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diff --git a/old/69488-0.txt b/old/69488-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 367ffd7..0000000 --- a/old/69488-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3378 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Practical forging and art smithing, by -Thomas F. Googerty - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Practical forging and art smithing - -Author: Thomas F. Googerty - -Contributor: Edward J. Lake - -Release Date: December 6, 2022 [eBook #69488] - -Language: English - -Produced by: deaurider and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL FORGING AND ART -SMITHING *** - - - - - - - Practical Forging and - Art Smithing - - THOMAS F. GOOGERTY - - Milwaukee, Wis. - The Bruce Publishing Company - - Copyright, 1915 - The Bruce Publishing Company - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The present demand for school instruction in the industrial arts has -made it necessary for the teachers of industries to have that knowledge -of materials and methods which can only result from long and careful -experience with the materials of industry. - -This book is the result of a life of such experience by a man who is now -recognized as a master craftsman in wrought metal. - -The author’s work in wrought iron is comparable in design and finish to -the best work that has been produced in that material. - -Some pieces of the best German work are before me as I make this -statement and tho more intricate they are no better in execution and far -less suitable to the material in design than the pieces illustrated in -this book which I have seen in process of execution and in the finished -form. - -The author has moreover been a teacher of wrought metal work for many -years. - -This experience is reflected in the sequence of difficulty presented by -the exercises and the clear, simple statement of the text. - -With such clear and exact statement and with such profuse illustration -it is evident that the metal worker can gather much of the author’s long -experience from this book and take many a short cut to success in an -accomplishment to which there can be no royal road. - -But the effectiveness of an applied art is measured best by its -expression of purpose within the limitations of the material used. - -The artistic success of this book lies in the evident fact that the work -represented appears “Hand wrought and fashioned to beauty and use.” - -I predict for it increasing usefulness in setting right the practice of -forging in school shops and as an inspiration to teachers, craftsmen and -tradesmen. - - EDWARD J. LAKE. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - Page - - CHAPTER I. - - The Forge—Forge Tools—The Anvil—Anvil Tools—Making the - Fire—Cleaning the Fire—Welding—Flux and Its Uses 7 - - CHAPTER II. - - Electric Welding—Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding—The Fagot Weld—The - Separate Heat Weld—Scarfing—Upsetting—Making the Weld—Lap - Welding without Scarfing—Jump Welding—Butt Weld—Split - Welding—Corner Weld—T-Weld 22 - - CHAPTER III. - - Corner Weld—Brazing—Fagot Weld—Fuming a Loose Eye—Hammock - Hook—Finishing Wrought Iron—S-Link—Welded Eye Pin 36 - - CHAPTER IV. - - Staples—Open Links—Welded Chain Lines—Punching—A Grab Hook 46 - - CHAPTER V. - - Bolts—Cupping Tool—Gate Hook—Hay Hook—Welded Ring—Expansion - of Heated Iron 54 - - CHAPTER VI. - - Making Tongs—Pig Iron—Puddling—The Bessemer Process—The Open - Hearth Process—Crucible Steel—The Cementation Process—Tempering 60 - - CHAPTER VII. - - Making a Flat Cold Chisel—Spring Tempering—Welding Steel—Case - Hardening—Coloring Steel—Annealing—Making a Scratch Awl—Making - a Center Punch—Making a Hand Punch—High Speed Steel—Annealing - High Speed Steel 70 - - ART SMITHING - - CHAPTER VIII. - - Wrought Iron Work—Making a Wrought Iron Leaf—Making a Volute - Scroll—Grilles 83 - - CHAPTER IX. - - Twisting—Braiding—Making a Fire Shovel 93 - - CHAPTER X. - - Making a Door Latch—Making a Hinge—Making a Candle Stick 99 - - CHAPTER XI. - - Making a Drawer Pull—Chasing—Making a Door - Knocker—Repousse—Perforated Decoration 107 - - CHAPTER XII. - - Making a Hat and Coat Hook—A Fuller—Jump Welding—Making a - Wall Hook 117 - - CHAPTER XIII. - - Making a Toasting Fork—Inlaying 124 - - CHAPTER XIV. - - Making a Lantern—Making a Wall Lamp 130 - - CHAPTER XV. - - Making a Portable Lamp 139 - - - - -PRACTICAL FORGING - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - The Forge—Forge Tools—The Anvil—Anvil Tools—Making the - Fire—Cleaning the Fire—Welding—Flux and Its Uses. - - -One of the most essential things in the school forge shop is a good -forge and fire; half the work is then mastered. A few years ago nearly -all of the small commercial shops running from one to six or more fires -were equipped with brick or iron forges. The blast was furnished either -with a bellows or fan which had to be turned by hand. This method was a -great drawback, which resulted in much loss of time. It was impossible -to do much work without the aid of a helper. Work that required two men -in those days is being done now by one. Modern invention has played an -important part in simplifying the labors of the workers in iron and -steel. At the present time there are various kinds of forges in use that -lessen the work of the smith. The most successful factories are now -equipped with modern forges and appliances in order that they may be able -to do work quickly. - -In our manual training schools, where the pupils have such short periods -in which to do work, it is necessary that the shops be equipped with -modern tools so that they can produce work quickly. This will give the -individual pupil more practice in a shorter length of time, which simply -means more knowledge. Our schools should not be hampered by using forges -that have been out-of-date for years. - -The best forge for manual training and trade schools is the down draft -with power driven fans, thus eliminating all pipes overhead and doing -away with the dust and dirt. A boy, working at this kind of a forge, can -use both hands in the handling of the work being heated in the fire; this -is a great advantage over the old way of turning a crank. Another good -feature of the mechanical draft forge is that it teaches a boy early -how to avoid over-heating or burning his iron. This is the first thing -one must learn in working at forging, as one who cannot heat the metal -properly cannot work it. One must become acquainted with the material, -and the burning heat must be understood. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. A Typical School Forge.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. Fire Tools.] - -Figure 1 shows an illustration of a down draft forge suitable for -schools; it is made of cast iron. A pressure fan furnishes the blast -for the fire and an exhaust fan takes away the gas and smoke thru an -opening at the bottom of the hood, and thru a large pipe which continues -under the floor and out thru a flue. The hood represented at A, can be -moved backward and forward to catch the smoke. The hood is moved with -a crank and worm gear as shown at B. The hearth is shown at C; a hole -in the center is called the tuyere. This is where the fire is built and -is the outlet for the wind. The amount of air needed for the fire is -regulated by a valve that is moved with a rod shown at D. The coal box -is always at the right hand of any forge and is shown at E. The water -box is represented at F. At G is shown the pressure pipe and at H the -exhaust pipe. Notice the large opening under the forge at I. Thru this -opening any nut or screw under the tuyere can be tightened with ease. -Notice the slide-rod at J. This rod, when pulled, dumps the cinders out -of the tuyere, and a bucket may be set under the hearth to catch them. -In school shops these forges are generally set in pairs in order to save -room. Figure 2 shows three fire-tools needed for the forge fire. These -tools consist of a poker made from ⅜-inch round stock, 26 inches long -with a loose eye turned on one end for a handle; a shovel with a flat -blade 4 by 6 by ¹⁄₁₆ inches with a handle riveted to the blade, and a -tool called a scraper. This scraper is made from the same stock as the -poker and is made with an eye at one end and a flat hook at the other. It -is used to scrape the coal and coke onto the fire, and to move pieces of -coke or coal, so that the iron may be seen while heating. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. Anvil.] - -The anvil should be of wrought iron with a steel face, weighing about 125 -pounds. This is large enough for any work being done in manual training -schools. In the school shop the anvils should all be of the same size and -weight so that any tool used with them will fit into any square hole. -In factories where anvils are made, they are forged from wrought iron -or soft steel, with a carbon steel face welded on; some are cast steel -thruout and others are cast iron with a steel face. The face is generally -three-quarters inch thick, and is hardened to resist heavy blows from -the hammer and sledge. (See drawing Figure 3 of anvil.) The anvil should -be fastened with iron straps, on a 10 by 10-inch block, set into the -ground about 3½ feet. From the top of the anvil to the floor should -measure 26 inches. The proper place to set the anvil in relation to the -forge is shown in the drawing, Figure 4. The smith should stand between -the forge and the anvil, with the horn of the anvil at his left when -facing it. The anvil edge farthest from the smith is called the outer -edge and the one nearest the smith is called the inner edge. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. Hammer. Fig. 6. Sledge. - -Fig. 9. Punch. Fig. 7. Hardie. - -Fig. 8. Hand Punch. - -Fig. 10. Center Punch.] - -Every anvil should have two ball hammers weighing about 1½ and 2 lbs. -each. (See drawing of hammer, Figure 5.) The hammers should be numbered -corresponding with a number on the anvil. All the hammers should be kept -in a rack when not in use. When the pupils come into the shop to work, -they should be assigned to a certain forge and held responsible for the -care of tools. A ten-pound sledge hammer should also be included, perhaps -one for every two forges; the handle should be 26 inches long. (See -Figure 6.) - -A piece of tool steel fitted into the square hole of the anvil and -sharpened at the top, is called a hardie. It is used in cutting iron. A -piece of iron is set on the sharpened edge of the hardie and struck with -the hammer. The sharpened edge of the hardie cuts into the iron, and in -this manner it is cut deep enough so that it may be broken. (See drawing -of hardie, Figure 7.) - -If a piece of steel is pointed on one end, it can be hammered thru a flat -piece of iron. This is one method of punching holes in iron; a steel -punch so made is called a hand punch. Ordinarily hand punches are made -out of ½-inch to ¾-inch hexagonal tool-steel bars about eleven inches -long. (See drawing Figure 8.) For heavy punching, a short, thick punch -with a hole thru it, (called the eye) to receive a wooden handle, is -used. This kind of punch is struck on with a sledge hammer. (See drawing -Figure 9.) - -A center punch is used to make depressions in metal so that a drill may -be started in a given place. It is used also to mark places or distances -on the surface of metal when the metal is to be bent at a certain place. -Center punches are made from hexagonal tool steel about 4 by ½-inch, -drawn to a point and ground to a short angle. (See Figure 10.) - -[Illustration: Fig. 11. Flat Tongs. - -Fig. 12. Hot Chisel. Cold Chisel. - -Fig. 13. Flatter. Fig. 14. Set Hammer.] - -In heating and handling short pieces of stock, tongs are used (see Figure -11) which are made from Swedish iron or mild steel; they are made in -various sizes and shapes according to use. They are called pick-ups, -flat, round-nose, and bolt tongs according to the shape of the lips. -Tongs should always be made to fit the piece being forged. One cannot -hold a piece of iron properly with tongs that do not fit the piece. -They may be heated and fitted to the stock when occasion demands. One -important reason why tongs should fit the piece being hammered, is that -when turning and striking the piece there is danger of the piece being -knocked out of the tongs in a whirling motion and the flying piece of hot -iron is liable to strike someone; this danger must be closely watched. -Tongs should not be heated red hot and cooled in water; this destroys -them. - -Hot and cold chisels are used in cutting stock. The blade of the hot -chisel is made very thin, while the cold chisel is made blunt to stand -the heavy strain in cutting. They are generally made with a hole thru -them, called the eye, to receive a wooden handle. These chisels are -struck on with a sledge hammer. (See Figure 12.) - -Iron and steel are sometimes smoothed with a tool called a flatter. This -tool is struck on with a sledge, and should not be used to stretch iron. -Its purpose is only to give the work a smooth finish. Figure 13 shows a -flatter, and Figure 14 a set-hammer. The set-hammer is always used to -smooth and draw stock. All of these tools are made from tool-steel. - -A heading tool is made from a flat piece of soft steel with a hole in one -end. Sometimes a carbon steel face is welded on. The heading tool is used -mostly in heading bolts. Heading tools are made with different sized -holes. (See Figure 15.) - -[Illustration: Fig. 15. Heading Tool.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 16. Top and Bottom Swages.] - -Swages and fullers are used to smooth and form iron into various shapes. -The swages generally have half round depressions in them. They are made -in pairs called top and bottom swage. The bottom one fits the square -hole of the anvil; the top one has a hole for a wooden handle. (See -drawing Figure 16.) The fullers are also made in pairs called top and -bottom fullers. They are used to make depressions in metal. (See drawing -Figure 17.) When referring to swages, fullers, and other tools of this -character, blacksmiths speak of anvil tools. Special anvil tools are -used in doing various kinds of forging, and are made when needed. The -anvil tools should be kept in a tool rack next to the anvil. These tools -should be made from tool-steel of about 75-point carbon, or they may be -purchased from a dealer. Some tools, such as swages, that do not require -continuous service, are made of soft steel. - -The anvil tool should have a buggy-spoke for a handle. The handle should -stick thru the eye of the hole about one inch and should never be wedged. -If the handle is wedged it is more liable to be broken when the tool -is struck a glancing blow with the sledge hammer. This is very often -the case. The reason the spoke should stick thru the tool is that if it -should begin to work off the handle when struck with the sledge hammer, -the movement can be seen. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17. Top and Bottom Fullers.] - -Figure 18 shows a wrought vise suitable for school work. A cast iron -machinists’ vise should not be used excepting, perhaps, for bench work. -Figure 19 shows a cast-iron swage block with various sized holes, and -depressions around the edge for forming iron. - -The stock used in a forge shop should be kept in a rack built for the -purpose. The different kinds of stock, such as soft and tool-steel, -common and Swedish iron, should be partly painted with a distinguishing -color, so that there will be no trouble finding what is wanted. For -instance, all soft steel should be painted white, tool-steel another -color, and so on. There should also be in the shop a shears to cut iron. -One of the ordinary hand-power shears in use today would be suitable and -may be purchased from a dealer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18. Vise.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 19. Cast Iron Swage Block.] - -In lighting the fire in the forge all of the cinders are cleaned out -down to the tuyere. This is done by scraping them to the sides of the -fire-place with the shovel. All clinkers should be picked out with the -hands and put under the forge. It is a good plan to pick out some of the -best pieces of coke and set them to one side on the forge, to be used -later on. The slide rod that controls the ash dump at the bottom of the -tuyere, is now pulled to allow the cinders and ashes to drop thru. Do not -allow a boy to pull the valve after the fire is started, as this wastes -the coke and is a bad habit to get into. - -When the tuyere is clean, some shavings are lighted in the bottom and -when well burned, the coke is raked back on the fire. A little wind is -then turned on. Wet coal is banked around the sides and back of the fire. -When the fire is well started and loosened up in front with the poker and -most of the smoke burned, it is ready for heating. The coal in the box -should be thoroly mixed with water before putting it on the fire, for the -reason that it cokes better, and packs in around the sides of the fire, -keeping it from breaking thru. The coal box is always at the right of the -worker when he is facing the fire. The box on his left, and between the -down draft forges, is to hold water—not coal. There should be a water cup -of some sort hanging on a hook so that when water is needed for fire or -coal it may be handled with the cup. - -A fire, when not properly handled becomes hollow, due to the center -burning out. If iron is heated in this kind of a fire, it will become -oxidized, that is to say, a dirty scale will form over the metal. Iron -cannot be properly heated, and it is impossible to get the welding heat -with a fire in this condition. The reason a fire becomes hollow is that -it may be filled with clinkers, or too much blast may have been used, -and when it comes in contact with the pieces being heated causes them to -cool and oxidize. Sometimes the fire will not be directly over the hole -in the tuyere; which is one cause of poor heating. This is a common fault -with boys working at the forge. Always have the fire over the hole in the -tuyere, and not to one side. - -When the fire becomes hollow and dirty, clean it by picking out the -clinkers with the poker or scraper, then move the sides of the fire -towards the center of the tuyere with the shovel, keeping the well-coked -inner sides near the center of the tuyere, and having the center of fire -over the hole in the tuyere. Wet coal is now banked around the outer -sides. Always have a thick bed of coke under the piece being heated and -regulate the blast so as not to burn out the center of the fire at once. -See drawing of fire with piece about on the same plane with bottom of -hearth; notice dotted lines representing the wrong way to put stock in -the fire. (Fig. 20.) - -[Illustration: Fig. 20. Section of Forge Fire.] - -If two pieces of iron are placed in the fire and heated, they will become -gradually softer until they reach a state where the metal has become -sticky. If touched together the two pieces will stick. This is what is -known as welding heat. If they were taken to the anvil and hammered while -in this condition they would unite and become one piece. This would be -called welding. All metals cannot be welded. Iron, soft steel, low-carbon -tool steel and spring steel can be welded. - -A flux is used in welding steel—this excludes the air and forms a pasty -surface on the metal which is squeezed out from between the surfaces of -the metal when hammered. Borax and the many welding compounds are used. -Very seldom is it necessary to use a flux on iron. Clean sand, which is -good, is used by many. Borax or welding compound is sometimes used on -very thin stock. For ordinary welding, such as is being done in school -shops, borax should never be used. It is poor practice, unnecessary, and -a useless waste. - -In heating iron, if it is brought beyond the welding heat, it will become -softer and softer until it will finally burn. This may be known by the -great number of little explosive sparks coming from the fire. These -little sparks are particles of iron separating from the bar and burning. -As the heat gradually rises, the metal separates. If the bar were now -placed on the anvil and struck a hard blow with a hammer, it would fly -to pieces. Therefore, judgment must be used in striking the first blow -on any welding heat—it should be light. The succeeding blows should be -made gradually harder. A hard blow at the start might make the metal fly -to pieces, or make the upper piece slip away from the under piece. If -lighter blows were struck, the weld might be made in good shape. - -The principal thing in welding is to have a clean fire. All of the -clinkers must be kept out. The fire should be a well burned one, without -much smoke or gas, and never any green coal near the pieces being heated. -Well burned pieces of coke around the metal should always be used in -raising the welding heat. In raising the welding heat very little blast -should be used at first. Heat the pieces slowly so as to get them hot -thruout. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - Electric Welding—Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding—The Fagot Weld—The - Separate Heat Weld—Scarfing—Upsetting—Making the Weld—Lap - Welding Without Scarfing—Jump Welding—Butt Weld—Split - Welding—Corner Weld—T Weld. - - -A rapid blast on the start, not only heats the outer part of the metal -first and not the center, but it also burns out the fire and makes it -become hollow before the metal has the welding heat. There is a right -and a wrong way of taking a welding heat from the fire to the anvil. The -pieces must be lifted clear up out of the fire, and must not be dragged -thru the dirt and cinders on the inner edge of the fire. Iron will not -unite when dirty. It is very easy to get a clean heat if one will pay -attention to having the fire clean. Do not attempt to get the welding -heat in a dirty fire; this is one thing that must be impressed upon the -mind of one working at the forge. The skillful worker in iron always pays -particular attention to the fire, for he knows by experience that it must -be clean, in order to do good work. - -Welding is also done with an electric welding machine. The pieces to be -welded are clamped and held in bronze clamps. The clamps are adjusted so -that the ends of the pieces to be welded touch. They can be moved so as -to bring the pieces into close contact or separate them. When the pieces -are in close contact, the current is turned on. The pieces are then -separated a little so that the current jumps across the space between -them, forming an electric arc. This heats the ends to a welding heat, -and by forcing them together they are welded. - -Another form of welding is by the oxy-acetylene gas method. It is -being used extensively at present, and has been found very valuable -and economical in making the lighter welds. It is possible to weld -steel, iron, cast-iron, copper, brass and aluminum by this process. The -apparatus consists of a specially designed blow pipe, an acetylene tank -and an oxygen tank under pressure. - -The method of welding is to heat the pieces to be welded with the -blow pipe until they reach the fusion point. For instance, in welding -cast-iron, the pieces are clamped together, a V shape is cut nearly thru -the joint, the metal is heated to the fusion point, and a feeder, which -is a small cast-iron rod, is melted into it. In welding steel, the feeder -is a steel rod; for copper or brass welding, a rod of copper or brass is -used. Nowadays this method is extensively used in automobile work, in -repairing cracked cylinders. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.] - -A very simple weld to make by heating in the forge, is what is known as -the fagot weld. In doing this, two or three pieces are welded by simply -laying one piece on top of the other, or a bundle of pieces of iron of -various sizes and shapes are bound together, heated and welded. For -example, if a bar of flat iron is heated and cut half thru in several -places, doubled over and over, one piece on top of the other and then -welded in order to make a large piece of stock this would be called a -fagot weld. - -In Figure 21, the pieces are represented ready to make a fagot weld. - -The welding of two pieces of stock by scarfing and lapping is known as -a separate-heat-weld, so called because the pieces are detached while -the heat is taken. In making any kind of a weld there is more or less -stock wasted in the raising of the welding heat, therefore the parts to -be lapped and welded are always upset or thickened and then scarfed. -The word “scarfed” means the shaping of the ends of the bars so that -when heated and lapped one on top of the other, they will fit and make a -splice, leaving the stock when hammered about its original size. - -The method of upsetting is to heat the ends of the bar, then set the hot -end on the anvil with the bar vertical and hammer on the other end. This -thickens the heated end. If it is a long heavy bar, the worker churns -the bar up and down striking the hot end on the anvil. A bar may also be -heated on the end, then fastened in a vise and the hot part hammered to -thicken it. In upsetting, the bar must be kept straight as hammering will -bend it where heated; if not kept straight, it will not thicken. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22. Fig. 23.] - -When a piece is upset about one inch in diameter for a three-quarter -inch, round bar, it is scarfed by setting the hot end on and near the -outer edge of the anvil. It is then driven back on a bevel by hammering. -See Figure 22. It is also turned on the side and beveled on both sides to -nearly a point. See Figure 23. The scarf must not be hammered when the -piece is held in the center of the anvil, (Figure 24), for the reason -that the edge of the hammer comes in contact with the anvil, pecking -dents in it or breaking out pieces from the hammer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24. Fig. 25.] - -Another method of scarfing is to hammer the end partly back as previously -explained, then set the piece on the inner edge of the anvil and hammer -it as shown in Figure 25. After each blow, it is drawn away from the edge -of the anvil just a little; this tapers it with a series of little steps, -not for the purpose of making notches in the scarfs to fit together and -hold while hammering, but simply because the edge of the anvil leaves it -in this condition when tapered. It is also drawn pointed by hammering on -the outer edge of the anvil. - -Theory teaches that the scarf should be made with the beveled part -convexed. However, in practice, it is made to look like the drawing in -Figure 26. Note the raised parts at “D”. This is forced up when the scarf -is first driven back with the hammer as shown at “B”. - -The reason that the high part should be on the scarf, is, that when -lapped it gives an additional amount of stock at this part of the laps -to be hammered. If the scarfs are made flat, when hammered, they are -not liable to finish up without having the pieces thin, or the point of -the lap exposed. If the scarfs are made concave, it is claimed by some -workers of iron that dirt will deposit there and result in a poor weld. -This is true to some extent. However, dirt will deposit on any scarf -unless the fire is clear. With a concaved scarf when lapped, there is -not stock enough to be hammered without leaving the pieces thin, or the -lapping too long when welded. Scarfs should not be made concave. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 27. Fig. 28.] - -Notice in Figure 27, the incorrect way of scarfing and in Figure 28, the -correct way. - -The scarfs must not be made too long; this is a common fault with all -beginners and one to avoid. The scarfs should be made a little longer -than the thickness of the iron, perhaps 1½ times the thickness. - -In raising the welding heat, the pieces must be placed in the fire with -the scarfs, or beveled part, down. The fire must be a clean one. A well -burned fire is best. A new fire is not a good one to raise the welding -heat in, as there is too much smoke and green coal that comes in contact -with the metal. The hammer should be placed on the anvil about over the -square hole, so it will be handy to reach when making the weld. The anvil -should also be clean. A heavy hammer should be used in welding. The -proper way to hold the hand hammer is with the fingers around the handle -and the thumb protruding along the side and near the top. The thumb -should never grip around the handle, but lie along the side to guide and -direct the blows. When using the sledge hammer, stand in front of the -anvil and not at its side, and let the first blow be a light one. - -In heating a slow blast is maintained. When the pieces begin to get about -yellow, more blast is used. The pieces can be watched without removing -them from the fire. They should be turned over occasionally, moving them -nearer to the surface of fire to see how the heat is progressing, and -then under the coke again. Care must be taken to get both pieces heated -alike. If one piece should get hotter than the other, it can be moved -over in the fire a little, and the cool one put in its place. Perhaps -the fire is hotter in one spot than another. If one piece is heating -much faster than the other, lift it clear up and out of the fire for a -few seconds to cool and give the other piece a chance to become hotter. -If the points of the scarf are heating too fast for the body, the pieces -must be pushed thru the fire a little farther. - -It is a good plan sometimes, when the pieces are about a yellow heat -to shut off the wind for a moment, to let the pieces and fire even up -and give the heat a chance to soak thru them. As the pieces become -nearly white, the blast is increased. Welding heat is about 1900°-2000° -Fahrenheit, and can only be determined by experience. When the -temperature of the pieces reaches the welding heat, they are lifted up -and out of the fire and taken by the smith to the anvil, without the aid -of a helper. The smith raps them against one another or against the anvil -to dislodge any dirt that may be on the scarfs. The piece in the left -hand is set against the inner edge of the anvil. The piece in the right -hand is now moved across the anvil until it comes under the top one. See -Figure 29. The piece in the left hand is then placed on the under one, by -simply raising the hand, teetering the piece on the edge of the anvil, -and holding it firmly by pressing down. This is important. The smith lets -go of the piece in his right hand, and taking the hammer strikes lightly -until the two are stuck, after which he welds them together with solid -blows, first on one side, then on the other and finally on the corners. - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.] - -It requires some practice to be able to take two pieces from the fire -and place them in position on the anvil to be welded. This should be -practiced by the pupil under the eye of the teacher, perhaps a dozen or -more times, with the cold pieces before he undertakes to get the welding -heat. If one cannot take the pieces out and place them in position, he -cannot make a weld of this kind. - -Two boys should not be allowed to work together on this weld. One can do -it much better than two. It is a one-man job. There is nothing difficult -about it, after the method is learned by deliberate and persistent -practice with the cold iron. There is no need of hurrying when taking the -pieces out of the fire to the anvil. - -If the scarfs are too long, they will overlap one another too far and -cannot be welded down quickly enough. If too short, they hammer down too -quickly to make a good job, and the weld will be thin. - -If the scarfs are the right length and about the same size, which is -important, the weld will finish down in good shape and make a smooth job, -providing the ends are clean. When the pieces being heated, look as tho -they are covered with grease, you may be sure the fire is dirty, or is -too new. - - -_Lap Welding Without Scarfing._ - -A lap weld is sometimes made without scarfing the ends. For instance, -pieces of 1″ × ¼″ iron are to be welded by the lap method. They are -brought to a welding heat without upsetting; taken to the anvil as -previously explained for the scarf weld, lapped about ⁵⁄₁₆-inch, as shown -in Figure 30, and welded. This form of welding is used in a hurry-up job -where there is no great amount of strain on the work. It is impossible -to make a strong weld this way. Very thin stock, either iron or steel, -can be welded to advantage in this manner by hammering on the flat sides. -The edges, instead of being hammered, are cut off with a chisel, then -ground or filed smooth. In welding very thin stock, a little flux is -used. Always weld by separate heats, and do not rivet or split the stock -to hold both ends in place. This is not necessary. Try to make the weld -with one heat. All good welds are made in one heat. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.] - - -_Jump Welding._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 31. Fig. 32.] - -For example, a piece like the one shown in Figure 31, is to be made by -welding. The pieces should be prepared as shown in Figure 32. The square -piece is 1″ by 1″ by 6″, the flat one 1½″ by ½″ by 8″. The square piece -is heated directly on one end. If the heat cannot be taken short enough, -it may be cooled in water so as to upset it with a lip or projection, as -shown. This lip can be worked out afterwards with a fuller, or it may be -driven into a heading tool which has the top corners of the hole rounded. -This will leave the corners of the lip round as shown. The bar at the end -should also be made slightly convex, so that the center part comes in -contact with the flat piece first. The flat piece is also upset in the -center. - -In welding, separate heats are taken. With the square bar, handled with -the right hand, the pieces are brought to the anvil by the smith. The -square bar is set on top of the flat one, and a helper strikes the top -piece with the sledge, driving it down into the bottom one. The edge of -the lip is then welded fast with a hand-hammer; or a fuller or set hammer -is used, the helper striking with a sledge. - - -_Butt Weld._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.] - -Iron may be welded by butting the ends together. In doing this, the -bars must be long enough so that they can be handled without tongs. For -instance, two bars of one-inch round stock, one five feet long and the -other shorter are to be welded. This size is about as light as can be -welded with this method. The ends are heated and upset a little making -them a little high in the center so that when they are placed together, -the contact is in the center. A short heat is taken on the end of each -bar. The smith takes out the long bar and the helper the short one, -butting the ends together on the anvil, as shown in Figure 33. The helper -hammers on the end of the short piece with a heavy hammer while the smith -holds the long one firmly, and hammers on the joint, at the same time -turning the bar so as to hammer the joint all around. In welding heavier -stock, a sledge should be used requiring more helpers. This method makes -a good weld, providing the heats are clean. - - -_Split Welding._ - -Figure 34 shows a drawing of round stock prepared for a split weld. In -making this weld, one piece is heated on the end, caught in a vise and -split with a thin chisel. See Figure 35. - -These prongs are then spread and scarfed on the inside with the ball of -the hammer letting them become fan shape and as wide as possible. See -Figure 36. The other piece is upset and both pieces are caught in the -vise. The scarf is then hammered tight and the ends are cut so as not to -have them too long. See Figure 37. The cutting of the scarf, and partly -into the bar, helps to bind the pieces firmly while the heat is being -taken. See drawing of piece ready to be welded, Figure 38. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34. Fig. 35. - -Fig. 36. Fig. 37. - -Fig. 38. Fig. 39. Fig. 40.] - -A heat is now taken, using a little sand or welding flux, if the stock -is very small. In welding, the first blow is struck on the end of the -split piece to drive it down tight and weld it in the center. See Figure -39. The sides are next hammered to weld the laps. It is then finished. -On heavy work, the heats are taken separately and placed on the anvil by -the smith, in the same manner as described for a jump weld. Another form -of split welding is shown in Figure 40. This method is used in welding -heavy iron and steel, such as picks and drills. Notice the little beards -cut with a chisel to help hold the pieces in position when heating. Heavy -tool steel is also welded with this form of splitting. The first blow -struck with the hammer on this weld, is on the end, forcing the pieces -together; then on the flat part. - - -_Corner Weld._ - -In Figure 41 is shown an angle made by welding on the corner; this is -called a corner weld. It is generally made by using square or flat stock. -Figure 42 shows the scarfs prepared for a corner weld, using 1″ by ½″ -stock. The piece at “A” is scarfed with the ball of the hammer. The one -at B, with the face of the hammer. Separate heats are taken and the -pieces lapped and welded. - -[Illustration: Fig. 41. Fig. 42.] - - -_T-Weld._ - -The scarfs for T-welds are made in just the same manner as for the corner -weld, excepting that one scarf is in the center of the bar. See Figure 43. - -In taking the pieces from the fire to the anvil, the one scarfed in the -center is handled with the tongs in the left hand. The one scarfed on -the end is handled with the right hand, letting it under the other, and -then hammered. Notice how wide the scarf is made on the end piece at “A”. -This is done to cover the other scarf. All flat “T” scarfs are made in -this manner. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - Corner Weld—Brazing—Fagot Weld—Turning a Loose Eye—Hammock - Hook—Finishing Wrought Iron—S Link—Welded Eye Pin. - - -A corner weld made by using heavy stock, for example, one and one-fourth -inch square, is to have a square corner by welding. See Figure 44. With -the dimensions six inches from one end, the bar is heated and cut about -half thru from one side with a hot chisel. The bar is then heated and -bent to about a right angle, as shown in Figure 45. A piece of ¾-in. -square stock is cut on four sides as shown in Figure 46. This piece is -welded into the corner as shown in Figure 47. The heat is separate, and -the smith takes both pieces to the anvil when hot. He places them in -position as shown in the drawing, the helper doing the welding. The long -part of the bar is then broken off, another heat is taken and the corner -is finished up by the smith. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44-45.] - - -_Brazing._ - -Iron and steel can be fastened together by brazing. In doing this, the -ends are tapered or dove-tailed together and bound with wire or a rivet -to hold them in position. They are then placed in the fire and brought -to a red heat. Some borax and spelter are put on and the heat is raised -until the brass flows. The work is then taken out of the fire and let -cool; then it is finished with a file, or by grinding. Spelter is an -alloy of copper and zinc, and may be purchased from dealers. Brass wire -may also be used in brazing, and sometimes copper. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46-47.] - -In teaching boys forging, the writer feels that it is a waste of time -to give a beginner little pieces to make, such as staples, hooks, etc. -A boy cannot learn to handle his hammer, or to heat a piece of stock by -making small things. What the beginner in forging needs is some work that -he can swing a hammer on without danger of spoiling it. Very few boys -on entering a shop can handle a hammer, and they certainly do not learn -about heating metal in a forge, by working at staples, etc. The first -exercise should be a fagot weld. - - -_Exercise No. 1.—Fagot Weld._ - -In doing this, two pieces of iron ½ in. square and 6 in. long are used. -The instructor demonstrates the welding of these two pieces before the -class. In making the weld, one piece is laid on top of the other and -both are caught at one end with a pair of tongs. The tongs should fit -the pieces nicely; a ring is placed over the ends of handles to bind the -jaws firmly on to the pieces. A heat is then taken on about one-half of -the length of the stock; the pieces are welded and at the same time drawn -to ½ in. square. The pieces are now turned around in the tongs and the -balance is heated and welded. While drawing stock always have the bar at -right angles with the long side of the anvil. If the bar is not so held, -it will twist on the slightly rounded face of the anvil. - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.] - -There will be more or less iron burned by the boys in making this fagot -weld; but this is necessary, for a boy can never learn how to work iron -until he can heat it properly. He must over-heat and burn iron in order -to understand the heat limitations of the metal. - -After the weld is made and the bar is drawn to the original size, the -ends must be squared by upsetting them. The bar when finished should be -½ in. square thruout its length, and straight with the ends squared. - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.] - -It is then formed into a loose ring by hammering it over the horn of the -anvil and not on a ring mandrel. In forming the ring, the ends are upset -on an angle, so that when bent into ring form, they will fit together -nicely. See Figure 48. - - -_Exercise No. 2._ - -This exercise will be made in the same manner as number one, excepting -that the bar is finished to ⁷⁄₁₆ in. square, and a ring is turned on each -end. See Figure 49. - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.] - -The eye is formed by heating and hammering it over the horn of the anvil, -giving it the shape as shown at B. It is then reheated, set on the horn -of the anvil and hammered close to the eye as shown at C, which bends it -central with the shank as shown at D. - -In turning loose eyes of any size stock or dimensions, on the end of a -bar, the ring is first turned into a circle of the desired size. It is -then sprung central with the shank. With this method, no figuring of -stock is required. - - -_Exercise No. 3._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 51. Fig. 52.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 53. Fig. 54.] - -In making a hammock hook, the stock should be soft steel, which may be -purchased for about the same price as iron. It will stand the bending -strains better than iron. The size of the stock is 7½ in. by ⅜ in. round. -The end is heated and a loose eye formed. The other end is drawn to a -taper with ¼ in. of the end turned up as shown. See drawing of hook, -Figure 50, and the different steps in forming the eye at A, B and C. The -hook is formed over the horn of the anvil as shown in Figure 51. Figure -52 shows the finished hook with a dotted line drawn thru the center, -indicating where the pull should come. In Figure 53 is shown a common -fault when turning a loose ring at the end of a bar, in not bending the -extreme end first. Notice Figure 54, where the end is bent as it should -be. - -The expert worker in iron is very careful not to hammer mark and destroy -the section of a bar. One should remember that bending a ring or iron -hook is simply holding the bar on the horn of the anvil and striking the -part that protrudes past it. Never strike the bar when it is directly -over the horn. This does not bend it, but makes a dent in the stock. - - -_Finishing._ - -To finish wrought iron, all of the scale and dirt should be scraped off -with an old file while the piece is hot. When the iron is cooled, linseed -or machine oil is rubbed on. If the work is held over the smoke of the -fire and then oiled, it will take on a darker color. Never paint iron -work. This destroys the texture of the metal. Do not file work bright. It -should be dark—filing is not forging. - - -_Exercise No. 4.—S-Link._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 55. Fig. 56.] - -Figure 55 shows a drawing of an S-Link, which is used to splice broken -chains. In Figure 56 is shown he length and size of the stock. The ends -are drawn to a short point and the center of the bar is marked with a -center punch. One-half of the link is then formed, bringing the point at -the center punch mark and using one-half of the bar. This is a simple -link to make. The only thing to be careful about is to not destroy the -section of the bar with hammer marks. This may be avoided if one does not -strike the hook directly over the horn of the anvil, but to one side of -the horn. See in Figure 57, the correct blow. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.] - - -_Exercise No. 5._ - -Figure 58 shows a drawing for a welded Eye Pin. The eye may be made any -size for practice. In making the ring, the bar is heated in the center -and hammered over the outer edge of the anvil, as shown in Figure 59. The -piece is now turned end for end, and jogged down again with the ball of -the hammer. See Figure 60. The piece should now look like the drawing in -Figure 61. The center of the piece is heated and hammered over the horn -of the anvil to make the ring round and to bring the shanks together. See -Figure 62. - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 59 (above). Fig. 60 (below). - -Fig. 61 (above). Fig. 62 (right). Fig. 63 (left, below).] - -In welding, the piece is caught by the ring with a flat pair of tongs. -See Figure 63. It is now placed in the fire so as to get the heat close -to the ring. The tongs are then removed, until the piece reaches a white -heat; the piece is again caught with the tongs, and the heat is raised. -It is taken out and set on the edge of the anvil and hammered as shown in -Figure 64. The first blow struck is close to the ring in order to weld -that part first. If it cannot be all welded in one heat, it should be -reheated at once. Do not hammer unless the heat is a welding heat, as -the stock will become too thin before it is welded. Do not heat the tongs -red as this destroys them and the piece cannot be held with hot tongs. -When the ring is welded, the end is drawn to a square point. See Figure -65. - -[Illustration: Fig. 64. Fig. 65.] - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - Staples—Open Links—Welded Chain Links—Punching—A Grab Hook. - - -_Exercise No. 6._ - -Staples are used for hasps, gate hooks, and for various other purposes. -They are made from all sizes of stock, depending on the use to which they -are put. On account of its pliability, soft steel is the best stock to -use in making staples. - -[Illustration: Fig. 66.] - -The length to cut stock is shown in the drawing of the staple in Figure -66. The stock is caught at one end with a pair of light tongs. The piece -is then heated and drawn out to a point; it is reversed in the tongs and -the other end is drawn out. The center of the piece is then reheated and -bent into shape over the horn of the anvil. - -In drawing any piece of stock to a tapered point, the taper should not be -hammered on one side continuously and, when turned over, hammered back -again. To have a taper on all four sides alike, the bar must be raised -the proper distance and not laid flat on the anvil. Figure 67 illustrates -the wrong way and Figure 68, the correct way. - -[Illustration: Fig. 67. Fig. 68.] - - -_Exercise No. 7._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 69.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 70. Fig. 71.] - -In Figure 69 is shown a drawing of an open link. Open links are used in -the splicing of broken chains. In splicing a chain, the link is opened by -driving a chisel between the laps, or it is opened when made. These laps -are hooked into links of broken chain and then driven together. In making -the link, one end is drawn to a flat point and a hook is hammered on it. -See Figure 70. The other end is heated and drawn out as in Figure 71. The -center of the piece is now heated and bent over the horn of the anvil to -the desired shape. See Figure 72. Notice in the drawing that the hooks -at the open end of the link are not very long. They should not be made -longer than shown. - -[Illustration: Fig. 72.] - - -_Exercise No. 8.—Welding a Chain Link._ - -The form and length of the stock for this exercise is shown in Figure 73. -The link may be made from iron or soft steel. After the stock is cut, -it is heated in the center and bent over the horn of the anvil into a -“U” shape. See Figure 74. The ends are now heated and scarfed by setting -them on the anvil as shown in Figure 75. The iron is then struck on top -with the hand hammer. After each blow, it is moved away from the anvil -just a little, giving the end a bevel, so that, when finished, the scarf -consists of a series of slanting notches. - -[Illustration: Fig. 73. Fig. 74.] - -In scarfing, both ends of the links are set on the anvil. The end of the -one on the right hand side must not be moved when scarfing the other. -After each blow of the hammer, the piece is moved just a little. If it -is moved too far and the other end of the link is fixed it will describe -an arc. See Figure 76. This is the method used in scarfing links. -Sometimes they are welded without scarfing, but it is not good practice. - -[Illustration: Fig. 75. Fig. 76.] - -Figure 77 shows the link scarfed, lapped and ready to be welded. In -welding, the heat is taken directly on the end of the lap and not on -the sides, so as not to burn the stock above the laps. When the link -has the welding heat, it is taken to the anvil and hammered on the flat -sides, then set on the horn of the anvil, and hammered on the corners. -See Figure 78. The shape of the link at the weld should be just a little -pointed for a strong link. - -[Illustration: Fig. 77.] - -In making chains, do not weld two single links and then one between them. -Weld a link on the end of the chain and keep repeating until finished. - - -_Exercise No. 9._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 78.] - -Punching holes thru hot iron is not a difficult exercise. For instance: A -⅜-in. hole is to be punched thru a flat piece of iron or steel. The piece -is heated, taken to the anvil and a punch set on the spot to be punched. -The punch is struck three or four blows with the hand hammer driving it -into the metal as shown in Figure 79. The piece is then turned over and -the punch is set over the dark spot which is caused by the former blows, -and is driven thru. See Figure 80. Square and other shaped holes are -punched in the same manner. Thin stock is punched cold. In doing this, -the piece to be punched is set on the punch block and the punch driven -thru the metal into the hole of the block. A punch-block is a round or -square block of steel with one or more tapered holes thru it. See Figure -81. - -[Illustration: Fig. 80. Left. Fig. 79. Center. Fig. 81. Right.] - -Figure 82 shows some holes that could be punched while the metal is hot. -A hole like the one shown at A, is made with a punch of that shape; the -next hole is made with the same punch. Afterwards the hole is upset or -shortened by heating and cooling each side of the hole. The bar is then -hammered on the end. This shortens and spreads the metal. The hole is -made true by driving a round punch thru it. The stock used for this -exercise should be soft steel. - -[Illustration: Fig. 82.] - - -_Exercise No. 10.—A Grab Hook for a Log Chain._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 83.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 84. Fig. 85.] - -Figure 83 shows a drawing of the hook with size of stock to be used. The -stock should be mild steel, 6½ by ¾ by ⅜ inches. To form the eye one -end is heated and shouldered back one inch from the end, by hammering -it on the anvil as shown in Figure 84. The eye is then rounded with the -hammer and the hole punched with a hand punch. The hole is countersunk by -hammering it on the horn as shown in Figure 85. The point is next drawn -out and then the hook is heated in the center. It is cooled each side of -the center and hammered over the horn to bend, then on the anvil as shown -at Figure 86. A piece of ⅜-in. flat iron is set on the inside of the hook -and the hook hammered to fit the iron. This leaves the opening of the -hook uniform and just the size required. See Figure 87. - -[Illustration: Fig. 86.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 87.] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - - Bolts—Capping Tool—Gate Hook—Hay Hook—Welded Ring—Expansion of - Heated Iron. - - -_Exercise No. 11._ - -Bolts may be made in one piece by upsetting the end of a bar, then -squaring the head by driving the piece into a heading tool. A bolt may -also be made by welding a collar around the end of a bar after which the -head is squared. - -[Illustration: Fig. 88.] - -Figure 88 shows a welded bolt head. After the stock is cut to proper -length, the collar for the head is made. It is heated and hammered over -the horn of the anvil to make it round. The end of the collar is now -cut off on the hardie, cutting clear thru from one side and giving it -a bevel. The other end is cut from the opposite side giving it a bevel -also. See drawing at A. The collar is driven on the end of the bar while -the collar is cold and the bar is hot. When the collar is hammered on the -end of the bar, there should be about ⅛-in. crack. See drawing at B. The -reason is that, in welding, the collar is lengthened. Hammering stretches -the metal, and it must have end room. When the collar is ready the bar -is heated on the end and upset just a little. A heat is then taken, and -the collar is welded by striking it on four sides, letting the opening -form one of the corners. The bolt is then inserted into a ½-in. hole in a -heading tool to smooth the end of the head with a hammer. A cupping tool -is next set on to the head and given a few good blows with the hammer. -This bevels the top corners of the square head. A cupping tool is a piece -of tool steel with a half round depression in one end. See Figure 89. - -[Illustration: Fig. 89.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 90.] - -The heads of bolts can be beveled with the hammer, instead of with a -cupping tool. Figure 90 shows a tool to be used in the vise to make heads -on light rods. The rod is heated and inserted into the hole; then the -vise is tightened after which the ends are hammered down. - - -_Exercise No. 12.—Forging a Gate Hook._ - -Figure 91 shows the length and size of stock which should be of soft -steel. One and one-half inches from each end of the bar is marked with a -center punch. One end is drawn round to a point. The other is hammered -round for the eye. See Figure 92. In the drawing Figure 93, the eye and -the hook are shown turned. The center part of the hook is square and is -to be twisted. This is done by heating the square part to a uniform heat -and cooling each end. The hook is then twisted with two pairs of tongs, -or it may be caught in a vise and twisted with one pair of tongs. See -drawing of the finished hook, Figure 94. - -[Illustration: Fig. 91 (above). Fig. 92 (below).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 93. Fig. 94.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 95. Horn.] - -Figure 95 shows a tool called a horn; it fits into the square hole of -the anvil. It is used to turn very small eyes at the end of a bar. A -piece of 1½-in. round soft steel is used in making it, by drawing the end -square to fit the hole in the anvil. It is afterwards bent over and the -taper drawn as shown. - - -_Exercise No. 13—Making a Hay Hook._ - -Figure 96 shows the stock which should be soft steel, to be used in -making a Hay Hook. The eye is first turned, using 11 inches of the bar. -The end is then heated and drawn to a point after which it is bent as -shown in the drawing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 96. Hay Hook.] - - -_Exercise No. 14—Welding Ring._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 97.] - -Figure 97 shows a drawing for a ring to be made from ½-in. round stock -cut 10 inches long. The whole is heated red at one time and then formed -into shape by hammering it over the horn as shown in Figure 98. The ends -are now heated and scarfed in the same manner as described for the welded -link. When they are lapped and ready for welding, they should look like -Figure 99. Notice that the ring is made egg shape so that a heat may be -taken directly on the ends of the scarfs and not at the sides. The ring -when welded is formed round. - -Another method of welding rings is to upset the ends and then form the -rings. It is scarfed as explained above. This is seldom done in practical -work because it is too slow, and the other method is about as strong. - -[Illustration: Fig. 98. Fig. 99.] - -In welding the ring, it is handled in the same manner as in welding -links. To find the amount of stock for rings, the inside diameter plus -the thickness of stock is multiplied by 3.1416 or 3⅐. To this is added -enough stock for the lap of the weld. For example a ring is required of -one-inch stock. The inside measure is 10 inches. Solution: (10 + 1) × 3⅐ -= 11 × 3⅐ = 34⁴⁄₇ + ½ inch for welding. - -In heating a piece of iron to be formed into a ring, it should never be -heated to the welding heat. A welding heat on any piece of work that is -not to be hammered destroys the texture of the metal. Any piece of work -to be formed, should be heated evenly and not too hot. - -Iron when heated expands. For example, if a piece of stock 12 by 1 by -⁵⁄₁₉ in. is heated red its entire length and then measured, it will be -about 12¼ in. long. When the piece is cooled it will go back to its -original length of twelve inches. - -In making bands or tires for wagons, they are made a little short, then -heated and put on, letting them shrink to their original size, which -makes them tight. - -[Illustration: Wrought Iron Lantern.] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - - Marking Tongs—Pig Iron—Puddling—The Bessemer Process—The Open - Hearth Process—Crucible Steel—The Cementation Process—Tempering. - - -_Exercise No. 16._ - -In forging tongs, stock ⅞-in. square of Norway or Swedish iron may be -used, as it is much easier for a beginner in welding the handle on to the -jaws. Soft steel may be used later on if desired. Figure 100 shows the -drawing of a finished pair of flat tongs. Figure 101 shows the size of -stock used and the dimensions of the rough forgings. It is not intended -that the dimensions given are to be accurately followed, but they are -given as an idea of what may be forged from this size of stock. In -forging the jaws, no helper is required to handle a sledge hammer after -the piece is cut from the bar for the reason that it is time lost for the -one who handles it, besides one man can do it. - -[Illustration: Fig. 100. Blacksmith’s Tongs.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 101.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 102. Fig. 103.] - -In forging the jaws a heavy hand hammer is used, and the bar is heated to -the welding heat, or near it. One and one-eighth inch of the bar is set -on the inner edge of the anvil and the lip is hammered as shown in Figure -102. The lip must not be turned and hammered on its edge. Let it get as -wide as it will, and do not hammer it too thin. After the shoulder has -been started for the length of the lip, it must not be moved. A common -fault is to start the shoulder and then to find that the lip is not long -enough and proceed to make another shoulder. The result of the second -shoulder is that when nearly finished a crack will be discovered. The -reason that second shoulder starts a crack is that the metal stretched -over the first shoulder. This is called a cold shut. See Figure 103. -Another common fault is to lower the bar when making the lip. This pulls -the lip on an angle with the bar and when it is straightened, another -crack is formed in the corner. See Figure 104. The bar must be on the -same plane with the anvil face at all times. When the lip is made, the -bar is turned to the left, setting it on the outer edge of the anvil and -hammering to form the shoulder for the eye. See Figure 105. It is then -turned again to the left hand and hammered down for the last shoulder. - -[Illustration: Fig. 104. Fig. 105.] - -At this time the stock required for the eye is beyond the outer edge of -the anvil. See Figure 106. - -[Illustration: Fig. 106. Fig. 107.] - -The rough forging should always be made a little larger than the finished -tongs; finishing it to size when the handle is welded on. When both jaws -are forged, they are cut in the center and the handles are welded on. -When the handles are well upset and scarfed, the shanks of the jaws are -drawn to equal size. Care must be taken in having the scarfed ends equal -in size or a poor weld will result. The handles at the weld are drawn -square with the corners tapered off. The jaws are now drawn and fitted -to size. Notice that the lip tapers on the edge, also on the flat part. -A small flute is fullered lengthways on the inside of the lip so that -round as well as flat iron may be held. The hole is next punched thru the -eye with a hand punch. A piece of ⅜-in. rod of soft steel is cut to the -proper length and used for a rivet. It is heated and inserted into the -holes in the jaws and hammered on both sides with hard blows. The jaws -of the tongs are now heated red and worked back and forth to loosen the -rivet in the eye. The jaws are fitted to the size of the stock they are -to handle as in Figure 107. The regular stock rivets should not be used -in tongs. The ⅜-in. round piece headed from both sides fits the holes -thru the eye best. - -[Illustration: Fig. 108.] - -In making tongs to hold a larger piece of stock, the square bar should -have an offset. The jaws should then be forged as in Figure 108. Notice -where the hammer strikes the bar to offset it. - -In forging tongs, the handles should be welded to the jaws to give -practice in welding. - - -_Pig Iron._ - -Pig iron is made by smelting the iron ore in a blast furnace. The ore is -charged in a furnace mixed with lime stone as a flux, and melted by using -coke or coal as fuel. The resulting metal is called pig iron. It contains -from three to five per cent of carbon, two to four per cent of silicon -and various small amounts of sulphur, phosphorus and manganese. - - -_Puddling._ - -Wrought iron is made by melting the pig iron in a puddling furnace; about -one-half ton is charged at a time. After it is softened, it is stirred -with large iron hooks by the puddler and his helper. It is kept kneaded -to expose every part to the action of the flame, so as to burn out all of -the carbon. All the other impurities separate from the iron and form what -is known as the puddle clinker. - -Pig iron melts at about 2100° F., steel at 2500° F., and wrought iron -at 2800° F., so the temperature of the puddling furnace is kept high -enough to melt pig iron but not hot enough to keep wrought iron in a -liquid state. Consequently, as soon as the iron becomes pure it forms a -spongy mass. This mass of sponge is divided into lumps of about 100 or -150 pounds which are taken to a squeezer and formed into blocks. In the -operation of squeezing the greater proportion of impurities left in the -iron after the puddling, are removed. While these blocks are still hot -they are rolled into flat musk bars. The bars are now cut and heated -to white heat in a furnace, taken to the rolls, welded and rolled into -merchant bars. In the welding and rolling the cinder coated globules of -iron are forced close together as the iron is welded. This gives the -iron a fibrous structure increasing its strength. - - -_Bessemer Process._ - -In making steel by the Bessemer process, the pig iron is put into a large -pear shaped vessel called the converter. The bottom is double; the inner -casing is perforated with holes called tuyeres, to admit air forced -under pressure. From ten to fifteen tons of molten iron at one time are -poured into the converter while it is lying on its side. The compressed -air is now turned into the double bottom as the converter rises to a -vertical position. The air has sufficient pressure to prevent the metal -from entering the tuyeres, and it passes up and thru the metal, burning -out the carbon. After the blast which lasts about ten minutes, the metal -is practically liquid wrought iron. The converter is now laid on its -side and the blast is shut off. A certain amount of molten spiegeleisen -(white cast iron containing much carbon or ferromanganese) is added so -as to give the steel the proper amount of carbon and manganese to make -it suitable for its purpose. The steel is then poured into ingots and -rolled into rails, girders, etc. Carbon is pure charcoal; manganese is a -chemical element very difficult to fuse, but easily oxidized. - - -_Open Hearth Process._ - -The open hearth process of steel manufacturing is similar to the puddling -process. The carbon is removed by the action of an oxidizing flame of -burning gas. The furnace has a capacity of forty or fifty tons and is -heated with gas or oil. The gas and air needed for its combustion are -heated to a temperature of over 1000° F. before entering the combustion -chamber, by passing thru so-called regenerative chambers. Owing to the -preheating of the gas and air a very high temperature can be maintained -in the furnace so as to keep the iron liquid after it has parted with -the carbon. The stirring up of the metal is not done with hooks as in -puddling furnace but by adding certain proportions of iron scales or -other oxides the chemical reaction of which keeps the metal in a state -of agitation. With the open hearth process the metal can be tested from -time to time. When it contains the proper amount of carbon it is drawn -off thru the tapping hole at the bottom of the hearth, leaving the slag -at the top. As steel is produced in a liquid form, from which impurities -have been removed in the form of slag that rises and floats at the top, -the metal is homogeneous and practically without grain. Wrought iron will -outlast steel when exposed to the weather. - -Crucible steel, or tool steel, also called cast steel, is made by -using high grade, Swedish, wrought iron and adding carbon which is low -in phosphorus content. The oldest method is called the “Cementation -Process.” The iron bars were packed in air-tight retorts with powdered -charcoal between them. They were put in a cementation furnace, heated -red and kept at this temperature for several days. The bars, in this -way, absorbed the carbon from the charcoal. The carbonized bars (called -“blister steel”) were then cut into small pieces, remelted in a crucible, -poured in ingots and rolled into bars. - -The newer method is to melt small pieces of Norway or Swedish iron base -with charcoal in a graphite or clay crucible. It is then poured into -moulds and made into ingots, after which it is forged or rolled into -bars. - -The crucible process enables the manufacture of steel to almost exact -analysis and insures a clean and pure material. It also absorbs the -carbon much faster than steel made the old way. - -In the school forge shop, the tool steel used should be of an inexpensive -kind. High priced steel should not be used as more or less is wasted by -the pupils in working. A carbon steel should be used for all forge shop -tools. About 75 to 95 point is suitable. High-speed tool steel should be -used only to give the pupils instruction in its handling and use, and to -familiarize them with the different kinds of steel and their treatment. - -To the steel maker, temper means the percentage of carbon in the steel. -The word point means one-hundredth of one per cent, thus 10 point carbon -means ten one-hundredths of one per cent. One hundred and fifty point -carbon contains one and one-half per cent. This is about as high as is -generally made. One hundred and fifty point is known as high temper; low -temper is about 40 point. Steel containing less than 40 point does not -harden to advantage and is classed with machinery steel. There is a range -of tempers between high and low point which are used for different kinds -of tools. - -In the forge shop the term _temper_ means the degree of hardness given -to a piece of tool steel. As an example, a piece of steel is heated to -a dark red color and cooled in water or oil. This is called hardening. -If this piece is too hard for the purpose intended, it is then tempered -to reduce some of its hardness, and to give the steel elasticity and -strength. In doing this, it is subjected to heat, (the more heat the -softer the piece becomes). In the forge shop, in tempering steel, the -metal is polished bright after hardening. If it is a small piece, it is -then held on or near a piece of hot iron. As the piece becomes heated, -the steel heated in the air assumes colors; at first a very faint yellow -and gradually darker, until all of the color has disappeared leaving the -steel without any trace of hardness. - -These different colors as they appear on the surface of hardened steel -represent different degrees of hardness. The following simple list of -colors applies to the different tools and carbon to use: - -Light straw—430° F. Lathe tools—130 point carbon. - -Dark straw—470° F. Taps and dies—120 point carbon. - -Purple gray—530° F. Chisels and blacksmiths’ tools, 75 to 95 point carbon. - -Of course there are other colors than these. As the heat advances every -few degrees the color keeps changing to a darker which indicates the tool -is becoming softer. - -The hardening heat is about 1300 to 1400 degrees Fahrenheit, or a cherry -red. About 400 degrees Fahrenheit relieves the strain in a hardened piece -of steel; 600 degrees leaves a trace of hardness and is about right for -springs. - -In order to know the results of heating and cooling steel one should -take a small bar and cut nicks in it with a chisel every half inch. The -bar is then heated from a white heat at the end to a very dark red some -inches back. It is then cooled in water, the pieces broken and the grain -noted. The heat that leaves the steel file hard and a very fine grain is -the hardening heat of that steel. The hardening heat is a dark red. The -hotter it was when cooled the coarser the grain shows on the end of the -broken pieces. - -In further demonstrating hardening and tempering of tool steel, the -making of a flat cold chisel will be considered. The principles involved -are about the same in all hardening and tempering. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - - Making a Flat Cold Chisel—Spring Tempering—Welding Steel—Case - Hardening—Coloring Steel—Annealing—Making a Scratch Awl—Making - a Center Punch—Making a Hand Punch—High Speed Steel—Annealing - High Speed Steel. - - -_Exercise No. 17.—Flat Cold Chisel._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 109.] - -A good cold chisel is an indispensable tool in a shop, and one that is -very much abused. Therefore, it should be made with the greatest care. -In the forging of a good chisel a piece of ⅝-in. octagonal tool steel, -from 75 to 95 point carbon, is used. The piece is cut six inches long. In -doing this the bar may be nicked with a chisel. The nicked part is then -set over the outer edge of the anvil. A chisel with a handle is set on -the nicks and given a good blow with a sledge hammer, shearing the piece -from the bar. See Figure 109. This method of cutting is quite dangerous, -so care must be taken. Perhaps, a less dangerous method, tho not so -practical, is to heat the bar red and cut the piece off with a hot chisel -and sledge, or on the hardie, if one has no helper. The end is then -hammered. See Figure No. 110. - -[Illustration: Fig. 110.] - -When cut off and hammered round on one end, the piece is caught with a -fluted-lip pair of tongs that will hold it firmly and a ring is placed -on the ends of the reins to bind them. The end is now heated in a well -burned fire, letting the heat soak in slowly, and not forcing it with too -much blast. If the fire is lively hardly any blast is used on the start. -The piece is brought to a heat somewhat beyond what is commonly called -cherry heat. It is then taken to the anvil and drawn out square with hard -blows of the hammer, to a long taper, and nearly to a point. This taper -should be about 1¾ inches long. See Figure No. 111. - -[Illustration: Fig. 111.] - -Hammering must cease before the red heat has left the steel. It is again -heated and hammered on two sides; in drawing the chisel bends edgewise. -Do not strike it on the edge; it will fracture the grain of the steel. -To straighten the blade, it should be hammered on the _flat_ side _near -the concave edge_. See Figure No. 112. This stretches the metal and -straightens the blade. Care must be taken in hammering not to make the -chisel wider in one place than in another. - -[Illustration: Fig. 112. Fig. 113.] - -When finishing the chisel, it is hammered lightly until the red is nearly -but not quite gone. This hammering packs the grain and makes it fine. -The end of the chisel is set on a hardie and cut half thru, so that when -it is hardened and tempered it may be broken to note its grain and also -require less grinding in sharpening. See Figure No. 113. The chisel -is now heated very slowly to a dark red and set in a dry place on the -forge to anneal. This annealing relieves the strain in the tool due to -hammering. - -When the chisel is cold it is reheated to harden and temper. Over-heating -does not make the tool harder when cooled in water, but increases its -brittleness, so care must be taken when heating. The heating must be very -slow, and to a dark red, 2½ inches long. The chisel should be cooled as -the heat is going up. A common practice of heating the steel more than -a cherry red and holding it out of the forge until the heat goes down, -before dipping, is wrong. When properly heated the chisel is held in -a vertical position and dipped about 1½ inches into 16 gallons of salt -and water, heated from 60° to 70° F. See Figure 114. The tool is kept in -motion when dipped. When cooled it is removed, and the hardened part is -rubbed bright with an emery stick or sand paper. This is done so that the -temper colors may be seen. Tempering increases the tool’s elasticity and -strength, and reduces the brittleness. The temper color will show just a -faint yellow against the edge of the remaining heat that was left in the -tool after hardening. - -[Illustration: Fig. 114.] - -In hardening the tool, it is heated 2½ inches of its length and 1½ inches -is cooled in water to harden. The remaining heat gradually runs thruout -the whole chisel and may be noted by the faint yellow color on the bright -part of the tool traveling towards the cutting end. This faint yellow -temper color, due to the heat and air, is followed with darker colors; -if let run too much all of the hardness would be taken out of the tool. -Four hundred and thirty degrees Fahrenheit would be about a light straw -color, leaving the steel very hard. About 600° F. would be the darkest -color, nearly black. This is as hot as steel can be made and still leave -a trace of hardness. This temper is too soft for a chisel but about right -for springs; therefore when the very dark purple temper color covers the -whole bright part of the chisel the point is dipped in water. The chisel -is then set in a dry place on the forge to cool slowly. The temper color -must run to the end of the chisel very slowly. The reason for this is -that if the temper color comes slow, the chisel is tempered farther back -from the point. The temper colors on the surface of the bright steel are -obtained by different degrees of heat, as it travels from the remaining -heat left in the tool when the piece was hardened. The less heat allowed -to travel toward the end of chisel, the paler the temper color and the -harder the chisel; therefore, the faint yellow color indicates that the -steel is very hard. The darker the temper color becomes the softer the -tool. - -The best chisels are those that are file proof. If, after hardening and -tempering a chisel, it cannot be cut with a file, it is too hard and the -temper must be run out more. If the grain of steel is very fine when -broken the chisel had the proper heat when quenched, but if it looks -coarse the tool was too hot when cooled and must be annealed, rehardened -and tempered. A little judgment will enable one to determine the proper -hardness for all tools of this character by noting these temper colors. -The above explanation in a general way applies to the working of all -carbon steel tools. - - -_Spring Tempering._ - -There are many kinds of springs that are hardened and tempered. The -methods of handling are about the same with all. As an example, a piece -of spring steel 5 by 1 by ¹⁄₁₆ inches is to be tempered. In doing this, -the piece is caught at one end with a pair of light tongs. The steel is -heated to a dark red and dipped into a can of sperm oil, or equal parts -of lard and tallow. When cool it is held over the fire until the surplus -oil takes fire and blazes off. It is redipped in the oil, and the oil is -burned three times in all. It is then partly cooled in the oil and set -on the forge until cool, when it is ready for use. Steel is manufactured -especially for springs. It is called spring steel. It is made in a -different way from tool steel, by the open hearth process. It differs in -quality and cannot be absolutely guaranteed. The steel is never free from -all foreign elements which might be detrimental to its quality. - - -_Tempering Thin Pieces of Steel._ - -In hardening thin pieces of steel such as knives, very thin milling -cutters, etc., there is always difficulty in preventing warping after -hardening. Two heavy surface plates, planed on one side, are used. On one -of these plates equal parts of tallow and lard are spread ¼ inch thick. -The knife is heated in a steam pipe with one end plugged and having fire -under and over it. When an even red heat is reached, the knife is brought -out and set on the oil and at the same time the top plate is set onto the -knife until cool. This hardens the blade and keeps it from springing. -The knife is brightened and the temper is drawn to a dark straw color by -holding it on a hot iron. - -Very small pieces of steel are packed into an iron pipe or box surrounded -with charcoal. The whole is then heated red and the pieces are dumped out -and cooled in water. To draw temper, they are put in an iron ladle filled -with lard oil that is heated on the fire. - - -_Welding Steel._ - -All small pieces of tool and spring steel should be welded with separate -heats. A little practice and a clean fire, with some good welding -compound, are necessary. In separate heat welding of flat steel, the flat -sides of the scarfs are put together instead of the beveled ones. The -scarfs are shown in Figure No. 115. The method of riveting and splitting -small pieces of flat steel to hold them together while taking the heat is -not to be recommended because after they are put together in this manner -the lap is double thick, and in raising the heat there is always danger -of over-heating each side of the lap. Separate heats and a clean fire is -the best method to use to make a good weld, unless the steel is heavy. In -this case, it is split and forked as previously explained. - -[Illustration: Fig. 115. Welding Thin Steel.] - - -_Case Hardening._ - -The difference between wrought iron and tool steel lies in the absence -of carbon in the iron. Tool steel can be hardened because it contains -carbon, and when heated and suddenly cooled becomes hard thruout. The -surface of wrought iron or mild steel can be carbonized and then made -very hard. This is called _case hardening_ because about ¹⁄₁₆ inch or -less of the outside of the bar is made hard while the center is soft. -There are several methods. One is to place the articles in a tight cast -iron box and surrounded with ground bone before placing in a furnace. The -box is then brought to a high heat of about 1700 degrees Fahrenheit. It -is held at this heat for several hours and then let cool. When cool, the -pieces are reheated and dipped in salt water to harden them or they may -be cooled with the first heating. By another method the pieces are placed -in an iron ladle with cyanide of potassium and heated. Iron may be heated -red and rolled in the cyanide, then reheated and plunged into water. Care -must be taken in handling cyanide as even the fumes are poisonous. - - -_Coloring Steel._ - -Very bright pieces of soft steel can be case hardened and colored at the -same time. In doing this, cyanide is heated in an iron box, and the steel -articles are put into it. When heated they are removed and dipped into -a solution of water and salt peter to cool and harden them. This gives -them a mottled effect with many colors. A pint of salt peter to about -four gallons of water makes a solution strong enough. This bath becomes -poisoned from the cyanide. It should be kept clean and labeled “_Poison_.” - - -_Annealing._ - -A piece of metal of any kind is said to be “annealed” when made very -soft. Steel should be annealed before it is filed, drilled, or machined, -as it is a very hard metal to work when cold. The method of annealing -is first to heat the piece to a red heat. It is then covered with warm, -slacked lime so that the air will not come in contact with it until -cool. A simple way to anneal, when in a hurry, is to heat the steel red, -setting it in a dry place on the forge until black. It is then plunged -into water quickly and brought out. This operation is repeated until -the piece is cool. Steel is also annealed by heating the piece red and -setting it on the forge until cool. The slower steel is cooled, the -softer it becomes. Wrought iron and mild steel forgings should always be -annealed when used in work where there is danger of breaking them. - -[Illustration: Fig. 116 (above). Fig. 117 (below).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 118. Scratch Awl.] - - -_Exercise No. 18.—Scratch-Awl._ - -This tool is used to scratch holes on the surface of metal, and also -to lay out shapes on metal. Figure 116 shows the dimensions of stock. -The piece should be carbon steel. One and one-half inches from one end, -the bar is drawn out until it measures 2¼ inches in length, as shown in -Figure 117. It is then bent on an angle as shown in Figure 118. This part -is now heated and hammered over the horn of the anvil to form the eye or -ring. It is then twisted by catching one end in the vise and twisting to -the right. The point is next drawn out as shown in Figure 119. The point -is then ground or filed and the awl tempered hard. - -[Illustration: Fig. 119. Scratch Awl Complete.] - - -_Exercise No. 19—Center-Punch._ - -Figure 120 shows the size of stock and Figure 121 shows the center-punch -completed. The top part is first made, then the bottom is drawn out to -a taper. In doing this, it is first drawn square, then eight sided and -finally rounded. The point is ground and the punch is tempered to a -purple color. For heavy centering a larger size steel should be used. - -[Illustration: Fig. 120 (above). Center Punch. Fig. 121 (below).] - - -_Exercise No. 20—Hand-Punch._ - -Hand-punches are made of various sizes of stock, ⅝ in., ¾ in. and ⅞ in., -and are used for hot punching. Figure 122 shows the size of stock for -a punch that will be useful in the school shop, and Figure 123 shows -the completed punch. It is made in the same manner as described for the -center-punch. This punch must not be tempered. For punching square holes -the punch is drawn square, and the ends of all hand-punches are made -smaller than the hole to be punched. - -[Illustration: Fig. 122. Stock for Punch. Fig. 123. Completed Punch.] - -High speed steels, due to their hardness and durability, retain their -edge when cutting at extremely high speeds. - -It has only been of recent years that high speed steels came into use. -Before this time self-hardening steels were made by Jessop and Mushet -which were in general use. They were tempered by heating to a dark red -and left to cool in the air. The high speed steels of today are heated to -2,000° or 2,200° Fahr., or a white heat bordering on a welding heat. - -The chemical composition of these new steels are only known by their -makers. However, it is said that they contain carbon, tungsten, chromium, -manganese and other elements. - -The great advantage in using high speed steel, is that a machine can be -run three times as fast as one using carbon steel, without destroying -the edge of the tool. The output is therefore greater. Of course, in -order to force this steel to do a great amount of work the machine tools -should be constructed to stand heavy strains. All kinds of tools are now -being made from high speed steel. - -For light lathe work, high speed steel is used in the adjustable tool -holder. The most common tool for doing heavy work is the round nose which -is made from various size steel. - -High speed tool steel is sold under many brands. The method of handling -is about the same for all. However each manufacturer will give the method -which is best for his particular make of steel. In forging high speed -lathe tools, a furnace or clean fire with plenty of coke is used. The -steel is heated to a bright red heat, holding the steel at this heat -as nearly as possible when hammering. Forging at a low heat is liable -to cause the steel to burst. When the tool is forged, it is laid in a -dry place on the forge to cool. When hardening, the point of the tool -is brought to a white welding heat, about 2,100° Fahr., and this is -noticeable by the appearance of melted borax, forming on the nose. The -tool is now held in a compressed air blast, or dipped into sperm, linseed -or lard oil until cool. - - -_Annealing High Speed Steel._ - -The process is the same as the one used for carbon steel, heating to a -red heat and covering the piece with slacked lime until cold. - -In cutting high speed tool steel, the bar may be nicked with the emery -wheel, then broken. - -In working tool steel or iron of any weight the blows of the hammer must -be heavy. Light blows stretch the outer part of the metal and not the -center. This is liable to fracture it. The blow must be heavy so as to -penetrate thru the bar. A trip hammer of ordinary size run by a belt is -a very economical tool for the school shop. It is inexpensive and can be -used to advantage in drawing out large pieces of stock, especially tool -steel. - -Every pupil should have more or less practice in the handling of a trip -or steam hammer. - -[Illustration] - - - - -II—ART SMITHING - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - - Wrought Iron Work—Making a Wrought Iron Leaf—Making a Volute - Scroll—Grilles. - - -At the present time great interest is being taken in the teaching of art -work in our public schools. Every school of importance is doing something -in the way of giving the pupils a knowledge of art. One working in the -school crafts should study art. There is no craft work that one can do -well without this training. With art training one can see defects in his -work much quicker than without such training. In fact, it opens up a new -world of possibilities to the workman. The more one is convinced of the -value of thoro acquaintance with the medium in which he is working, the -higher the class of work he produces. - -All fine workmen in any craft have more or less ability to draw. This not -only gives them power to transfer their conceptions to paper, but it also -helps them in the execution of the work. The iron-worker in particular -should practice free-hand drawing. It enables him to form his material -into proper shape. As a general thing, forge work is fashioned into shape -by eye. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. Forged Leaf.] - -Wrought iron-work is one of the oldest of the handicrafts. It was -extensively practiced by the ancients and carried to a high degree of -excellence, both in execution and design. During the Middle Ages and up -to the seventeenth century some of the finest examples were produced. A -study of the older forms, especially those of Medieval German production, -shows iron fashioned in keeping with its properties and with the spirit -of the craftsman. It is impossible to utilize natural forms in wrought -iron without convention. Realistic iron flowers are inconsistent with the -material in which they are executed. They kill the strength and destroy -the character of the metal. This should be learned early by one working -in iron. When the iron-worker of the past imitated nature too closely -in leaf and flower, he failed as a designer and his work deteriorated. -Iron as a crude metal must be fashioned into shapes that are suitable -and practical for the material. For instance, it readily allows itself -to be worked into graceful curved forms which can be used to advantage -in grille work. It may be surface-decorated by using chasing tools. This -may be done on hot or cold metal, depending upon the depth wanted. Iron -may also be punctured with openings thru the metal which give the play -of light and shadow that is very pleasing. Grotesque figures and an -endless variety of leaf forms may also be worked in iron. These should be -conventionalized. Embossed or repousse work may be done to advantage. In -doing this the metal while hot is hammered on the end grain of elm wood -and on forms made from iron. When cold it is hammered on lead, and steel -tools are used to sharpen up the detail. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. Cutting Tool.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4. Modeling Hammer.] - -In Figure 1 is shown a leaf made from Number 16 sheet steel and Figure -2 shows a pattern of the same leaf. In making a leaf of this kind, a -full-size drawing is made just as it should look when modeled. From this -drawing a pattern is developed as the leaf would look when in the flat. -It is impossible to lay it out accurately. The method used is to find the -stretch out of the leaf by measuring along its greatest length. This can -be done by using a pair of dividers. The length found is then laid off -on the metal. The widest parts of the leaf are then measured and laid on -the metal. Having the length and width, the rest can be sketched in. The -leaf is now cut out with a narrow cold chisel that can be made to follow -the curved line. This cutting should be done while the metal is cold. The -leaf shown in the illustration has been fluted with a steel hand-tool. -In doing this a tool as shown in Figure 3 is used. This tool is made -smooth, rounded at the base like an ordinary fuller and then hardened. -The fluting is also done while the metal is cold. Lines are marked on -the metal with a slate pencil and then sunken with the tool and hammer. -In modeling the leaf a hammer like the one shown in Figure 4 is used. It -is called the modeling hammer. This hammer has a ball on one end and a -pein on the other, both of which are made very smooth and without sharp -corners. These hammers are made in various sizes. In modelling the leaf -it is heated and hammered on the back side with the ball of the hammer, -using the elm block to hammer on. The ends of the lobes are then formed -to give the whole a decorative effect. These leaves are generally used in -grille work and are welded into position. In Figure 5 is shown part of a -grille with a similar leaf welded on. In welding leaves to the members of -grille work the bottom part of the leaf is formed around the bar; caught -with a pair of tongs, it is heated, using a flux when hot. It is then -taken to the anvil and welded. A small collar is finally welded in front -of the leaf as shown in the illustration. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. Grille with Leaf.] - -The leaves shown in the illustrations are made to cover the grille on -but one side. If a grille is to be seen from both sides when in place, -the leaves are cut out symmetrically and then bent and modeled to fit -over the top and sides of the bars so that they appear finished from both -sides. Figure 6 shows the pattern of such a leaf. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6. Pattern of Leaf.] - -The following exercises will be of a simple nature to give the beginner -an idea of the tools and processes used in producing this kind of work -by hand. The writer does not claim that the following method is the only -one to be used in doing this work. There are many other ways to execute -these exercises and one should use his own ingenuity in designing and -executing individual pieces. It is hoped that pupils will be encouraged -to originate designs of their own to work out in this interesting metal. - -The tools used in making these exercises will be the ordinary forge shop -tools that can be made, and will be described later on, as they are -needed. - - -_Exercise No. 1._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 7. Volute Scrolls.] - -_Volute Scroll._ This exercise is given in order to familiarize one -with the bending of curved forms and also to train the hand and eye in -doing free-hand work. No metal lends itself more readily to the bending -of curves than wrought iron. The scroll is an important element in the -designing of iron doors, window grilles, etc. In bending, the scroll must -not have kinks or flat places, but a gradual curve. If it is desired -to suggest strength, the scroll is coiled tightly; or if lightness of -effect is desired, it is coiled loosely. In making a scroll to fit some -particular place a drawing is made with chalk on a surface plate. The -scroll is then measured along the line with a string to find its length. -In Figure 7 are shown drawings of typical scrolls. The one at A shows -too much space between the coils. The scroll at B is top-heavy owing to -the coils being equal in size. The one at C has a continuous curve with -unequal coils which balance better. In bending a scroll from a flat piece -of stock, as shown in Figure 8, the end is heated and hammered on the -corners to make it round at one end. It is then bent over the outer edge -of the anvil, as shown in Figure 9 A and B, to form the eye. It is then -heated for a considerable part of its length and rolled up as shown at -C. If any kinks get into the bar they can be rectified by hammering on -the horn. This is the method used in forming a scroll with the hammer. In -heating the bar to be rolled into scroll form, it must not be heated to -a white heat. Scrolls are also bent over forms when a great number are -wanted. Heavy scrolls are formed by bending in a bending fork that fits -into a square hole in the anvil. (See fork in Figure 10.) A monkey wrench -is used to bend the bar when in the fork. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 10. Bending Fork.] - -In Figure 11 and Figure 12 are shown grilles which are made from flat -stock. The scrolls in this case were made after the bars had been welded -in place. They could be made first and then riveted or fastened with iron -bands, but welding of course makes a better job. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11. Grille.] - -In Figure 13 is shown a drawing for a welded scroll. Notice the dotted -line at A. This is where the weld is made. At B, the pieces are shown -in position to be welded by the separate heat method. In doing this the -length is measured on the drawing with a string, and the three pieces -cut. The two short ones are upset; and one is laid on top of the other; -then heated and welded at the same time they are scarfed. The long piece -is upset and welded to the short one. They are then formed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 12. Grille.] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - - Twisting—Braiding—Making a Fire Shovel. - - -_Exercise No. 2._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.] - -_Twisting._ A piece of one-half inch square stock, nine inches long, is -heated its entire length, one end caught in a vise and with a monkey -wrench or heavy pair of tongs on the other, it is twisted to the right. -If the heat is an even one and not too hot, the spacing of the twist -will be uniform. In case one part twists faster than another, a little -water is used to cool that part. The beauty of twisted work depends on -having the spacing uniform between the turns. (See Figure 14.) Flat stock -can also be twisted in this manner. To straighten twisted work, it is -heated red, set on the end grain of elm wood and hammered with a wooden -mallet. The mallet used in this work should be made from hickory. For -heavy striking a little band of iron can be put on the mallet a half-inch -from one end, so that the mallet will not split. The block on which to -straighten the iron should be about ten inches in diameter and three feet -high. A short block about eight inches wide and twelve inches long may -be set into the coal box, having coal under and around it to hold it in -place. This makes a very handy block on which to bump up light pieces of -metal or to straighten metal. - - -_Exercise No. 3._ - -Figure 15 shows the dimensions of stock for a twisted poker-handle. The -four ¼-inch rods are upset on one end until they measure six inches. They -are then welded together on this end. This is done by first twisting a -strong binding wire around the rods to keep them in place while taking -the heat. (See Figure 16.) In welding, they are welded directly on the -ends and scarfed as shown in Figure 15. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 17. Poker Handles.] - -Notice that the scarf is made so that the point of the scarf on the other -piece will come onto a one-quarter inch rod and not between the two. The -scarf must not be hammered farther back from the ends than ⅜-inch. The -⅜-inch bar is now upset on one end and scarfed. The two parts are then -welded, smoothing the weld with the hand hammer. The end of the handle -is welded directly at the ends of the rods. The entire handle is heated -uniformly, caught in a vise and twisted to the right. If any part twists -faster than another, that part is cooled with water dropped from a hole -in the bottom of a tin cup. In twisting the handle, the ⅜ bar is caught -in the vise. A strong pair of tongs are used on the end of the handle to -twist it, or the end of the handle can be caught with a monkey wrench. -The point of the poker is drawn to a square point and then flattened. In -making pokers or shovels, the stock may be either round or square. In -Figure 17 are shown some handles that are suitable for pokers or shovels. -A method of braiding the last handle shown in the illustration is to weld -four ³⁄₁₆-in. rods of either round or square stock to a piece of ½-inch -round stock. Two of the rods are then bent over at right angles to the -one-half inch piece. The others are bent over them, and so on until -finished. The four rods are then welded at the top and a ring turned. The -last illustration shows the method of bending the rods. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18. Shovel.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 19. Shovel Handle.] - - -_Exercise No. 4._ - -_Shovel._—Figure 18 shows the dimensions and form of the exercise. In -making the handle, ⅜-in. square stock is used. The piece is cut 25 inches -long. On one end the piece is upset considerably in order to get a good -sized head. Five inches from the end of the head a line is cut on four -sides with a chisel. This part is then hammered with a ball hammer while -hot to give it a rough texture as shown in Figure 19. The other end of -the handle is upset a little, bent on an angle and flattened, letting it -get as wide as it will. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.] - -The development of the pattern for the shovel blade is shown in Figure -20. At the top is shown a side and end elevation of the shovel. The -dimensions should be drawn full size. The shapes of the sides and of the -ends are found by measuring from the elevation. The pattern should be -made from sheet iron and kept for future use. - -In forming the shovel, the sides are first bent up by using the vise and -heel of the anvil. This forming must be done while the metal is cold. -The end of the shovel may be bent by hammering it over a heavy, flat -piece of iron. The corners are hammered around the sides by catching the -shovel in the vise. They are fastened by drilling holes thru both pieces -and riveting them, using a rivet set to finish the rivets. In fastening -the handle to the blade or shovel, three Number 10 round-head rivets -are used. If desired, the handle can be made from larger stock, also -increasing the size and the thickness of the shovel. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21. Door Latch.] - - - - -CHAPTER X. - - Making a Door-latch—Making a Hinge—Making a Candle-stick. - - -_Exercise No. 5._ - -_Door latch._—In Figure 21 is shown a latch for a double door. In Figure -22 are shown the dimensions of the two plates and the bar latch. In -making the plates, a piece of soft steel, 2 in. wide and ⅛-in. thick is -used. The design is sketched on the metal and five ⁹⁄₃₂-in. holes are -drilled in each plate where the square holes come in the design. The -plates are then heated and a square punch is used to drift out the holes. -The outside edges are then cut. The plate is heated and with a square -punch the metal is set down to give it the interlaced effect as shown in -Figure 23. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.] - -The plates are now filed to straighten the square holes, and the holes -on the corners for screws are drilled. Figure 24 represents the catch, -which can be made as shown, and the knob which is worked out on the end -of a rod, as shown in Figure 25. It is hammered on the outer edge of the -anvil. After each blow it is turned until finished. Then it is cut off -and the tenon is filed. The guard shown in Figure 26 is cut from a flat -piece as represented. The bar is made from ½ by ³⁄₁₆-in. stock, drilled, -and a slot is sawed for the spring. The spring is about ⅛ by ³⁄₃₂-in. and -can be made from spring steel. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.] - -Figure 27 represents a hinge that can be made from ⅛-in. soft steel. -After the design is sketched with a slate pencil on the metal, the open -parts are drilled and cut out. The outside is next cut with a chisel -and the edges are filed smooth. The eye or joint of the hinge is formed -without welding, by hammering it around an eye pin of the desired size. -The prongs or projections to form the knuckle are filed so that they fit -into one another. The interlacing is done with a square end punch in the -same manner as explained for the latch. A great variety of designs of -this kind can be made to advantage in iron. A drawing of a simple strap -hinge is shown in Figure 28. The part of the strap at A on the drawing is -made greater in length than width for appearance. This gives the strap -apparent strength and emphasizes its length. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 30. Candle-stick.] - -The hinge can be made any length desired but should be carefully -proportioned; the eye can be made loose or welded. In welding a hinge-eye -the lap should always be on the back. Note the drawing of the eye ready -for welding in Figure 29. In making hinges, the making of the eye is -always the first operation. A welded eye makes the strongest hinge; but -it can be made with a loose eye if desired. In bending and finishing the -eye, an eye-pin should be used to true the hole. An eye-pin is a piece -of round steel of the desired size drawn tapering on each end so that -it can be driven thru a hole. The projections that form the joint for a -loose eye hinge should be cut out before the eye is made. If the stock -is light, the joint in either a loose or a welded hinge can be filed or -sawed after the eye is turned. In a heavy eye the projections are laid -off and marked on the metal while flat. The bar is then heated and split -lengthwise from one side, starting ½-inch from the end, and cutting long -enough to make the eye. The eye is then formed and welded, and pieces are -cut out leaving alternating projections which can be filed to fit. - - -_Exercise No. 6._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.] - -Exercise No. 6 is a candle-stick. The reproduction, Figure 30, shows the -finished piece. The drawing, Figure 31, at A, gives the dimensions; at B, -is shown the pattern of the bottom in the flat. The bottom is cut from a -sheet of soft steel, using a narrow cold chisel. The edge is then filed -and bent up about one-quarter of an inch. In doing so, it is hammered -over a round block or iron which fits into the square hole of the anvil. -See Figure 32. The handle is formed by heating it, and hammering it over -the horn of the anvil. In making the socket to hold the candle as shown -at C, Figure 31, the piece is cut from number 20 soft steel. At D, is -illustrated the stock cut ready for forming. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.] - -In cutting this piece, the shape is sketched with a slate pencil on the -metal. Five holes are now drilled, the center hole, ⁵⁄₃₂ in. in diameter -and four ³⁄₁₆-in. holes at the base of leaves. A narrow cold chisel -is then used which will cut on a curved line. The edges of the pieces -are then filed; the piece is heated and hammered on the elm block to -raise it. In raising the socket, it is heated in the center, set over a -depression in the block and hammered. This brings the wings or leaves up. -They are brought up until they overlap one another, the leaves forming a -square box. The whole piece is then heated, placed on the end of a ¾-in. -round bar, setting the whole into a swage, and the leaves are fitted -around the bar by hammering. The socket is then riveted in place. A rivet -is put in the end of the handle to hold it in place. The candle-stick is -now smoothed with a file and smoked over the fire, then oiled. - -[Illustration: Wrought Iron Lantern.] - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - - Making a Drawer Pull—Chasing—Making a - Door-knocker—Repousse—Perforated Decoration. - - -_Exercise No. 7._ - -Drawer pulls can be of one part, the handle being fastened directly to -the drawer, or they may be of two parts, the handle and plate. The handle -can be made stationary on the plate or movable. In Figure 33 are shown -some hinges, drawer pulls and key escutcheons. The open work is cut out -while the stock is hot, or if light stock is used, it may be drilled, cut -and filed while the plate is cold. - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 34. Fig. 35.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 36. Fig. 37.] - -The stock used in making a plate for a pull, somewhat like those -illustrated, is represented in Figure 34. After the plate is cut to size, -which is done cold with a hand chisel, the outside surface is hammered -while hot with a ball hammer, drawing the plate a little thinner near -the edge. This hammering gives the surface a rough texture. The edges -are now ground or filed to shape and the holes are drilled as shown in -the drawing. The round holes are for screws to fasten the pull, and the -square holes are to fasten lugs, on which the handle is to swing. The -lugs are shown in Figure 35. The tenon can be filed, the top rounded, -the holes drilled, and the lugs riveted into the plate. When riveting -the lugs, they are caught in a vise, the plate set on and the tenons are -riveted tight into the holes. The square holes in the plate should be -countersunk a little on the back before the lugs are riveted. - -The handle is a movable one, and the drawing is shown in Figure 36. The -different steps in making the handle are represented in Figure 37. When -the stock, which should be soft steel, is cut, the ends are heated and -drawn out tapering to ³⁄₁₆ inch at the end. One-and-a-half inches from -each end of the bar is marked with a center punch. The ends are now bent -over ¼ inch, then the bar is bent at the center marks. When the handle is -formed to fit the plate it is smoothed with a file. If desired, a line -can be chased on the handle and around the edge of plate. In doing this -a short, light chisel is used. After lines are traced on the plate with -a slate pencil the chisel is set on the line and struck with a light -hammer; at the same time it is drawn towards the worker with the lead -corner of the cutting edge directly on and above the line. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.] - -The chisel should receive rapid, light blows and be continually moved -toward the workman. The lead corner of the chisel should be guided onto -the line while the other corner is doing the cutting. See Figure 38, a -rather large sized drawing of the cutting edge of the chisel. When the -lines are chased with the chisel, they should be gone over again with -quite hard blows of the hammer, forcing the chisel down to make the lines -quite pronounced. - -To put the handle in place on the plate, it is heated and sprung into the -holes of the lugs. The last thing to do in finishing all work of this -kind is to heat it to a dark red. All scale and dirt is then scraped off; -when cool, some oil is put on. For this kind of work, machine oil is -good. The reason it is heated to a dark, even red heat is that when cool -the handle and the plate will have the same color and texture. - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.] - - -_Exercise No. 8._ - -In Figure 39 are shown some hinges, latches and door knockers. Figure -40 is a drawing of a simple knocker. The plate is cut out and the line -around the edge is chased with a tool. The chasing tool is simply a cold -chisel ground to a short bevel and rounded somewhat like a fuller, as -shown in Figure 41. A short chisel is used for cold work and a longer one -for hot work. The chasing can be done while the metal is cold. If it is -to be very deep or wide the plate is heated and a longer chisel is used. -The lug at Figure 42 is made and riveted into the plate. The top of the -hammer is filed to straddle it. A hole is then drilled and a rivet put -thru. Holes are drilled around the edge of the plate for screws or nails. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 41. Fig. 42.] - -In making the hammer a piece of ¾-inch square, soft steel is used. It -is upset on one end to get the stock large enough for the bottom of the -hammer. The bar is then drawn out on the horn as shown at Figure 43. The -top part is formed as shown at Figure 44. Lines are chased on the front -of hammer as shown in the drawing; this can be done after it is formed. -If the lines are to be very deep it should be done while the piece is -straight and heated. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43. Fig. 44.] - -There is ample room for design in the making of door knockers, both for -outside and inside doors of dwellings. Knocker plates for doors on the -inside of dwellings can be elaborated by a combination of repousse, -chasing and perforated decoration which give a variety of light and -shadow. Perforated plates can be backed up with colored leather or cloth -which gives a very pleasing contrast to the metal. - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.] - -In Figure 45 is shown an interior door knocker. It is backed up with -colored leather. The plates are made of ⅛-in. thick, soft steel. After -the plates are cut out, the openings are marked with a slate pencil -and gone over with a short cold chisel to mark them. The plate is then -heated, and the part enclosed by the chisel line is cut out. A very -narrow chisel, 12 in. long, is used to do the cutting. The cutting is all -done from the outside. This gives the edge a slight bevel. The edges of -open places are trued up with a file. The openings must not be filed too -exact and smooth. The most essential thing to look after is form; the -work looks best when it shows handwork and is not mechanical. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46.] - -Handwork is most in keeping with the design and the material. The lines -on the plate are chased with a narrow chisel and the foliated form bumped -out from the back by hammering on the end grain of the elm block. The -hammer that does the knocking is hinged on the top plate so that the -bottom part moves out and in when knocking. Very thin red leather is -glued on the back of the plate with fish glue. The diameter of the top -plate is 4½-in., the bottom 2½-in., and the hammer is 6¾-in. long. - -A good method of working out ideas for pieces of this character is to -make numerous rough sketches on paper with a lead pencil, making one line -over another without erasing. When one gets what he thinks is good it is -redrawn and perfected. It may then be worked in the material. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47.] - -At Figure 46 is shown a door knocker hinged at the top. The plate is one -piece. At Figure 47 are shown the dimensions of the plate. After the -shape of the plate is sketched on the metal, the lines are traced with a -chisel. The open work is then cut out, and the outside of the plate is -cut and filed. The center leaf at the top of the plate is indicated by -forcing the metal down along the top edge of the leaf with a punch, also -at the bottom to form the interlace. The plate should be hot when this is -done. The hammer shown in Figure 48 should be forged from ¾-in. square, -soft steel. The lug shown on the drawing is to be made and riveted into -the top of the plate. The hammer is then placed over the lug, and the lug -is drilled to conform to the drilled holes in the hammer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.] - -The chasing on the plate and hammer is done with a chisel as previously -explained. A gauge should be made from a piece of steel to scratch the -guide lines on the plate for the chasing as shown in Figure 48. These -lines are then cut with the chisel. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - - Making a Hat and Coat Hook—A Fuller—Jump Welding—Making a Wall - Hook. - - -_Exercise No. 9._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 49. Hat and Coat Hook.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.] - -Figure 49 represents a hat-and-coat hook. In the making of this piece, -the plate should be made from No. 14 soft steel. The dimensions are shown -in Figure 50. The shape of the plate can be drawn on heavy paper, which -is afterward cut out and used as a pattern when making the plate from -metal. After the plate is cut out with a cold chisel, it is ground or -filed on the edges. The holes are next drilled, and the lines are cut -on the surface as shown in the drawing. In cutting the lines, a short, -narrow cold chisel is used for chasing in the same manner as previously -described. The lines on the leaf should be made quite deep. A fuller -is shown in Figure 50, which is used to make the lines still deeper. -The fuller should have the edge smooth, and without sharp corners. The -plate should be clamped on to a surface plate while making the lines. -The fuller is then set on the cut lines and struck with the hand hammer, -chasing the tool to the ends of the lines. This work can, also, be done -to advantage by heating the plate and having a helper hold it on the -anvil while fullering the lines. When all the lines are made, the leaf is -heated, set on the elm block and hammered on the back to raise the end of -the lobes as shown in the illustration. - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 54.] - -The hook is made from iron. Figure 51 represents the dimensions of stock -for the hook. The lug is welded on, and the ends of the bar are rounded -ready to be formed. After the stock is cut, it is upset six inches from -one end to enlarge it so that the lug can be welded on. The stock from -which the lug is made is cut 3½ inches long, upset on end, and split -in the vise ½ inch deep as shown at Figure 52. The split end should be -formed as shown. In welding, separate heats are taken, and the lug is -jumped onto the bar as shown in Figure 53. The first blows are struck -directly on the end of the lug, then the lips are welded. Figure 51 shows -the length of the piece before the knobs are formed. In making the knobs -at the end, they should be upset as shown in Figure 54. They are then -hammered as shown, and finally rounded. The lug is next cut the proper -length, and a shoulder is filed at the end. The chased lines are now cut -on the front side. In forming the piece, it is heated and hammered over -the horn of the anvil, starting to bend at the end first, and working -toward the center. In bending anything of this kind, always start at one -end, and finish as you work toward the other end. See the drawing of the -bent hook at Figure 55. The end of the lug is next heated and caught in a -vise, the plate is set on and riveted tightly. The work is smoothed with -a file, heated to darken it, and oiled. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.] - - -_Exercise No. 10._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.] - -A wall hook, suitable to hang a bird cage or fern dish, is shown in -Figure 56. In Figure 57 are shown the length and size of stock, and the -piece ready to form. In making the ball, the piece is shouldered at one -end by hammering it on the outer edge of the anvil as shown in Figure -58. It is then hammered on the corner, to make it round. The other end -is drawn to a square point, and is then flattened as shown in Figure -59, letting it become as wide as it will. This flat end is then veined -suggesting a leaf form. In doing this, a long chisel, made round somewhat -like a fuller, is used. The piece is heated, and a sunken line is made -with the chisel, as shown by the drawing of the leaf end. The piece is -then heated, and the leaf end is formed. The holes should now be drilled. -The balance of the hook is heated and formed by hammering it over the -horn of the anvil. - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.] - -[Illustration: Hall Lanterns.] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - - Making a Toasting-fork—Inlaying. - - -_Exercise No. 11._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 60. Stock for Toasting Fork.] - -A very interesting and useful article to make is a toasting fork. The -stock used can be spring steel. A disadvantage in using this steel is -that it is too hard to work out a design on the handle. If one can weld -quite well, the fork should have the handle made of soft steel and the -balance of carbon steel. In doing this, the weld is the first thing to do -while the stock is straight and full size. If one without much welding -experience is to make the fork, it should be made of soft steel, and when -finished the prongs should be case hardened. In making a fork of this -kind, a piece of soft steel as shown in the drawing in Figure 60 is used. -On one end, the stock is enlarged a little, by upsetting for a distance -of five or six inches. This end is to be used for the handle. The other -end of the bar is then heated, and a hole is punched 1¾-in. from the -end. The piece should then look somewhat like the drawing at A, Figure -61. In drawing out, the shoulder is hammered as shown at B, Figure 61. -The shank (the part between the handle and the shoulder) is next drawn -out. It should be a scant ¼-in. thick so as to finish to the dimensions -given in Figure 60. Care must be taken to avoid getting too much stock -in the shank. It is a very easy matter to get too much stock between the -handle and the shoulder which, when drawn out, is too long. The prongs -are roughly made by cutting the stock out as shown by the dotted lines in -Figure 61. When this is done the prongs are hammered out to the correct -size, allowing for finishing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 61.] - -In Figure 62 are shown reproductions of similar forks. The line shown -running around the rectangular open parts is inlaid copper. A channel is -sunken and the copper driven into it. In making the handle, the three -oblong holes are punched while hot with a punch about ³⁄₁₆ in. by ⅝ -in. at the end, making a series of punchings to cut out the holes. The -holes should be small enough so that they may be finished to size with a -file. Notice that the openings are not of the same size; but two short -ones, with a longer one in the center, give variety. Notice, also, that -the shape of the handle is in keeping with the long, slim shank and the -slender, two-tine fork at the end. - -[Illustration: Fig. 62. Toasting Forks, Spoon and Cake Turner.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 63.] - -After the handle is shaped, and the holes are punched, including the one -at the top to hang the fork by, the line to receive the copper is marked. -(See Figure 63.) The marking should be done with a scratch awl. The line -is then cut with a small chisel. This cutting should be quite deep and -exact. This is important if the work is to be true and straight. All of -the marking should be done while the handle is cold. It is now heated and -taken to the anvil. A small punch, as represented in Figure 63, is then -set onto the cut line and given a blow with the hammer, sinking the punch -about ¹⁄₁₆ of an inch. One-half of the punch is now raised up and out of -the channel. While it is directly on the chased line, it is given another -blow with the hammer and so on until the end is reached. The particular -thing to watch is to have the lead corner of punch directly on the chased -guide line, while the other edge of the punch is in the channel in -order to keep the finished line straight. Keep the punch in good order, -straight and square at the end. The punch should not have much taper and -should not be used after the red heat leaves the metal. After the entire -line has been sunken ¹⁄₁₆ in. deep, the handle is reheated and the line -is sunken perhaps ⅛ in. deep. - -A wider punch is now used in the long channel to straighten it and make -it deeper. The wide punch should have no taper and should be a scant ³⁄₃₂ -in. thick so that the line will be about ³⁄₃₂ in. wide. If any part of -the channel should be too wide, the handle should be hammered on the edge -with a light hammer to close the channel a little. When the channel is -finished, the handle should be filed flat on the channel side. This will -give one a better view of the straightness of the channel. - -[Illustration: Fig. 64. File.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 65. Cross Section of Fork Handle.] - -In case the channel is not as straight as it should be, a small flat file -is heated and bent at the end and rehardened. (See Figure 64.) This file -is used to straighten up the edges of the channel. A small cold chisel -can also be used for this purpose. The channel must be straight along the -top edge. When the channel is well straightened, strips of copper are -filed to fit the channel, letting them project above the channel about -³⁄₃₂ of an inch and also having each piece a little short in length. When -the pieces are all in place, the handle is set on the anvil and with a -heavy hammer they are driven down forcing the copper to fill the whole of -the channel. The entire handle is filed to the dimensions given in Figure -63. - -Notice Figure 65 which shows a sectional drawing of the handle, with the -copper in place and a chased line running along between copper and steel. -A channel without copper is shown at the right of the illustration. - -[Illustration: Wrought Iron Lamp.] - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - - Making a Lantern—Making a Wall-lamp. - - -_Exercise No. 12._ - -[Illustration: Fig. 66. Lantern.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 67.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 68.] - -The lantern shown in Figure 66 consists of four sides which are fastened -together with angles and rivets. The top is made from four pieces, with -angles also riveted to them. The stock is cut with a pair of snip shears, -No. 06½. (See Figure 67.) The sides must be cut to the same size or -there will be trouble in putting them together. After they are cut, the -open work is marked with a slate pencil. Holes are drilled in the corners -of each opening, and they are cut out with a sharp chisel. The edges are -filed and all holes are drilled for No. 12 rivets. At Figure 68 is a -drawing, with dimensions of one of the sides as it should be in the flat. -Notice the section of the sheet bent at the top for the roof and at the -bottom to hold the glass. The glass is held in position at the top with a -little strip of copper, with a rivet to hold it. The glass is set into -the groove at the bottom, and the copper cleat is bent over the top of -the glass. The copper cleat should be ⅞ by ⅜ in., made from No. 26 soft -copper. The bottom of the sheet is first bent at right angles, then a -flat piece ³⁄₁₆ in. thick is laid on the inside of the sheet, and the -whole is placed on the anvil. The end of the sheet is now hammered over -the ³⁄₁₆-in. piece with a mallet to make the pocket to hold the glass. -All of the holes for rivets to fasten the angles should be countersunk a -little on the inside. The angles are made from one inch wide No. 20 hoop -iron. They are formed by placing them between two pieces of flat iron as -shown in Figure 69, and holding the whole in a vise while hammering with -a wood mallet. - -[Illustration: Fig. 69.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 70.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 71.] - -In fastening the angles to the sides, the heads of the rivets are on the -outside, and the inside is smooth. In doing this, the heads of the rivets -are held in a rivet set while hammering on the inside. - -[Illustration: Fig. 72.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 73.] - -The rivet set is caught in a vise as shown in Figure 70. A rivet set is -a piece of steel with the shape of a rivet head sunken into one end. In -making this, a punch is filed the shape of a rivet head and is then -driven into the end of a hot piece of steel. In Figure 71 is shown a -simple method of developing a pattern of one section for the top of a -lantern. A-B of the pattern is first drawn. The length of X-B of the -elevation is the length of C-D of the pattern. Lines are then drawn from -C to A and B. The point of each section at the top is cut off so that -when the four pieces are riveted to the angles there will be a ⁷⁄₁₆-in. -hole thru the top. (See Figure 72.) In this hole is put a piece of ⅛-in. -steam pipe with a lock nut on the top and another on the bottom to hold -it in place. (See Figure 73.) The pipe is for the socket to screw onto -under the top, and also for the wire to come thru. The loop at the top -is to suspend the lantern by. It is made of ⅜ by ⅛-in. stock, 6 inches -long. Two No. 10 rivets are put in each end to fasten it to the roof. -The lamp is to hang by a chain suspended from the ceiling. In doing this -a ceiling cap is necessary. This may be a piece of ½-in. steam pipe -threaded on one end and a hook made on the other. (See drawing, Figure -74.) A cast iron piece is screwed on the end of the pipe and is then -fastened to the ceiling by three screws, which supports the chain and -lamp. The wires go thru the pipe and connect with other wires in the -ceiling. (See drawing of the casting, Figure 75.) When the lamp is wired -and the casting is fastened to the ceiling, it must be covered with -something to hide the wires and its rough appearance. In Figure 76 is -shown a drawing for a cap to cover the casting and wiring. The cap has a -hole in the center for the pipe to pass thru, leaving it movable on the -pipe. A collar of cast iron, with a set screw in the side, is to go under -the cap and the screw tightened when the cap is against the ceiling. (See -drawing of the collar, Figure 77.) In making the cap, it is heated and -hammered over a hole in the swage block. A hammer with a large-sized, -rounded face is used. The disk is driven into the hole until it becomes -bowl-shaped and the right height. - -[Illustration: Fig. 74. Fig. 75. - -Fig. 76. Fig. 77.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 78.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 79.] - -At Figure 78 is represented a lamp that is to be fastened to the side of -the wall, instead of hanging from the ceiling with a chain. The light is -inverted, the lamp being open at the top and closed at the bottom. - -The stock used in the construction of the lamp is very heavy, No. 14 soft -steel being used. The angle plates on the corners are made from No. 20 -soft steel. The plate that is on the back of the lamp has a cup-shaped -pocket hammered into it to cover the wiring when the lamp is in place, -and on which the light socket is fastened. - -In Figure 79 is shown a cross-section of the back plate, with the -depression and socket in place. - -This kind of lamp is very simple to make and can be made in various -shapes and sizes. The back of the lamp can be made of wood instead of -metal, if desired. - -[Illustration: Wrought Iron Table Lamps.] - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - - Making a Portable Lamp. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 80.] - -In Figure 80 is represented a portable lamp. This kind of lamp can be -made in various sizes with one light. The lamp shown in the illustration, -consists of two parts; the standard, and the shade, which can be removed. -The standard consists of a box-shaped bottom, with a pipe screwed into it -for the upright piece. The arms that the shade rests on, are separate -and are held in position by the lamp socket, which is screwed down on -them. The strips running over the bottom of the base and up the pipe are -riveted in place to support the pipe. This gives the whole standard a -more substantial appearance, and relieves the plain round pipe. - -[Illustration: Fig. 81. Fig. 82.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 83. Fig. 84.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 85.] - -In making a very simple lamp of this character, we may eliminate the -strips running up the pipe, and make the bottom with a round pipe screwed -into it. Of course a square standard would be more in keeping with the -square base and shade. In making the box-shaped base, soft steel should -be used. Figure 81 shows the dimensions of the flat stock. The plate is -heated and an inch of the edge is bent over the outer edge of the anvil, -as shown in Figure 82. The outer edges of the plate can be bent over the -end of the anvil as shown in Figure 83. When all the edges are bent the -piece will look somewhat as in Figure 84. The corners are now ground -off, and the bottom is made level. A hole is drilled in the center and -threaded for a ¾-in. steam pipe. Two inches from the center hole, another -hole is drilled and tapped for a ¼-in. or ⅜-in. rubber bushing. In wiring -the lamp, the cord should enter thru the bushing from the outside, and -under and up thru the pipe to the socket. The drawing for the pipe is -shown at Figure 85, also a bushing which is brazed into the top of the -pipe and threaded for a ⅛-in. pipe. The ⅛-in. steam pipe and bushing are -shown in position in the illustration at one end of the pipe. This small -pipe is for the lamp socket to be screwed onto. The other end of the -large pipe is to be threaded and screwed into the base. The pipe should -be screwed into the base far enough, so that the threads will not be -exposed to the outside and the surplus cut off. The pipe when screwed -tight should be brazed to the base. In doing this, the borax and spelter -should be applied to the under side, after the base is well heated, as -the brass will discolor the iron on the top side. When the pipe is brazed -it should be made to stand vertical. - -[Illustration: Fig. 86. Fig. 87.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 88. Fig. 89.] - -In Figure 86 is shown the lamp standard with the shade support in -position. The support has a hole in the center to fit the ⅛-in. steam -pipe at the top of the standard. When the support is in place another -⅛-in. hole is drilled thru it into the pipe. A pin is driven into the -hole so that the support cannot be moved around. The lamp socket when -screwed down makes the support tight. In making the support the center -part is cut from a plate ³⁄₁₆ in. by 4 by 4 in. and ³⁄₁₆ in. round soft -steel bars are welded on for the arms. In Figure 87 is shown the drawing -which does not need explanation. The drawing for the pattern is shown at -Figure 88 and the pattern for one section at Figure 89. In developing the -pattern which is very simple the top drawing, Figure 88, represents the -shade which should be drawn full size. The length from A to B is then -laid off on the center line of the pattern, which in this case measures -7½ in. The top and bottom of shade shows a return of ⅜ in. which should -be added to the length of the pattern. The width of the top and bottom -of the shade is then drawn, also diagonal lines which will complete the -pattern. The edge view of the pattern is shown at C. The ⅜-in. bend -at the top is made so that the cap can be riveted on. The one at the -bottom is to receive the glass. This was explained on a previous page in -describing the making of a hall lantern. In assembling the shade, corner -angles are used to fasten the sections together, which was also explained -for the hall lantern. The top cap is put on last and fastened with rivets. - -[Illustration] - - - - -INDEX - - - Annealing, 77 - - Annealing high speed steel, 81 - - Anvil, construction of, 10 - how to fasten, 11 - tools, 13 - - Awl, scratch, 78 - - - Ball hammer, 13 - - Bessemer process, 65 - - Blast, control of, 27 - - Bolts, heading, 55 - making of, 54 - - Bottom fuller, 17 - - Bottom swage, 16 - - Braiding, 96 - - Brazing, 36 - - Butt welding, 31 - - - Candle-stick, making of, 104 - - Case hardening, 76 - - Cementation process, 66 - - Center punch, use of, 13 - - Chain links, welding of, 48 - - Chasing, 109 - - Chisels, hot and cold, 15 - making of cold, 70 - - Coal, method of handling, 19 - - Cold Chisel, use of, 15 - - Coloring steel, 77 - - Crucible steel, making of, 66 - - Cupping tool, 55 - - - Door knocker, making of, 110, 113 - - Door latch, making of, 99 - - Drawer pull, making of, 107 - - - Expansion of iron, 59 - - Eye-pin, use of, 103 - welding of, 43 - - Eyes, welding of hinge, 102 - - - Fagot welding, 23, 37 - - File, used for inlaying, 128 - - Fire, making of forge, 18 - cleaning of, 19 - - Fire shovel, making of, 97 - - Flatter, use of, 15 - - Fluting tool, 86 - - Flux and its uses, 21 - - Forge, the, 7 - tools, 10 - - Forging a cold chisel, 70 - - Forming a loose eye, 40 - - Fuller, 16, 118 - - - Gate hook, forging of, 55 - - Grab hook, making of, 52 - - Grilles, making of, 87, 91 - - - Hammer, ball, 13 - danger of, 25 - modeling, 87 - proper way to hold, 27 - round-faced modeling, 137 - set, 15 - sledge, 13 - sledge, danger, 71 - - Hammock hook, making of, 41 - - Handle, twisted poker, 94 - - Hardening cold chisel, 72 - - Hardie, 13 - - Hat and coat hook, making of, 117 - - Hay hook, making of, 57 - - Heading tool, 15 - - Heating, method of, 22, 27 - - Hinge, making of, 101 - - Horn, 56 - - Hot chisel, 15 - - - Inlaying, 125 - - - Jump welding, 30, 120 - - - Lamp, portable, making of, 139 - wall, making of, 137 - - Lamp ceiling cap, 137 - - Lamp shade, making of, 143 - - Lantern, assembling, 133 - fittings of, 135 - making of, 130 - - Links, open, 47 - S, 42 - - - Open hearth process, 65 - - - Perforated decoration, 112 - - Pig iron, making of, 64 - - Puddling, 64 - - Punch block, 51 - - Punch, hand, 13, 79 - used for inlaying, 127 - - Punching, method of, 50 - - - Repousse, 112 - - - Scarf, correct and incorrect, 26 - theory of, 25 - - Scarfing, meaning of, 24 - - Scraper, 10 - - Scroll, volute, 89 - - Separate heat weld, the, 24 - - Shovel handle, making of, 96 - - Shears, kinds of, 18 - - Snip shears, 131 - - Spring tempering, 74 - - Staples, 46 - - Steel, annealing of, 77, 81 - Bessemer process, 65 - case hardening, 76 - cementation, 66 - crucible, 66 - high speed, 80 - - Steel, making of, 65 - open hearth process, 65 - temper colors of, 68 - tempering of, 67, 75 - welding of, 76 - - Stock, storage of, 17 - - Swages, 16 - - Swage block, 17 - - - Tempering thin steel, 75 - - Toasting fork, making of, 124 - - Tongs, danger in handling, 15 - making of, 60 - - Tools, anvil, 13 - center punch, 79 - cupping, 55 - eye-pin, 103 - flatter, 15 - forging, 10 - fuller, for deepening lines, 16, 118 - hand punch, for heavy punching, 79 - hardie, 13 - heading, 15 - horn, 56 - punch for inlaying, 127 - punch block, for cutting holes, 51 - round-faced hammer, 137 - scraper, 10 - scratch-awl, 78 - snip shears, 131 - swages, 16 - - Top fuller, 16 - - Top swage, 16 - - Tuyere, 9 - - Twisting, 93 - handles, 94 - - - Upsetting, 24 - - - Vise, 17 - - Volute scroll, making of, 89 - - - Wall hook, making of, 122 - - Welding, bolt heads, 54 - butt, 31 - chain links, 48 - corner, 34, 36 - electric, 22 - eye-pins, 43 - fagot, 23, 37 - heat, determining, 28 - hooks, 41 - jump, 30, 120 - lap, 29 - making the, 27 - method of, 20 - oxy-acetylene gas, 23 - ring, 39, 57 - scarf, 24 - scroll, 91 - separate heat, 24 - split, 32 - steel, 76 - T, 34 - - Wrought iron, finish of, 42 - manufacture of, 64 - - Wrought iron leaf, making of, 85 - - Wrought iron work, 83 - - -[Illustration] - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRACTICAL FORGING AND ART -SMITHING *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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