same of maps, that their use is -of fundamental importance in that study, and the ability to read them -understandingly is as indispensable as it is in the study of geography. -To try to teach history otherwise would be a waste of time and effort. - -The habit of locating the events recorded, of tracing upon the map -the route of an army, or the line of an important road or canal, and -observing the impediments or natural obstructions to be overcome, with -the great advantages to be derived therefrom, together with inferences -as to the time and labor required, has the effect of making the study of -history of living interest, especially if the map used indicates such -surface structure. - -In the structural map the student readily sees the meaning to commerce of -the cutting of a canal which would unite two large bodies of water, or -the effect the building of roads and bridges across hitherto impassable -regions would have upon the life and growth of a people in the opening -up of new and extensive areas to civilization, and consequently the -development of their own internal resources. - -The importance of this habit of usage, or constant reference to the -map, is also recognized when one realizes how it fixes in the memory -not only the location of cities and boundaries of ancient empires, but -the geographical structure and environment associated with their growth -and with important historic events; making plain the reasons for, or -causes why, certain events occurred at certain places, as the inevitable -consequence of their environment. - -Light dawns upon the pupil as he studies. He sees that environment has -been an important factor in the development of the human race. He traces -step by step in imagination the growth of civilization, from the time -that man in his nomad stage first drove his herds into the valley in -search of food and water. There, finding the soil productive, water -unfailing in supply, and the valley protected from marauders by natural -barriers, as desert or mountain walls, he fixes his home; in the course -of time comfortable dwellings are constructed, land is cultivated and the -place becomes a center of civilization. - -In connection with this train of thought, the student by contrast notes -the far different effects of environment as shown by life in the Arctic -or other regions, and he turns to his map with renewed interest and eager -inquiry. - -_Literature._ The habit also of locating on the map every place, natural -feature or country read about, should be cultivated, as it is of -importance in obtaining a correct understanding of an author’s meaning. - -If we did not have the knowledge of physical structure in mind as a stage -on which the actors move, much of our literature would lose its value, -becoming flat and uninteresting. - -To know the great lake region adds to one’s interest in Longfellow’s -“Hiawatha,” and the tales of the early explorers; and a knowledge of the -Catskills and the geography of the Hudson River valley gives greater zest -to the enjoyment of Irving’s “Rip Van Winkle” and “Sleepy Hollow.” - -It is also necessary to the understanding of the stories of Holland -(“Hans Brinker”) that we know the habits of the Hollanders arising from -the physical characteristics of their environment. - -To read intelligently Scott, Dickens, George Elliot and others is to -understand the peculiarities of climate and structure of the British -Isles. The old Greek stories and the German Folk Lore as well, demand -for their understanding and interpretation, that we place them not only -in relation to the habits and thoughts of the people, but also to the -physical foundation of the country itself. - -_Relief Map._ The nearer a map corresponds in its inherent form and -material, to the surface features of the earth which it is designed to -represent, the more of reality does it recall to the mind. The most -effective map of this kind and the one which corresponds most closely to -the reality is the modeled map of putty or plaster, showing structure in -relief. - -These maps have been in use for years, and have been of incalculable -interest and benefit to those whose stock of knowledge concerning -geographical structure had been mainly gathered from the flat political -map and old modes of teaching. - -On seeing a relief map of one of the continents for the first time, there -arises a sense of wonder and surprise, and as the realization dawns upon -one of the continuity of the great mass of land represented, with its -altitudes and depressions, and that it is one stupendous aggregation of -soil, rock and vegetation, surrounded by a great expanse of water, a -feeling of awe and astonishment is awakened. - -As this new light comes to the student, he looks with interest and -eagerness to see the plan of it all. We do not mean to say that he -sees in the map before him an actual correspondence to the earth’s -surface structure, that is, forms that are reproductions in miniature -of mountain range and valley, but he sees a representation of them -calculated to arouse his imagination to a lively degree. He is enabled -to picture to himself great slopes crowned by lofty mountain peaks, -and the meeting of their lower edges where mighty rivers flow. He sees -in imagination how these waters have cut deep channels into the great -uplifted masses, how they have torn jagged gashes into their rugged sides -as they leaped and tumbled through dark cañons, grinding off rocks that -form sediment constantly to be deposited later on upon the plain below. -He easily understands that they must act as a source of drainage for wet -lands and as channels for the irrigation of dry areas. - -In looking upon the great bodies of water, oceans, seas, lakes and gulfs, -as represented on the maps, he questions the relation of these waters -to the land, their depth and what place they fill in the economy of -nature. Indeed, the relief map has an awakening effect, quickening the -imagination and stimulating to mental effort—earnest thought. - -They are invaluable in their place and have come to stay; yet on account -of their weight and general unwieldiness they are not practically as -useful as maps which are lighter and more easily handled. - -_The papier mache_ maps in relief, although much lighter in weight, are -still very bulky if made large enough to be of much practical use as -wall maps, since they cannot be folded or reduced in size to facilitate -transportation, or removal from room to room. - -The best of these, also, are modeled in such low relief that they are -better adapted to the use of pupils in the higher than in the lower -grades. Other maps of rather recent date are the _typographical_ map and -the _contoured_ map. The former shows general altitudes by the use of -shades of color, and is of great value to one who can interpret it, but -only a confused mass of signs and symbols to the young student, and thus -not much more helpful to him than was the old reference map. - -In the contoured map, the altitudes are scientifically represented -by lines drawn to an exact scale, and such maps are most valuable to -students of the higher grades. - -A structural map suitable to all grades of pupils, the lower as well as -the higher grades, seems highly essential; especially should it be one -that is adapted to the teacher’s use while before the class—one to teach -from. This should be entirely different from a reference map. It should -plainly show the great facts of physical geography or surface structure, -as well as some detail, and this in a simple form. For the lower grades -there should be no lines to mark the political divisions, neither -should there be any names of countries, states, or cities to designate -localities. - -Everything should be omitted that would have a tendency to divert the -attention from the chief function of the map which is, to aid in the -formation of a mental picture or image, corresponding to the structural -features of the real country or continent. - -_The Chalk Modeled Map._ These maps, following the use of the putty or -plaster relief maps, should be the only ones placed before the pupils -of the third and fourth grades, or even higher grades, until they have -gained mental power to read and understand the signs and symbols of the -map, and realize clearly the chief structural features of the whole globe. - -The student should be enabled by the use of maps to picture in his mind -the configuration of the whole earth; the distribution and shape of land -and water surfaces, the great structural division of continents, the -slopes and counter-slopes with their crowned heights and level plains, -the great land masses and river basins, peninsulas, gulfs and bays, -islands and their relation to the mainland. - -In fine, the whole world surface should become a reality to him if the -map is rightly taught. This will be an easy matter for a teacher who -is alive to the beauty of the world around us and who has a personal -knowledge or clearly pictured concepts of the real country. Such an one -will readily see the value of the maps as an aid to the pupil in gaining -a comprehensive mental picture of the earth’s surface. - -She will remember that the mere placing of the maps before the pupil is -not enough, that they will be as unmeaning to him as the flat political -map, unless he has already in mind the primary concepts acquired through -observation of surface forms, and has made his inference as to cause from -the effects seen. - -Of what value will it be to him to know that certain lines indicate a -mountain range or river, unless he has an approximate idea of what a -mountain range or river is? - -For the use of the more advanced pupils of the higher grades, who see -the relation of structural environment to man in his development as -a nation, the relation of natural structural divisions to political -divisions, these maps should have lines drawn upon them to indicate the -boundaries of such divisions. Names, also, of countries, mountain and -river systems should be marked, and the large bodies of water of the -interior. Later on, the smaller divisions of states and provinces, gulfs -and bays, lakes and rivers, with their tributaries, should be shown, and -important cities may also be located; in the end, all the data needed as -a reference map. - -The map devised to fulfil these conditions, and now in considerable -use in this country, is called the “Chalk Modeled Map.” It is drawn to -represent surface structure in relief, giving much of the effect of an -engraving or photograph of a relief map, yet intrinsically more truthful -and artistic than any such representation could be. - -There is an immense difference between this and a drawing from a relief -map, or from a photograph of one. In this map the delineator expresses at -first hand his own concept of the continental structure, as the artist or -poet expresses in his work his own original ideas. We feel his thought in -the very quality of line used. We read how the truths have appealed to -his own consciousness. It stands where the relief map itself stands, as -representing the delineator’s own mental image of such structure. - -There are no lines drawn in this map that contradict or confuse the -meaning; all is direct, truthful and clear in statement of fact. Each -line has its own particular meaning. If represents direction. Applied to -land surface, a vertical line means a perpendicular mountain or side wall -of plateau, horizontal lines indicate level areas, and oblique lines a -sloping surface. - -Until recently, this map has not been available for general use, except -as each teacher made his or her own. The latter, however, is the ideal -way of teaching. To draw a map of a continent or section of it, as is -required, in order to illustrate or emphasize any particular point before -the class, adds intensely to the interest of the lesson and to the -adequacy of concept gained by the pupil. - -Too often, however, the opposite course is pursued. The teacher’s -conceptions of earth structure are perhaps vague, or, teachers may not -have been in the habit of representing by drawings that which they may be -able to picture quite clearly in their own minds, even the desirability -of so doing may not have been entertained by them. - -In fact, there are comparatively few who have been persistent enough to -make maps, for though there may be a good knowledge of geography, clear -mental pictures of structure and the ability, also, to draw them, yet -lack of time necessary for their proper delineation has doubtless often -compelled the busy teacher to forego their execution. - -_Printed Wall Map._ The Chalk Modeled map has recently been presented to -us in a more durable and serviceable form for general use; a printed wall -map, which combines the latest geographical knowledge together with the -best available skill in delineation. - -It does not embody all the desirable points of the original, yet it has -an added one, that of durability. - -The introduction of “Nature Study” into the public schools has -contributed largely to the demand for such a map. Pupils brought into -close relations with nature, naturally seek to relate the knowledge -gained in this basic study of geography, to the map; as in connection -with the field lessons, after actual observation of surface areas, the -student is led to model or draw what he has seen. This he represents in -pictorial form, as it appears to him, or he charts or maps it from actual -measurements. - -Sometimes he tries to combine these methods so as to show elevations as -altitudes on his map or chart, but the results are often very crude; a -mere representation of hills and mountains piled up on level ground. - -He realizes that this is not a proper representation and is often -discouraged. He knows that peaks are related to level ground by -continuity of mass: that they are the corrugated tops of great uplifted -masses or swells of land, and his failure to find this illustrated in the -old maps has led him to lose much of his interest in them, and to greet -the new one with ardor. - -It appeals to his reason as a symbol more nearly corresponding to the -features of the country represented. It is indeed the link needed to -connect the political map with the putty relief map. - -_Mass Without Outline._ Not only can we say that the Chalk Modeled map -has been a great factor in the better understanding of the surface -contour and conditions of the continental mass, thus advancing the -true study of geography, but that it has also awakened some of the -teachers of the public schools of the country, to the lack of interest -and lifelessness in the teaching of drawing as it has prevailed in the -schools in the past. It has been the means of revealing to them the -beauty and desirability of delineating mass without a continuous hard -outline. The artist when inspired with his subject masses his material in -boldly and each stroke counts for the thing he wants to say—it tells of -the direction of surface, or edge of mass, or detail. - -In the new map, the representation of solidity and land continuity as -mass, with no hard and fast limitations of land and water, such as the -outlines so prominent in the old reference maps, is a noticeable feature. - -It is a well-known fact that a general or approximate shape of the coasts -of continents is all that can be known from the most careful surveys; -for in reality with every season there is more or less change in coast -line, caused by wearing and building of ocean and river, as well as by -the occasional rising or sinking of stretches of land along the coast. In -course of time these changes become very apparent. - -The omitting of outlines of continents, then, in the drawing of maps -has been for a purpose. They have not been necessary to the showing -of limitation of continental mass or the meeting of the surface plane -of water with land surface; and as the direction of all lines used in -delineating have their meaning, there can be truthfully none used to -represent something lying between land and sea, as there is nothing -there. Continental coast contours may be as accurately shown as the -occasion demands without the use of any outline to confuse the eye or to -contradict the direction of line used to delineate the structure of the -land surface at the water’s edge. (See map illustrations in Part IV.) - -The most prominent feature of the new map is the representation of the -relief of the earth’s surface; showing, as it does at a glance, the -great back bone of the continent, with its ragged broken line of peaks -dividing the waters of the two slopes; its great land masses, primary and -secondary; and its area or line of greatest depressions. Its river basins -also are plainly seen, and we infer the reason for the general course of -the rivers and read their history from the sculpturing they have done. - -We may note also the character of the mountain ranges; whether they are -young or old; where new land is being made, and where areas are sinking. -One can often determine what the prevailing wind of a section may be -and the regions of greatest rainfall, and can judge of the climate and -vegetation; in short, very rational conclusions concerning the life and -habits of a people may be formed from a study of the map alone, and the -student can picture, in imagination, the growth or advancement of nations -under the given conditions. - -He will be enabled to see, as has been remarked in substance before, that -the mighty influences bearing upon civilization have always been largely -dependent upon the geographical structure of a country; the relation of -natural divisions to existing political divisions will be noted, and the -reasons for the locations of great centers of commerce, important cities, -and military fortifications, will be understood. - -_Altitudes._ In common with all relief maps, altitudes are shown in -these, greatly exaggerated in comparison with the horizontal distances, -but this is essential in order that the pupil may be able to grasp the -_general truths_ of the organization of the continent. - -Relief maps in relatively exact proportions will not help to this, as the -highest elevation would appear nearly on a plane with the ocean level, -and would be of no better service for school use than the flat maps, -from which no idea of the general organism can be acquired by the young -student, if indeed it can be by one of riper years. - -Also in all topographical surveys, and in the profile of vertical -sections of country found in many geographies, we find the same -exaggeration of height in relation to horizontal distances, used to -illustrate elevations and slopes. - -These, with photographs or pictures of relief maps are extensively used, -as well as birds’-eye views, showing on the part of the map-makers, a -recognition of the importance of the pupil’s gaining mental concepts of -altitudes. The latter, of course, must exercise his judgment in relating -the heights, to the horizontal distances given, as he so continually does -in every-day life in regard to other matters. - -The horizontal map distances should be related to the other horizontal -distances of the map, and the altitudes to other altitudes, and these -with reference, also, to the tabulated lists found in every geography, of -the heights of mountain peaks and lengths of rivers. - -“All knowledge of external things comes through observation, comparison, -and judgment.” To judge of great altitudes, one must have a knowledge of -the heights within experience. To be able to gain a proper conception of -immense distances, as the distance across a continent, comparison must be -made with the distances one has already measured or traveled. - -In the measurements of areas, size of fields and gardens, width of ponds, -or heights of trees and hills, the pupil has numerical facts from which -he judges of other forms and areas; as forests, marshes, plains, the -width of rivers and lakes, the heights of mountains and cliffs, or length -of rivers and mountain ranges. - -Also in the measuring of the deposition of silt in small streams, he may -judge of the quantity that large rivers like the Mississippi or Nile -must carry; and from measuring the yearly growth of vegetation in his -own climate, he judges what might be the growth in other climates. Thus -through observations, inferences, and comparisons, he is enabled to read -his map with some degree of power to judge its distances and altitudes. - -The aim in the preceding pages has been to show the vital importance to -the would-be delineator of Chalk Modeled maps, of the thorough study -of geography, in its truest sense, and that the foundation of such -study lies in the field lesson, with its accompanying expression of the -knowledge gained there, of surface forms, areas and structures. - -The habit, also, of modeling and drawing in connection with the study -of geography, is conducive to the wished-for end; _i.e._, an adequate -knowledge and expression, of the surface contour of the continent. - -The chalk modeling of maps is in itself the simplest of all modes of -drawing. It may have been inferred from what has been said on the subject -of maps, that drawing them consists merely in showing simple indications -of slopes; short or long, abrupt or gentle, and summits; broken or -rounded, river basins, character of water-partings, valleys, lakes, -rivers and coasts either bold and rocky, or low and alluvial. - -It would be as unnecessary for the purposes of geographical instruction, -as it would be impossible, to draw absolutely correct maps of the earth’s -surface. - -Each mountain peak cannot be shown, nor every indentation of coast-line, -but the general trend or direction of mountain ranges and rivers, and -more or less of geological structure can be portrayed in a conventional -manner. - -It is not difficult to chalk model with reasonable accuracy. The ability -to do this, however, with any degree of rapidity as well as accuracy, -implies, as has just been said, an adequate knowledge of the subject -to be represented. No mere imitation, or acquisition of technique, or -copying of maps, is educational, nor has it any vital relation to the -true study of geography. Like all dead copies, it betrays in itself its -lack of life, or of real knowledge on the part of the delineator. - -An instructor whose eyes are open to truth, can generally tell from a -pupil’s representation whether it is the result of his own individual -thought, the expression of his own knowledge of the subject, or the -reflex of another’s thought. - -If it is an expression of his own, there will be much revealed in the -touch and in the quality of line itself, that could not be depicted in -form or put into words. The representation, also, will indicate to what -degree the subject has interested and inspired the individual, and how, -with a clear mental image, he has instinctively expressed himself in the -simplest and most direct manner possible with the medium at hand. - -In the following pages will be found suggestions as to the method of -chalk modeling, given in the form of a series of lessons; the underlying -principles in the lessons being those on which is based all expression of -thought in every field of study and among all peoples. - -The illustrations are not intended to be models for the teacher or pupils -to copy, but are meant to be helps or encouragement to those who desire -and have courage to attempt to express their own mental images. - -Busy teachers need only to realize that comparatively little effort is -necessary in order to acquire a certain amount of success, if they have -their subject in hand, that is, if they have an adequate mental image of -the object to be sketched. - -It is hoped that such success will prove a strong inducement to a -deep study of the subject of art, and especially to the psychology of -expression. - - - - -PART II. - -LESSONS. - - - - -REMARKS. - - -Chalk Modeling of surface forms is the easiest and simplest method of -geographical drawing, and one of the best ways of beginning art work in -the school-room, for absolute definiteness of form and detail is not -required, and we know that generalities are represented much more easily -than details—large masses more easily than small objects. - -No one need hesitate to try to draw who can write or gesture: this last -we are all doing continually, either consciously or unconsciously. - -Watch the friend while telling some interesting story, or while giving a -description of some object or landscape. Note the gestures unconsciously -employed and how truthful to the subject they are. Also notice that the -more intense the desire to make you understand, the more adequate is the -gesture. - -No conscious thought is required as to what motion to make, for the very -desire to express brings with it both the required word and action. -This is spontaneity, and if a pencil or crayon were in the hand of the -narrator, with paper or a blackboard near, a sketch might be the result, -and one quite adequate to its purpose. - -If you are in earnest and truly desire to express your thought by drawing -or chalk modeling, you will forget yourself in your effort to be -understood. You will find a way to accomplish your object, choosing and -using the right direction of line and giving the right accentuation or -emphasis without any special attention as to the method of working. - -Drawings may be made on the blackboard with common blackboard crayon of -medium softness, or with charcoal or crayon upon paper. The blackboard is -much the more serviceable, as upon that you can draw with great freedom, -without fear of wasting paper or of spoiling your work. Swing the arm out -freely from the shoulder as you work, give out that which you have to -give, without fear, generously. If it is but a line to indicate the edge -of a table, draw that line as though you were _glad_ to draw it. Express -your thought boldly regarding the fact or object you wish to make your -statement about—fear not. - - - - -REPRESENTATION OF SURFACES WITH HINTS ON THE DELINEATION OF DISTANCES. -LAND SLOPING _FROM_ THE OBSERVER. LIGHT AND SHADE. - - -The most convenient length of crayon to use, is a piece about an inch and -a half or two inches long, yet we may often profitably use the whole side -or length of the crayon. If we wish to represent broad surfaces, we will -naturally use the side of the crayon, as a child does. To show narrower -widths of surface press more upon the end of the crayon, also use a long -_edge_ to represent the edges or the meeting of surface planes. This -manner of using the crayon seems the most natural for the purpose, and it -certainly economizes time. - -Line represents direction. When applied to surface we understand it to -indicate horizontal, vertical, oblique, and curved surface directions. -Try it and see if it is not true that lines in one direction never -indicate any other direction; the vertical can never be mistaken for the -horizontal, or the reverse. For the representation of a level plain, -make simple strokes in the horizontal direction with the side of the -crayon, and to represent a vertical surface as a cliff, make a stroke in -the vertical direction with the same broad side of the crayon. Oblique -surfaces, as slopes, are to be drawn with oblique strokes, and curved -surfaces like rounded hills, represented by continuous upward and -downward strokes. (See Fig. 1.) In the delineation of mountain masses, -that are high with abrupt declivities as well as gradual slopes, we use -the side of the crayon with an oblique stroke as in Fig. 2. We see then -that right direction of lines of themselves illustrate surface planes, -elevations or depressions. - -[Illustration: 1 2 3 4 5] - -Detail of structure, however, cannot be well brought out except by -effects of light and shade. Choose from which direction your map or -sketch is to be lighted, and keep it always in mind while drawing. Study -the effects of light and shade everywhere. Note the length of shadows at -different times of the day, and their relation to the position of the sun. - -To represent an unbroken sweep of land or water, as of a plain or lake, -draw a broad unbroken line for the distance, as all detail of surface -forms seems to merge into one horizontal mass; nearer to us, we perceive -more detail of landscape or broken land surface, which we may represent -with broken lines. This is the most simple representation of level -distance. (Note Fig. 3.) - -In Fig. 4, or the representation of a plateau (upraised mass of land), -there are horizontal, vertical, and oblique surfaces combined. The detail -of structure in the foreground is represented with some definiteness -of line, while the mountain slopes are quite indefinite. Notice that -the oblique and vertical lines are shorter in the distance than in the -foreground, and that the land seems to rise as it recedes from us. Look -out of doors and see if it is not so. Notice rows of trees, houses, or -telegraph poles, in their relative height, also in their relation to the -ground on which they stand. - -In the delineation of a valley between parallel mountain ranges, keep -in mind the proportionate height of mountains to width of valley; for -example, think of the apparent width of street or railroad track at the -farther end, in comparison with the width of the same close by you, and -also notice that it decreases in definiteness as it recedes into the -distance. Note the width of the valley in Fig. 4. - -Fig. 5 represents land sloping from us as it recedes. Note the more -definite lines in the foreground, indicating some detail of structure, -and the indefiniteness, or less distinct lines that indicate the distant -hills, these lines becoming more and more indistinct as the hills recede. - -[Illustration: 6 7 9] - - - - -LAND SLOPING TOWARDS THE OBSERVER. QUALITY OF LINE. RELATIONS. - - -Each line drawn has its own characteristic meaning—its own individuality, -so to speak. It not only represents direction, but carries with it a -certain quality of effort or mentality, as indecision, fear, courage, -certainty. (See Fig. 6, _a._ _b._ _c._) We also see in it the habitual -mental attitude of the delineator. This is plainly seen in the quality -of line used by the timid, contrasted with that of the fearless—by the -unstable or changeable mind in contrast to one who is clear in his -thought (who “knows his own mind”) and positive in his expression. (_d._ -_c._ _e._) - -It follows, then, that to draw a firm line with ease and rapidity, one -must have a positive knowledge of what one desires to express, just the -length of the line and its relation to all other lines; that is, one -must see things or objects in their right relations. All things in the -universe are related to each other—nothing stands alone. The mountain is -closely related to the valley, it has given of its substance to build and -enrich the latter, and its streams have carried nourishment to help swell -the river at its base. - -In its delineation, therefore, one must keep in mind the relation of its -height to the width of the valley, and to the plateau on which it may -stand; the declivity of its slopes, and their relation to the vertical -direction, which may be seen as an imaginary line drawn from the center -of the base to the zenith. - -[Illustration: 8 10] - -The trees beside the hill in Fig. 7 show the latter to be very high. In -Fig. 8 the hill becomes low because of the relation of its altitude to -the height of the trees in the foreground. - -The delineation of more or less detail also helps to determine altitudes; -as, to draw grasses, boulders or out-cropping rocks on the hill side, -would show that we were near enough to the hill or knoll to see them -in detail. Hills in the far distance would be represented without much -detail, for they are too far away naturally for us to observe it. - -To represent land sloping towards us as in Figs. 7, 9, and 10, the -foreground must be broken up, that is, represented in more or less of -structure detail. Fig. 9 shows low hills at the foot of the mountain -range sloping toward the level land in the immediate foreground. Fig. 10 -a steep alluvial fan indicating the nature and character of its structure -by the direction and quality of line used. The crumbling sandstone -rock, showing the effects of weathering, is indicated by short nearly -vertical strokes, with the thought of stratification also in mind. The -flowing sand is represented by vertical and oblique lines drawn in the -direction in which sand would naturally flow. We have here three examples -of land sloping towards us. One represented by nearly horizontal lines, -the others by vertical or oblique lines. Grasses grow many blades from -one root. Their tendency may be vertical but many influences combine to -turn them from that direction. Use an edge of the chalk with an upward -or downward motion. Knolls of any contour may be represented by drawing -grasses in the direction of the slopes as in Fig. 8. - -[Illustration: 11 12 13 14] - - - - -HIGH AND LOW WATER-PARTINGS WITH MAP. - - -If your subject “possesses” you, there will be no need of giving special -thought to effects or results; these will follow naturally from the state -or quality of feeling engendered in your mind by its contemplation; that -is, if one part of the surface to be represented is hard and rocky, and -another soft and yielding, and you have observed this fact in relation to -the whole, you will naturally show it in the quality of line you use. No -other hints can be given that will help you so readily to the artistic -touch as this, together with the hints given in our last lesson as to -the necessity of an adequate knowledge of form and of relationships or -proportions. Fig. 11. A water-parting high and mountainous. It shows its -rocky structure in the harsh and “liney” quality of the work as well as -in the surface contour. The paper is left white for the streams of water. -On the blackboard, when drawing maps with chalk, use charcoal for the -rivers, as in the rapid delineation of such maps it takes too much time -to save spaces for them; and at the best it is such an exaggeration of -the width of streams, that it misleads the pupil. - -Fig. 12 represents a low water-parting. Notice the texture of line, soft -and yielding, produced by thinking, knowing and feeling that the surface -was not rocky, but a somewhat sandy soil, mixed with a little loam. - -Perspective is shown by less of detail in the distance than in the -foreground; the trees in the latter being more accurately drawn, as well -as taller. The poplars at the right of the picture also show that the -ground is a little uneven, as the distant ones seem to be partially below -a slight rise in the surface. Fig. 13 is a map or bird’s eye view of a -height of land worn down by streams running in different directions, -leaving the water-parting sharply defined. - -A little sketch of the sea shore (Fig. 14) illustrates another quality -of “touch.” In depicting water rolling irresistibly on, a mighty force -dashing against the shore and breaking into showers of spray, you will -naturally use a steady, forceful but light touch in indicating its curves -and masses. “Feeling” and “touch” are something to be experienced and not -taught mechanically. - -[Illustration: 15 16 17 18 19] - - - - -MEETING OF WATER AND LAND. LAKES, SPRINGS, ISLANDS. HIGH AND LOW TIDE. - - -The artistic appeals to the higher or finer qualities of our nature, and -to be artistic is to show forth or make visible these qualities. Work -which is truly artistic can only be produced when we are in such harmony -with our subject that these qualities predominate. These truths are so -important that I ask you to experiment and discover them for yourselves. -How will you get the “atmospheric” effect unless you realize that a -certain volume of atmosphere is between you and the distant object? -How will you keep true values unless you see truly (correctly)? In all -drawing of any special subject it should be the aim to keep everything -subordinated to the main point of interest, just as in writing you make -every word or sentence bear upon the main point of your theme or your -argument. - -The meeting of land and water can never be represented by a continuous -line; as line indicates direction of surface, and as the surface planes -of both land and water are continually changing, the direction of line is -changing or being broken, even if on the same general plane. Fig. 15 (a -lake among the hills) shows the horizontal plane of water surface meeting -the oblique surface of land. Where the water falls over the rock, the -oblique and curved lines used are broken, to represent the nature of the -rock underneath. Notice that the depth of each little fall corresponds -with the stratification of rock. The water, as it recedes, lies level, -also. You will have no difficulty in drawing ponds and lakes, if you -think of the farther shores as less distinct, and the waves, although -rough and broken in the foreground, as merged and blended together in the -distance. - -[Illustration: 20 21 22 23 24] - -Figs. 16 and 17 are high and low tide on the Piscataqua River. (The -ocean tides flow in for miles up the river.) These illustrations show -the broken, or short, nearly horizontal lines used to indicate the tops -of the little waves and ripples in the foreground. As the water lowers -a little in the river, the island (Fig. 16) is seen, connected with the -mainland by an isthmus, or narrow neck of land; and in Fig. 17 it is seen -as a part of the mainland. Figs. 18 and 19 are springs flowing out from -hillsides. Notice the relation the grasses and rock bear to the water. -Fig. 20 represents North Cape; Fig. 23, a coral island: both show water -in active motion, compared with that in Fig. 15, and with Fig. 21 (a -rocky island). Fig. 22 shows rapids in a New England stream. Notice the -velocity and volume of water. Fig. 24 is a map of the Mississippi River. -The upper part of the map is drawn without any lines between river and -land. The lower half has a line drawn close to the edge of the water, -to indicate the levees, which are necessary in that region, to prevent -inundation. For a map of continental islands and drowned valleys, see map -of the fiord coast of Alaska, in the Introduction. - - - - -SKETCHES ILLUSTRATIVE OF WIND AND WATER EROSION. - - -All who will may learn to draw. It is that which we most earnestly desire -to do, that is accomplished in every department of effort. All lesser -interests will give place to that which we consider of the greatest -importance. Therefore if we as teachers recognize the value of the habit -of sketching before our classes and greatly desire to be able to draw -with ease and rapidity, we will put ourselves into right relationship to -the work, and will undoubtedly acquire the desired skill. - -We have been observing all our lives; we have made careful observations -of many details of form and color, perhaps, and close investigation of -structure, but we have not analyzed them into terms of drawing. We have -not been looking for the planes of surface, or the relative proportions -of parts, or for distance or foreground. Now, however, with the desire -to be able to sketch readily, we will observe the object or landscape -for that special purpose. One sketch will represent only what has been -observed by looking in one direction without turning the head. The most -interesting point of the view will be that at which one looks directly, -and consequently it will be the most important part of the sketch with -every other part subordinated to it. - -[Illustration: 25 26 27 28 29] - -In out of door sketching it will be necessary to eliminate much that is -seen, only drawing that which is chosen to be the vital or interesting -part of the picture, with that which modifies, or is necessary to show -it in its completeness. Select your point of view, standing at such a -distance that all you care to study may be comprehended in a glance. - -[Illustration: 30] - -Note the relation of earth to sky, and of trees to hills, streams, or -other objects to be included in the sketch. As a help to find the true -direction compare the surface planes and edges with that which you know -is vertical. Study the light and shade, choose the simple broad tones -which will best express distance, middle ground and near details. Work -simply and easily, not straining after certain preconceived effects. It -is this particular truth or fact which now appeals to you, which you are -to express, and do not hesitate to express it freely and boldly. Sketch -everything, anything, no matter how complicated it may seem to be, and -sketch often. The child does that, and learns to draw by drawing. - -[Illustration: 31] - -Fig. 25 shows the edge of a desert in Wyoming Territory, where the only -vegetation is sage brush. The rains have worn a little gully in the -general sandy level. Notice the steep slant of the sandy sides. Fig. 26 -is a sketch of a hole in the sandy soil of a farm, on the banks of the Au -Sable River, New York. It was first worn by the rains as a little gully -on the upper edge of the bank, and with every rain-storm more sand was -washed out and carried down into the river. A part of this is deposited -lower down the river, below the bank on the right, in the sketch Fig. 30. - -[Illustration: 32] - -Use horizontal lines for the sandy level, and curved lines to indicate -the slow current in the water. Fig. 27 also shows the result of rain and -wind erosion of the bank behind the stump of the tree. Fig. 28 represents -a section of Yellowstone cañon, and Fig. 29 is a sketch from Monument -Park, Colorado. In both the latter are seen examples of rain and wind -erosion, more particularly in Fig. 29. Notice the hard layers of rock -that cap and protect the softer sandstone beneath, and the hard pinnacles -that jut out from among the sliding sands in Fig. 28. - -[Illustration: 33] - -The effects of river erosion, together with the weathering of rocks are -seen in Fig. 31, which is a sketch of a section of Wilmington Pass, in -the Adirondacks. The precipitous sides of rock, are shown with evergreens -growing wherever they can find a foothold in the soil made by the -disintegration of the rocks above. Boulders and trees have been brought -down by the loosening of masses of rock, through the action of frost, -heat, and melted snow, causing obstructions in the stream, over and -between which the waters tumble and roll. Fig. 32 is a view taken from -the beach of Arch Rock, at Mackinac Island. It is a mass of calcareous -rock, showing the result of lake erosion and weathering. The rock in Fig. -33 shows signs of disintegration from the action of wind and rain. - -[Illustration: 34 36 37 38 39 40] - - - - -SCENES TYPICAL OF THE DIFFERENT ZONES. - - -Take the children into your confidence: that is, cause them to feel that -you are not sketching for their amusement or for their admiration, but -are trying to help them to a better understanding of the subject. They -will appreciate your motive and be stimulated to increase their own -efforts. With every attempt to sketch on your part, additional skill -will be acquired, for it is only by repeated attempts that progress is -made. By such continued efforts you not only gain the power to express -the knowledge you have, but are led to see wherein you are deficient -and require closer study of your subject. When we try to express our -knowledge of a subject by drawing, we are often greatly surprised to find -how little we know of it. It is the same with writing or speaking. Our -knowledge or ideas of a subject should be arranged in orderly sequence, -so logical and clearly defined, that we shall not be obliged to go back -and modify or correct any part of our expression. Such corrections in -connection with drawing destroy that pleasing quality which marks a -sketch as “artistic.” The teacher who appreciates the importance of -forming correct mental habits, will encourage in his pupils the practice -of accurate and thorough study of a subject, before any attempts at -expression are made. - -[Illustration: 35 42 43 44 45 46 47] - -In drawing from your imaginary picture, look at it closely and carefully. -Clear it up, classify its component parts into primary and secondary, -that is, decide which is the most important and interesting part of the -whole, and to what degree the other parts are to be subordinated to that, -then analyze it into terms of drawing, _i.e._, vertical, horizontal, etc. - -In the scenes given in this lesson as typical of the different zones of -climate, some of the primary features were gained through observation, -some through pictures supplemented by reading. Many of the sketches -illustrating the other lessons, as well as those in the Introduction, -will also give suggestions for this lesson, such as the illustrations on -Alaska, India, and the continents. These need not be duplicated here. - -In the scene from Siberia (Fig. 34), and in that of the dunes in -the Sahara desert (Fig. 35), notice the form of both snow and sand -drifts—their sharp edges and short and long slopes. The corn-field in -northern New York (Fig. 36), illustrates the law of receding parallel -lines—that they appear to converge as they recede, and if extended far -enough, would seem to meet at a point on the horizon (the “point of -sight”), a point immediately opposite the eye. A line drawn from the top -and one from the bottom of each stalk in the front row, to the point -of sight, will show this. Notice how the stalks in the foreground are -brought out with more prominence than those farther away and outside of -the direct line of vision. - -[Illustration: 41 48 49] - -Figs. 37 to 40, inclusive, tell the stories of a lumber camp (Northern -Michigan); logs of cotton-wood floating out into the Au Sable River -(Adirondacks); a scarred and storm-worn pine tree, also one gashed by -the axe of the wood-cutter. In contrast to the pine, notice the graceful -elm of New England, in Fig. 41, and in Fig. 42, the banana tree of hot -climates. Fig. 43 is a scene typical of the hot belt (the Amazon region, -where there is abundant rainfall), and Figs. 44 and 45 show an oasis in -the desert, also cactus, as another typical form of vegetation. Fig. 46 -represents a rice-field, and Fig. 47 cotton balls and flowers. - -Figs. 48 and 49, showing a factory or “mill” in New England, and the New -York State harvest scene, are typical of the cool belt, or temperate -zone. - -[Illustration: 50 51] - - - - -RIVER BASINS. COASTS. - - -Do not copy the sketches given in these lessons. They are but suggestions -to you, who will be able to express your own thoughts and represent your -own mental pictures better than you can another’s. They are given to show -you that simple sketches will help a child to a clearer understanding of -the subject under consideration. As has been said elsewhere, all such -illustrations should be drawn as they are needed to illustrate a given -point in the development of a lesson; for they carry more weight than if -sketched beforehand, that is, outside of the class exercise. - -To merely locate in your sketch a house, spring, tree or man, will often -be of great value to the pupil, though you may feel timid about trying to -draw it, or think you have not the time. The experience of many teachers -in this respect may be illustrated by supposing a case. - -A sketch is to be drawn, including the figure of a man, animal or any -object which has been considered difficult and therefore somewhat avoided. - -The teacher, by one or two rapid strokes in the right direction, -indicates the location and movement of this figure, and proceeds with -the lesson without any hesitation or laborious attempts to really sketch -it. The next time it is necessary to represent it (perhaps in the second -or third lesson), sufficient confidence and skill have been gained to -encourage additional strokes in the development of form, and every -succeeding attempt has resulted in the addition of details of structure, -until almost without knowing it, the necessary skill has been acquired to -make an adequate sketch. How? By _doing_, the teacher has been forced to -form the mental picture, which, once acquired, can be represented, though -it may be more or less crudely at first. - -[Illustration: 52 53 54 55 56] - -Fig. 50 illustrates the basin of a young river or brook, with its slopes -and system of drainage, just such an one as may be seen near many country -school-houses, and an exaggerated type, only, of what may be found in -the streets and alleys of the city. Its source (_a_) is found in a -slight depression which, in the spring or after heavy rains, becomes -a pond, from which its waters overflow and trickle down through two -channels, which they have worn for themselves. The soil brought down -by these rivulets and others which are tributaries to the main stream, -may be seen deposited at _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, as flood plains, islands, -and delta. Notice the cañon cut by one of the tributaries through the -left slope of the basin, and the cascade and waterfall where the debris -brought down at high water has formed an obstruction. In Fig. 51 is -given a typical Switzerland river basin. Figs. 52 to 55 inclusive, show -ocean wearing and rock weathering. “Hilt Rock” (Fig. 52) shows alternate -layers of trap rock and sandstone. In Fig. 53 (“Point Portal,” Pictured -Rocks, Lake Superior), is seen the effect of wave and wind wearing in -soft rock, and Fig. 54 (“Land’s End,” Cornwall, England), is an example -of wave wearing in hard rock. Fig. 55 (“Giant’s Cause-way,” Ireland), -shows the weathering and wearing of basaltic rock. Fig. 56 is Eddystone -Light-house, (England). - -[Illustration: 57 58 59 60] - -In the drawing of maps, the meeting of land and water can be as -accurately drawn by the new method as by the old. The following sketches -illustrate the fact that it is not necessary to use any line running -contrary to the general direction of surface, in order to represent any -contour of coast. - -Figs. 57 to 60 are imaginary bird’s-eye views of coasts. Fig. 57 shows -a stretch of level land at the coast, with broken or hilly land between -it and the distant higher hills or mountains: the latter being merely -suggested in the representation. A stream winds its way through the low -land to the ocean, where the silt which it has brought down and the sands -which have been washed up by the sea, form a delta and sand-bars. Fig. 60 -shows drowned valleys, fiord coasts, and continental islands. - - - - -SUGGESTIONS ON THE USE OF THE CHALK MODELED MAP OF NORTH AMERICA IN -FOURTH AND FIFTH GRADES. - - -It is hoped that these suggestions will aid many teachers to realize -that the Chalk Modeled maps signify much more than the simple fact of -high and low land, or a representation of structural relief: that from -them, together with suitable pictures showing typical scenes in different -parts of the world, such valuable knowledge of the real surface of the -earth may be gained by the pupil, as will enable him to appreciate the -important relation sustained by man to his environment, and also to his -fellow man. - -Previous to the study of the map of North America, the pupil may be -led to imagine the character of the country to the north, south, east -and west of his own locality. He may travel in imagination across the -continent to either ocean, and may study different sections of the -country through pictures and from oral and written descriptions. Such -sections should also be chalk modeled, showing the plateaus, mountain -ranges, plains, valleys, arid and fertile regions. - -These drawings should be large, sometimes extending the whole length of -the blackboard from left to right, and drawn in a semi-conventionalized -manner, that is, in a style that combines both landscape, and map -drawing. This is an essential link between the two and should play an -important part in the development of continental picturing: the motive -being (in all this) to have the pupil mentally image the real continent, -before the map or symbol is presented to him. With such preparation, when -the chalk modeled map is placed before him he readily reads its surface -contour. - -He notes the great highlands, plateaus, and mountains, the plains, -valleys, slopes, river basins, lakes and rivers. - -He is then led to infer the character of soil, climate and -vegetation—everything, indeed, that relates to man’s environment. - -He is asked to locate the great forest regions that furnish material -for shelter and articles of household use; to point out the areas best -adapted to the growth of different kinds of food-plants, and also those -that furnish material for clothing; to indicate the grazing lands where -herds of cattle feed; the mining regions, where coal for fuel, iron, -copper, silver, gold, and other valuable metals and minerals are found. - -Information necessary to inferences is given at the moment required, such -as altitudes, horizontal distances, latitude, etc. The pupil is also -encouraged to read and acquire knowledge upon certain points for himself, -that he may bring it to the class for the benefit of others. - -(The following questions may have some value to the teacher in the -further study of the map, but should _by no means_ be used as a set form -or method of questioning. They are only suggestions, given to those who -may need them in assisting the pupil to think and reason for himself.) - -His attention may be called to the triangular shape of the land mass, -with its greatest elevation in the west. He may be told that its length -is 5,700 and its greatest width 3,000 miles. - -Questions may then be asked as follows: Into how many slopes or great -drainage systems is the continent divided? Into what ocean do the waters -of the long slope flow? Those of the short slope? Locate and give general -direction of the continental axis. Trace this from Behring Strait to -Isthmus of Panama. - -Compare its length with greatest width of continent. Compare length of -long slope (2,200 miles) with length of short slope (500 to 700 miles). -Which slope has the longer coast-line? Mold in sand and chalk model, -showing the two slopes and continental axis. Compare surface of both -slopes. Which has the greater area of highlands? Which of plains? Give -number and comparative size of lakes. Compare length and direction of -rivers on each slope. What is the character of the coasts and harbors? -What of the islands? Which slope has the larger inland drainage system? -Compare with oceanic drainage system. - -Locate highlands of each slope. Give the appearance of the Appalachian -Mountain System. Compare with the Rocky Mountain System. What can be -learned as to the general formation and altitude of each slope? (Show -typical pictures.) What is the effect of altitude upon the surrounding -country? What on drainage? What is the effect of large rivers upon -plateaus? - -Locate great central valley of North America. What two great rivers flow -through this valley? Trace the Mississippi River from its source to its -mouth. Trace the Mackenzie River in the same way. What separates the -Mississippi basin from the Mackenzie basin? From the Saskatchawan basin? -Trace lowest line from the mouth of the Mississippi to the mouth of the -Mackenzie. Into what does this line divide the continent? (Into two land -masses.) - -Compare these two. In which is the continental axis? (In the primary land -mass.) The secondary land mass is divided by the Appalachian Mountain -System into two slopes, of which the eastern is called the Atlantic -slope. Compare these slopes. Where do the Appalachian Mountains begin? -(In the St. Lawrence basin.) Nearly to what gulf do they extend? (Gulf -of Mexico.) What is their direction? What separates the secondary land -mass into two parts—northern and southern? (The St. Lawrence River.) The -northern part is the peninsula of Labrador. In this part trace the water -partings of the Hudson Bay river system. - -In the primary land mass two immense mountain ranges extend over 5,000 -miles—nearly the entire length of the continent. What are these mountains -called? Compare their general altitude with the low range of mountains -(100 feet high) crossing the Isthmus of Panama. How wide is this Isthmus? -(Fifty miles from coast to coast.) - -What is known about a certain canal which has been begun in Panama? Is -there any other important canal in Central America? - -Commencing in the southern part of Mexico, and extending northerly and -westerly, two great ranges bound the great plateau of Mexico on the east -and west. This plateau is divided by the Rio Grande, Colorado, and other -rivers, at a distance of about 500 miles north. The southern part of it -is a volcanic region, in which are Popocatapetl and other high mountains. - -What can be told about the Colorado River? (Show pictures of structure, -also of ancient cliff dwellings.) What is the character of the rock -through which the river cuts? Is it in the region of much rainfall or of -no rainfall? North of the great plateau is the great basin, 600 miles -wide and 900 miles from north to south, enclosed by the Sierra Nevada, -Wasatch and Rocky Mountains. - -What is the character of the large lake found here? Of what was it once -a part? (Tell of old Lake Bonneville, and the terraces which record the -height of its ancient waters, high up on the mountain sides, at the east -of Salt Lake. Show pictures of structure of country and the effect of -irrigation on the barren soil.) - -What low range of mountains west of the Sierra Nevada range? Describe the -beautiful valley lying between these ranges. Why is it fertile? What are -its products? Describe the great red-wood trees. - -What peninsula south of this is formed by the union of these two ranges? -Locate Mt. Shasta, 14,442 feet high, in the Cascade range (a part of -Sierra Nevada), just north of the California valley; also Mts. Tacoma, -Hood, and Ranier, in the same range. Find Mt. St. Elias, in Alaska—the -highest peak in North America, being 19,500 feet above sea level. (Show -pictures of these mountains. Tell stories of Alaskan Indians.) - -Yellowstone Park is in the Rocky Mountain range, east and north of -Mt. Shasta. What do you know of this wonderful park? (Sketch geysers -of Yellowstone Park.) Can the prevailing wind of the Pacific slope be -confidently stated? What of the Atlantic slope? Compare the number and -character of rivers, also the coastal planes of these two slopes. - -What relation has the structure of a region to the amount of rainfall? -Locate the region of greatest rainfall on the continent; also the region -of no rainfall, or desert region. Compare with the rainfall of the home -region. (Let the pupils chalk model the map again, showing the depressed -axis, great plateau and mountain ranges: also indicating the character -of coasts, whether high or low, and stating whether they are building or -wearing coasts, and why.) - -Name the river basins of each slope. Locate the basin of the Mississippi -River, and trace its water partings. Give the general direction of the -river and the reason for its flowing in this direction. - -What great rivers are in the right slope of this basin? Which is the -largest river? Why are the waters of the Missouri River colored? Which is -the largest river in the left slope? Compare the two slopes. Which is the -higher? Which has the greater number of river basins? Locate the Ozark -Mountains. Are there any lakes in this basin? In which course of the -river are the waterfalls or cascades found? (Show pictures of St. Anthony -and Minnehaha Falls.) - -What is the length of the Mississippi River in a direct line? (1,275 -miles, while the length by water way is 3,160 miles.) What is to be -inferred from these data as to the course of the river? What as to the -slope of the land and the character of the soil? What must be the effect -on navigation and commerce? In which course, upper, middle, or lower, are -most of the windings? (Tell of the levees built to prevent the river from -overflowing its banks.) - -(The total length of the line of embankments, including those on both -sides of the river and its tributaries, is 42,500 miles.) - -At what rate is the river lowering the continent? (Enough sediment is -annually carried down to cover twelve miles square of surface one foot -deep.) - -Where is the soil being deposited? How far is the river navigable? What -canal is being dug to connect its waters with those of Lake Michigan? -Consider the effect of this great work on the commerce of Chicago. What -is the temperature in the northern part of the Mississippi River basin? -What is the character of its vegetation? Compare these with those of the -southern part. Where is the greatest rainfall? What besides fertile soil -and abundant rainfall, is necessary to insure luxuriant vegetation? Name -some fruits characteristic of the northern part of the basin, also of the -southern part. - -Locate areas of land best adapted to the growing of food plants; as -grain, including rice; potatoes and sugar-cane; also those best for -grazing purposes; the raising of cattle, sheep, etc. What plants produce -materials for the manufacture of clothing? What areas are especially -suitable to the growth of cotton? What to the growth of flax and hemp? -Locate coal mines, and other mining districts; also lumber regions. - -Where are the largest cities situated? Why are they thus located? What -localities are best adapted to manufacturing purposes? Which to commerce? -Interest the children in the discovery of the “great river.” Read -accounts of Joliet’s and Marquette’s discoveries in 1673, also LaSalle’s -discovery of its mouth in 1682. - -Study the history of the early colonists and show the relation of their -environment to their social and political development. - -The further study of history will require a constant review of the -geographical features of the continent, and will show their relation to -the political divisions. These may be marked off upon the map with red -chalk at the proper time. - -In a similar manner each river basin of the continent may be studied -separately, and the Hudson Bay basin. Compare the Atlantic and the -Pacific, river basin systems, also Alabama and Texas systems of river -basins. - -Review the whole continent. See where the boundaries of all natural -divisions coincide with the political divisions. Draw the continent, -and mark all the large political divisions on the map. Add, also, the -continental islands. How were these formed? What is a political division? -What is its use? Mention the government of each division of the continent. - -As the study of other continents are taken up, they may be compared with -this one, and with each other, in regard to resemblances and differences. - -[Illustration: 61] - - - - -MAP OF NORTH AMERICA. - - -It is supposed that in the course of their study, the pupils have been -in the habit of modeling in sand and chalk modeling on the blackboard -at every step of the way. It may now be found that they are prepared -to represent the entire continent, first in two slopes, again in land -masses, and then as an aggregation of river basins, as suggested in the -last lesson. - -Such a development of the map is illustrated in the present lesson by -four stages of chalk modeling. The first stage is represented in Fig. 61. -It shows the continent of North America in two great slopes, one long one -sloping to the east, and a short one sloping to the west, from the line -of meeting of their upper edges, or what has been termed the Continental -Axis. - -Fig. 62 represents the continent as sketched after a study of it as -simple land masses—a primary land mass, and a secondary land mass, with -the line of depression at the meeting of the two opposing slopes. This -line is indicated by lines slanting downwards towards the depressed axis. - -[Illustration: 62] - -The primary land mass is represented as one continuous unbroken land -mass extending from the Isthmus of Panama to Behring Strait, and is -itself divided into two main slopes. The secondary land mass is likewise -divided into two slopes; it is also separated by the St. Lawrence River -basin into two parts, _viz._, the northern or Labrador land mass, and -the southern or Appalachian land mass. Fig. 63 is drawn to represent the -drainage, or principal river basins; as, the Mississippi, Mackenzie, St. -Lawrence, and Saskatchawan basins, and the Hudson Bay river system. In -drawing small maps on paper it is necessary to trace the rivers with a -fine pencil point. For very large maps, four of five feet long, spaces -may be left, but great care should be taken to keep them as narrow as -possible, so as not to exaggerate the width of the rivers more than -is necessary. Fig. 64 is drawn in more detail and the great political -divisions are marked upon it. On the blackboard map these divisions -may be marked with colored chalk, and should follow the contour of the -surface as closely as possible. - -For the teacher who wishes to rapidly chalk model a map for immediate use -in the class, the following hints may be of service: - -Plan to draw the continent in its proper proportions within a given -space. Imagine that you see it as already drawn. Commence with the -region best known or understood, and draw as you mentally travel, to the -north, south, east or west. It may be that you will begin with the great -depressed regions, in which case draw the ascending slopes and crowning -altitudes as you mentally picture; or if the great highlands or water -partings are fixed upon as a starting-point, the descending slopes should -be drawn to the line of meeting of other slopes, or to the sea level. - -Break the line to indicate broken or uneven surface. You will do this -naturally, however, if you have in mind the picture of a broken surface. - -[Illustration: 63] - -Keep the river basins definitely in mind, and the character of streams -and rivers: the character also of the land structure; whether it is rocky -or alluvial; sharp or hard, or soft and yielding. Knowing that line -represents direction, and having a clear and distinct picture in mind of -the real country with its surface features, it will be an easy matter -to draw or represent it. Understand, as has often been said, that the -delineator is drawing from his own mental image of a map, and not copying -the work of another. In the latter case no instructions are necessary, -as the practice is of no educative value, and should be persistently -discouraged. - -While at work, always think of the continent as being lighted from -one direction, so as to show strong lights and shadows (utilize the -blackboard for shadows), this helps to show altitudes; bear in mind, -however, that these depend mainly upon direction of line corresponding to -direction of surface. - -It is to be remembered also, that knowing the geological structure -prevents one from drawing level lands first, and from afterward -delineating mountains as being piled upon them. Mountains should be drawn -where they belong and valleys where they belong, with no contradictory -lines underneath to confuse the meaning. - -With few exceptions, mountains are the crowning points or peaks of -slopes—their meeting place. They may be the corrugated points of mountain -ranges or of worn down plateaus. - -From whatever part of the continent the work is commenced, let it be -carried out in every direction until the limit of land is reached, and -then stop. Remember that there is no line between land and water, either -at sea-shore or at lake-shore. The rivers may be drawn with charcoal, -accentuating the lower part of the river near its mouth. - -[Illustration: 64] - -Let me say to the beginner—do not let any crude results disturb or -discourage you. You can chalk model with an adequate amount of skill if -you will. It simply means a close study of nature, a clear knowledge of -geographical structure, and persistent effort. - -[Illustration: 65 66 67 68] - - - - -NATURAL FEATURES OF INTEREST IN NORTH AMERICA. - - -It is the constant, persevering attempts—simply the continual doing—that -accomplishes the work of the world. Devote ten minutes a day, if you -cannot spare more time, to your preparation for sketching in to-morrow’s -classes. By expressing your mental picture again and again you clear it -up, and the increased interest of your pupils in the work will be ample -reward. The experience gained will probably show that your last attempt -is a much more complete expression than the first one; the repeated -efforts made having resulted in a more thorough knowledge of the subject -and therefore, a more complete representation. - -As before stated in connection with the study of North America, natural -features of interest should be sketched while with the class, at the same -time locating them on the map. - -The mental images for such sketches, as well as for all others, if not -gained by actual observations, must be acquired through the study of -pictures and descriptions, as has been remarked before, and should not be -copied line for line from another’s sketch. - -[Illustration: 69 70 71 72 73] - -In Fig. 65 (entrance to Mammoth Cave, Kentucky) the stratification of the -rocks is seen back of the entrance, within it, and at the right in the -rocks of the foreground. (It is estimated that 12,000,000 cubic yards -of limestone have been worn away or displaced in the excavation of the -interior of this celebrated cave.) - -Fig. 66 (Natural Bridge, Virginia) also plainly shows the stratification -of rock. What is the character of the rock? What was the agency employed -in the sculpturing of both of these natural wonders? - -In Fig. 67 (Niagara Falls) the general direction of the mass is oblique. -Notice how the water breaks as it falls, owing to the resistance of -the atmosphere. In the “Palisades on the Hudson” (Fig. 68) notice the -debris at the foot of the vertical wall of stone, forming what is called -the talus slope. This is mostly overgrown with vegetation. In Fig. 69 -(a gorge in the cañon of the Colorado) the stratification of rock and -the almost vertical cliffs are the principal features illustrated. Fig. -70 represents a lofty peak in one of the cañons along the line of the -Colorado. Fig. 71 (Devil’s Slide, Weber Cañon, Utah) shows the mountain -side as worn back leaving the trap rock projecting. (How came the harder -rock there in this peculiar shape?) Figs. 72 and 73 are geysers in -Yellowstone Park—“Old Faithful” and “the Sponge.” In the latter, notice -the corrugated formation, and the little stream that flows from its base. - -[Illustration] - - - - -MAP OF MEXICO WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADE TEACHERS. - - -In the study of political divisions, details of structure, climate, etc., -that were not brought out in the work on the continent as a whole, should -precede the historical study. - -Again let it be stated, that the method and questions here given are not -to be followed literally; they are merely presented as suggestive hints -to teachers, who should frame their own questions so as to best lead the -pupil in his study to a realization of what the country is in itself, -and how geographical conditions affect the history and civilization of a -people. - -Having a general idea of the geographical features of Mexico, the pupil -in its closer study, may give its location as lying south of the United -States and extending from Texas on the north to central America on the -south. He may describe its general shape as triangular or cornucopia -shaped. He may notice that the Rio Grande forms its natural boundary on -the north, for nearly three fourths of the distance from gulf to ocean. -What is the length of this river? Compare with length of the Mississippi. -How far is it navigable? (About 500 miles.) What is its character? -(Swift, crooked, and obstructed by rapids and sand-bars.) Notice the -break in the great western range of mountains, forming a depression -between the Sierra Madre and Sierra Nevada Ranges. - -Just north of this break and west of the Colorado River, in the state of -California, lies the great Mohave Desert, in which is the famous “Death -Valley,” 100 feet below the level of the sea. - -From the Gulf of Mexico on the east and the Pacific Ocean on the west -the land rises in a succession of terraces or plateaus, with elevations -varying from 2,000 feet to 8,000 feet above sea-level. - -The great central or upper plateau has an elevation of about 3,000 feet -at the north, but ascends gradually to the height of 8,000 feet in the -southern part. Compare this with the Mohave Desert. With the great -plateau of the United States. With Florida (mean elevation 30 feet). In -this part, the eastern mountain wall of the great central plateau, and -the western, which is much higher of the two, culminate in a knot of -lofty mountains. This is a volcanic region, and here a number of isolated -volcanoes tower above the uplands in a line from east to west. Of these -snow-capped volcanoes the highest are Popocatapetl and Orizaba, which are -about 17,500 feet above the sea-level. - -Compare these with the highest peaks of the Rockies. From this point the -land abruptly lowers to the low Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Peninsula -of Yucatan. Mexico has an area of 744,000 square miles. Compare with area -of the United States (3,605,000). - -Why are there more rivers flowing into the Gulf of Mexico than into the -Pacific Ocean? Where is the greatest rainfall? What is the direction of -the prevailing wind? Can this be known from the map? The average annual -rainfall at the Gulf Coast is 150 inches. How does this compare with -that of Florida? (60 inches.) With that of Chicago? (36 inches.) What is -the rainfall on the western coast? (There is scarcely no rain at all.) -Why? Where is the source of the rivers on the west coast? The average -rainfall of the plateau is 27 inches. May we expect to find many rivers -flowing from it? What is likely to be the character of rivers flowing -into the Gulf? (They are swift torrents bearing trees and rocks, tearing -and cutting gorges and cañons from 800 to 1,000 feet deep.) Compare -these with rivers of the Atlantic Coast. How are the sand-bars at the -mouths of the rivers on the eastern coast to be accounted for? What -effect must they have upon commerce? What may we conclude as to the -character of Mexican harbors? Would the water-ways afford an enemy means -of transportation to the heart of the country? May we conclude that the -natural structure of the country affords protection from enemies? What -influence has this isolation had upon the progress of the people? Has -Mexico a navy? Why not? - -Mexico has two seasons—the dry season and the rainy season. The latter -begins in June and lasts until October. What is the prevailing wind in -each season? What influence has altitude upon climate? Mexico has three -zones of climate, according to altitude. The mean temperature of the low -lying coast zone or “Hot Lands” is 77 to 82 degrees Fah. at Acapulco on -the western coast. What is the climate? (Hot or dry.) What is the climate -on the eastern or Gulf coast, where the mean temperature is 77 degrees -Fah. rising at Vera Cruz sometimes to 110 degrees Fah.? (Hot, humid and -unhealthy. In the rainy season the land is partly under water—steaming. -In the dry season the ground is parched and the air oven-like.) What is -the character of vegetation, birds, and animals? Compare vegetation with -that of cold or cool regions as to appearance, kinds of trees, etc., and -its value or usefulness to animals and man. Which city would be the most -desirable for a home? - -What must be the natural effect of the existing structure and climatic -conditions upon the inhabitants of these areas? What kind of houses would -they be apt to build? Draw type of houses with environment. The plains -rise from the coast gradually to the height of about 2,000 feet where the -hills begin, and above these we find other plains. - -How does this altitude affect the climate? Vast herds of cattle, horses -and sheep roam these plains, and well stocked ranches are in the northern -part. Agriculture is the chief occupation in the southern part. The soil -being largely volcanic is extremely fertile when irrigated. From the -height of 2,000 feet to about 7,000 feet we find the “Temperate Lands.” -These combine the conditions of two zones. The heat and moisture of the -“Hot Lands” uniting with the cooler breezes of the uplands, produces one -of the most equable and delightful climates in the world. - -The mean temperature is from 62 to 70 degrees Fah. Compare this with the -mean temperature of Chicago. The heaviest annual rainfall recorded is 90 -inches. Air-plants and creeping vines are everywhere. Flowers are more -delicately fragrant, birds are songsters, and insects are fewer than in -the lower hot lands. - -Tropical products are found at a height of 4,000 feet. Rice, coffee, -sugar-cane, tobacco and fruits like olives, oranges and lemons are all -found here. - -Evergreens, oaks and cedars are here as well, while maize and beans are -seen growing all the way up from the coast. - -Grains grow best at a height of 6,000 feet. Compare these conditions with -those of the Hot Lands. Would the temperate lands be a desirable place -for a home? What effect has the climate upon the people? Compare them -with inhabitants of the low lands. Draw typical scenes, including houses, -of temperate lands. - -About 7,000 feet we find the “Cold Lands.” Here the amount of rainfall is -only one-sixth of that of the low lands. Many small rivers having their -source in the eternal snows of the lofty mountain peaks, disappear before -reaching the lakes or lagoons. Why? Above 8,000 feet many varieties of -the fir tree are seen climbing the mountain slopes. Only four mountain -peaks are snow-capped all the year round. - -The mountains are rich in metals, especially silver. Sulphur is obtained -from the very throat of the crater of Popocatapetl. Salt is obtained -from the lakes. The pupils should chalk model the plateau of Mexico -showing what they have learned of details of structure. On this plateau -every variety of surface is seen. Here are deserts, wooded hills, quiet -valleys, and broad level plains studded with clear sparkling lakes which -have no visible outlets. What feeds these lakes? What is their character? -(Saline.) Why are they salt? Are they getting larger or smaller? Why? -Compare the surface here described with that of Yucatan. - -The soil of the latter is largely limestone. The surface is low and -monotonous, with scarcely a river or brook of any considerable size. - -Midway between Vera Cruz on the Gulf coast and Acapulco on the Pacific -in the valley or basin of Anahuac, on a plateau of the interior, is -situated the renowned city of Mexico, at an altitude of about 7,800 feet -above sea-level. In which climate zone is it located? The valley is about -55 miles long, and 30 miles wide, and is hemmed in by mountains with the -great volcanoes to the southeast. - -Higher than any other, and the first to attract the traveler’s eye as he -enters the valley, is the mighty Popocatapetl. - -In the northern half of the valley are three small lakes and a number of -towns and villages. In the southern half there are three large lakes and -the city of Mexico. The lowest part of the basin is Lake Tezcuco. This -is only 6 feet below the level of the plateau on which the city stands. -The waters of this lake are salt, while Lake Xochimilco is a fresh water -lake, situated a few miles south of the city and is 4 feet higher. It is -from this lake that the city of Mexico obtains its water supply. What is -the population of the city? What do you know of its people? - -Throughout the lessons the pupil should be continually led to imagine -what the life of the people must be, from what is known of their -environment. Lead him also to infer the reasons for their present -state of advancement in civilization. Have him sketch scenery, houses, -utensils, etc., illustrative of their modes of life. - -Show pictures of ancient Aztec and Toltec ruins. Tell of the people who -came from the north and settled in the marsh near Lake Tezcuco. - -Speak of their great works—temples, aqueducts, dykes and causeways. Refer -to evidences of culture as shown in ruins of buildings, fountains, baths, -tapestries, etc. What was their religion? Compare them with the Indians -of northern forest regions. - -What were the motives of the Spaniards in the conquest of Mexico? -Describe the landing of Cortez and his army and let the pupil infer the -difficulties and dangers encountered on their way into the country; the -hot climate, shifting sands, tropical marshes, slippery precipices, -gorges with swollen streams, and the mountains to be crossed. Through -a pass they went in single file into a sterile region where there was -no water: through a second defile, a valley, and then another and more -difficult gorge until the summit reached, they descended into the -interior valleys. Here the Spaniards rested for four days, near the -desert infested with wolves and other wild animals. Tell of Cortez’ -attack on the great city—his repulse—the siege, etc. Show that the -results were largely determined by the geography of the country. - -Cortez conquered because the country being broken up by mountains, -plateaus and valleys naturally divided the people into many small tribes, -some speaking different languages, who were under forced subjection to a -federation consisting of warrior bandits from the stronger cities. - -Give the result of the conquest to the Mexicans, and bring their history -down to the present day if desired. - -What class of people now inhabit Mexico? What regions are most densely -populated? What is the population? Compare with the population of the -United States. - -What is the form of government? Where are the largest cities? Where the -greatest seaports? Describe the modifications of surface structure since -the conquest. (Lake Tezcuco has receded from the city two and one half -miles. How?) Tell of the floating gardens. - -[Illustration: 74 75 76 77 78] - -The page of illustrations accompanying the above suggestions include the -Map of Mexico, Fig. 74, and also a section of the map, Fig. 75, showing -more plainly the old valley of Anahuac, and Lake Tezcuco. Figs. 76 to 78 -are scenes typical of the country. - - - - -MAP OF SECTION OF THE UNITED STATES, FOR USE IN PREPARATORY LESSONS ON -THE CIVIL WAR. - - -The section under consideration lies east of the Mississippi, and south -of the Ohio and Potomac Rivers. - -The motive for its study is to trace the influence of physical -environment upon the character and motives of the inhabitants. - -The following plan for the lesson is suggested: - -1. _Description of Country._ (_a_) character; (_b_) altitude; (_c_) -vegetation; (_d_) productions. - -2. _Division into Belts._ (_a_) mountainous; (_b_) hilly or plateaus; -(_c_) lowlands. - -3. _Interests of the People in these Sections to be Subserved._ (_a_) -Protection of homes; (_b_) railroads; (_c_) factories and cattle; (_d_) -open navigation; (_e_) non-interruption of labor. - -4. _Plans of Attack by the Enemy._ (_a_) To gain a stronghold in the -mountains; (_b_) destroy railroads; (_c_) obstruct rivers; (_d_) capture -cattle; (_e_) devastate the fields. - -[Illustration: 79] - -Locate on the map of the United States the special section of country -to be studied, and chalk model in detail large map of the same. (See -Fig. 79.) From this map, together with typical pictures of scenery, -_i.e._, mountains, rivers, valleys, vegetation, industries, etc., the -pupil may imagine the general character of the land. What will be his -mental picture? (A rolling country, broken into hills and valleys, with -mountains more or less rounded and generally clothed with vegetation.) -Passing downwards from the heights, the surface becomes more gently -undulating and finally stretches away in long level fields. - -The pupil may imagine what might be seen from a great height south of -the whole section. Immediately below is the sea. Florida at the right, -low and green, widens into the mainland in front. The sandy gulf shores -broken by many rivers and blending into light greens, darken and turn -into browns in the mountains. Lines of grays and purples in the distance -indicate the farther mountain ranges. The gentle western slope, and the -more abrupt eastern one are clothed with rich foliage, through which -gleam the waters of many rivers. - -What is the trend of the mountain ranges? (From northeast to southwest. -Three nearly parallel ranges are seen with long valleys between.) Which -is the most important one? What is the whole mountain system called? (The -Appalachian System.) Give the names by which the principal ridges are -known. Where is the greatest height? (In North Carolina—Mt. Mitchell, -6,710 feet high. From this point the mountains lower gradually to the -north, being in Pennsylvania from about 1,000 feet to 1,500 feet in -height. To the south they drop more rapidly, through Georgia and Alabama.) - -Are there any natural divisions in the eastern slope? (The mountains, -piedmont, and tide-water regions. The piedmont or old plateau region is -hilly, while the tide-water region, having been built by the rivers, -is low and near the coast often swampy and unhealthy. The rivers are -numerous, forming low islands at their mouths.) What are the divisions of -the western slope? (Mountains, plateaus and valley country. The plateaus -are long arms of high land stretching out from the mountains, under the -names of the Cumberland and Tennessee. Rivers have cut into the plateaus -which gradually widen into the Ohio and Mississippi.) What is the nature -of the soil? (Rich, low and level, adapted to the raising of cotton. Near -the Mississippi the land is often swampy and covered with a dense rank -growth of vegetation. The strong current of the river often changes the -course of its channel, thus forming the numerous bayous or long narrow -lakes found in Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi.) - -What is the vegetation of the mountain regions? (Wooded with pine, oak -and other mountain trees.) What would be the chief products of this -region? How could the lumber be gotten out of the country? (Tell of -mines.) (Slightly wooded and richly turfed would describe the middle -section.) What would be the chief occupations of the people? (Farming and -stock-raising. In the low valley country the products are tobacco, sugar, -rice and cotton.) - -At the time of the Civil War, what were the chief interests of -the mountain people? (In consequence of their industries they had -comparatively slight interest in the questions of slavery.) - -Their knowledge of passes, cross-roads, sites for forts, etc., would make -them invaluable aids to either party. Of what value might the possession -of any special point be to either side during the war? (It might be used -as a fort or arsenal. To the opposing side it might prove an entering -wedge by which other points might be gained and so divide the people.) - -What would be the interest of the miners? (They would favor peace for the -sake of uninterrupted labor. If by war their work should be stopped their -families would be reduced to starvation.) - -Near the mines would be found railroads. What would be the policy of the -South in regard to them? (To protect them for their own use.) That of the -North? (Destruction or possession.) What would be the farmer’s interest? -(The protection of stock and farm products.) - -In the lowland section the protection of railroads would be one interest. -What other interests would be endangered by war? (Vast fields of cotton -and other southern products would be subject to trampling or burning; -fences, houses and other buildings likely to be destroyed. The desertion -of slaves would leave fields uncultivated, want in the houses and homes -unprotected.) - -If crops could be raised and gathered, what of their disposal? (The -market would be smaller, their delivery uncertain. Blockaded rivers and -deserted railroads are obstacles to commerce.) - -What points would be desirable to gain against the South? (_a_) (A -foothold in the mountains and control of the railroads leading thereto; -(_b_) Possession of boats to be used on the Mississippi in closing ports -and the holding of them; (_c_) Occupation of a line of points on the -Tennessee or the Cumberland River, and so push the northern line farther -down; (_d_) Possession of seaports along the Atlantic coast.) - -What could be planned for the opposite side? (_a_) (To gain possession -of Washington; (_b_) To fortify the northern boundary of the Confederacy; -(_c_) To protect the Mississippi River and the coast.) Read extracts from -war letters of Grant, McClellan and others to show the relation of the -plans of the generals to the geography of the country. - - - - -MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA. - - -To repeat what has been said in substance again and again, in the course -of these lessons (it cannot be too often brought to mind), if you know -your subject, _i.e._, have the knowledge, and desire to give it to others -you will be able to do so; more or less crudely it may be, but one learns -to do, only by doing. - -Should you be in doubt as to the direction of line to use, analyze the -gestures you would naturally make in an oral expression of the same -subject, and see just what direction you wish to represent. - -Do not misunderstand in regard to the representations of elevations on -the map. These are not drawn to represent actual shape, any more than -actual size or height; they merely indicate location. - -The horizontal distances of the map should never be compared with the -altitudes, but compare altitudes with altitudes, and horizontal distance -with horizontal distance. Lead the pupil also to continually compare -the altitudes given, with those within his sense grasp; _e.g._, Mt. -Chimborazo is about 20,500 feet in height. What is the height of the -highest building, hill or mountain the pupil has ever seen? How many such -elevations placed one above another would equal the height of Chimborazo? -By such comparison the pupil will be in no danger of getting a wrong idea -of the altitude from the study of the maps. Horizontal distances may be -compared in the same way. A given distance of thousands of miles may be -compared with a shorter distance within the experience of the pupil. - -[Illustration: MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA] - -Remember this method of drawing or chalk modeling is designed chiefly to -suggest to the mind the main characteristic features of the continent. - -To those who have read Lessons VIII. and IX. it is scarcely necessary -to illustrate the four stages in the map of South America or other -continents. - -Notice that the land lowers towards the north in Peru and Bolivia and -also from the Guiana highlands. Get the effect by reducing the size of -the hills and mountains as they recede, and by making them less definite. - -[Illustration: 80] - - - - -MAP OF EURASIA WITH SECTIONS IN DETAIL. - - -Your pupils may soon excel their teacher in chalk modeling. This is -encouraging. The true teacher will rejoice at such proofs of success in -instruction and be stimulated to renewed endeavors. - -It is of such vital importance that pupils acquire the habit of -expression through drawing. Fig. 80 is a map of “Eurasia” or Europe and -Asia together as one continent. It shows the highlands which divide the -waters of the northern or long slope, from those of the short slope, -i.e., the backbone of the continent or continental axis. About midway -between the extreme eastern and western coasts, note the high plateau -or center from which many mountain ranges radiate—the Pamir or “Roof of -the World” 15,000 feet in height. The plateau of Thibet is also 15,000 -feet high, but towering above these are many lofty mountain peaks, some -reaching the height of 25,000 to 29,000 feet. - -From these plateaus, those of Gobi and Iran, and the highlands in Europe, -the land lowers more or less abruptly as it recedes to the north, east -and south. To represent the Arctic coast, where the land is mostly low, -draw with the horizontal stroke. Between this and the highlands use -broken horizontal or slightly curved lines to indicate the broken hilly -surface. Be careful to keep the great depressions level around the Black, -the Caspian and Aral Seas. - -[Illustration: 81 82 83 84 85 86] - -[Illustration: 87 88 89 90 91] - -The Scandinavian Peninsula (Fig. 81) is drawn more in detail to show the -fiord coast. - -Fig. 82 is a typical view of the coast. A map of India, with the Himalaya -Mountains on the north, and the Hindu Kush Mountains on the west, is -seen in Fig. 83. Notice the source of its three great rivers. Fig. 84 -is a typical view on the Bramahpootra River. Fig. 85 is a map of Greece -and Fig. 86 a view of the country immediately surrounding the Acropolis. -Figs. 87-91 are a map of Japan and typical scenes illustrative of the -country, houses, and costumes of the people. - -[Illustration] - - - - -REVIEW OF INSTRUCTIONS. MAPS OF AFRICA AND AUSTRALIA. - - -In reviewing the directions for chalk modeling, the following points are -noted, (_a_) A mental picture made clearer by expression; (_b_) A desire -to express through the medium of chalk and blackboard; (_c_) Analysis -into terms of drawing, as masses and sub-masses, direction of line, -light and shade; (_d_) Quality of line, attained through “feeling” or -harmony with the subject; (_e_) Artistic expression (no modifications, as -erasures or additions); (_f_) Persistent effort. - -Through the observance of the hints given on these points adequate skill -in execution may be acquired. - -The plateaus of Africa and Australia are classed together in this lesson. -Little is known of the western half of the latter, but the eastern half -of Australia has its rivers and river basins. - -We see also how it has been worn into mountain ranges; the highest part -being in the southeast. Africa is also wearing back from the coasts and -the plateau itself has many long river basins, the longest of which is -that of the Nile. The Nile is not only the longest river in Africa but is -the third river of the globe as to length. The valleys of the continent -are mostly very narrow, especially the valleys of this river. - -[Illustration] - -The Sahara Desert is represented as being broken into a number of -plateaus and depressed regions, which is expressed by short, nearly -horizontal lines. - -The Abyssinian Plateau is given in detail in Fig. 92. Notice that it -lowers gradually towards the south, but abruptly towards the north and -that its surface is broken into many plateaus and deeply cut river beds -by tributaries to the Nile. - -[Illustration: 92 MAP OF THE ABYSSINIAN PLATEAU.] - - - - -BOOKS OF REFERENCE. - - -The following books of reference may be found useful in the study of -geography as a preparation for map drawing: - - Abbott. Waste-land Wanderings. _Appleton._ - Agassiz. Journey in Brazil. - Appleton. Physical Geography. - Arrold. Through Persia by Caravan. - - Baker. The Nile and Tributaries of Abyssinia. - Bartholomäi. Travels and Discoveries in North and Central America. - Bates. Bird’s-eye View of Central and South America. - Bates. The Naturalist of the Amazon. - Biart. The Aztecs. - Brown. Countries of the World. - - Chamberlin and Salisbury. Geology. _H. E. Holt & Co._ - Croll. Climate and Cosmology. _Appleton._ - Croll. Climate and Time. _Appleton._ - - Dall. Alaska and Its Resources. - Dallas. Caves. _Humboldt Library._ - Dana. Geological Stories. - Darwin. Formation of Vegetable Mould. _Humboldt Library._ - Davis. Elementary Meteorology. - - Encyclopædias. - - Fitzgerald. Australia. - Foster. The Mississippi Valley. - - Geikie. Text-book of Geology. _Macmillan & Co._ - Geikie. Geological Sketches at Home or Abroad. - Geikie. Physical Geography. _Macmillan & Co._ - Geikie. Text-book of Geography. - Geikie. Earth Lore. - Gilbert. Lake Bonneville. _U. S. Geological Survey._ - Giberne. Ocean of Air. - Gilbert. Henry Mountains. _U. S. Geological Survey._ - Guyot. Earth and Man. _Scribner._ - Guyot. Physical Geography. - Guyot. Common School Geography. - - Hale. Mexico. - Hart. Geology and Physical Geography of Brazil. - Hinman. Eclectic Physical Geography. - Hill. Physiography. - Huxley. Physiography. - - Jackman. Nature Study for the Common Schools. - Jackman. Field Work in Nature Study. - Johnson. Surface Zones of the Globe. - Johnson. Geography—Physical, Historical and Descriptive. - Judd. Volcanoes. - Jukes-Brown. Hand-book of Physical Geography. _Bell._ - - Kingsley. Town Geology. _Humboldt Library._ - - Lawson. Geography of Coast Lines. - Le Conte. Elements of Geology. _Appleton._ - Longman. School Geography. - Longman. Physical School Atlas. - Lubbock. Beauties of Nature. _Humboldt Library._ - Lyell. Principles of Geology. - - Mill. Realm of Nature. _Scribner._ - Milner. Gallery of Geography. - Mortimer. Journey Across Australia. - - Nansen. First Crossing of Greenland. - Nordenskjold. Voyage of the Vega. - - Ober. Travels in Mexico. - - Palgrave. Dutch Guiana. - Parker. How to Study Geography. _Appleton._ - Poole. Egypt. - - Reclus. Earth and Its Inhabitants. _Appleton._ - Reclus. Birds’-eye View of the World. _Ticknor & Co._ - Reclus. The History of a Mountain. _Harper Bros._ - Reclus. The Earth. - Reclus. The Earth, the Sea and the Sky. (_2 Vols._) - Ritter. Comparative Geography. _Van Antwerp._ - Ritter. Geographical Studies. _Bragg & Co._ - Robert. The Earth’s History. _Scribner._ - - Schuyler. Turkestan. - Shaler. Aspects of the Earth. _Scribner._ - Shaler. Nature and Man in America. - Shaler. Our Continent. - Squier. Peru. - Stanford. Compendiums of Geography and Travel. - Stanley. The Congo. - Stanley. In Darkest Africa. - - Taylor. Arabia, India, China and Japan. - Treat. Home Studies in Nature. _Harper._ - Tyler. Anahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans. - Tyndall. Forms of Water. _Humboldt Library._ - - United States Geological Surveys from 4th to 12th Vols. Inclusive. - - Vincent. Thirty Thousand Miles’ Travel in Australia. - - Wallace. Darwinism. - — What Darwin Saw. - Williams. The Middle Kingdom. - Whymper. Travels and Adventures in Alaska. - Williams. Geography of the Ocean. - Winchell. Geological Excursions. _Griggs._ - Winchell. Sketches of Creation. _Harper._ - - - - - -ADVERTISEMENTS - - -CHALK-MODELING. - -_Relief maps_ or representation of relief maps are absolutely essential -to the intelligent teaching of geography. The most effective means that I -have seen employed for the production of such maps is the chalk-modeling -so long and successfully taught by MISS IDA C. HEFFRON. I can think -of no other contribution to present text-books which would be of so -great service to the teachers as a book from which they may learn -chalk-modeling, to the end that any portion of a continent or country may -be placed in relief before the eyes of the children on whatever scale the -teacher desires. - -I have known MISS HEFFRON’S work for the last fifteen years and commend -it without reserve. - - O. T. BRIGHT, _Chicago, Ill._ - -It gives me great pleasure to commend MISS HEFFRON’S work to the -attention of school officers, and to school teachers who desire -assistance along the lines of expression in school work. Her large -practical experience in teaching children in all the grades of public -school work, furnishes a substantial basis for most excellent instruction -in her chosen field. - -Whatever success may have attended the introduction of Nature Study -into this school has been largely due to her intelligence and skill in -directing the work in drawing, painting and modeling. - - WILBUR S. JACKMAN, _Teacher of Natural Science, - Cook County Normal School_. - -The value of Drawing and Modeling as modes of expression cannot be -over-estimated. Every subject taught in our schools gains new power and -life, as the brush or pencil, the clay or tool, tells its own truth -concerning it. Literature, History, Science and Geography gain an -immensely added value: each one becomes a living thing if the teacher -possess the power to illustrate her subject. In Geography especially, -the Chalk-Modeling originated by MISS HEFFRON, while teacher of Drawing -in the Cook County Normal School, is of incalculable value. In fact, to -those in whose schools it has been introduced, the wonder is that pupils -ever comprehend the subject without its revealing and interpreting aid. - - KATE STARR KELLOGG, _Prin. of Lewis School, Englewood, Ill._ - -I have seen the results of MISS IDA CASSA HEFFRON’S work in teaching -Drawing, Painting, Modeling and Illustrative Drawing, and Chalk-Modeling -in Structural Geography, and I consider her work of the highest -importance. It gives to training teachers, and teachers of general -experience as well, a newer and deeper insight into the truth that -Drawing with its allied subjects is a form of expression. - - JESSE LOWE SMITH, _Supt. of Schools, Lexington, Ill._ - - -FOR THE TEACHER’S DESK. - -[Illustration] - -The Story of Our Planet. - -By T. G. BONNEY, D. Sc., LL. D., F. R. S., F. S. A., F. G. S., Professor -of Geology in University College, London; Fellow of St. John’s College, -Cambridge; and Honorary Canon of Manchester. With six Colored Plates and -Maps and about 100 illustrations. 1 Vol., large, 8vo. Price, $3.00 - - EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING CO. - - -HELPS IN GEOGRAPHY. - -People and Places Here and There. - -In this series, designed primarily for supplementary reading in schools, -the plan has been to prepare books which shall have all the charm and -interest attaching to volumes of travels written by the travelers -themselves. - -Vol. I. Stories of Australasia. - -Fully Illustrated. Boards, 40 cents; Cloth, 60 cents. - -_Stories of Australasia_ is evidently a success, possessing simplicity -and life. It is a difficult thing to get down to the plane of child life -and comprehension without devitalizing matter and style. You have done it -without loss of freshness. - - D. L. KIEHLE, _St. Paul, Minn._ - -[Illustration: - -IN SAME SERIES. - - Stories of India - Stories of China - Stories of Northern Europe - Stories of England - -Fully Illustrated.] - -Price, Boards, 40 cents; Cloth, 60 cents. - -_Gentlemen_:—_People and Places_, the sample copies of _Australasia_, -_India_, _China_, _Northern Europe_, and _England_ are at hand. They are -handsome books and what I have read of them up to this time makes me feel -that _all_, _all_ our schools ought to be supplied with a full set of -such books. - - F. J. GEORGE, _County Supt. Schools, Tell City, Ind._ - -EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING CO., Boston, Mass. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LESSONS IN CHALK MODELING *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. 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