path: root/69329-0.txt

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 69329 ***

                                  THE
                             SONG OF SONGS:

                  Translated from the Original Hebrew,

                                 WITH A
                  COMMENTARY, HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL.


                                   BY
                         CHRISTIAN D. GINSBURG.


                        ‏שֶׁקֶר הַחֵן וְהֶבֶל הַיֹּפִי‎
                        ‏אִשָּׁה יִרְאַת־יְהוָה הִיא תִתְהַלָּל:‏‎—Prov. xxxi. 30.


                                LONDON:
             LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS.

                                 1857.








CONTENTS.


                                                               PAGE

Preface                                                         vii.
Introduction:

    Section I.—Title of the Book, and its Signification           1
    Section II.—Canonicity of the Book                            2
    Section III.—Design and Method of the Book                    4
    Section IV.—Importance of the Book                           12
    Section V.—Historical Sketch of the Exegesis of the Book     20
    Section VI.—The different Views classified and examined     102
    Section VII.—Author, Date, and Form of the Book             124
    Section VIII.—Exegetical Helps                              126

Commentary                                                      127








PREFACE.


The following is an exposition of the first of the five books called
Megiloth, all of which, having engaged the attention of the Author for
several years, will now, God willing, be brought before the Public in
regular succession. The Author’s aim has been to investigate and
elucidate the true meaning of the original, in accordance with the
established laws of historico-grammatical exegesis, and to show that,
in its literal sense, the Song of Songs teaches a great moral lesson,
worthy of Divine inspiration.

The resemblance, however, between the narrative here recorded and the
experience of the people of God is striking and apposite. The
Shulamite, espoused to her shepherd, is tempted by a mighty potentate
with riches and pleasures to transfer her affections; but, strengthened
by the power of divine love, she resists all temptation, remains
faithful to her beloved, and is ultimately rewarded. The people of God,
espoused to “the Shepherd and Bishop of their souls,” are tempted by
the prince of this world to forsake their Lord, but, strengthened by
grace divine, they resist all allurements, and eventually receive the
crown of glory.

The references to Genesius’ and Ewald’s Grammars are to the last
editions, which differ in the numbering of the sections from the
earlier ones; Fürst’s valuable Lexicon, to which frequent reference is
made, is not yet completed.

The author tenders his hearty thanks to his esteemed friend, the Rev.
Isaac Salkinson of Hamburg; to the Rev. J. M. Charlton, A.M.; the Rev.
R. Robinson, of York-road; the Rev. G. Rogers, of Albany-road; and to
Nathaniel Bridges, Esq., A.M., for perusing the MS. and proofs, and for
kind suggestions. Thanks are also due to those gentlemen in London and
Oxford, who have facilitated the author’s access to MSS. and other rare
works in the British Museum and the Bodleian Library.

May the Divine Spirit, whose words the Author has attempted to
elucidate, render the attempt profitable to the readers!


                             London: 16, Barkham Terrace, St. George’s,
                                                             May, 1857.








INTRODUCTION.


SECTION I.—TITLE OF THE BOOK, AND ITS SIGNIFICATION.

This book is called ‏שִׁיר הַשִּׁירִיﬦ‎, which is literally translated by the
Septuagint, ᾄσμα ᾀσμάτων, by the Vulgate, Canticum Canticorum, and by
the English Version, Song of Songs; and, according to a Hebrew mode for
expressing the superlative degree by repeating the same noun in the
genitive, denotes the finest, the most beautiful, or the most excellent
Song. Compare ‏עֶבֶד עֲבַדִים‎, servant of servants, i.e. most abject
servant (Gen. ix. 25); ‏קֹדֶשׁ קָדָשִׁים‎, holy of holies, i.e. most holy
(Exod. xxix. 37; Numb. iii. 32; Deut. x. 14; Eccl. i. 2; Hos. x. 15;
Jer. vi. 28; Gesenius, Grammar, § 119, 2; Ewald, Lehrbuch, § 313, c).
Medrash Yalkut renders it ‏שִׁיר הַמְּשׁוּבַּח וְהַמְּעוּלֶה בַּשִּׁירִים‎, a song more
celebrated and sublime than all songs; as Rashi, Ibn Ezra Rashbam,
Luther, and many others. The opinion of Kleuker, &c., that this
interpretation of the Rabbins is more owing to their preconceived
notion of the sublime contents of the book than to the real meaning of
these words, is refuted by Rashbam himself, who, having explained this
phrase by “most excellent song,” refers not to the contents of the book
for its corroboration, but adduces similar constructions of the
superlative from other passages of the Bible, viz., ‏אֶלֹהַי הַאֱלֹהִים‎, and
‏אֲדוֹנֵי הַאֲדוֹנִים‎ (Deut. x. 17). Other explanations, such as a song of
songs, i.e. a song from the songs of Solomon (Kimchi), or a collection
of songs (Kleuker), or a chain of songs, or string of strings,
comparing ‏שִׁירֹ‎ with the Chaldee ‏שֵׁיר‎, ‏שׁוּרָה‎, Greek σειρὰ, chain
(Velthusen, Paulus, Good, &c.), are contrary to the Hebrew usage of the
word ‏שִׁיר‎, and the construction of ‏שִׁיר הַשִּׁירִים‎. More recent
commentators, and even those who regard this book as a collection of
separate songs (as, for instance, Döpke, Magnus, Noyes, &c.) admit that
the Rabbinical interpretation of this title is the only admissible one.
The ‏ל‎ prefixed to ‏שְׁלֹמֹה‎, is the so-called Lamed auctoris, used in
the inscriptions of Psalms and other Hebrew poems to designate the
author. Comp. Ps. iii. 1; iv. 1, &c. The addition of ‏אֲשֶׁר‎ here, which
is not found in the other inscriptions, is owing to the article in ‏שִׁיר
הַשִּׁירִים‎, which generally, though not always, is followed by this
pronoun; comp. Gen. xxix. 9; xl. 5; xlvii. 4; 1 Kings iv. 2; Gesen. §
115, 1; Ewald, 292 a. The rendering therefore of ‏אֲשֶׁר לִשְׁלֹמֹה‎ by
respecting Solomon, is contrary to usage, and is rightly rejected by
modern grammarians and lexicographers.

This Song is the first of the (‏הָמֵשׁ מְגִילוֹת‎) five Megiloth, or books
which are annually read in the Synagogues; viz. The Song of Songs on
the Feast of the Passover; Ruth on Pentecost; Lamentations on the Ninth
of Ab; Ecclesiastes on Tabernacles; and Esther on Purim. The present
arrangement of these five books in the Hebrew canon is according to the
order of the festivals on which they are read.





SECTION II.—CANONICITY OF THE BOOK.

This book possesses all the external marks which entitle other writings
to a place in the list of the sacred books. The evidence for its
canonicity is as conclusive as that which is commonly adduced to prove
the canonicity of any other portion of the Old Testament. In the Mishna
Yadim (sect. iii. 5), we find the following testimony respecting it
from R. Akiba, one of the most celebrated Rabbins, who lived at the end
of the first century, and was president of the academy of Bani-Brac: No
Israelite has ever disputed the canonicity of the Song of Songs. No day
in the whole history of the world is of so much worth as the one in
which the Song of Songs was given to Israel; for all the Scriptures are
holy, but the Song of Songs is most holy. Another Rabbi (Simeon b.
Azzai), in the same place, says, I received it from the mouth of the
seventy-two elders, at the time when R. Eliezer b. Azzaria was
appointed Elder, that the Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes are canonical.
[1] We have here positive evidence that this book existed in the canon
in the Apostolic age; and that it was comprised in the sacred books,
which our Lord calls τὰς γραφὰς, the Scriptures, Matt. xxii. 29. It
has, therefore, been transmitted to us both by the Jewish and Christian
churches as canonical. It was translated into Greek, between the years
90 and 130, by Aquila, who was anxious to furnish his Jewish brethren
with a faithful version of the sacred books; and also by Symmachus and
Theodotion, before the end of the second century. It is contained in
the catalogue given in the Talmud; [2] and in the catalogue of Melito,
Bishop of Sardis (fl. 170, A.D.), which he brought from Palestine,
whither this learned and pious prelate expressly travelled to obtain
information respecting the number of the sacred books. [3] Those who in
modern days have questioned the canonicity of this book have done so,
not from external evidence, but from misapprehension of its design.





SECTION III.—DESIGN AND METHOD OF THE BOOK.

We have no sympathy with those who affirm that the Old Testament
Scriptures contain all the national writings which were esteemed
valuable in Hebrew literature, that this Song was placed among those
writings simply because it possessed much poetic beauty, and was
supposed to be the composition of a person so celebrated throughout the
East as Solomon, and that it is destitute of any moral or practical
instructions. We believe that every book of the Old Testament is
inspired; and has, on that account, obtained a place in the Hebrew
Canon. This is the unanimous testimony, not of the Jewish church only,
but is corroborated by Christ and his apostles. Paul, referring to the
Old Testament, most distinctly affirms, that “all Scripture is given by
inspiration of God; and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for
correction, for instruction in righteousness.” 2 Tim. iii. 16. [4] As
this Song undoubtedly formed a part of the Scriptures to which the
apostle alluded, it must, therefore, be inspired, and must serve some
of those purposes of inspiration.

The particular design of this book has been much disputed. It is here
maintained, that, upon careful examination, it will be found to record
an example of virtue in a young woman who encountered and conquered the
greatest temptations, and was, eventually, rewarded; the simple
narrative of which, divested of its poetic form, is as follows. There
was a family living at Shulem, consisting of a widowed mother, several
sons, and one daughter, who maintained themselves by farming and
pasturage. The brothers were particularly partial to their sister, and
took her under their special care, promising that her prudence and
virtue should be greatly rewarded by them. In the course of time, while
tending the flock, and, according to the custom of the shepherds,
resorting at noon beneath a tree for shelter against the meridian sun,
she met with a graceful shepherd youth, to whom she afterwards became
espoused. One morning, in the spring, this youth invited her to
accompany him into the field; but the brothers, overhearing the
invitation, and anxious for the reputation of their sister, in order to
prevent their meeting, sent her to take care of the vineyards. The
damsel, however, consoled her beloved and herself with the assurance
that, though separated bodily, indissoluble ties subsisted between
them, over which her brothers had no control. She requested him to meet
her in the evening, and as he did not come, she feared that some
accident had befallen him on the way, and went in search of him, and
found him. The evening now was the only time in which they could enjoy
each other’s company, as, during the day, the damsel was occupied in
the vineyards. On one occasion, when entering a garden, she
accidentally came in the presence of King Solomon, who happened to be
on a summer visit to that neighbourhood. Struck with the beauty of the
damsel, the King conducted her into his royal tent, and there, assisted
by his court-ladies, endeavoured with alluring flatteries and promises,
to gain her affections; but without effect. Released from the King’s
presence, the damsel soon sought an interview with her beloved
shepherd.

The King, however, took her with him to his capital in great pomp, in
the hope of dazzling her with his splendour; but neither did this
prevail: for while even there, she told her beloved shepherd, who had
followed her into the capital, and obtained an interview with her, that
she was anxious to quit the gaudy scene for her own home. The shepherd,
on hearing this, praised her constancy, and such a manifestation of
their mutual attachment took place, that several of the court-ladies
were greatly affected by it.

The King, still determined, if possible, to win her affections, watched
for another favourable opportunity, and with flatteries and
allurements, surpassing all that he had used before, tried to obtain
his purpose. He promised to elevate her to the highest rank, and to
raise her above all his concubines and queens, if she would comply with
his wishes; but, faithful to her espousals, she refused all his
overtures, on the plea that her affections were pledged to another. The
King, convinced at last that he could not possibly prevail, was obliged
to dismiss her; and the shepherdess, in company with her beloved
shepherd, returned to her native place. On their way home, they visited
the tree under which they had first met, and there renewed their vows
of fidelity to each other. On her arrival in safety at her home, her
brothers, according to their promise, rewarded her greatly for her
virtuous conduct.

The plot, if such it may be called, gradually develops itself, like
most poetic narratives of a similar kind. Various speakers are
introduced in the poem, as the Shulamite shepherdess, the shepherd, the
King, the court-ladies, the inhabitants of Jerusalem, the brothers of
the Shulamite, and the companions of the shepherd, all of whom are
represented as speaking more or less, but without any such distinctions
as we find in Job, as “After this Job opened his mouth and cursed his
day—Then Eliphaz the Temanite answered and said—Then answered Bildad
the Shuhite and said—&c.,” and without separate names, or initial
letters of names to indicate the speakers, which renders it difficult
to gather the history it contains; and especially as some of the
statements appear at first sight to have little or no logical sequence.
The Song of Songs differs materially in this respect from all the other
books of Scripture; but not, as is well known, from the poems of
profane writers.

Notwithstanding the aforementioned difficulty, an attentive reader of
the original will find nearly as much help from the masterly structure
of this Song, as can be obtained from the divisions and initial letters
in modern dramas, by which the different speakers are distinguished,
and the various statements are connected in a regular narrative.

The recurrence, for instance, of the same formula of adjuration three
times (ii. 7; iii. 5; viii. 4), and the use of another closing sentence
(v. 1), divide the Song into five sections. The heroine of the book,
when speaking with her beloved or with the king, is easily
distinguished by the feminine gender of the verb, or of the adjective
or the noun; as, i. 5, “I am swarthy but comely,” where both
adjectives, swarthy (‏שְׁחוֹרָה‎) and comely (‏נָאוָה‎), are feminine in the
original, and plainly indicate the speaker. The beloved shepherd, when
he speaks, or is spoken to, or is spoken of, is recognised by the
pastoral language (i. 3, 4, 7; ii. 12; iii. 4, &c.); the King is
distinguished by express allusions to his position (i. 9–11; vi. 4–vii.
10); the court-ladies, when speaking to the Shulamite, are recognised
by the phrase, “fairest of women” (i. 8; v. 9; vi. 1), and when spoken
to by “daughters of Jerusalem” (i. 5; ii. 7; iii. 5, 10; v. 8; viii.
4); the brothers of the Shulamite are introduced as speaking in ii. 15,
compared with i. 6 and viii. 8, 9; the inhabitants of Jerusalem, in
iii. 6–11, and the companions of the shepherd, in viii. 5, are
sufficiently indicated by the context.

On a careful examination of the statements of the various speakers in
these five sections, it will be found that the narrative, though not
recorded in the order we have stated, may be easily deduced from it.

In the FIRST section—ch. i. 2, 7—the heroine of the Song, who, as is
evident from verse 8 and vii. 1, is a Shulamite shepherdess, ardently
wishes for the presence and love-tokens of her beloved, who, as she
herself most distinctly tells us (ver. 7, and ii. 16; vi. 3), is a
shepherd; she wishes him to take her away from the royal apartments
into which the King had brought her, for she loves him above all things
(verses 2, 3, 4); these apartments (or royal tent), as we learn from
iii. 6–11, were out of Jerusalem, and in the neighbourhood of the
Shulamite’s home, where the King temporarily resided, and where he met
with the damsel (vi. 11, 12). In reply to the disdainful looks of the
daughters of Jerusalem, in whose presence she had expressed her desire
for the shepherd, and who had contrasted their fair and delicate
countenances with her own, she insists that her swarthy complexion need
not render her contemptible, for it was not natural, but had arisen
from the duties which her brothers had unjustly required of her (v. 6);
she then resumes the address to her beloved, asking him, as if he were
present, to tell her where he tends his flock (7). The daughters of
Jerusalem, who, as we see from vi. 9, are the court-ladies, comprising
the maidens, concubines, and queens, ironically answer this question
(8). The watchful King, having heard that she wished for her beloved,
immediately comes forward, and, with flatteries and promises, tries to
win her affections (9, 10, 11); but without effect; for as soon as the
King retires she shows her unabated attachment to her shepherd (12; ii.
6), and concludes by adjuring the court-ladies not to persuade her to
transfer her affections to another (7).

The SECOND section—ch. ii. 8; iii. 5—though apparently disconnected
from the first, is found, upon investigation, to be a proper and
natural sequence. The Shulamite, in rebutting the contempt of the
court-ladies, had reflected with some severity upon her brothers for
sending her to keep the vineyards; but this had been done merely to
account for the darkness of her complexion; and having been interrupted
in her warm address to her beloved, which she hastened to resume, she
was obliged to be satisfied with this passing allusion to that event.
It was natural, therefore, to expect that, at the first opportunity,
she would state more circumstantially how her brothers came to be
severe with her, and why they had made her a keeper of the vineyards,
which she proceeds to do in this section. She tells the court-ladies
that her brothers were displeased with her because they had overheard
the shepherd inviting her to accompany him into the fields to enjoy
together the charms of nature (8–14), on account of which, in their
anxiety for her reputation, they changed her employment, told her to be
a “keeper of the vineyards,” in order to separate her from her beloved
(15). She, moreover, relates that they consoled themselves with the
assurance that, though separated bodily, indissoluble ties subsisted
between them, over which her brothers had no control (16); that she
invited him to come again in the evening, when unobserved (17); and
that, seeing he did not come, she went in search of him, &c. (ch. iii.
1–4). Having thus evinced her deep attachment for the shepherd, she
again concludes by adjuring the court-ladies not to persuade her to
transfer her affections to another (5).

This section, therefore, follows the preceding one, to set forth the
cause of the brother’s severity in having made her a “keeper of the
vineyards,” and thus gives a further insight into her previous history.

The THIRD section (ch. iii. 6, v. i.) relates the second unsuccessful
effort of Solomon to gain the Shulamite’s affections. The King,
determined to gain his purpose, takes the damsel, with great pomp, into
the capital (ch. iii. 6–11), in the hope of dazzling her with his great
splendour; but he is again disappointed. In the midst of the imposing
magnificence, the damsel tells her beloved shepherd, who has followed
her thither, and obtained an interview with her, and expressed his
delight at seeing her again (ch. iv. 1–5), that she is anxious to quit
the palace for her rural home (6). Her beloved, on hearing this, offers
his assistance to effect an escape (7, 8), and praises her constancy
and charms (9–16); whereupon they both manifest their mutual attachment
in so affecting a manner that even some of the court-ladies are moved
(ch. iv. 16, v. 1), with whose expression of sympathy the section
concludes.

The bearing which this section has upon the whole plan is, in the first
place, to develop the progress of the history itself, inasmuch as it
records the conveyance of the Shulamite from her rural home into the
royal capital; and, in the second place, to relate her faithfulness in
resisting another temptation, in which the grandeur of the procession
which elicited so much admiration from the inhabitants of Jerusalem,
and the splendour of the court, which dazzled the eyes and fed the
vanity of so many of its inmates, had far less charms for her than the
presence of her shepherd in a humble home.

The FOURTH section (ch. v. 2–viii. 4) records the last and greatest
trial which the Shulamite had to encounter, and which she also
overcame. It commences with a dream which she had recently had, and
which she relates (ch. v. 2–8) to the court-ladies whose sympathy with
her has been shown at the close of the preceding section. The narration
of this dream gives the damsel an opportunity of describing the
personal appearance of her beloved (10–16), and thus we are gradually
led on to her chief trial and success. The court-ladies, having
listened to this charming description, inquire whither her beloved is
gone, and offer their assistance to seek him (ch. vi. 1); but she,
suspecting the motive, gives them an evasive answer (2, 3). The King,
ever watchful for a favourable opportunity to show his attachment to
her, as soon as he hears of the inquiry after the damsel’s beloved,
comes forward with most alluring flatteries and promises. He begins
with praising her beauty (4–7), and then promises to raise her to the
highest rank of all his numerous retinue of women (8, 9), who
themselves are constrained to extol her beauty (10). But the damsel,
having explained how she came to be seen by those court-ladies, spurns
all those praises and promises, and goes away (11, 12); the King calls
her back (ch. vii. 1), and, having again described her beauty and
attractions (2–8), wishes that he might enjoy the favours of so
charming a person (9, 10); but she refuses the King’s overtures, on the
plea that her affections are engaged, and that it is her duty to be
faithful to her beloved (11); then, addressing herself to her beloved,
she asks him to go with her from the palace to their rural home (12,
ch. viii. 3); and concludes with again adjuring the court-ladies not to
persuade her to transfer her affections to another (4).

This section, as we have seen, is intimately connected with the
preceding one. The damsel, having obtained the sympathies of some of
the court-ladies, according to the close of the last section, relates
to them, at the opening of this (ch. v. 2–8), a dream which she had
recently had; which gives the damsel an opportunity of describing the
appearance of her beloved, and this description gradually introduces
the last and the greatest trial which she has to encounter.

The FIFTH section—ch. viii. 5–14—states the result of the damsel’s
victory over all her temptations. The King, convinced that nothing
could induce her to transfer her affections, dismisses her; and
accompanied by her beloved shepherd, she quits the court for her humble
country residence. On their way, they visit the tree under which they
were first espoused (viii. 5), and there implore that the flame which
had been kindled in their hearts might be lasting. A most graphic and
powerful description of the nature of true love follows, in which all
her trials are recounted (6, 7). The damsel then reminds her brothers
of the promise they had made her, and obtains the reward of virtue.

Thus this Song records the real history of a humble but virtuous woman,
who, after having been espoused to a man of like humble circumstances,
had been tempted in a most alluring manner to abandon him, and to
transfer her affections to one of the wisest, and richest of men, but
who successfully resisted all temptations, remained faithful to her
espousals, and was ultimately rewarded for her virtue.





SECTION IV.—IMPORTANCE OF THE BOOK.

Few, it is presumed, will question the importance of a Book, in the
sacred canon, which records an example of virtue in a humble
individual, who had passed successfully through unparalleled
temptations.

The avowed object of Holy Writ is to teach all that is good and
conducive to human happiness. Lessons of wisdom and virtue are
interspersed throughout the Old and New Testaments. The Apostle Paul
urges the Philippians to think of whatsoever is true, noble, just,
pure, lovely, and of good report: of everything, in short, that is in
any way profitable or praiseworthy. These lessons are not communicated
to us in abstract forms, or enforced by powerful argument merely, but
they are presented in the most attractive examples drawn from the lives
of illustrious men and women, who, amidst the greatest trials and
temptations, have pre-eminently maintained their integrity. The
Patriarch Job is set forth as an example of patience, and the Prophets
as patterns of suffering affliction (James v. 10, 11). An example of
virtue, very similar to the one in the Song before us, is recorded in
Gen. xxxix. 7, &c., where a Hebrew slave is tempted by a woman of rank,
but resists the temptations; and though left to suffer for a season, is
ultimately rewarded for his virtue. Such instances, therefore, are in
harmony with the design of Scripture, and its method of teaching.

The individual who passes through the extraordinary temptations
recorded in this Song, and remains faithful, is a woman. Who can find a
virtuous woman? This was the question of the Ancients, was reiterated
in the middle ages, and is still asked by many. Here is a reply to
Solomon’s own enquiry. He has found one at least of spotless integrity,
and her virtue is recorded in Scripture, for the defence of women
against a prevalent, but unjust suspicion.

The second chapter of Genesis clearly states, that the man and the
woman were created with the same intellectual and moral powers. The
words used by God respecting the creation of the woman are, “the being
of man in his solitary state is not good. I will make him a help-mate
corresponding to him;” that is, one that shall be exactly like him in
affections, in sympathies, in mind, in fact his counterpart; she shall
be the reflection of his own person. That this is the meaning of
‏כְּנֶנְדּוֹ‎ is evident from the Septuagint, which renders it in verse 18,
κατ’ αὐτόν, and verse 20, ὅμοιος αὐτῷ; and from the Syriac and the
Vulgate; as well as from the Rabbinical usage of ‏כְּנֶנֶד‎, to express
things exactly like one another. [5] The word of God affirms here, that
the woman was created exactly with the same capacities as the man, and
contains no intimation of subserviency to him, or of being in the
slightest degree weaker or less virtuous than he. The fact that the
Tempter assailed the woman, and not the man, so far from showing that
the woman was weaker, would rather prove that she was stronger; that
the cunning serpent knew this, and was persuaded, if he could only
prevail over the woman, she, with her superior influence, would be sure
to succeed with the man, as the sad result showed.

The curse which God pronounced upon the guilty pair, proves that the
woman was created with the same intellectual and moral capacities as
the man. Had the woman been weaker in these respects than the man, she
would not have been accountable in an equal degree for her sin, and
would not have been punished with the same severity.

No alteration has taken place in their relative position, in this
respect, since the fall. The curse upon the woman in relation to the
man does not refer to any intellectual or moral, but to a physical,
inferiority. Hitherto the Protoplasts resided in Paradise, and
subsisted upon its delightful fruit; and the employment of the man was
mere recreation. Henceforth they were to be driven from that happy
abode; the woman was to experience all the sorrow and pain of pregnancy
and parturition, and must look to her husband for support from his
hard-earned labour. The man, consigned to rough labour in the field,
exposed to the assault of brutes, was henceforth to have more physical
strength and daring; while the woman, destined to manage the affairs at
home, and to rear up a family, was to exercise the power of patient
endurance. The man, with his superior strength and boldness, was
henceforth to be the protector; the woman, suffering and mild, the
protected. He was to be the tiller of the ground, and she, in addition
to the sorrow peculiar to her condition, must depend on what he might
provide for her; and hence her desire was to be unto him; that is, she
should be looking up to him for protection and maintenance, and thus he
would rule over her. That this is the whole meaning of the phrase ‏וְאֶל
אִישֵׁדְ תְּשׁוּקָתֵדְ וְהוּא יִמְשָׁל בָּדְ‎, Gen. iii. 16, is evident from the clause
immediately preceding, which describes the woman’s constant suffering,
and precludes the possibility of securing maintenance for herself; and
also from the following verse, where the man is destined to labour hard
for bread.

The notion, therefore, that the woman is intellectually or morally
weaker than man, is not the teaching of the word of God. While man,
through his superior out-of-door qualities, or physical strength and
courage, is the supporter, protector, and ruler of the woman; she,
through her superior in-door qualities, her endurance and her charms,
ameliorates his government, and sways his inmost heart. Their different
characteristics, arising from their different destinations, were
designed to blend together so as to produce a happy harmony, and to
make both one.

But how vilely and treacherously has man employed his superior strength
and audacity! Instead of maintaining, protecting, and defending the
woman, he has used his strength to oppress, to crush, and to degrade
her. As the human race became more and more alienated from their
Creator, intrinsic merit and moral character were despised, and
physical force became rampant; the stronger, as among animals,
oppressed and preyed upon the weaker, and thus woman became the slave
of man, and was absolutely sold in the capacity of daughter or wife, as
cattle and other property. Thus Eliezer, the servant of Abraham,
purchased Rebekah as a wife for Isaac, his master’s son, (Gen. xxiv.
53). Jacob, having nothing to give as a compensation for his wives, was
obliged to serve fourteen years for them (Gen. xxix. 18–28). Shechem,
wishing to obtain Dinah for a wife, and ascribing the unwillingness of
Jacob to part with her to the insufficiency of the compensation he had
offered, says—“Ask me never so much dowry and gift, and I will give
according as ye shall say unto me: but give me the damsel to wife (Gen.
xxxiv. 12).” Compare, also, Exod. xxii. 15, &c.; 1 Sam. xviii. 25; Hos.
iii. 2. This custom of purchasing wives was general among the
Orientals. “In Babylon, [6] the following course was pursued in every
village once a-year. All the maidens of a marriageable age were
collected together, and brought in a body to one place; around them
stood a crowd of men. Then a crier, having made these maidens stand up
one by one, offered them for sale, beginning with the most beautiful;
and when she had been sold for a large sum, he put up another who was
next in beauty. They were sold on condition that they should be
married. Such men among the Babylonians as were rich and desirous of
marrying used to bid against one another, and purchase the most
beautiful. But such of the lower classes as were desirous of marrying,
did not regard beauty, and were willing to take the plainer damsels
with a sum of money given with them. For when the crier had finished
selling the most beautiful of the maidens, he made the plainest stand
up, or one that was a cripple, and put her up for auction, for the
person who would marry her for the least sum. This money was obtained
from the sale of the most beautiful; and thus the beautiful portioned
out the plain and the crippled.” Wives were purchased among the
Assyrians and Arabians also; [7] among the ancient Greeks [8] and
Germans [9] and are still bought among the Orientals of the present
day. [10]

Fearful consequences, arising from such a mode of obtaining wives, were
inevitable, and soon became apparent. As the procuring of wives
depended upon the offer which any one was able to make, those that
could afford it purchased as many as they pleased. Hence the practice
of polygamy, than which nothing produces more contempt for the proper
character of women, or tends more to their degradation. As these
contracts were formed without the parties being previously known to
each other, and without any affection subsisting between them, the
woman, instead of being the help-mate or companion of man became his
slave, and was kept for the gratification of his carnal appetites, or
at best was regarded as a plaything for a leisure hour. Her rights were
denied, her education was neglected, her intellect was degraded, her
moral character was questioned. Man, seeking to possess as many wives
as he could afford, gave the woman no credit for virtue. Acting upon
this suspicion and false accusation, he placed her in the most
inaccessible part of the house; dogs or eunuchs guarded the doors of
her chambers; [11] the harem was made as impenetrable as a prison; none
but the nearest relatives were allowed to see her, and when permitted
to pass through the streets her countenance was thickly veiled, and
eunuchs watched her every step. Plutarch relates that when women
travelled they were placed in a conveyance closely covered on all
sides, and that it was in such a covering that Themistocles fled from
Persia, his attendants being instructed to tell every inquirer that
they were conveying a Grecian lady from Ionia to a nobleman at Court.
[12] The sacred books of heathen nations teem with loud execrations
against the natural unfaithfulness and immorality of women. “The lust
of a woman,” says the pundits, “is never satisfied, no more than fire
is satisfied with fuel, or the main ocean with receiving the rivers, or
the empire of death with the dying of men and animals.” And again:
“Women have six qualities: the first is an immoderate desire for jewels
and fine furniture, handsome clothes and nice victuals; the second,
immoderate lust; the third, violent anger; the fourth, deep resentment,
no person knowing the sentiments concealed in their hearts; the fifth,
another person’s good appears evil in their eyes; the sixth, they
commit bad actions.” [13] The wickedness of women is a subject upon
which the stronger sex among the Arabs, with an affectation of superior
virtue, often dwell in common conversation. That women are deficient in
judgment or good sense, is held as an undisputed fact, as it rests on
an assertion of the Prophet; but that they possess a superior degree of
cunning, rests upon the same authority. Their general depravity is
affirmed to be much greater than that of men. “I stood,” said the
Prophet, “at the gate of Paradise, and lo, most of its inmates were the
poor; and I stood at the gate of hell, and lo, most of its inmates were
women.” In allusion to women, the caliph Omar said, “Consult them, and
do the contrary of what they advise,” which Moore has thus
paraphrased:—


        “Whene’er you’re in doubt, said a sage I once knew,
        ’Twixt two lines of conduct which course to pursue,
        Ask a woman’s advice, and whate’er she advise,
        Do the very reverse, and you’re sure to be wise.”


When woman was created, “the devil,” we are told, “was delighted, and
said, ‘Thou art half of my host, and thou art the depository of my
secret, and thou art my arrow, with which I shoot and miss not.’” [14]
They were made so much to feel their inferiority, that Iphigenia is
made to say, “One man, forsooth, is better than ten thousand women.”
[15]

Though the Jewish women were treated more leniently, and enjoyed
greater privileges than their sex in other nations, yet it is evident,
from a variety of circumstances in Old Testament history, that they
were not wholly emancipated from a state of unnatural inferiority.
Polygamy was practised amongst the Jews, and its debasing effects were
obvious. The harems, the veils, and eunuchs were not uncommon to their
women. Weakness of moral character was imputed to them; unfaithfulness
and incontinency were dilated upon (Num. v. 12; Prov. xxxi. 10; Eccl.
vii. 28). Josephus tells us [16] that women, in consequence of their
natural levity, were not admitted as legal witnesses in courts of
justice. Maimonides teaches the same; “There are,” says this great
luminary, “ten sorts of disqualifications, and every individual in whom
one of them is found, is disqualified from giving evidence; and these
are women, slaves, children, idiots, the deaf, the blind, the wicked,
the despised, relations, and those interested in their testimony; these
are the ten.” [17] The Rabbins endeavour to justify this inhuman
treatment of women from the law of Moses. “Women,” say they, “are
disqualified by the law from giving testimony: for it is said, ‘At the
mouth of two witnesses,’ where the word ‘witnesses’ is of the
masculine, and not feminine gender.” It is not to be wondered at,
therefore, that the Jew, among his thanksgivings, should say to the
Almighty every morning, “Blessed be thou, O Lord our God, King of the
universe, that thou hast not created me a woman.”

Now, if one sex of the human family has been so degraded by the other;
if she whom God created to be a help-mate and counterpart has been
reduced by man to the slave of his carnal lusts; if such slavish and
inhuman treatment has been justified on the false plea of the natural
unfaithfulness and incontinency of the sex; if exclusion from society
and imprisonment have been deemed necessary for the preservation of her
morals, how greatly has woman been alienated from the original design
of her creation! how unjustly has her character been aspersed! how
inhumanly has she been treated! and how great is the importance of a
book which celebrates the virtuous example of a woman, and thus strikes
at the root of all her reproaches and her wrongs!

The importance of this view of the book may be further seen from the
fact, that, in proportion to the degradation of women, men themselves
have become degraded; for, deprived of the meliorating influences which
the delicacy and tenderness of women were designed to have over them,
and never more needed than in their fallen state, they have abandoned
themselves to their worst passions and desires, and thus their whole
civil and social condition has been proportionally undignified and
unblest. Look, on the other hand, at the state of society where woman
is restored to her rightful position, there we shall find refinement of
manners, purity of conversation, mutual confidence and affection,
domestic happiness, intellectual enjoyment, freedom of thought and
action, sympathetic repose, and whatever, in fact, tends to mitigate
the unavoidable evils of the present life; all referable, in a greater
or less degree, to the unrestricted influence of woman upon the child
and upon the man. In religion, her influence is still more potent. If
first in the transgression, she is first in the restoration; and were
man as ready to follow her in doing good as he has been in doing evil,
the world would long ago have been in a holier and happier state than
it is at present. Who constitute the principal part of our worshipping
assemblies? Women. Who form the chief portion of the members of our
churches? Women. Who are the chief agents in the religious education of
our children? Women. Who are the main support of our various benevolent
and evangelical institutions? Women. Let it not be said, then, that a
Book which celebrates the ascendency of a virtuous woman in humble life
over all the blandishments of wealth and royalty, is unworthy of a
place in Holy Writ.

The importance of this book is, moreover, enhanced by the circumstances
more immediately connected with the time in which it was written.

The conduct of Bath-sheba with David was calculated to confirm man in
his opinion that woman was naturally unfaithful and incontinent, and
that it was requisite to exclude her from society, in order to preserve
her morals. But the narrative here recorded forms a contrast to the
conduct of Bath-sheba. It shows the power of virtue in a woman, even of
humble life. As the wife of an officer of rank, accustomed to luxury
and wealth, the temptations of Bath-sheba were not so great, and yet
she surrendered to them. Whereas the Shulamite, a humble shepherdess,
to whom the promise of costly apparel and of elevation from a low and
toilsome occupation to the highest rank, must have been an
extraordinary allurement, triumphed over them all. If one woman yielded
to small incitements, this book shows that another overcame
unparalleled temptations, and thus checked the clamour against woman
which might have arisen from the conduct of Bath-sheba with David.





SECTION V.—HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE EXEGESIS OF THE BOOK.

No book has furnished a wider field for the speculation and visionary
projects of those who substitute their own imagination and enthusiastic
feelings for the teaching of Scripture, than the Song of Solomon; the
varieties and absurdities of which are a solemn warning against
departing from the rules of sound philology and critical
interpretation.

An enumeration of all the different interpretations of this Song would
be too lengthy, and is not required. It will be sufficient to glance at
the leading expositions. We begin with the Jewish.

323–246, B.C. [18] It has been supposed that the Septuagint, which may
be regarded as the oldest Jewish exegetical tradition, contains some
intimation that the translators of the Old Testament into Greek and
their Jewish brethren of those days must have interpreted the Song of
Solomon in an allegorical manner. The only passage adduced in
corroboration of this opinion is, Ch. iv. 8, where the Septuagint
renders ‏מֵראֹשׁ אֲמָנָה‎ from the top of Amana, by ἀπὸ ἀρχῆς πίστεως, from
the top of faith. That this appeal is nugatory is obvious from the
rendering of ‏תִּרְצָה‎ Tirzah by εὐδοκία, delight, vi. 4, and of ‏בַּתנָדִיב‎
noble daughter by θύγατερ Ναδάβ, daughter of Nadab, vii. 1; whence it
is evident that the Septuagint frequently mistook proper names for
appellatives and adjectives, and vice versâ. It appears inconceivable
that a profound scholar like Keil, who is well acquainted with the
frequent errors of the Septuagint, should quote this as a special and
sufficient proof that “the Alexandrian version took this Song in an
allegorical sense,” [19] especially as he knew that some have drawn
from it the very opposite conclusion, who have argued that if the
authors of the Septuagint had understood this book in any other than
its obvious sense, they would have betrayed it in the translation. [20]

180, B.C. Jesus Sirach, xlvii. 14–17, is next adduced as furnishing
some clue to the Jewish interpretation of this book. Ecclesiasticus,
according to some, is a name given to it κατ’ ἐξοχὴν, because of its
being the most remarkable and useful of the ecclesiastical or
apocryphal books; others say it was so called from its resemblance to
Solomon’s Ecclesiastes, and others, again, with more probability, that
this name was given to it by the Latins, to denote its use in the
church. Its Greek name, however, Σοφία Ἰησοῦ υἱοῦ Σειράχ, wisdom of
Jesus son of Sirach, is more appropriate. It specifies at once the
author, who mentions his own name in Ch. l. 27. The age given to the
book here, is that which is thought most probable. [21] This apocryphal
writer says in his apostrophe to Solomon,—“How wise wast thou in thy
youth, and, as a flood, filled with understanding! Thy mind covered the
earth, and thou filledst it with enigmatic sayings. Thy name went forth
to the distant isles, and thou wast beloved for thy peace. Countries
admired thee for songs, and proverbs, and enigmas, and solutions.” The
17th verse is supposed to include the whole writings of Solomon
contained in the Old Testament; and it is affirmed that παραβολαὶ
αἰνιγμάτων in verse 15, cannot be understood to mean the Proverbs
(παροιμία) since these are separately mentioned in verse 17, hence it
follows that they refer to the allegorical interpretation of this Song.
[22]

Even Hengstenberg, who, though a defender of the allegorical
interpretation, remarks, [23] “Sirach xlvii. 17, has wrongly been
referred to in support of the allegorical interpretation. For the words
ἐν ᾠδαῖς καὶ παροίμιαις καὶ παραβολαῖς καὶ ἐν ἑρμηνείαις ἀπεθαύμασάν σε
χῶραι depend upon the historical narration in the Books of the Kings,
and do not refer to the writings comprised in the Canon. This is
evident from the mention of the ἑρμηνείαι, whereby the solutions of the
enigmas in contradistinction to the enigmas themselves, can alone be
meant. Comp. 1 Kings x. 1–3. Whereas in the Canon no such ἑρμηνείαι are
to be found. Verse 15, in which Keil finds a special reference to the
allegorical interpretation, likewise alludes to 1 Kings x., especially
to verse 24.”

120, B.C. The Book of Wisdom has also been supposed to contain a clue
to the interpretation of this Song. The author and the age of the Book
are points of great contest. All that can be concluded with any degree
of probability is, that the author was an Alexandrian Jew, who lived
after the transplanting of the Greek philosophy into Egypt, and that he
seems to refer to the oppression of the later Ptolemies. [24] In ch.
viii. 2, Solomon is represented as speaking to Wisdom; “Her I loved and
sought from my youth, I sought to bring her home for my bride, and I
became a lover of her beauty.” Because Solomon is here made to speak of
Wisdom as his bride, it has been maintained to be an explanation of the
Song of Songs, as though the brides were necessarily the same. [25] Let
any impartial reader peruse the description of Wisdom in the chapter
quoted, and that of the bride in the Song of Songs, and he will be
convinced that there is no intentional resemblance whatever.

37–95, A.D. Josephus is also said to have understood this Song in an
allegorical sense, although it is not in a single instance quoted by
him. His arrangement of the Books of the Old Testament is the only
ground of this argument. It is said, as he [26] mentions twenty-two
books which are justly accredited as Divine, (τὰ δικαίως θεῖα
πεπιστευμένα) and describes five as belonging to Moses, thirteen to the
Prophets, and the remaining four as containing hymns to God, and rules
of life for men (αἱ δὲ λοιπαὶ τέσσαρες ὕμνους εἰς τὸν Θεὸν καὶ τοῖς
ἀνθρώποις ὑποθήκας τοῦ βίου περιέχουσιν) viz., the Psalms, Job,
Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, no place is left for this Song except among
the Prophets; and if Josephus placed it there, it follows that he must
have understood it allegorically. [27] But were we to admit that
Josephus placed this Song among the prophetical writings, we should
deny the conclusion attempted to be drawn from it. For according to the
same mode of argumentation, we might infer that Josephus understood
Ruth and Esther allegorically, for he also places these books among the
prophetical writings. The fact is, that this historian, as he tells us
himself, reckons the historical books among the prophetical ones. But
we demur to the assertion that Josephus put this Song among the
prophetical writings; it is far more likely that he placed it among the
four books which he describes as consisting of hymns to God and
precepts for the life of men. [28]

We come now to the Talmud, in which passages from this Song are quoted
and interpreted. This elaborate work, consists of what is called the
Mishna, constituting the text, and the Gemara, which is a commentary
upon it, derived from two sources, viz.—Jerusalem and Babylon. The
Jews, from time immemorial, had an unwritten law ‏תּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּעַל פֶּה‎ δόγματα
ἄγραφα, in addition to the written one, ‏תּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּכְּתָב‎, ἔγγραφος,
contained in the Pentateuch. Hillel of Babylon (born 75 B.C.), who,
next to Ezra, was celebrated by posterity as the restorer of the law,
[29] first arranged and divided this oral law into six parts:—1,
concerning sowing; 2, women; 3, festivals; 4, the rights of property;
5, holy things; 6, pure and impure things. This, which comprises
everything that appertains to the Jewish law, was called ‏מִשְׁנָה‎ Mishna,
δευτέρωσις, or the second recension of the law. In order to reconcile
the Sadducees, who denied every law not founded on Holy Writ, Hillel
laid down seven hermeneutic rules, whereby the Scriptures might be
interpreted in such a manner that the oral law could be deduced from
it. [30] When fears were afterwards entertained lest the oral tradition
should be lost, Rabbi Judah Hakkadosh (i.e. holy), in the year 220
A.D., collected everything that had been said upon the subject,
preserving the division of Hillel, and probably making some additions
of his own. This he did in a manner so masterly and satisfactory, that
it superseded every other previous attempt, and constitutes the present
Mishna.

The Mishna became the chief object of study. The rules of Hillel were
increased and much acted on; expositions were given upon the reasons
that led to the decisions in the Mishna; the expounders were called
‏אֲמוֹרָאִים‎ Amoraim, public lecturers, and the exposition ‏גְמָרָא‎ Gemara.

After the death of Judah, many of his learned disciples, objecting to
the appointment of his second son Gamaliel, to his father’s office,
emigrated to Babylon, and having erected schools there, pursued the
study of the Mishna. The academy they established in Sura rivalled the
one in Tiberias. The Gemara of Tiberias, collated about 358 (A.D.) by
an unknown individual, is called Talmud Jerushalmi; and the Gemara of
Sura, the compilation of which was begun by R. Ashe (352–427),
continued by his disciple and friend, Rabina, and finished about 525,
is called Talmud Babli. The latter surpasses the former in
comprehensiveness, perspicuity, and depth, is about four times as
large, and fills 2947 folio pages. Both united are called The Talmud
‏תַּלְמוּד‎ book of instruction; and also ‏גְמָרָא‎ Gemara. It contains the
civil and ceremonial law, debates on various branches of art and
science, moral sayings, anecdotes, expositions on different passages of
Scripture, &c. [31]

100–500, A.D.—In Yadaim, (Sect. iii. 5.) we find that R. Akiba, one of
the greatest Rabbins who lived in the first century, and president of
the Academy of Bai-Barc, said, “The whole world was not worthy of the
day in which this sublime Song was given to Israel; for all the
Scriptures are holy, but this sublime Song is most holy.” There can,
therefore, be no doubt that the mysteries which this distinguished
Rabbi found in the Song of Songs, he regarded as greater than those he
discovered in any other portion of the Sacred Scriptures.

Subsequent Rabbins quote and explain different passages. Thus, Ch. i. 2
is discussed in Abodah Sarah (Sect. 2, p. 35). It is asked, “How are
the words, ‘Thy love is better than wine’ understood?” Answer: When
Rabbi Dimi came to Babylon, he said, “This verse is thus understood:
the Congregation of Israel said to God, ‘Lord of the Universe, the
words of thy friends (namely, the sages) are more excellent than even
the wine of the Law.’”

Here we see that the beloved is taken to be God, and the loved one the
Congregation of Israel.

Ch. i. 3, is quoted and expounded, a little further on, in the same
tract of the Talmud, in the following manner. “R. Nachman ben R.
Chasdah once said, in his discourse, the words ‘Delicious is the odour
of thy perfumes,’ denote a learned man; for such an one is like a box
of perfumes; if it is covered up, no one can smell the perfumes, but
when it is opened the odour becomes widely diffused. It is so with a
learned man without disciples, no one knows of his learning; but if he
gets a circle of disciples his name and his learning become widely
diffused. And not only this, but he himself will increase learning by
teaching, so that things which he formerly did not understand will now
become plain to him; for it is written in the same verse ‏עלמות אהבוך‎
DAMSELS LOVE THEE; read ‏עלומות‎ HIDDEN THINGS will love thee, i.e.,
will become plain to thee; and not only this, but even the angel of
death will love him; read then ‏על־מות‎ HE WHO IS OVER DEATH will love
thee; and still more, he will inherit both worlds, this world and the
world to come; read also ‏עולמות‎ WORLDS love thee.”

Ch. i. 13, 14, and v. 13, are quoted and explained in Sabbath, p. 88,
b., “Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi saith, What is meant by ‏צרור המור דודי לי
בין שדי ילין‎ is the congregation of Israel, who is saying before the
Holy One thus: O Lord, though my beloved (i.e. God) oppresses me, and
is embittered against me, yet he still lodges with me. By ‏אשכול הכופר
דודי לי בכרמי עין גדי‎ is meant, He who is the owner of all things,
will forgive me the sin of the calf, with which I covered myself. A
question is raised, How does ‏בכרמי‎ signify my covering? Then Rabbi
Mar-Sutra ben Rabbi Nachman quotes ‏כסא של כובס שכורמי עליו את הכלאם‎
from another part of the Talmud (Kelim 35), where ‏כרם‎ means to cover.
R. Joshuah ben Levi proceeds, What is meant by ‏לחייו כערוגת הבושם‎ is,
At every commandment which proceedeth from the mouth of the Holy One on
Mount Sinai, the world was filled with aromatics. A question is asked,
If the world was filled at the first commandment, where was the odour
diffused at the second commandment? Answer, The Holy One sent his wind
from his stores, and carried them away successively, as it is written,
‏שפתותיו שושנים‎ do not read ‏שושנים‎ but ‏ששונים‎ repeating in
succession. Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi concludes, At every commandment
uttered by the mouth of the Holy One, the soul of Israel was drawn out
of them, as it is written, ‘My soul went out when he spake.’ A question
is again asked, If their soul was drawn out at the first commandment,
how could they receive the second? Answer. He (i.e. God) caused the dew
to come down, by which he will raise the dead, and revived them, as it
is written, ‘Thou, O God, didst send a plentiful rain, whereby thou
didst confirm thine inheritance, when it was weary.’” Ps. lxviii. 9.
[32]

Here, again, we see that the bridegroom is taken to be the Holy One,
the Owner of all things, and the bride the congregation of Israel. The
reader, looking into the text of the Talmud quoted in the note, will
observe that most of this interpretation has been obtained, either by
the separation of words, the transposition and change of letters, or by
substituting in the commentary words, similar in sound to those in the
Scriptures. Thus, ‏צרור‎ a bundle, a bag, is explained by ‏מיצר‎
oppress; ‏מור‎ myrrh by ‏מימר‎ embitter; ‏אשכול‎ a cluster by ‏איש שהכל
לו‎ He whose are all things; ‏כופר‎ cypress flowers by ‏כפר‎ pardon;
‏עין גדי‎ En-gedi by ‏עון עגל‎ the sin of the calf.

This mode of interpretation is not confined to the Song of Songs, but
is applied to all parts of the Bible, and is an illustration of the way
in which the hermeneutic rules laid down by Rabbi Hillel, and augmented
by R. Ishmael, and others, were carried out.

550, A.D.—The Targum or Chaldee paraphrase is the first entire
commentary upon the Song of Songs which has been handed down to us. The
author is unknown. Kitto erroneously affirms, that it was “made several
centuries before the time of Christ, and probably before the
traditionary interpretation of the author himself (i.e. the author of
this Song) would entirely be lost.” [33] The inferior style in which it
is written, the copious use it makes of legends of a very late date,
and especially the mention it makes of the Gemara (Ch. i. 2), which was
not completed till nearly the middle of the sixth century, prove most
distinctly that this paraphrase was made in the sixth century.
Hävernick, [34] however, is equally wrong in affirming that the
Mahomedans are mentioned in Ch. i. 7. That the sons of Ishmael here
alluded to are not the Mahomedans, is evident from Ch. vi. 7. of the
same paraphrase, where we are told that these ‏בְּנוֹי דְיִשְׁמָעֵאל‎ headed by
Alexander the Great, came to wage war against Jerusalem at the time of
the Maccabees.

The Targum takes the Song of Songs as an allegory, describing
prophetically the history of the Jewish nation, beginning with their
Exodus from Egypt, and detailing their doings and sufferings, down to
the coming of the Messiah, and the building of the third Temple.

Thus, according to this allegory, Ch. i. 3, describes Jehovah’s fame,
which went abroad in consequence of the wonders he wrought when
bringing the Israelites out of Egypt; verse 12 describes the departure
of Moses to receive the two tables of stone, and how the Israelites, in
the mean time, made the golden calf; verse 14 describes the pardon of
that sin, and the erection of the Tabernacle; Ch. iii. 6–11, describes
the passage of the Israelites, under the leadership of Joshua, over the
Jordan, their attacking and conquering the Canaanites, and the building
of Solomon’s Temple; Ch. v. 2, describes the Babylonian captivity; Ch.
vi. 2, the deliverance of Israel through Cyrus; and the building of the
second Temple; Ch. vi. 7, &c., describes the battles of the Maccabees;
Ch. vii. 11, 12, the present dispersion of the Jews, and their future
anxiety to learn the time of their restoration; Ch. viii. 5, &c.,
describes the resurrection of the dead, the final ingathering of
Israel, the building of the third Temple, &c., &c.

“The beloved,” according to the Targum, is the Lord; “the loved one” is
the Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved” (Ch. i. 7)
are the Edomites and the Ishmaelites; “the daughters of Jerusalem” are,
in Ch. i. 5, the Gentile nations; in ii. 7, iii. 5, viii. 4, the
Congregation of Israel; and in v. 8, the prophets; “the brothers of the
loved one” are the false prophets; “the little sister,” in viii. 8, is
the people of Israel; the speakers in the same verse are the angels;
the speaker in viii. 13, is the Lord; “the companions,” in the same
verse are the Sanhedrim.

The following specimen of the Targum, on the first chapter of this
Song, will give the reader an idea of the way in which the paraphrase
develops the allegorical construction of this book.


    1. The Song of Songs, &c.—The songs and praises which Solomon the
    prophet, King of Israel, sang, by the spirit of prophecy, before
    God, the Lord of the whole world. Ten songs were sung in this
    world, but this song is the most celebrated of them all. The first
    song Adam sang when his sins were forgiven him, and when the
    sabbath-day came, and protected him, he opened his mouth and said,
    “A song for the sabbath-day,” &c. (Ps. xcii.) The second song Moses
    and the children of Israel sang when the Lord of the world divided
    the Red Sea for them, they all opened their mouths and sang as one
    man, the song, as it is written, “Then sang Moses and the children
    of Israel.” (Exod. xv. 1.) The third song the children of Israel
    sang when the well of water was given to them, as it is written,
    “Then sang Israel.” (Numb. xxi. 17.) The fourth song Moses the
    prophet sang, when his time came to depart from this world, in
    which he reproved the people of the house of Israel, as it is
    written: “Give ear, O heavens, and I will speak.” (Deut. xxxii. 1.)
    The fifth song Joshua the son of Nun sang, when he waged war in
    Gibeon, and the sun and moon stood still for him thirty-six hours,
    and when they left off singing their song, he himself opened his
    mouth and sang this song, as it is written: “Then sang Joshua
    before the Lord.” (Josh. x. 12.) The sixth song Barak and Deborah
    sang in the day when the Lord delivered Sisera and his army into
    the hands of the children of Israel, as it is written: “Then sang
    Deborah, &c.” (Judg. v. 11.) The seventh song Hannah sang when a
    son was given her by the Lord, as it is written: “And Hannah prayed
    prophetically, and said.” (1 Sam. ii. 1, and the Targum in loco.)
    The eighth song David the King of Israel sang for all the wonders
    which the Lord did for him. He opened his mouth and sang a hymn, as
    it is written: “And David sang in prophecy before the Lord.” (2
    Sam. xxii. 1, and the Targum in loco.) The ninth song Solomon the
    King of Israel sang by the Holy Spirit before God, the Lord of the
    whole world. And the tenth song the children of the captivity shall
    sing when they shall be delivered from their captivity, as it is
    written and declared by Isaiah the prophet: “This song shall be
    unto you for joy, as in the night in which the feast of the
    passover is celebrated; and gladness of heart as when the people go
    to appear before the Lord three times in the year, with all kinds
    of music, and with the sound of the timbrel, to go up to the
    mountain of the Lord, and to worship before the Lord, the Mighty
    One of Israel.” (Is. xxx. 29, and the Targum in loco.)

    2. Let him kiss me, &c.—Solomon the prophet said, “Blessed be the
    name of the Lord who has given us the law through Moses the great
    scribe, written upon two tables of stone; and the six parts of the
    Mishna and the Talmud traditionally, and who spoke with us face to
    face, as a man that kissed his friend, because of his great love
    wherewith he loved us above the seventy nations.” [35]

    3. Thy perfumes, &c.—At the report of thy wonders and mighty deeds
    which thou hast done for thy people the house of Israel, all the
    nations trembled who heard of thy famous strength, and thy great
    miracles; and in all the earth was heard thy holy name, which is
    more excellent than the anointing oil that was poured upon the
    heads of kings and priests; therefore the righteous love to walk
    after thy good way, because they shall inherit both this world and
    the world to come.

    4. Draw me, &c.—When the people of the house of Israel went out of
    Egypt the shechinah of the Lord of the world went before them in a
    pillar of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night, and the
    righteous of that generation said, Lord of the whole world, draw us
    after thee, and we will run in thy good way! Bring us to the foot
    of Mount Sinai, and give us thy law out of thy treasury in heaven,
    and we will rejoice and be glad in the twenty-two letters [36] with
    which it is written, and we will remember them, and love thy divine
    nature, and withdraw ourselves from the idols of the nations; and
    all the righteous, who do that which is right before thee, shall
    fear thee and love thy commandments.

    5. I am swarthy, &c.—When the house of Israel made the calf, their
    faces became black, like the sons of Cush, who dwelt in the tents
    of Kedar; but when they returned by repentance, and were forgiven,
    the shining splendour of their faces was increased to that of
    angels, because they made the curtains for the tabernacle, and the
    shechinah of the Lord dwelt among them; and Moses, their teacher,
    went up to heaven and made peace between them and their King.

    6. Do not look down upon me, &c.—The congregation of Israel said
    before all the nations, Do not despise me because I am blacker than
    you, for I have done your deeds, and worshipped the sun and moon;
    for false prophets have been the cause that the fierce anger of the
    Lord has come upon me, and they taught me to worship your idols,
    and to walk in your laws; but the Lord of the world, who is my God,
    I did not serve, and did not walk in his precepts, and did not keep
    his commandments and laws.

    7. Tell me, &c.—When the time came for Moses the prophet to depart
    from this world, he said to the Lord, It is revealed to me that
    this people will sin, and be carried into captivity; show me now
    how they shall be governed and dwell among the nations, whose
    decrees are oppressive as the heat and the scorching sun in the
    summer solstice, and wherefore is it that they shall wander among
    the flocks of the sons of Esau and Ishmael, who make their idols
    equal to thee, as though they were thy companions.

    8. If thou knowest not, &c.—The Holy One, blessed be his name, said
    to Moses, the prophet, “I suffer myself to be entreated to abolish
    their captivity; the congregation of Israel, which is like a fair
    damsel, and which my soul loves, she shall walk in the ways of the
    righteous, and shall order her prayers according to the order of
    her governors and leaders, and instruct her children, who are like
    to the kids of the goats, to go to the synagogue and the schools;
    and by the merits of this they shall be governed in the captivity,
    until the time that I send King Messiah, and he shall lead them
    quietly to their habitations; yea, he shall bring them to the house
    of the sanctuary, which David and Solomon, the shepherds of Israel,
    shall build for them.”

    9. I compare thee, &c.—When Israel went out of Egypt, Pharaoh and
    his hosts pursued after them with chariots and horsemen, and their
    way was shut up on the four sides of them; on the right hand and on
    the left were wildernesses full of fiery serpents, and behind them
    was wicked Pharaoh with his army, and before them was the Red Sea,
    what did the holy blessed God do? He was manifested in the power of
    his might upon the Red Sea, and dried the sea up, but the mud he
    did not dry up. The wicked and the mixed multitude, and the
    strangers who were among them, said, The waters of the sea he was
    able to dry up, but the mud he was not able to dry up. In that very
    hour the fierce anger of the Lord came upon them, and he sought to
    drown them in the waters of the sea, as Pharaoh, and his army, and
    his chariots, and his horsemen, and his horses were drowned, had it
    not been for Moses the Prophet, who spread his hands in prayer
    before the Lord, and turned away the anger of the Lord from them.
    Then he and the righteous of that generation opened their mouths,
    and sang a song, and passed through the Red Sea on dry land,
    through the merits of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the beloved of the
    Lord.

    10. Beautiful are thy cheeks, &c.—When they went out into the
    wilderness the Lord said to Moses, “How comely is this people, that
    the words of the law should be given unto them, and they shall be
    as a bridle in their jaws, that they may not depart out of the good
    way, as a horse turneth not aside that has a bridle in his jaws;
    and how fair is their neck to bear the yoke of my commandments; and
    it shall be upon them as a yoke upon the neck of a bullock which
    plougheth in the field, and feeds both itself and its owner.”

    11. Circlets of gold, &c.—Then was it said to Moses, “Go up into
    heaven, and I will give thee the two tables of stone, hewn out of
    the sapphire of the throne of my glory, shining as the best gold,
    disposed in rows, written with my finger, on which are engraven the
    ten commandments, purer than silver that is purified seven times
    seven, which is the number of the things explained in them in
    forty-nine various ways, and I shall give them by thy hands to the
    people of the house of Israel.”

    12. While the King, &c.—Whilst Moses, their teacher, was in heaven
    to receive the two tables of stone, and the law and the
    commandments, the wicked of that generation and the mixed multitude
    that was among them rose up and made a golden calf, and caused
    their works to stink, and an evil report of them went out in the
    world; for before this time a fragrant odour of them was diffused
    in the world, but afterwards they stank like nard, the smell of
    which is very bad, and the plague of leprosy came down upon their
    flesh.

    13. A bag of myrrh, &c.—At that time the Lord said to Moses, “Go
    down, for the people have corrupted themselves, desist from
    speaking to me, and I will destroy them.” Then Moses returned and
    asked mercy of the Lord, and the Lord remembered for them the
    binding of Isaac, whom his father bound, on Mount Moriah, upon the
    altar; and the Lord turned from his fierce anger, and caused his
    shechinah to dwell among them as before.

    14. A bunch of cypress flowers, &c.—So then went Moses down with
    the two tables of stone in his hands; and, because of the sins of
    Israel, his hands grew heavy, and the tables fell and were broken.
    Then went Moses and ground the calf to powder, and scattered the
    dust of it upon the brook, and made the children of Israel to drink
    it, and slew all that deserved to die, and went up a second time
    into heaven, and prayed before the Lord, and made atonement for the
    children of Israel; then was the commandment to make a tabernacle
    and an ark. Immediately Moses hastened and made the tabernacle, and
    all its furniture, and the ark; and he put in the ark the two other
    tables, and appointed the sons of Aaron, the priests, to offer the
    offerings upon the altar, and to pour the wine upon the offerings;
    but from whence had they wine to pour? For in the wilderness they
    had no proper place for sowing; neither had they fig-trees, nor
    vines, nor pomegranates; but they went to the vineyards of En-gedi,
    and took clusters of grapes from thence, and pressed wine out of
    them, and poured it upon the altar, the fourth part of a hin to one
    lamb.

    15. Behold thou art beautiful, &c.—When the children of Israel
    performed the will of their King, he himself praised them in the
    family of the holy angels, and said, “How fair are thy works, my
    daughter, my beloved, O congregation of Israel, in the time that
    thou doest my will, and studiest in the words of my law; and how
    well ordered are thy works and thy affairs, as young doves that are
    fit to be offered upon the altar!”

    16. Behold thou art comely, &c.—The congregation of Israel answered
    before the Lord of the world, and thus said, “How fair is the
    shechinah of thy holiness, when thou dwellest among us, and
    receivest prayers with acceptance; and when thou dwellest in our
    beloved bed, and our children are multiplied in the world, and we
    increase and multiply like a tree that is planted by a stream of
    water, whose leaf is fair, and whose fruit is plenteous!”

    17. The beams of, &c.—Solomon, the prophet, said, “How beautiful is
    the house of the sanctuary of the Lord, which is built by my hands,
    of wood of Gulmish; but far more beautiful will be the house of the
    sanctuary which shall be built in the days of the King Messiah, the
    beams of which will be of the cedars of the garden of Eden, and
    whose rafters will be of cypress, pine, and box.”


The precedent of the Talmud in taking the beloved as the Lord, and the
loved one as the Congregation of Israel, and in explaining the text in
such a manner as to make it square with her doings, has quite prepared
us for the Chaldee exposition, the author of which most probably was
himself one of the later Talmudists. How could the paraphrast do
otherwise? “Are not the words of the sages more excellent than even the
wine of the Law?” [37] “Is not he who transgresses the words of the
scribes more guilty than he who transgresses the words of the Law?”
[38] Having, therefore, been once settled by the sages that this Song
describes the doings and sufferings of Israel, it only remained for the
expositors to apply their exegetical canons, viz.: of transposing,
changing, or omitting letters; explaining words by others of a similar
sound; making each letter of a word begin another word; reducing an
expression to its numerical value, and explaining the text accordingly,
&c. &c., in order to palm upon this book, in a consecutive order, the
remarkable events in connection with the history of the Jews.

Thus, the love of God to Israel, which was greater than to all the
seventy other nations mentioned in Ch. i. 2, was obtained by reducing
the word ‏יין‎ to its numerical value, seventy; the two worlds, in
verse 3, which the pious are to inherit, were obtained by changing
‏עלמות‎ maidens, into ‏עולמות‎ worlds, according to the example of the
Talmud; [39] the twenty-two letters with which the Law is written, in
verse 4, were obtained by reducing the word ‏בך‎ to its numerical
value; the Tabernacle, in verse 5, was obtained from the word ‏ירעות‎,
and the effected peace by changing the proper name ‏שלמה‎ into ‏שלום‎
peace; the worship of the sun and moon, in verse 6, was obtained from
the word ‏שמש‎ sun; the ploughing bullock, in verse 10, was obtained by
changing ‏תורים‎ ringlet, and ‏חרוזים‎ necklace, into ‏תור חרז‎; the
two tables shining as the best gold, verse 11, were obtained by
rendering ‏תורי זהב‎ golden Laws, and the seven times seven, or the
forty different interpretations of the Law, by reducing the word ‏זהב‎
to its numerical value, ‏ז‎ being seven, and ‏ה‎ and ‏ב‎ seven, and
then multiplying seven by seven; the binding of Isaac, in verse 13, was
obtained by rendering ‏צרור המור‎ by ‏ערור המוריה‎ the binding of
Moriah; the sin of the calf, and the atonement of that, in verse 14,
were obtained by changing ‏עין גדי‎ En-gedi, into ‏עון עגל‎ the sin of
the calf, and by substituting ‏כפר‎ pardon, for ‏כופר‎ cypress-flower,
according to the example of the Talmud. [40] This is the development of
Hagadic exegesis, and this the paraphrase appealed to in support of the
allegorical interpretation, and in the track of which future
allegorists more or less follow.

892–942. From the Chaldee paraphrase to R. Saadias Gaon, a period of
about 350 years, thick darkness covers the annals of Jewish literature.
With him, however, a new epoch begins to dawn. Saadias was born at
Pithom, in Egypt, about the year 892, and died in the year 942. He was
“Gaon,” or spiritual head of the Jews in Babylon, and is well known by
his translation of the Bible into Arabic, the Pentateuch of which is
inserted in Walton’s Polyglott. [41] Among the many philosophical and
exegetical works this eminent man bequeathed to posterity, is a
commentary on the Song of Songs, which was originally written in
Arabic, and was translated into Hebrew by some unknown individual. This
work is exceedingly rare, and I have happily found a copy of the
original Constantinople edition in the British Museum, of which Dukes
was not aware when he wrote his “Literarische Mittheilungen.” The view
that Saadias takes is that “Solomon relates in it the history of the
Jews, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and extending it beyond
the coming of the Messiah.” Thus far he agrees with the Targum, but his
commentary on the text is entirely at variance with that paraphrase.

According to Saadias, Ch. i. 2–iii. 5, describes the bondage of Israel
in Egypt, their liberation, the giving of the Law, the battles with
Sihon, Og, and the King of Aroar, the wrath of God at the time of the
spies, &c. Ch. iii. 6–iv. 7, describes the erection of the Tabernacle,
the various journeys in the wilderness, the high position of Moses and
Aaron, &c. Hitherto Israel has been called by the appellation my loved
one, for they had not as yet entered Canaan; henceforth they are called
bride (‏כלה‎), because God takes them into the promised land; just as a
bridegroom calls his loved one bride, when he takes her home. Ch. iv.
8–v. 1, describes Israel’s entrance into Canaan, the building of the
first Temple, the separation of Judah and Israel, the Shechinah
departing from Israel and abiding with Judah, and the people coming up
to Jerusalem to the three great festivals. Ch. v. 2–vi. 3, describes
the rebellion of Israel and Ahaz, God sending prophets to warn them to
repent, the destruction of the Temple, the Babylonian captivity,
Israel’s liberation, the building of the second Temple, and the
covenant of God with his repenting people. Ch. vi. 4–ix. describes the
twofold condition of the people that returned from Babylon, some of
whom were godly, while others took strange women, forgot the holy
language, and were therefore called ‏שחר‎ dawn, being neither real
light nor real darkness, neither pious nor wicked. Ch. vi. 10–vii. 9,
refers to the present dispersion, in which the Jews, though being many
days without a king, without a priest, &c., say we still live in the
fear of God, and are His. Ch. vii. 12–viii. 4, refers to the sufferings
of the Messiah ben Joseph, the manifestation of the Messiah ben David,
the obedience of Israel to God in those days, and to the Lord’s
rejoicing over them as a bridegroom over his bride. Ch. viii. 5, to the
end, describes Israel restored, the third Temple built, and all the
people walking according to the will of the Lord.

The principal persons in this Song are understood in the following
manner: “the beloved” is the Lord; “the loved one,” the Congregation of
Israel; “the companions of the beloved,” (Ch. i. 7,) are Moses, Aaron,
and Miriam; “the daughters of Jerusalem,” the Congregation of Israel;
“the little sister,” the two tribes and a half; “the speaker,” the
Lord; “the inhabitant of the gardens,” is the sages; “the companions,”
in the same verse, are the Israelites wishing to listen to the teaching
of their sages.

The following is a specimen of R. Saadias’s commentary, the Hebrew of
which is given in the note. [42]


    1–3. The Song of Songs, &c.—Know, my brother, that you will find a
    great diversity of opinions as regards the interpretation of this
    Song of Songs; and it must be confessed that there is reason for
    it, since the Song of Songs is like a lock, the key of which hath
    been lost. Some maintain that it refers to the kingdom of Israel;
    others say that it refers to the days of the Messiah; and others
    again affirm that it refers to the time of the dispersion and the
    Messiah, and assert that by beloved (‏דוד‎) the Messiah is meant,
    and by bride (‏כלה‎) is meant the law (‏תורה‎). But this is a sin,
    an error, and a great heresy. The truth is, that by beloved (‏דוד‎)
    is meant the Lord, for it is written, “I will sing to my beloved a
    song of love respecting his vineyard” (Isa. v. 1), which the
    prophet Isaiah explains (verse 7), “The vineyard of the Lord of
    Hosts is the house of Israel.” Solomon relates in this book the
    history of the Jews commencing with their Exodus from Egypt until
    after the coming of the Messiah, and compares the position of
    Israel to God to that of a bride to a bridegroom, because she
    (Israel) is dear to him, and he to her. When he first takes her
    from her father’s house he calls her my friend (‏רעיתי‎), when he
    brings her to his house he calls her my bride (‏כלה‎), when she
    finds favour in his eyes he calls her my sister (‏אחותי‎), and
    praises her from head to foot; then he is angry with her, and she
    returns and praises him from head to foot; then he praises her a
    second time. And, because it is unlawful for a bridegroom and bride
    to come together without a marriage-contract and witnesses,
    therefore Solomon begins with the words, “Let him give me kisses of
    his mouth;” that is, the commandments and the statutes, comprising
    both the written and the oral law which the Lord gave to Israel
    through the pious Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, so that Israel’s fame
    went forth into the world in consequence of their wisdom, as it is
    written, “And thy renown went forth among the heathen for thy
    beauty,” &c. (Ezek. xvi. 14), so much so that many of the nations
    desired to be gathered under the wings of the shechinah and become
    Jews; and these are the mixed multitudes, Jethro and others, and
    therefore it is said, “Thy perfumes are good in odour,” that is,
    the Lord tried them from the departure out of Egypt till their
    entrance into Canaan whether they would walk in his ways, as it is
    written, “Thou didst follow me in the wilderness,” &c. Jer. ii. 2.

    4. Draw me, &c.—Having related in this verse how Israel walked in
    the fear of the Lord, and received the ten commandments in the 6th
    of Sivan, and then made the calf on the 17th of Tamuz, Solomon in
    astonishment says in their name,

    5. I am swarthy, &c.—That is, I am swarthy, but comely; I am
    swarthy because of making the calf, but comely because of receiving
    the ten commandments; and Israel says that his sin has been
    forgiven through the three thousand men, the wicked among Israel,
    who served idols, who were killed before the sun to atone for the
    great sin, as it is written, “For thou hadst done it in secret, but
    I will do it before all Israel, and before the sun” (2 Sam. xii.
    11, 12); and the nations made me keeper of the service of other
    gods, for I served strange gods, as it is written, “And they
    changed their glory into the likeness of a calf that eateth grass”
    (Psal. cv. 25.)


The reader will have observed that this early commentator does already
compare the Song of Songs to a lock, the key of which has been lost,
and refers to several modes in which it has been interpreted.

1000–1040. The allegorical interpretation was nevertheless introduced
into the Jewish liturgical services in the middle ages, when they were
seeking, from traditions, dogmas, biblical events, &c., to construct
sacred hymns and poems to be said or sung at their feasts and fasts.
[43] Being regarded as representing the departure of Israel from Egypt
(‏יציאת מצרים‎), and their subsequent history in confirmation of
Jehovah’s covenant with them, the Song of Songs is used in a poetical
paraphrase on the first and second morning services of the Passover
feast, which was designed to celebrate the Exodus from Egypt as the
commencement of the conjugal relation between God and his people. For
the same reason, the book itself is read in the synagogue on the
Sabbath of the middle days of the Passover (‏חול המועד של פסח‎). The
poetical paraphrase above alluded to is in an alphabetical form, has
the author’s name in it, and each stanza closes with a quotation from
the book in regular order, which renders the paraphrastic meaning
artificial and obscure. Some idea of it may be gathered from the
following version which we have made of R. Solomon ben Judah Hababli’s
paraphrase, comprising the first five verses of the Song of Songs.


    1   The Light and Saviour of the chosen people
          Deserving protection,
          He shall have from His beloved assembly
          “A song of Songs.”

    2   The Graceful One, the object of all longing desires.
          The Reviving Cordial of the fainting heart,
          The Bountiful Source of abundant supply,
          “He hath kissed me with kisses.” [44]

    3   The loved one above all nations,
          The keeper of the Law Thou hast given,
          Her didst Thou perfume with Thy spices,
          “The odour of Thy sweet ointments.” [45]

    4   The chosen of Thy house and nobles,
          Lo! we are surrounded with splendour,
          We press to the house of Thy glory,
          “Oh draw us after thee.” [46]

    5   Oh Thou all majestic, yet mild,
          Thou hast crown’d me with grace above many,
          Though now with grief I am marred,
          “I am swarthy, but comely.” [47]


It must, however, be borne in mind that the synagogal poetry was not
authorized to express the creed of the whole nation; which is evident
from the fact that many learned and pious Jews unscrupulously, and
without censure, rejected some of its opinions. Some of these poems
were composed by prelectors of separate congregations, and for the use
of the particular synagogues in which they officiated. The adoption or
rejection of any such poem entirely depended upon the influence of the
prelector on his congregation, and upon the theme and merit of the
composition. The poetical paraphrase of the allegorical interpretation
of the Song of Songs was sure to be adopted because of the consolation
which it imparts to the dispersed and suffering Israelites, inasmuch as
it assures them that God has not cast them off, that He is still their
beloved, and they are still his loved ones, and that he will speedily
be reunited to them.

1040–1105. Through R. Solomon ben Isaac, the founder of the
Germano-French Rabbinical literature, this encouraging allegorical
interpretation was introduced into Germany and France, where the
suffering Jews obtained consolation. This distinguished commentator,
commonly called Rashi, and, through the misleading of Buxtorf,
erroneously named Jarchi, was born at Troyes, in Champagne, in 1040,
where he also died, about 1105. [48]

“My opinion is,” says Rashi, “that Solomon foresaw, by the aid of the
Holy Spirit, that Israel would be carried into sundry captivities, and
undergo sundry dissolutions; that they would lament in their captivity
over their former glory, and recall the former love, which God
manifested for them above all other nations; that they would say, ‘I
will go and return to my first husband, for then was it better with me
than now’ (Hos. ii. 9); that they would acknowledge His kindness and
their own rebellion, and the good things which He promised to give them
in the latter days (i.e., at the coming of Messiah.)

“This book is written by inspiration, and represents a wife forsaken by
her husband, and shut up, longing after him, recalling to her mind her
love in youth to her beloved, and confessing her guilt; her beloved
sympathising with her affection, and remembering the kindness of her
youth, the charms of her beauty, and her good works, which had tied him
to her with an everlasting love.

“The design of this book is to show to Israel that God has not
afflicted her (i.e., Israel) willingly; that though He did send her
away, He has not cast her off; that she is still His wife, and He her
husband, and that He will again be united to her.” [49]

According to Rashi, ‏דוד‎ represents God as a husband, and the “loved
one” the congregation of Israel, as a wife forsaken for a time by him;
the “companions of the beloved” are the heathen kings and princes,
under the figure of wolves; “the daughters of Jerusalem,” are the
heathen nations; the “brothers of the loved one,” are the Egyptians;
the “little sister” is the forsaken wife of the Song, &c. &c.

The following is a specimen of Rashi’s commentary:—


    1. The Song of Songs, &c.—Our Rabbins state, that whenever Solomon
    is mentioned in this Song, it signifies the Holy One, the King of
    Peace. This is confirmed by the fact that the name of Solomon’s
    father is not here given, as in Prov. i. 1 and Eccl. i. 1. This
    most excellent Song was addressed to God by his people, the
    congregation of Israel. Rabbi Akiba says, that the world was not
    worthy of the day in which the Song of Songs was given to Israel;
    for all the Scriptures are holy, but the Song of Songs is most
    holy. Rabbi Eliezer ben Azariah says, it is like to a king who took
    a measure of wheat, and gave it to the baker, saying, Produce from
    it so much flour, so much bran, and so much chaff, and make me a
    refined and excellent cake of the flour; so all Scriptures are
    holy, but this Song is most holy; for the whole of this book
    teaches the fear of God and submission to his kingdom.

    2. Let him kiss me, &c.—This Song Israel utters in her captivity
    and widowhood. Oh that King Solomon would give me kisses of His
    mouth, as in the time of yore! Some kiss the hand, and others the
    shoulders; but I desire that He should behave to me as in former
    days, viz., kiss my mouth as a bridegroom kisses his bride; for Thy
    caresses are better than all the banquets of wine, and all joys and
    pleasures. It is a Hebrew idiom to call every banquet of pleasure
    and joy by the name of wine (Comp. Esth. vii. 2; Isaiah xxiv. 9; v.
    12). This is the literal sense; but, according to the allegory,
    this refers to the giving of the Law, and God’s speaking with
    Israel face to face. These favours still continue to be more
    precious to them than any delights; and as they are assured by God
    that He will appear again to reveal the secrets and mysteries of
    the Law, Israel prays to Him for the fulfilment of His promises.
    This is the meaning of “Let him kiss me!”

    3. Thy perfumes, &c.—A good name is called good oil. The fragrance
    of Thy name is so excellent that the ends of the earth have smelt
    it when they heard of Thy fame and of Thy great wonders in Egypt.
    Thy name is called ‏שמן‎, i.e., Thou art oil, and art constantly
    poured forth, so that Thy sweet odour might be widely diffused.
    This is the nature of good oil. As long as it is sealed in a
    bottle, it does not emit any smell; but when the bottle is opened,
    and the oil poured into a vessel, the smell is diffused. The
    maidens love thee. Jethro, hearing of the wonderful doings of God
    in Egypt, confessed the God of Israel (Exodus xviii.); so Rahab,
    when she heard that the Lord had dried up the waters of the Red
    Sea, became a proselyte (Joshua ii. 11). By the maidens are meant
    the Gentiles; they are so called because God is represented as a
    youth.

    4. Draw me, &c.—I gathered from Thy messengers that Thou didst wish
    to draw me, and I immediately replied, We will run after Thee to be
    Thy wife. He has brought me, &c. And up to the present time I still
    rejoice, and am glad that I have been united to Thee. We celebrate,
    &c. Even now, though a living widow, I celebrate Thy love more than
    a banquet of pleasure and mirth. They love thee, &c. I and my
    forefathers, in their days, have loved Thee with fervent and
    upright love, without deception. This is the literal meaning
    according to the context. But, according to the allegory, Israel
    reminds God of the kindness of their youth and the love of their
    espousals (Jer. ii. 2), of their following Him in the wilderness, a
    land of aridity and the shadow of death, whither they took no
    provisions, because they believed in Him and in His messenger, and
    did not say, How shall we follow Thee in the wilderness, a place
    destitute of fertility and food? but went after Him, and “He
    brought them into his apartments:” that is, surrounded them with
    the protecting clouds. And even now, though in distress and
    affliction, they rejoice and are glad in Him and delight in the
    Law; and herein celebrate His love more than wine, and manifest
    their sincere attachment to Him.

    5. I am swarthy, &c.—You, my companions, let me not be lightly
    esteemed in your eyes, although my Husband forsook me because of my
    swarthiness; for I am swarthy because of the tanning sun, yet I am
    comely because of the symmetry of my beautiful limbs. If I am
    swarthy, like the tents of Kedar, which are discoloured by the
    rain, in consequence of their being constantly spread out in the
    wilderness, I shall easily be washed, and be as beautiful as the
    curtains of Solomon. The allegorical meaning is, the congregation
    of Israel speaks this to the Gentiles,—I am swarthy in my own
    works, but I am comely in the works of my fathers; and some of my
    own works even are good. And though I am tainted with the sin of
    the calf, I have, to counterbalance this, the merit of accepting
    the Law. Israel calls the Gentiles “daughters of Jerusalem,”
    because Jerusalem is to be the metropolis of all nations, as it is
    predicted, “And I will give them to thee for daughters” (Ezek. xvi.
    61); and, again, “Ekron and her daughters” (Josh. xv. 44).


Rashi also says, that he had seen “a number of other commentaries on
this Song; some containing an exposition of the whole Book, and others
of separate passages, but they are compatible neither with the language
of Scripture, nor with the connexion of the verses.” [50]

1085–1155. The spread of this consoling allegorical interpretation in
France and Germany was promoted by the commentary [51] of the
distinguished R. Samuel ben Meier, called Rashbam, the grandson of
Rashi, who was born about 1085, and died about 1155. [52]

Rashbam too affirms that this book “represents captive Israel as a
virgin sighing and mourning for her beloved, who left her and went afar
off, as describing his everlasting love to her, declaring in a Song,
‘Such an ardent love did my beloved manifest when with me,’ and telling
her friends and companions in a colloquial manner, ‘So did my beloved
speak to me, and so did I answer him.’” [53] In the explanations of the
principal persons Rashbam generally agrees with Rashi.

The following is a specimen of his commentary:—


    1. The Song of Songs—That is, a song celebrated above all songs,
    like ‏אלהי אלהיﬦ‎ the great and awful God, above all gods, and
    ‏ﬡדוני אדניﬦ‎ the great Lord above all lords. Which is Solomon’s.
    That is, King Solomon composed it by inspiration. Foreseeing the
    Israelites in their captivity sighing after the Holy One who went
    away from them, as a bridegroom separates himself from his beloved,
    Solomon sings this song in the name of the congregation of Israel,
    who is like a bride to Him (God). ‏אשר לשלמה‎ describes Solomon as
    the author, compare ‏תפלה למשה‎, ‏תהלה לדוד‎.

    2. Would that, &c.—Would that my Beloved came, and kissed me kisses
    of His mouth on my mouth in his great love as in the days of old;
    for the expressions of His love are better, pleasanter, and sweeter
    than any delicious banquet. Thy caresses. The loved one sometimes
    addresses herself to her beloved as if he were present, and at
    other times she speaks of him to her companions, as if he were
    absent. More than wine, i.e. more than sweet beverages called
    ‏יַיִן‎. According to the allegorical meaning, this refers to the law
    delivered to Israel mouth to mouth.

    3. Thy perfumes, &c.—Because of Thy good ointment of balsam, the
    odour of which extended to the end of the earth, and was poured out
    from vessel to vessel, therefore is Thy name called ointment. Comp.
    Eccl. vii. 1. “A good name is better than precious ointment.” By
    the extension of youthful love is meant the wonders which the Holy
    One performed for the congregation of Israel in Egypt, on account
    of which His name and power became known among the nations, as it
    is written, “The priest of Midian heard, &c.” Exod. xviii. 1: and
    again, what is said by Rahab the harlot, “For we have heard how the
    Lord dried up the water, &c.” Josh. ii. 10. And again, “The people
    shall hear and be afraid,” Exod. xv. 14.

    4. Draw me, &c.—Draw me to Thee, and I and my congregation will run
    after Thee, as in the days of old, when the King, my beloved,
    brought me into His chambers; and, while running after Thee, we
    will rejoice and be glad in Thee, and celebrate Thy love and the
    expressions of Thy affection above any banquet of wine and
    beverages; for all the world loves Thee with upright love. This
    refers to the congregation of Israel, who sighs and makes
    supplication before the Holy One, to bring her out from her
    captivity, as He had formerly brought her out of Egypt, and led her
    into His chambers, i.e., the tabernacle, where they served Him
    continually.

    5. I am swarthy, &c.—Oh, my companions, virgin daughters of
    Ishmael, do not disdain and deride me on account of my blackness,
    saying, Because I am black, therefore my Beloved left me; for,
    although I am black as regards the appearance of my face, like the
    tents of Kedar, yet I am comely and graceful in body and stature,
    like the curtains of King Solomon, which are becoming and suitable
    to royalty. Thus the congregation of Israel, whom the nations
    reproach on account of her sins and transgressions which she
    committed, answers: True, I have sinned; and woe to me, for I am
    wandering in captivity for it; yet I am comely, I am of royal
    blood, and have the merits of my fathers; and the Holy One, in the
    latter days, will restore me to my former state, and liberate me
    from the iron furnace of captivity. The daughters of Jerusalem are
    the heathen. Compare “I will give them to thee to be thy
    daughters.” Ezek. xvi. 61. The tents of Kedar are black, because
    the sons of Kedar sojourn in deserts and dwell in tents, and not in
    houses.


1093–1168. While Rashi and Rashbam, by means of this allegorical
interpretation, assuaged the sufferings of their brethren in France and
Germany, the celebrated Abraham Ibn-Ezra ben Meier, also called
Ibn-Ezra and Raba, who was born in Toledo in 1093, and died in 1168,
[54] administered consolation through the same medium to his suffering
brethren in Spain, shewing them that this Song recounts the past
wonderful dealings of God with his beloved people from the very call of
Abraham, and the blessings reserved for them at the coming of the
Messiah, who shall gather them from among all nations, and bring them
back to the land flowing with milk and honey.

Thus Ibn Ezra maintains that “This book is allegorical, and describes
the history of Israel; commencing with the days of our Father, Abraham,
and coming down to the days of the Messiah; just as the Song of Moses
(Deut. xxxii.) begins with the dispersion of the human family, and
finishes with the final ingathering of Israel, after the battle of Gog
and Magog. Do not wonder that the Congregation of Israel is here
compared to a bride, and the Lord to a bridegroom; for this is the
manner of the prophets.” (Comp. Isa. v. 1, lxii. 5, Ezek. xvi. 7, Hos.
iii. 1, Psa. xlv. 10.)

The allegory, according to this distinguished Rabbi, is developed in
the suppositious attachment contracted between a damsel who kept a
vineyard, and a shepherd. The representation of the love of these
parties “is suppositious, because such an actual manifestation, in so
public a manner as here recorded, would be regarded as highly
improper.” [55]

“The beloved” represents God; with the exception of viii. 12, where the
Messiah is meant; “the loved one” is the Congregation of Israel; “the
companions of the beloved” are the pious ancestors; “the daughters of
Jerusalem” are the thoughts of the loved one; “the little sister,” in
viii. 8, is the two tribes and a half; “the speaker,” in viii. 13, the
shechinah; “the companions,” in the same verse, are the angels.

The commentary consists of three different glosses: in the first, the
words are explained; in the second, the suppositious history of the
attachment of the shepherd and shepherdess is developed; and in the
third gloss, the allegory is evolved from that history. The following
is a specimen of the gloss where the allegory is propounded.


    2. Let him kiss me.—He (i.e. Solomon) begins with Abraham, for he
    is the root of the Jewish nation. By “the kisses of his mouth” are
    meant the law and the commandments, as it is written, “Abraham
    obeyed my voice and kept my charge, my commandments, my statutes,
    and my laws.” (Gen. xxvi. 5.) Do not wonder that the future
    (‏ישקני‎) is used instead of the past; this is the idiom of the
    sacred Scriptures, compare ‏ﬡז ישּיר‎, then he sang (Exod. xv. 1,
    and Psa. cvi. 19); just as we find the contrary, the past used for
    the future (Psa. lxxix. 1).—For thy love, &c. i.e., to be loved by
    thee; as the Scriptures testify of God’s love to his people.
    Compare “the seed of Abraham whom I love” (Isa. xli. 8); for there
    is a difference between ‏אוהב‎, loving, and ‏אהוב‎, loved.

    3. Thy perfumes, &c.—Abraham proclaimed the works of God, and
    instructed his generation; and wherever he went he called on the
    name of the Lord; this is the meaning of “thy name is poured forth
    like oil.” Therefore do the damsels love thee.—‏עלמות‎ are such as
    have no husbands, and denote the heathen who had no God, and were
    brought by Abraham into union with God; as it is written, “The
    souls which they had begotten in Haran” (Gen. xii. 5).

    4. Draw me.—Abraham was drawn after God, and therefore left his
    native place (Gen. xii. 1). The king has brought me, &c.—God has
    brought Abraham into the land of Canaan; or it may mean, God has
    made him wise in his secrets, and the words, we will praise thy
    love, denote the altars and groves which Abraham erected and
    planted wherever he came.

    5. I am swarthy.—This refers to the Egyptian bondage. Although I
    (i.e. Israel) am swarthy because of some evil deeds committed
    there; yet I am comely because of my adhesion to the covenant and
    to the belief in the unity of God.


It has generally been overlooked that Ibn Ezra distinctly states in the
second gloss, in which he professes to give the literal meaning of the
narrative, that the lovers are a shepherd and a shepherdess, and that
the king is a separate and distinct person from the beloved shepherd.

Thus he explains Ch. i. 4, “I rejoice in THEE (the shepherd) more than
if THE KING had brought me into his apartments.” Again, verse 12, the
shepherdess says to the shepherd, “Though my fragrance is so sweet that
THE KING, whilst reclining, desires to smell my nard, yet MY BELOVED
(the shepherd), who is a bundle of myrrh, diffuses a still sweeter
fragrance.” Compare also Ch. iii. 6–11, Ch. vi. 8, Ch. viii. 11, 12.
This is an important step to the right understanding of the Book.

Ibn Ezra also mentions that “The philosophers explain this book to
refer to the mysterious harmony of the universe, and to the union of
the divine soul with the earthly body; and that others, again, explain
it literally.” [56] In reference to the last mentioned mode of
interpretation, he exclaimed, “Far be it! far be it! to think that the
Song of Songs is an amatory composition.” [57]

1200–1250. The frequent mention made by the preceding commentators of
the different views entertained respecting this Song, will have
prepared the reader for the philosophical interpretation which has been
adopted and defended by a large and influential portion of the Jewish
community.

Joseph Ibn Caspe, a learned author, who lived in the beginning of the
thirteenth century, and who wrote expositions on several portions of
the Scriptures, maintains that “this book represents the union between
the ACTIVE INTELLECT (intellectus agens) and the RECEPTIVE MATERIAL
INTELLECT (intellectus materialis),” typified by the beloved and loved
one.

As Caspe’s commentary is short and exceedingly rare, we give a
translation of it, and subjoin the original in the footnote:—


    THE COMMENTARY OF IBN CASPE. [58]

    Joseph Caspe saith: Having commented on Ecclesiastes and Proverbs,
    which Solomon of blessed memory has in wisdom composed, it behoves
    us also to write a few words on the Song of Songs, which is
    likewise the composition of Solomon of blessed memory. I need not,
    however, explain the words, since they have been explained long
    before me. I shall, therefore, confine my remarks to the design of
    the book in general, and now and then make some observations in
    particular. The general design of this book, however, is not my
    discovery; the luminary (Maimonides) that shone upon the earth has
    enlightened our eyes also upon this subject when treating upon it,
    especially in part iii. c. 51 (of the More Nebochim); and his hint
    there is sufficient for us and for such as ourselves.

    I therefore submit that this book undoubtedly belongs to the second
    kind of parables which the teacher of blessed memory (Maimonides)
    mentions in the beginning of his book, in which all the words used
    in the comparison must not be applied to the thing compared, just
    as in the case there quoted, which treats on the subject of a
    beloved and loved one, like the book before us, with the only
    difference that the instance there adduced refers to the union of
    matter and mind, and this book represents the union between the
    active intellect and the receptive, material intellect, which
    latter is divided into four parts, the highest of which is the
    imparted intellect. With all the particulars of this book, Solomon
    merely designed to hint at the subject in general. It is most
    certain that he calls here the highest order of the human intellect
    “the fairest of women,” and the active intellect “the graceful
    lover;” frequently the whole intellectual mind is meant by the
    latter phrase, for this is the meaning demanded in several places
    of this Book.

    It is well known that the active intellect (intellectus agens)
    stirs up or brings the receptive intellect (intellectus materialis)
    from a possibility into activity, as it is known to the
    philosophers; and that the receptive intellect requires to seek
    after this; as it is written, “If thou wilt seek it, it shall be
    found of thee.”

    Having explained the general design, we need not dwell upon the
    particulars; the design is indicated in a few passages only, whilst
    the whole is treated in accordance with the train of a poetical
    composition and logical science; and this Solomon declares in the
    beginning of the book by saying “The Song of Songs.”

    It is, moreover, known that Solomon composed three books which we
    possess; and as the prophets of blessed memory spoke in three
    different kinds of ways; the one, in a plain manner, containing
    nothing beyond the obvious and literal sense, which is called all
    silver; the second entirely symbolical, having no literal meaning
    whatever, but consisting of mere allegories or parables, which is
    called all gold; and the third comprising both the figurative and
    the literal, which is called apples of gold (under plates of
    silver); so Solomon wrote the three books—Ecclesiastes, which
    belongs to the first kind; the Song of Songs to the second; and
    Proverbs to the third. Remember these distinctions, and observe how
    we are in danger at every step to mistake in the Law, Hagiography,
    and Prophets, one for the other, and thus change life into death.
    And this leads us to commit one of two errors; we either put into
    the words a thing which is false, or, to say the least, make the
    author say what he did not intend; in such a case, our words can no
    more be called a commentary, but form a separate composition or a
    book for themselves. I only call that a commentary which thoroughly
    comes up to the design of the author of the book. The appearance,
    however, of each book of the Bible will indicate to a judicious,
    clear-headed, and intellectual man, whether it belongs to the one
    or the other of the above-mentioned classes. We cannot here give
    rules whereby to test this; it is sufficient to say that truth is
    her own witness.

    There is another important remark to be made, viz., that allusions
    are made in this book to the writings of Moses, as, indeed, Solomon
    has made in his other books. This all the prophets have done, in
    order to explain expressions and synonyms which occur in the Law of
    Moses, especially when referring to that part of the Law which
    treats on the Creation and the Chariot, the chief objects of the
    Law. We must study deeply to understand the wonderful works of the
    prophets, and after them, the rabbins of blessed memory, in their
    respective books; for when they intended to be profound, they did
    not mention the same terms employed in the Law, but changed them
    for other expressions which are somewhat synonymous with those in
    the former, e.g., ‏יין חמר, פרדם‎, wine, vine, vineyard, &c. From
    this arose the great hyperbole in the writings of the Rabbins of
    blessed memory, for wisdom was not hid from them. But this is not
    necessary here. The above remarks will suffice for this book
    according to our design. Praise be to God, and blessed be his name!
    Amen.


Moses Ibn Tibbon, a celebrated writer of the same age, wrote an
elaborate commentary in which he maintains the same view that “the Song
of Songs represents the union of the RECEPTIVE or MATERIAL INTELLECT
with the ACTIVE INTELLECT.”

This commentary has not been printed. A defective MS. containing the
Preface, which is very copious, is to be found in the British Museum,
Harleian Collection, No. 5797; and a complete MS. is in the possession
of the Bodleian Library at Oxford.

1272–1350. The most powerful and ingenious defender of this view is
Immanuel ben Solomon. This most charming Hebrew writer, who is
poetically called ‏אַלוּף הַדַּעַת בְּמַגְדִיאֵל‎, the Prince of Science in Rome,
was born in Rome, in 1272, where he was the spiritual head of the
Jewish community, and where he died, in the first half of the
fourteenth century. As Immanuel gives an analysis of this mode of
interpretation in his exposition on the first verse, and as this
commentary has not been published, we give a translation of this verse,
which will enable the reader to see how this mode of interpretation is
applied to the whole book. The MS. used for this purpose is in the
possession of the British Museum, Harl. Col., No. 5797. [59]


    The Song of Songs.—Immanuel ben R. Solomon of blessed memory,
    saith, Acknowledging the goodness of the Lord, I agree with the
    opinion of our Rabbins, that this book is the most sublime of all
    the Books given by inspiration. Expositors, however, differ in its
    interpretation, and their opinions are divided, according to the
    diversity of their knowledge. There are some—but these are such as
    go no further than the material world, and that which their eye
    sees, looking forward to the good of this world and its glory, to
    the great reward of their labours and a recompense from God,
    desiring to be restored to their greatness, and to the land flowing
    with milk and honey, and to have their stomachs filled with the
    flesh of the Leviathan, and the best of wines preserved in its
    grapes—such men interpret this sublime song as having reference to
    the history of the Patriarchs, their going down to Egypt, their
    Exodus from thence with a mighty hand and outstretched arm, the
    giving of the Law, the entry into the land of Canaan, the
    settlement of Israel in it, their captivity, restoration, the
    building of the second Temple, the present dispersion, and their
    final ingathering which is to take place. Such interpreters regard
    this book, which is holy of holies, as some common book, or
    historical record of any of the kings, which is of very little use,
    and the reading of which is only a loss of time. But there are
    other sages and divines, who have attained to know the value of
    true wisdom; they are separated from the material world, despise
    the mere temporal things, heartily desire to know the courts of the
    Lord, and have a footing in the Jerusalem which is above, and with
    heart and flesh sing to the living God; these have put off the
    garments of folly, and clothed themselves in the robes of wisdom,
    and while searching after the mysteries of this precious book
    through the openings of the figures of silver, glanced at golden
    apples of the allegory concealed in it. They, in the vessel of
    their understanding, traversed its sea, and brought to light from
    the depth, the reality of the book. Thus they have declared that
    the book was composed to explain the possibility of a reunion with
    the incorporeal mind, which forms the perceptive faculty, and
    influences it with abundant goodness.

    The shepherds, accordingly, represent the corporeal intellect which
    longs after the influence of the active intellect, and desires to
    be like it, as much as possible, to cleave to it, and to come up to
    its standing, which is the ultimate end of its purpose.

    These learned divines above mentioned have expounded the design of
    the book in general, and explained some of its verses indirectly;
    but they did not explain it in regular order from beginning to end,
    till the celebrated sage, R. Moses Ibn Tibbon, came and explained
    the book according to wisdom, and his exposition is, indeed, full
    of wisdom and excellency. As he, however, passed by several
    particulars, not noticing their design, our wise contemporaries,
    reading the writing of that learned author, and wishing to enter
    more fully into all its parts, insisted, with a command of love,
    that I should write a complete commentary on the book, keeping the
    same path the learned author has pointed out, bringing out all its
    particulars, and making discoveries not mentioned in the said book,
    also paying attention to its literal meaning, as far as God may
    enable me.

    Seeing their entreaties, and regarding it a duty to yield to their
    wishes, I gathered strength, and made the commentary on the book,
    according to my feeble abilities. I kept the plan of the said
    author, mentioned some of his words, and altered others, sometimes
    adding to, and at other times diminishing from what he said, as I
    was led by the heavenly Father. Thus I begin. It appears necessary
    first to mention the design of the book in general, and its
    division into sections.

    I submit that all truly wise men who commented upon this book
    philosophically, saw clearly that it is divisible into three
    principal sections.

    The first section extends from chap. i. 2, to ii. 17.

    The second section extends from chap. iii. 1, to v. 1.

    And the third from chap. v. 2, to the end of the book.

    These three sections, moreover, refer to three different kinds of
    men.

    The first section—Chap. i. 2,–ii. 17,—represents man, who either
    ideally or actually, was in the garden of Eden before he sinned,
    and brought into activity his choice for good and evil; as it is
    written, “And the Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden; and
    there he put the man whom he had formed. And out of the ground made
    the Lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight and
    good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden,
    and the tree of knowledge of good and evil” (Gen. ii. 8, 9). The
    Lord permitted, or commanded him to eat of all the fruit of the
    garden; but He pointed out to him one tree of which he was not to
    eat, lest he should die; as it is said, “But of the tree of the
    knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it: for in the
    day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die” (Gen. ii. 17).
    And if, as man, he had the choice to eat of the tree of life, he
    might have eaten and lived for ever, without mortification or
    trouble; as it is written, “Behold, I have set before thee life and
    good, and death and evil: choose, therefore, of the life, that thou
    mayest live” (Deut. xxx. 15). This represents one who endeavours to
    learn wisdom in its order, but is afraid lest he should be
    terrified when looking up to God, seeing that his fruit is not yet
    ripe. This is the meaning of what is said in the section, “Turn, my
    beloved, and be thou like a gazelle or a young hind upon the
    mountains of separation” (Song of Songs ii. 17); and again, “Catch
    us the foxes, the little foxes, that destroy the vineyards; for our
    vineyards are in blossom” (ibid. 15). This teaches that the fruit
    was not yet ripe. There is no mention in this first section that
    the shepherdess did eat of the fruit. Her saying, “I desired to sit
    down under its shade, and its fruit is sweet to my taste” (Song of
    Songs ii. 3), merely declares her desire, which is evident from the
    word ‏חמדתי‎. The expression ‏פריו‎ is here used in the sense of
    words, wisdom, and instruction. The whole, therefore, of the first
    section refers to the mind of man when still young, prior to its
    developing the end for which its existence was designed, and when
    the powers of the body have still the dominion over it, for he has
    not pursued his studies farther than mathematics and physics. This
    first section is again subdivided into two parts. The first part
    begins chap. i. 2, and ends ii. 7, and represents one who fears God
    and shuns evil; but his knowledge of God is derived from tradition,
    and has no wisdom of his own. And the second part (chap. ii. 8 to
    iii. 1) represents one who has studied mathematics and physics.

    The second section (chap. iii. 1, v. 1) represents one who has
    found the virtuous woman whose desire is to her husband, and who
    seeks her beloved while upon her couch, and in whom her husband may
    safely trust; that is, a mind which has brought out its possibility
    into reality, and has, as it were, stretched out its hand and taken
    of the tree of life, and eaten, and lives for ever. This is meant
    by the declaration in this section, “Scarcely had I passed them,
    when I found him whom my soul loveth. I seized him, and would not
    let him go, till I brought him into the house of my mother, into
    the apartment of her that gave me birth” (Song of Songs iii. 4).
    The nuptials, too, are mentioned, and the day of the gladness of
    his heart (iii. 11), which is the true spiritual nuptial day and
    union. It is also stated that he had a couch, as it is said,
    “Behold the couch of Solomon” (iii. 7), as well as a palanquin, and
    was fit for royalty. He is, moreover, called here King Solomon,
    whereas, in the remainder, he is merely called Solomon, or
    Shulamite, in the feminine, to denote the effeminate state. The
    beloved also declares that he had found his loved one a closed
    garden, and that her branches are an orchard of pomegranates with
    delicious fruit: (iv. 12, 13), that is, though most of them are
    generally sour, here, however, they are sweet, pleasant, and ripe:
    he affirms that she is altogether beautiful, and there is no
    blemish in her (ver. 7), and calls her bride six times, which he
    has not done before; for she is his true wife, dear to him above
    all. She therefore asks her beloved to “come to his garden, and eat
    of his pleasant fruit” (iv. 16), which befits him. This is the
    import of the words, “Thy shoots are an orchard of pomegranates
    with most delicious fruit” (iv. 13): whereby, however, it must not
    be understood that she will give to her husband, and make him eat
    of the fruit, which properly belongs to the woman, who listened to
    the words of the serpent, and was beguiled by him.

    The beloved declares that he did come to his garden, and ate and
    drank, and also caused his friends to eat and drink, and that they
    indulged together in a sumptuous feast; for “when the righteous
    have the rule, the city rejoiceth” (Prov. xi. 10). This is the
    meaning of the words, “I have come into my garden, my sister, my
    spouse: I have gathered my myrrh with my spice; I have eaten my
    honeycomb with my honey; I have drunk my wine with my milk: eat, O
    ye friends, drink, yea, drink abundantly, O beloved!” (v. 1.) He,
    as it were, sent forth and took of the tree of life, and did eat
    and lived for ever, without any trouble or hinderance; for he
    passed through all the three (degrees) in proper order, he went in
    and out in peace: that is, he passed through all the degrees, and
    finished their proper course, without doing any mischief or
    committing any error; and his carnal powers, which are the watchmen
    who walk in the city, and especially his intellectual powers, which
    are those that watch the walls, are all profitable, and point out
    to the mind the right way, and never mislead, nor hinder, nor delay
    its course. She then asks of the watchmen, “Have you seen him whom
    my soul loveth?” (iii. 3,) for they (i.e., the watchmen, who
    represent the bodily and intellectual powers) are upright, and
    their knowledge is perfect, and, as it were, they see and guide;
    yet they did not answer her, for it is not in their nature to
    teach. But no sooner had she passed them, and was at a distance
    from them, than she found her beloved, and was united to him, as it
    is said, “Scarcely had I passed them, when I found him whom my soul
    loveth. I seized him, and would not let him go till I brought him
    into the house of my mother, and into the apartment of her that
    gave me birth” (iii. 4); whereupon they made themselves a couch and
    a palanquin, rejoicing, and feasting, and banqueting, as we have
    already explained.

    This second section is also subdivided into two parts; the first is
    from iii. 1 to verse 6, and the second from iii. 6 to v. 2; the
    second part is epexegetical of the first.

    The third section (v. 2, viii. 14 inclusive) represents a man who
    has a sinful wife that has been beguiled by the carnal appetites,
    and has listened to them, and eaten of the tree of knowledge of
    good and evil, and given also to her husband with her and he has
    eaten. Mark here the expression with her (‏עמח‎), for man cannot
    eat of it unless with her; for since God has not revealed it to
    man, and will not; and man, indeed, has no access to it, except
    through the woman; for she finds it and takes it up; and she is the
    one who pursues after pleasure, and is drawn after sensual lust.
    But she does not seek for her husband when retiring to bed, nor
    does she wait for him; but, undressing herself, and washing her
    feet, and perfuming her fingers with myrrh, which is temporal
    instead of eternal ointment, falls asleep, and is even too lazy to
    open when her beloved knocks at the door, saying, “Open to me, my
    sister, my spouse, &c.” Her husband, however, influences her, and
    she repents, as she was not in a deep sleep, her heart being awake,
    and she opens for her husband in spite of her great laziness; but
    her beloved withdrew, and went away. She then sought him, and found
    him not; she called him, but he answered her not. The guards of the
    wall and the patrol of the city found her, and smote her, and
    wounded her, and stripped her of her cloak; that is, they
    misdirected her, had hindered her from getting to her beloved; for
    sin once tasted is hard to forsake. As it is not mentioned in the
    case of Adam, after being driven from the garden of Eden, that he
    ever touched with his hand, and took of the tree of life, and was
    cured, though it was open for him to do so; for it is written, “And
    now, lest he put forth his hand, and take also of the tree of life,
    and eat, and live for ever” (Gen. iii. 22); by which is meant,
    would that he should do so, for the Lord loves righteousness, and
    he is not a God desiring condemnation; as it is written, “As I
    live, saith the Lord God, I have no pleasure in the death of the
    wicked; but that the wicked turn from his way and live.” (Ezek.
    xxxiii. 11.) Yet it is not stated in the Scriptures that after the
    fall he ever ate of the tree of life. This is, perhaps, a hint that
    it is almost impossible for one who once has eaten of the tree of
    knowledge of good and evil, that he should afterwards eat of the
    tree of life. “For the difficulty of uniting a couple a second time
    is as great as dividing the Red Sea,” which was supernatural,
    although it is indeed not impossible. Thus Solomon left the thing
    unexplained; and though he mentioned how they longed for each other
    after their separation, and how they praised one another in the
    manner of lovers, yet they are not any more found united, or to
    have a nuptial couch, a palanquin, feast and joy, as a husband and
    wife; nay, at the conclusion we even find the beloved reproving
    her, saying, “Neighbours hear thy voice,” it being improper for a
    woman to let her voice be heard by young men, for there is
    dishonour in a woman’s voice. He therefore asks her to let her
    voice be heard by him only, and not by others. But she boldly
    replied, “Haste, my beloved, and be like the gazelle or the young
    fawn upon the mountains of aromatics;” as if the neighbours were
    her husbands, and her husband a paramour who must conceal himself,
    and run away, lest they meet him.

    This section also is subdivided into two parts: the first is from
    v. 2 to viii. 5, and the second from viii. 5, to the end of the
    book; the second part being epexegetical of the first. The above is
    the division of the Book in accordance with the learned, who wrote
    expositions on it.


This union of the active with the passive intellect is represented by
the sincere and ardent attachment formed between a humble shepherd and
shepherdess, the literal history of which Immanuel beautifully explains
before he attempts to palm upon it his philosophical theory. It is of
importance to notice, that this distinguished poet also takes the hero
and heroine of the plot to be a shepherd and a shepherdess, and regards
Solomon as a separate person, whom the rustic maiden adduces in
illustration of her deep and sincere love to her shepherd, affirming,
that if this great king were to bring her into his court, and offer her
all its grandeur and luxuries, she would still rejoice in her humble
lover. The commentary contains valuable philological remarks, and
excellent explanations of some of the poetical similes. Pity it has
never been published.

1288–1370. Levi ben Gershon, also called Leon de Banolas and Ralbag, a
learned and influential expositor, who was born in 1288, and died about
1370 [60], defends the same philosophical theory. His commentary, which
is very lengthy, is published in the Amsterdam Rabbinical Bible 1724.

It will be remembered, that allusion has been made by preceding
commentators, to some who rejected the allegorical interpretation, and
took this book in its literal sense. A manuscript commentary, in the
possession of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, Oppenheim Collection, No.
625, interprets this Song as celebrating the virtuous love contracted
between a humble shepherd and shepherdess; and likewise regards Solomon
as a distinct person, whom the shepherdess adduces in illustration of
her deep and sincere attachment to her beloved, affirming, that if this
great king were to offer her all the splendour and luxury of his court
to transfer her affections, she would spurn all, and remain faithful to
her humble shepherd.

This commentary has no title-page, which renders it impossible to
ascertain the name of its author or its exact age. From the French
expressions, however, occurring in it, and from its style and
appearance, it is evident that this commentary was written by a French
Jew in at least the twelfth or thirteenth century. The handwriting is
peculiarly bad, and very much effaced; but the valuable remarks it
contains, both on the verbal difficulties and poetical figures of this
book, would amply repay any Hebrew scholar for publishing it, and would
be a boon to Biblical and Hebrew literature.

1350. So numerous and diverse were the interpretations of this Song in
the middle of the fourteenth century, that R. Isaac Sehula, having been
solicited by his friends to comment upon it, consulted the existing
expositions, but finding himself so confused by their conflicting
theories, as some explained it literally, others referred it to the
union of the body with the soul, others again expounded it according to
the Medrash, and others again affirmed, that it represents the union of
the active with the passive intellect, he felt it necessary to reject
them all, and advanced a new theory, viz., that this book represents
the love of the people of Israel to their God. [61]

1360–1730. For a space of about four hundred years, the battle-field
was simultaneously occupied by all the parties who strenuously defended
those different views. Thus, the commentary Shear Jashub, which was
printed together with that of Saadias and Caspe, and Meier Arma, who
was born in Saragossa about the year 1475, and whose commentary is
published in the Amsterdam Rabbinical Bible, 1724, maintain the
philosophical interpretation of this Song. Whilst Isaac Arma, the
father of Meier Arma, Obadiah Sforno, a physician, divine, and
commentator, who died in 1550, [62] and whose commentary is published
in the Amsterdam Rabb. Bible, Moses Cordovero, born in 1522, and died
1570, [63] whose commentary has not been published, Abraham Levi, whose
commentary has been printed, together with that of Ibn Shoeb,
Sabionnetta in Italy, 558, [64] Elisha Galicho, who flourished in the
second half of the sixteenth century, [65] and whose commentary was
published 1587, Venice, and his contemporary, Moses Alshech, [66] whose
commentary was published in 1591, Venice, are the combatants for the
other views.

While this severe struggle was carried on between the conflicting
parties for the maintenance of their respective views, another champion
entered the battle-field, occupying and defending another position. It
was no less a personage than the celebrated Don Isaac Abravanel, who
affirmed that the Bride of the Song represents Wisdom, with whom
Solomon converses. [67]

His son, Leon Hebræus, defended the same view. [68]

1729–1786. With Moses Mendelssohn, a new era commenced in Biblical
exegesis, and in Hebrew literature generally. This distinguished
philosopher translated the Song of Songs, which was first published in
Berlin, 1788, with an introduction and commentary by his colleagues
Löwe and Wolfssohn. Though they did not deem their age prepared for the
rejection of the allegorical interpretation, these commentators
distinctly stated, that as so many of the Rabbins have written upon
this book, and defended such various and conflicting views, they
questioned whether any were right, and affirmed that the literal
explanation is paramount, and therefore confined themselves in the
commentary to the literal and philological sense, referring those who
are fond of labyrinths to the writings of Rashi, Rabe, Arma, &c.

Seeing that this book describes the love of a shepherd and a
shepherdess, and also speaks of a king, of humble rural life, as well
as of courtly splendour, and unable to account for it, Löwe and
Wolfssohn divided it into separate songs, some celebrating the love
between a shepherd and shepherdess, others describing the same between
the king and his princes, and others again not speaking of that passion
at all.

1798–1821. Löwisohn, born in 1798, and died in 1821, was the first who
recognised and elucidated the true design of this book. This sweet
singer of modern Israel shows that the Song of Songs celebrates the
victory of true and virtuous love in humble life over the temptations
of royalty; that this book records the virtuous attachment of a
shepherdess to a shepherd; that the rustic maiden having been tempted
by the wisest and most celebrated king to transfer her affections,
spurned every allurement, and remained faithful to her humble lover.
[69]

1832. It is surprising that the profound and learned Zunz, [70] did not
follow up the remarks of Löwisohn; but regarded this Song as an
epithalamium. [71]

1848. This view, however, has not gained ground among the Jews; and Dr.
Salomon Herxheimer, chief Rabbi of Anhalt-Bernburg, in his translation
of the Old Testament with annotations, follows the opinion of Löwisohn.
[72] His opinion is that “the Song of Songs celebrates ardent and
virtuous love which resists all allurements. The Shulamite, a rustic
maiden warmly attached to a young shepherd, is taken against her will
to the court of King Solomon. The king offers everything to win her
affections, but she does not suffer herself to be dazzled either by the
royal court, or by the sweet flatteries of the king himself, and
remains faithful to her absent lover.”

1854. Dr. Philippson, Rabbi of Magdeburg, propounded the same view.
[73] The design of the book is to show that true and virtuous love is
invincible, and is not to be bought, but is a flame of God (Ch. viii.
6, 7), exemplified in the conduct of a humble shepherdess, who being
attached to a shepherd, was tempted by King Solomon to transfer her
affection, but who overcame all allurements, and remained faithful to
her lover.

The two last-mentioned Rabbins, by virtue of their high position and
great learning, may be regarded as representing the view now generally
entertained by the Jews respecting the Song of Songs. [74]

185–254. We come now to the Christian Expositors of this book, whom we
shall introduce in the same chronological order, and of whose views a
concise explanation will be given. The first of these is Origen, who
has been justly celebrated for his genius and extensive acquirements.
He was born in Alexandria in 185, and died in Tyros in 254. His
commentaries upon Scripture are very extensive, and though containing
much that is valuable, abound with fanciful allegories and inexplicable
mysteries. His attachment to the Platonic philosophy drew him aside
from the simplicity of inspired truth, and his instruction in Hebrew by
R. Hillel, [75] imbued him with Hagadic interpretations of the sacred
text.

His commentary upon the Song of Songs was very voluminous, of which
fragments only remain, but these are of a very elaborate kind, and
sufficient to reveal his whole design. He admits an historical sense as
an epithalamium on the marriage of Solomon with Pharaoh’s daughter,
[76] but in him we meet with a full exhibition of the allegorical
allusion to the marriage union of Christ and his Church, which has been
adopted by the majority of expositors to the present day. He says,
“Blessed is he who enters the holy place, but more blessed is he who
enters the holy of holies; blessed is he who keeps the Sabbath, but
more blessed is he who keeps the Sabbath of Sabbaths; so blessed is he
who sings holy songs, but more blessed is he who sings the Song of
Songs.”

He finds in it four distinct parties; a bridegroom and bride with their
separate companions. By “the bridegroom,” we are to understand Christ,
by “the bride,” the Church, by “the companions” of the former, angels
and saints in heaven, and by “the maidens” of the latter, believers on
the earth.

The following is a specimen of Origen’s method of interpretation:—


    2, 3. Let him kiss me, &c. This is the suppliant voice of the
    bride, of which the meaning is, “How long will my bridegroom send
    kisses by Moses and kisses by the Prophets? I want to touch his
    lips. Let him come,” she says to the father of the bridegroom, “and
    give me kisses of his mouth.” The father hears and sends his son;
    she seeing him near says, “How good are thy breasts above wine, and
    the odour of thy perfumery above all sweet spices.” The bridegroom
    Christ, sent by the Father, comes anointed to the Spouse, who says
    to him, “Thou lovest righteousness and hatest wickedness: therefore
    God, thy God, hath anointed thee with the oil of gladness above thy
    fellows.” If the odour of that ointment be upon us, we shall become
    a sweet savour of Christ. Sin has putrid effluvia, virtue breathes
    forth sweet perfume. The one is an emanation of the flesh, the
    other of the Spirit.

    Thy name, &c. This is prophetic. Only so far as the name of God
    comes into the world is this ointment poured forth. In the Gospel,
    a woman having an alabaster box of very precious ointment poured it
    upon the head of Christ. One who was a sinner poured it upon his
    feet, and one who was not a sinner poured it upon his head. These
    are not narratives merely, but mysteries. It is not wonderful that
    the house was filled with the odour of the ointment, since the
    world will be. It is written in the same place concerning Simon the
    leper. I think the leprous Simon to be the prince of this world,
    whose house at the coming of Christ was filled with sweet odour.
    Therefore do the virgins love thee, because, through the Holy
    Spirit, the love of God is shed abroad in our hearts. The maidens
    at first are not present, but, upon hearing a chorus from them in
    praise of the bridegroom, she says, The virgins love thee. By their
    coming up it is said, ‘After thee and the odour of thine ointments
    we will run.’

    4. Draw me, &c. In a race all run, but one receiveth the prize.
    This prize is Christ. The bride, pure and fair, having entered into
    the royal apartments, returns to the maidens, and tells them what
    she has seen. The king hath brought me into his chambers. He
    praises the bride. He says, Justice hath loved thee. Then the bride
    says to the maidens,

    5. Black I am, &c. Do not look upon me because I am blackened, for
    the sun hath looked upon me. How black and without whiteness, is
    she beautiful? Black with sin, and comely because converted.
    Because not yet purged from all sin she is called black, but her
    dark colour will not remain. She is made white as she ascends to
    greater things, according to ch. viii. 5. “Who is this that cometh
    up from the wilderness, leaning upon her beloved?” Tents of Kedar,
    say the Hebrews, are dark: skins of Solomon, such as ornamented the
    temple, were comely.


296–373. Athanasius, Archbishop of Alexandria, was born in that city in
296, and died in 373. He was the principal defender of the Nicene
faith, in opposition to Arius. His zealous advocacy of the Deity of
Christ led him to seek, and to find that doctrine everywhere. He looked
upon the Song of Songs as a Jubilee song of the Church, at the
incarnation of the Son of God, and thus differs from Origen, who refers
it to the experience of the believing soul. The whole book, he says, is
an allegory, and is to be understood enigmatically from the beginning
to the end. Its doctrines are secrets, and those only who are well
versed in allegory ought to study it, as it is sure to be corrupted in
the hands of others. It is called the Song of Songs, because it is the
chief and last song, and the coming of Christ in the flesh, which other
songs regard as future, this celebrates as present. It is an
Epithalamium in celebration of the marriage of Him who is the loved of
God and human flesh. Here are no threatenings and sorrows as in other
books, but as the Bridegroom is present, all is turned into joy. The
book is full of dialogues between the Son of God and the human race;
sometimes between men in general and Christ, sometimes between Him and
his ancient people; sometimes between Him and the Gentile Church,
sometimes between the Gentiles and Jerusalem; and sometimes between
ministering angels and men.

The following is a specimen of Athanasius’ Commentary:—


    2. Let him kiss me, &c. This is the entreaty of his ancient people
    to the Word, that he would descend and take flesh; and also (ch.
    vii. 13), “The mandrakes give a smell, and at our gates are all
    manner of pleasant fruits, new and old, which I have laid up for
    thee, O my beloved,” and (ch. viii. 1), “Oh, that thou wert as my
    brother that sucked the breasts of my mother,” which refers to
    Christ being of the same nature as man, a brother, and yet in
    reality having a mother only. In ch. v. 1, Christ speaks of his
    having become incarnate, “I am come into my garden, my sister, my
    spouse; I have gathered my myrrh with my spices.” The world is his
    garden, because it is his creation; and his body breathes forth
    fragrance, because it is joined to the Divine word. The Word having
    put on flesh, he calls his ancient people to Him, and says (ch. ii.
    10–13), “Rise up, my love, my fair one, and come, for lo, the
    winter is past, &c.” His first disciples would recognise in his
    teaching what they had long been listening for, “the voice of the
    turtle in their land.”


In this fanciful manner our author descants upon the whole book.

331–396. Notwithstanding the authority and influence of the foregoing
fathers, the allegorical interpretation was rejected by many at a very
early age. And Gregory, bishop of Nyssa, in Cappadocia, born about 331,
and died about 396, who wrote an extensive commentary upon this book,
had strenuously to contend for the allegorical or spiritual
interpretation, and severely condemned those who adhered to the literal
meaning. The soul, he considers, as a spouse who enters into spiritual
union with God. The most perfect and blessed way of salvation is here
shown to those who wish to come to the knowledge of the truth.

The following is a specimen of Gregory’s Commentary:—


    2. Let him kiss me, &c., is the language of the soul to God, which
    has become worthy to speak to God face to face. Thy breasts are
    better than wine, that is, divine breasts are better than human
    wine. All human wisdom cannot equal the milk of the divine word.

    3. Thy name, &c. This signifies that all the virtues are nothing to
    the graces received from above.


Thus he finds some spiritual meaning in every part, for the
confirmation of which some other part of Scripture is adduced.

331–420. Jerome, however, (born at Stridon in Dalmatia in 331, and died
in the vicinity of Bethlehem in 420,) who was exceedingly fond of the
Greek philosophers, and, like Origen, was instructed in Hebrew
literature by the Jews, [77] as might have been expected, was not
affected by the objections against the allegorical interpretation, but
introduced it into the Western Churches. According to him, it is a
nuptial and dramatic song on the occasion of the union of Christ with
his Church or the soul of man. The bride and her companions, and the
bridegroom and his companions are the interlocutors in the drama. He
seems to have embraced almost entirely the theory and interpretation of
Origen.

354–430. Augustin, who was born at Tagesta in Numidia, in 354, and died
in 430, materially aided Jerome in the spread of the allegorical
interpretation in the West. He regards the Song of Songs as describing
“the holy loves of Christ and his Church.”


    Of ch. i. 7, “Tell me, O thou whom my soul loveth, where thou
    feedest thy flock, where,” &c., he says it is one testimony in
    behalf of the church in Africa, which lies in the meridian of the
    world. The church asks Christ to tell her where the one true church
    is, where it feeds and reclines. The bridegroom answers, In the
    meridian, I feed in the meridian, I recline in the meridian. The
    church is in other parts, but in Africa is its meridian. This is
    the language of believers out of Africa, who also say, “For why
    should I be as one roaming among the flocks of thy companions?”
    that is, why remain concealed and unknown? Other churches are not
    thy flock, but the flocks of thy companions. Upon the adjuration,
    “I adjure you,” &c. vii. 7, he observes, The church in these words
    addresses her own daughters. She is a field of God, fruitful in
    graces, to which by loving Christ the martyrs come, whom he wishes
    to lay down their lives as lovingly as he laid down his life for
    them. Ch. ii. 15. “Take us the foxes,” &c., that is, withstand,
    confute, subdue, heretics that injure the ecclesiastical vines.
    Bind them by Scripture testimony, as Samson bound the foxes
    together, and put fire to their tails, by warning them of the
    condemnation they have deserved. In ch. iv. 16, “Awake, O north,
    and come, thou south wind,” &c., he says, the north wind is from
    the cold icy regions of the devil and his angels, and the south
    wind is the spirit of grace blowing at noon from warm and shining
    regions, that cause the spices to flow out, as the apostle says,
    “We are unto God a sweet savour of Christ in them that are saved,
    and in them that perish.”


360–429. Theodore, bishop of Mopsuestia, who wrote a commentary on this
book, also rejected the allegorical meaning, and adhered to its literal
and obvious sense. Pity that his commentary is lost, and that the only
account of it is from his enemies.

386–457. So general was the dissatisfaction with the allegorical
interpretation of the Song of Songs, and so different were the theories
respecting it at the time of Theodoret or Theodorit, bishop of Cyrus in
Syria, who was born at Antioch about 386, and died 457, that he was
obliged to mention and refute them.

There are some, says this prelate, who do not admit that the Song of
Songs has a spiritual sense, and make of it such a texture of fables,
which is unbecoming even to the insane. Some maintain that Solomon is
here celebrating himself and the daughter of Pharaoh; others take the
Shulamite, not as Pharaoh’s daughter, but as Abishag; and others,
again, considering the thing with a little more reverence, call this
book a Royal address, and take “the bride,” to be the people of Israel,
and “the bridegroom” the king. I have, therefore, found it necessary,
before proceeding with the interpretation, first, to refute this false
and pernicious interpretation, and then to fix the obvious design of
this book.

1. These people, he submits, ought to remember that those holy fathers
were much wiser, and had more spiritual minds than they had, that this
book was incorporated in the sacred writings, and that the Church
revered it for its spiritual meaning, &c.

2. Through Manasseh and the destruction of Jerusalem, the writings of
the Old Testament were lost, but the Holy Spirit restored them to Ezra
by inspiration. Now the Holy Spirit could not have inspired any other
than a divine book.

3. Because the holy fathers saw this, they have either written
devotional commentaries on the entire book, or filled their writings
with its thoughts, as for instance, Eusebius and others, who were near
the apostolic age. Now, are we not to believe these holy fathers? not
believe the Holy Ghost? not obey the voice of God rather than our own
opinions? We must so deal with the sacred Scriptures as not to regard
letters merely, but draw out the hidden spirit from obscurity.

“The bridegroom” is Christ, “the bride” his church; “the daughters of
Jerusalem” are pious, but still unfinished souls (young in a Christian
sense), which have not as yet attained the perfection of the bride, but
imitate her example; “the companions of the bridegroom” are either the
angels or the prophets.

The following is a specimen of his commentary:—


    1. The Song of Songs, &c. This book is called The Song of Songs,
    because all other songs in the writings of Moses, the Prophets, and
    Psalms are made for this song, which is not amatory, but a song
    about the marriage of the Divine Bridegroom with the Church.

    2. Let him kiss me, &c. This is the language of the spouse offering
    a petition to the Father of the Bridegroom; for she has known both
    the promises made to Abraham and the prophecies of Jacob; as well
    as the prophecies of Moses, respecting her beloved, and the
    description of his beauty and power as given in the Psalms; “Thou
    art more beautiful than the sons of men,” &c.; she has learned that
    her beloved, who is adorned with beauty and grace, is both God and
    the eternal Son; “For thy throne, Oh God, is for ever and ever,”
    &c. Having recognised the beauty, strength, riches, dominion, and
    power of the bridegroom which he displays above all things, world
    without end, she draws nigh to him to embrace him and to kiss him
    in Spirit. Let none whose spirit is low, and who only tastes that
    which is earthly, be misled by the expression “kisses.” Let him
    remember that we ourselves embrace and kiss the limbs of the
    beloved at the mysterious time (the Lord’s Supper), and that which
    we see with our eyes, store up in our hearts, and, as it were, feel
    ourselves in conjugal embraces; so that it is with us as if we were
    with him, embracing and kissing him, after, as the Scriptures say,
    “love has driven away fear.” Therefore it is that the Bride wishes
    to be kissed by the Bridegroom himself.


390–444. Cyril of Alexandria, who was born towards the close of the
fourth century, and died in 444, went so far as to explain “the
palanquin,” to mean the cross; its “silver legs,” the thirty pieces of
silver which brought Christ to the cross; the “purple cushion,” the
purple garment in which the Saviour was mocked; “the nuptial crown,”
the crown of thorns put on Christ’s head, &c. &c.

650. The influence of the Chaldee mode of interpretation seems now to
become more apparent in the Christian Church. Aponius, who is quoted by
the venerable Bede, and must therefore have lived in the seventh
century, regards the Song of Songs as describing what the Logos has
done for the Church from the beginning of the world, and what he will
do to the end of it; thus, like the Chaldee, he takes the book as a
historico-prophetical description of the dealings of God with his
people, only that the Chaldee takes the Jews as the object of the
description, but Aponius substitutes the Gentile Church.

673–735. Bede, called the venerable, who was born at Wearmouth, in
Durham, in 673, and died in 735, wrote seven books on the Song of
Songs, one being merely a copy from Gregory the Great, in which he
defends the doctrine of grace against the Pelagians.

1091–1153. To the scholastics of the middle ages the Song of Songs
seemed an unfathomable abyss of mysticism, into whose depths they could
dive as deeply as their speculative minds and fertile imaginations
prompted them. St. Bernard, who was born at Fountains, in the vicinity
of Dijon, in Burgundy, and died in 1153, delivered eighty-six sermons
upon this book, and this prodigious number comprises the first two
chapters only. In the first sermon he says, “The unction and experience
can alone teach the understanding of such a Song. It is not to be heard
outside, for its notes give no sound in the street; but she who sings
it, she hears it and he to whom it is sung, that is the bridegroom and
the bride.” He divides the Song into three parts; in the first part the
bridegroom leads the bride into the garden, and in the second he
conducts her into the cellar, and in the third he takes her home into
his apartments. Upon the words Let him kiss me, &c. (Chap. i. 2), which
he explains as referring to the incarnation of Christ, he remarks, “O
happy kiss, marvellous because of amazing condescension; not that mouth
is pressed upon mouth, but God is united with man.” [78]

Gilbert Porretanus, the disciple of St. Bernard, continued these
sermons, but only lived to deliver forty-eight, which extend to Chap.
v. 10; so that the one hundred and thirty-four sermons only comprise
four chapters and a half.

1270–1340. In the Commentary of the celebrated Nicolas De Lyra, a
converted Jew, and a native of Lire, in Normandy, we meet more fully
the Chaldee mode of interpretation as adopted by Aponius. Like the
Chaldee, De Lyra takes the Song of Songs to be a historico-prophetical
book, with this difference, however, that he regards Chap. ii.–vii. as
describing the history of the Israelites from their Exodus from Egypt
to the birth of Christ, and from Chapter vii. to the end, the origin of
the Christian Church, her progress, and the peace which she attained in
the days of Constantine. Upon the words, “We have a little sister,” he
remarks, “This is the Church humble and abject among the worldly
enemies, for so she was till the time of Constantine.” [79]

1538. The great reformer, Luther, could not reconcile his mind to
believe that the Song of Songs describes the conjugal union of Christ,
the bridegroom, with the bride, i.e. the Church as a whole, or with the
soul of every individual believer. He therefore rejected the
allegorical interpretation of the Fathers, and advanced a new theory,
viz., “that the bride is the happy and peaceful State under the
dominion of Solomon, and that the Song is a hymn of praise, in which
Solomon thanks God for the obedience rendered unto him as a divine
gift: for, where the Lord does not direct and rule there is neither
obedience nor happy dominion, but where there is obedience or a happy
dominion there the Lord lives and kisses and embraces his bride with
his word, and that is the kisses of his mouth.” [80]

1542. John Brentius, the Suabian reformer, adopted the same theory. He
calls the Song of Songs, “Carmen encomiasticum, quod de laude regni et
politiae suae Solomon conscripsit.” [81]

1544. Castellio, seeing that Luther had rejected the allegorical
interpretation of the Fathers, and propounded a theory of his own
equally untenable, maintained that the book has no allegorical meaning
whatever, but is merely a “colloquium Salomonis cum amica quadam
Sulamitha,” and as such deemed it unworthy of a place in the sacred
canon. [82]

1585. Thomas Wilcocks adhered to the opinion that this book celebrates
the marriage between Christ and his Church, and especially “the great
love of the bridegroom to his spouse, which is never removed, but
always abideth constant, how oft soever she fall away, and seem, as a
man would say, to forsake her husband.” [83] This commentary, which is
rare, contains many useful remarks.

1600. Thomas Brightman, however, adopted the view of Aponius and De
Lyra, that this book describes historico-prophetically, the condition
of the Church, and “agrees well-nigh in all things with the Revelation
of St. John.” Solomon, in this Song, and John, in the Apocalypse,
“foresaw the same events in like times, and either of them directed his
course to the same mark.” [84] He divides the book into two parts; the
first, chap. i.–iv. 6, describes the condition of the Legal Church from
the time of David to the death of Christ; and the second, chap. iv.
7–viii. 14, the state of the Evangelical Church, from A.D. 34 to the
second coming of Christ. We give the following analysis of this curious
commentary.



A. The Legal Church.

Chap. i.–ii. 2, describes the condition of the Church before the
captivity; 1, 2, under David; 3, under Solomon; 4–8, under Rehoboam;
9–11, under Abijah and Asa; 12, under Jehoshaphat; 13, under Jehoram,
Ahaziah, Joash, Amaziah, Uzziah, Jotham, and Ahaz; 14, under Hezekiah;
15, 16, under Manasseh and Josiah; chap. ii. 1, 2, under the other
Kings to the last Zedekiah.

Chap. ii. 3–14, describes the condition of the Church during the
captivity; 3, the comforts of the few left in their own country; 4–7,
the preservation of the whole in the captivity; 8, 9, the foretold
deliverance; 10–13, its approach; 14, and the deliverance from it.

Chap. ii. 15–iv. 6, describes the condition of the Church from the
deliverance to the death of Christ; 15, 16, the troublesome time from
the restoration of the Church by Cyrus to Alexander the Great; 17, the
partial rest under Alexander; chap. iii. 1–3, the desolation in the
Church caused by Antiochus Epiphanes, and its effects in driving away
the beloved; 4, 5, the finding of the beloved; 6–11, the condition of
the Church during Christ’s sojourn upon this earth; chap. iv. 1–6,
Christ’s description of her then beautiful aspect.



B. The Evangelical Church.

Chap. iv. 7–11, describes the obedience and perfection of the Church
from A.D. 34 to 334; 7, Christ’s return to his disciples after his
resurrection, and remaining with them forty days; 8, the preaching of
the Gospel by Peter and Philip to the Grecians, Samaritans, and in
Gaza; 9, the effects upon Antioch from the preaching of Paul and
Barnabas; 10, 11, the marvellous constancy of the martyrs who died
under Nero, Domitian, Trajan, &c.; the spread of the Gospel through the
faithfulness of these sufferers; the beautiful orations of Dionysius
the Areopagite, Quadratus, Aristides the Athenian, Dionysius of
Corinth, Melito, Apollinarius, Polycarp, &c., and through the setting
forth of the sweetness of the garments by Justin, Tertullian, and
Cyprian.

Chap. iv. 12–v. 16, describes the decayed state of the Church from
334–1510; 12, the declension of the Church after the death of
Dioclesian, when many embraced Arianism; 13, 14, her rising again under
Constantine; 15, the convocation of the Council of Nice; 16, Europe and
Africa defending the truth against Arian heresy; 17, the decayed state
of the Church after the demise of Constantine. Chap. v. 1, Christ
knocking by persecution (A.D. 368), in the time of Constance, Julian,
and Valens; 2, the attempt of the Church to obtain justification by
good works; 3, the withdrawal of Christ in consequence of the Chalcedon
Council refusing to root out heresy according to the exhortation of the
Emperor Marcian; 4, the rising of the Church in the time of Leo
Isaurus, Constantine his son (755), and Charles the Great, in Frankfort
(795), who endeavoured to exterminate image-worship; 5, the failure of
this endeavour; 6, the Church smitten and wounded through the
excommunication of Leo Isaurus, and the conduct of the Council of Nice
under Constantine (788); verse 8 describes how, in 1100, a Florentine
bishop, Arnold, a Roman, Hildegarde the prophetess, and Bernard, began
to seek the bridegroom; 8, multitudes flocked to Peter Waldo, in 1160,
to inquire after the beloved; 9, 10, Christ appearing again in 1200, at
the battle of the Albigenses with the anti-christian bands of Innocent
the Third; 11, the kingdom almost restored to Christ after the battle;
12, the faithful teaching of Michael Cesenas, Peter de Corboria, and
John de Poliaco, who were condemned in 1277 by Pope John; 13, the
preaching in 1290 by Robert Trench; 14, the first resurrection, as
described in Rev. i. 20, which took place in 1300, when Dante the
Florentine, Marsilius Patavinus, William Ockham, and John of Gaunt,
boldly declared the truth, when Philip, king of France, and Edward of
England despised the authority of the Pope, and when John Wickliff
(1370) taught openly; 15–17, the days of John Huss, Jerome of Prague
(1415), and the shaking off of the Romish yoke by the Bohemians.

Chap. vi.–viii., describes the Church restored, from 1517 to the second
coming of Christ; 1, the teaching of pure doctrine (1517), by Luther;
2, the Church, in the mouth of Melancthon, claims her beloved before
Prince Frederick; 3, the unpleasant state of the Church from 1429, when
the Argentinenses joined battle with the Helvetians, till the death of
Charles the Fifth (1548); and her beauty, when, in the following year,
the Reformation spread in Scotland, Geneva, in the Helvetian and German
churches, in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden; 4, the declaration of
justification by faith by Luther; 5, the newly-called preachers of the
Gospel in 1550, such as Luther, Melancthon, Bucer, Zwinglius, &c.; 6,
the ecclesiastical and civil government of the Church as restored again
in Geneva; 7, the splitting of the Church in 1563, by John Brentius and
James Andrewes; 8, the excellency of the faithful; 9–12, the conversion
of the Jews, who are called princes. Chap. vii., their conversion a
blessing to the Church. Chap. viii. 1–4, their zeal; 5–7, the calling
in of the Assyrians and Egyptians, and all the nations bordering on the
eastern regions, and their glorious condition after their conversion;
11, 12, the care which the bridegroom will exercise over the whole
Church; 13, what he requires of her; 14, her longing desire to be
carried with him into everlasting mansions.

As Brightman’s Commentary may be regarded as the fullest development of
the Chaldee interpretation Christianized, we shall give a few specimens
of his mode of exposition.


    I sleep, but my heart, &c. chap. v. 1.—The negligence of the Church
    lying thus is declared first by her drowsiness, then by his
    enticing call, and lastly by the slight causes of her excuse. Sleep
    caused her outward senses to be benumbed, that she neither regarded
    nor considered how superstitions arose, as it happened to the
    householder in Matt. xiii. 25. Neither could it be otherwise (when
    the bridegroom left the garden and his friends or fellows drunken
    with prosperity, wholly gaping after riches and honours, all common
    good despised), but sleep would overcome the spouse, wherein
    outwardly she should not differ from a dead woman, however the
    heart should move and live, the seed of faith not altogether
    quenched. This drowsiness crept in, in the time of Constantine,
    when a gaping heaviness, with a continued desire of sleeping, so
    oppressed the spouse, that the sharpest-sighted pastors could not
    use their outward senses: not perceiving how ambition crept in
    among the bishops, and not only that, but how they began to
    consecrate temples to saints, earnestly to seek their reliques, to
    worship them with prayers, and to believe that prayers made in the
    honour of saints at their sepulchres did profit much. Who could now
    tell whether the Church were sleeping or waking? who neither
    loathed nor perceived such things. When Constantine was dead,
    Christ found the Church asleep, and sought by all means to stir her
    up both by knocking and calling. He knocked by persecutions in the
    times of Constance, Julian and Valens, of whom though Julian were a
    professed enemy, (A.D. 368,) yet the other two exceeded him in
    cruelty. After their tyrannous reign God stirred up Valentinian in
    the west parts, by whom Christ lovingly called his spouse, that,
    returning unto her former integrity, she should open and let him
    in. Then taking away Valens, he called more earnestly at both doors
    (as it were) as well in the west as in the east, by Gratian and
    Theodosius the elder; after by Arcadius and Honorius, then by
    Theodosius the younger, and Valentinian the third. And lastly,
    (that there might be four pair as it were answerable to the four
    voices, my sister, my love, my dove, my undefiled one,) by Marcion
    alone in the east. These emperors studied and laboured very
    religiously to defend and enlarge true religion; but the Church was
    in all the fault, who having these helps prepared, would not use
    them to recover her former brightness. To this readiness of the
    emperors was added the voice of the most excellent bishops, and
    best learned men of that time; as Basil, Gregory Nazianzen,
    Ambrose, Hierome, Chrysostome, Augustine and others, the lights of
    that time. But seeing his profession of love could nothing move
    her, he tried what his shutting out of the doors at night would do.

    My head is filled with dew, &c.—The locks of hair signified, before
    the congregation of the faithful, among whom true religion was now
    so much deranged by new and foolish ceremonies, borrowed partly of
    the Jews and Gentiles, and partly invented of their own idle
    brains, that the grass is scarce more covered with drops of dew in
    the night, than the Church was at that time with superstitions.

    14. His hands are as gold rings, &c.—Hitherto hath the bridegroom
    been set forth to the world in some special members, from Frederick
    the second to Robertus Gallus by almost 100 years. The hands are
    the instruments of action, and in scripture they figuratively
    signify works. The gems included in the rings seem to signify the
    ministers of the word, which elsewhere Christ carried as stars in
    his right hand (Rev. i. 20). But these times yielded not such
    splendour. These things show a change and alteration of that which
    Christ would bring to pass by the labour of his ministers, as it
    happened about the year 1300, which was called the first
    resurrection of the dead. For now the thousand years were ended
    wherein Satan was bound, and the dead raised from their graves.
    Very many began now more boldly to set forth the truth, as Dante
    the Florentine, Marsilius Patavinus, William Ockham, John of Gaunt,
    and many others. Philip the French king despised Pope Boniface,
    Lewis of Bavaria strove long time with these most humble servants
    of servants for the rights of the empire. Edward of England made
    show unto many how little he esteemed the pope’s authority.

    His belly is as bright ivory, &c.—By the belly or bowels, bright as
    ivory overlaid with sapphires, may be understood the two
    Sacraments. For the word of God is open to the view of every one,
    as the mouth and countenance, neither is it wont to be hid from
    strangers; but the Sacraments serve only for the household, as the
    bowels, which are appointed only to that body whose members they
    are, but serve to no use for strangers. These things therefore as
    it were, with the finger, point to those times of John Wickliff
    (1370), who taught openly, that the substance of the material bread
    and wine remains in the sacrament of the altar; the accidents of
    bread remain not without the subject in the same Sacrament; Christ
    is not really in the Sacrament, in proper presence corporally.
    Berengarius spoke against this wicked error 200 years before, but
    the time was not yet come wherein the hands of the bridegroom
    should be seen full of rings, whence his empire wanted success.


How different to this is the opinion of Henry Ainsworth, the celebrated
Nonconformist divine, who regards this “book as treating of man’s
reconciliation unto God, and peace by Jesus Christ, with joy in the
Holy Spirit!” “In Solomon’s days,” says Ainsworth, “the Church before
Christ’s coming had the greatest glory, having the temple builded,
living under that most wise, rich, and peaceable King; the Israelites
being as the sand which is by the sea in multitude, eating, and
drinking, and making merry, and dwelling safely, every man under his
vine and under his fig-tree.” (1 Kings iv. 10, 25.) Notwithstanding
Solomon, being a prophet, foresaw the ruin of his house and kingdom,
and in his book of Ecclesiastes proclaimed all things under the sun to
be vanity, and in this Song prophesieth of the Church and Kingdom of
Christ. And as he, with many other prophets, and kings, and righteous
men, desired to see Christ, and to hear his words, but did not (Luke x.
24; Matt. xiii. 7), so here he manifesteth the desire of himself and of
all the faithful to enjoy the blessings and graces of Christ, saying,
‘Let him kiss me.’ Whereby the Church desireth to have Christ
manifested in the flesh, and to have the loving and comfortable
doctrines of his Gospel applied unto her conscience, that she might not
be always under the schoolmaster of the law, which worketh wrath (Rom.
iv. 15), but might be prevented with the grace of Christ, and have the
feeling of his love towards her. [85]

The difference of opinion respecting the interpretation of this book,
which obtained after the Reformation had laid open the Scriptures to
all Protestants, and had established the right of private judgment, did
not, however, as yet affect the Romish Church. Her followers not only
adhered to the allegorical interpretation, but, unlike their
predecessors of the middle ages, took the bride of the Song to be the
Virgin Mary. Thus Michael Ghislerius and Cornelius à Lapide. The latter
is especially to be noticed, since he was the first who endeavoured to
show that this Song is a drama in five acts.

1583–1645. The fact, that the allegorical interpretation could with
equal facility be made to describe the history of the Jewish nation and
that of the Virgin Mary, awakened the suspicion of Hugo Grotius, the
celebrated statesman, philosopher, and divine. He, therefore, adhered
to the literal sense of the book, which, according to him, celebrates
the marriage of Solomon with Pharaoh’s daughter, but at the same time
also admitted that the ARCANA NUPTIARUM spiritually represent, first,
the love of God to the Israelites, and then the love of Christ to the
Church. [86] It will be remembered that Origen was already of opinion
that this Song primarily celebrates the marriage of Solomon with
Pharaoh’s daughter, though with him the literal meaning was of no
importance, and that Theodoret mentions some who viewed the Song in no
other light than this.

1603–1699. It was to be expected that John Cocceius, the founder of the
theological school bearing his name, whose doctrine was, that the whole
history of the Old Testament is a mirror, accurately reflecting the
transactions and events that were to happen under the New Testament
dispensation to the end of the world, would find in this Song something
in accordance with his views. Enlarging upon Aponius’ and De Lyra’s
mode of interpretation, and, like Brightman, still more approaching the
Chaldee, in a manner peculiar to himself Cocceius regards this book as
a prophetical narrative of the transactions and events that are to
happen in the Church, and divides the whole into seven distinct
periods, similar to the seven trumpets and seven seals in the
Revelation of St. John.


                                                       Chapter.
    1. The period of the preaching of the Gospel to
       Jews and Gentiles                               i.–ii.
    2. The period of the increase of the Church, and
       persecution from without                        iii.–iv.
    3. The period of peace from without and danger
       within                                          v.–vi. 8.
    4. The period of the Reformation                   vi. 9–vii. 10.
    5. The period of unsettlement after the
       Reformation                                     vii. 11–viii. 3.
    6. The period of the persecution                   viii. 4–6.
    7. The period of rest after the sufferings and
       longing for the spread of the Gospel            viii. 7–14. [87]


1648. Strange as this mode of interpretation may appear, yet, as we
have seen, it is not confined to a single individual or country. John
Cotton also affirms that Solomon in this book “describes the estate of
the Church towards Christ, and his respect towards her from his (i.e.
Solomon’s) own time to the last judgment.” [88]


    Chap. i. describes the estate of the Church from the days of
    Solomon to the repair of the temple by Josiah.
    Chap. ii. describes the estate of the Church from the repair of the
    temple to the days of the Maccabees.
    Chap. iii. describes the estate of the Church from the days of the
    Maccabees to the time of Christ’s sojourning here on earth.
    Chap. iv. describes the estate of the Church—first, in Christ’s
    time, under his ministry, ver. 1–6; secondly, after his ascension,
    under the Apostles, ver. 7–11; thirdly, after their departure,
    during the first ten persecutions, ver. 12–16.
    Chap. v. describes the estate of the Church from the time that
    Constantine entered it to the time of restoring the Gospel and
    reforming of the Church by the ministry of Luther and other late
    divines.
    Chap. vi. describes the state of the Church reformed by the
    ministry of Luther and other late divines, and the calling in of
    the Jews.
    Chap. vii.–viii. 4, describes the estate of the Jewish Church when
    they shall come to be converted unto the Lord.
    Chap. viii. 5–14, describes the solicitude which the Church of
    Judea and Assyria cherished for the growth and establishment of the
    good people in Egypt, the destruction of the Turks, the union of
    all Christians, the coming of the Lord, &c.



1650. John Trapp, however, adhered to the more general view, and
regarded this Song as “a treasury of the most sacred and highest
mysteries of Holy Scriptures, streaming out all along, under the
parable of a marriage, that full torrent of spiritual love that is
betwixt Christ and the Church.” ... “The form of it is dramatical and
dialogistical; the chief speakers are, not Solomon and the Shulamite,
as Castellio makes it, but Christ and his Church. Christ also hath
associates (those friends of the bridegroom), viz., the prophets,
apostles, pastors, and teachers, who put in a word sometimes; as
likewise do the fellow-friends of the bride, viz. whole churches or
particular Christians.” [89]

1688. Hennischius not only adopted the view of Brightman and Cocceius,
but even exceeded it, and called his commentary upon this book, [90]
“The Apocalypse in the Canticles.” He found in the Song of Songs seven
periods of the Church described, answerable to the states of the seven
Asiatic Churches in the Revelation of St. John.


                                 Rev.       Cant.             A.D.

  1. The Church at Ephesus       ii. 1–7    i. 5–17           33–370
  2. ,,    ,,   ,, Smyrna        8–11       ii. 1–17         371–707
  3. ,,    ,,   ,, Pergamos      12–17      iii. 1–11        708–104
  4. ,,    ,,   ,, Thyatira      18–29      iv. 1–v. 1      1046–138
  5. ,,    ,,   ,, Sardis        iii. 1–6   v. 2–vi. 2      1384–1721
  6. ,,    ,,   ,, Philadelphia  7–13       vi. 9–vii. 14   1722–2059
  7. ,,    ,,   ,, Laodicea      14–22      viii. 1–14      2060 and
                                                            onwards.


1693. The profound scholarship and exquisite taste of Bossuet, though a
Roman Catholic Bishop, would not allow him to follow these extravagant
theories. Presuming that the marriage of Solomon with the daughter of
Pharaoh is the primary object of this Song, and that the nuptial feast
among the Jews was hebdomadal, Bossuet divides the poem into seven
parts, corresponding to the seven days of the supposed duration of the
wedding. [91] The following is his division:—


                                 Chapter.

                       1st day   i.–ii. 6.
                       2nd day   ii. 7–17.
                       3rd day   iii.–v. 1.
                       4th day   v. 2–vi. 9.
                       5th day   vi. 10–vii. 11.
                       6th day   vii. 12–viii. 3.
                       7th day   viii. 4–14.


1700. Bishop Patrick, however, would not admit any literal meaning, but
found, almost in every word, some delightful mystery. Even the words,
“Thy navel is like a round goblet which wanteth not liquor; thy belly
is like a heap of wheat set about with lilies,” (chap. vii. 2,) at
which so much umbrage has been taken, this pious prelate says, may mean
“the two Sacraments which the Church administers to her children; the
Font in Baptism being represented by the former, and the Sacrament of
the Lord’s Supper by the other part of the figure.” [92]

1710. Shortly after the publication of this commentary appeared the
Exposition of Matthew Henry. And though Henry confessed, “on the one
hand, that if he who barely reads this book be asked, as the eunuch
was, Understandest thou what thou readest? he will have more reason
than he had to say, How can I, except some man shall guide me? that the
books of Scripture history and prophecy are very much like one another,
but that this Song of Solomon is very much unlike the Songs of his
father David; here is not the name of God in it; it is never quoted in
the New Testament; we find not in it any expressions of natural
religion or pious devotion; no, nor is it introduced by vision, or any
of the marks of immediate revelation; thus it seems as hard as any part
of Scripture to be made a savour of life unto life.” Yet he affirms,
“on the other hand, that with the help of the many faithful guides we
have for the understanding of this book, it appears to be a very bright
and powerful ray of heavenly light, admirably fitted to excite pious
and devout affections in holy souls, to draw out their desires towards
God, to increase their delight in him, and improve their acquaintance
and communion with him.” [93]

1723. Durham tells us the import of the Song of Songs much more
positively and dogmatically than either Patrick or Henry. “The great
scope of this Song is to set out that mutual love and carriage that is
between Christ and the Church in five distinct branches. It holdeth out
the Church’s case, and Christ’s care of her, in all her several
conditions, and under all dispensations; such as, I. Her sinful
infirmities, and failings in duties, chap. i. 6; v. 2, 3, and also
under liveliness in duties, chap. i. 2, 3, 4, and v. 5, and almost
throughout. II. Under crosses, chap. i. 6, as being ‘a lily among
thorns,’ and hated of the world, ii. 2, and also in prosperity, wherein
she is commended as terrible, vi. 10. III. As deserted and sick of
love, chap. iii. 1, 2, and v. 4, 5, and again as enjoying her beloved,
i. 4; iii. 4, 5. IV. As under faithful shepherds and lively ordinances,
chap. i. 4; iii. 4, 5, and also as under carnal watchmen, v. 7. And in
all these, her various conditions, in all ages, are painted forth,
before Christ’s incarnation, as well as now, without respect to any
particular time or age; for ceremonial things are not here meddled
with, but what was spiritual; besides the Church then and now is one,
as in the next consideration will be cleared. V. As in private dealing
with Christ, and longing after him and praying for him, chap. iv. 16;
viii. 1, and almost throughout, and also what she was in public duties,
going to the watchmen, chap. v. 7, and iii. 3, and what she was in
fellowship with others, v. 8, 9; vi. 1, 2. VI. It sets out believers as
more strong, and it furnishes a greater measure of grace and knowledge;
and also, as more weak in gifts and grace. VII. And lastly, it holds
forth the same believers as more and less lively in their conditions.

“This book, in its matter, is a comprehensive sum of all those
particulars formed in a song, put together, and drawn as on a board,
for the believers’ edification, to show, 1. What should be, and will be
their carriage, when it is right with them as to their frame. 2. What
are their infirmities, and what they use often to fall into, even they
who are believers, that they may be the more watchful. 3. To shew what
they meet with, that they may make for sufferings, and not stumble at
them when they come. 4. That the care and love of Christ to them, in
reference to all these, may appear, that they may know upon what
grounds to comfort themselves in every condition, and may have this
Song as a little magazine, for direction and consolation in every
condition.” [94]

Upon the words “Take us the foxes, the little foxes, that spoil the
vines,” &c. (Chap. ii. 15), Durham remarks:


    “This fifteenth verse contains the last part of Christ’s Sermon;
    wherein, as he had formerly given directions in reference to her
    particular walk, so here he evidenceth his care of her external
    peace. That Christ speaks these words, the continuation and series
    of them with the former, the scope (which is to make full proof of
    his case), and the manner how the duty here mentioned is laid on,
    to wit, by way of authority, makes it clear. There are three things
    in them, 1. On external evil incident to the Church, and that is,
    to be spoiled by ‘foxes.’ 2. A care given in a direction, ‘Take
    them,’ &c. 3. He gives reasons to deter all from cruel pity in
    sparing of them, ‘For,’ &c.”


Having descanted at large upon the first and second heads, Durham
remarks on the third:


    “Thirdly. There is a motive to press, implied, while he (i.e.
    Christ) saith this; ‘Take us,’ which words insinuate that it is
    service both to him and her, and that ministers are his servants,
    and the Church’s for Christ’s sake. It shows also his sympathy in
    putting himself, as it were, in hazard with her (at least
    mystically considered), and his love in comforting her, that he
    thinks himself concerned in the restraint of these foxes as well as
    she is.

    “Fourthly. The direction is amplified, to remove an objection (say
    some) ‘All heresies, or all heretics are not equal; some
    comparatively are little to be regarded, and it is cruelty to
    meddle with these, that seem to profess fair.’ ‘No (saith he), take
    them all, even THE LITTLE FOXES; for though they be but little, yet
    they are foxes; though they be not of the grossest kind (as all
    scandals in fact are not alike, yet none is to be dispensed with),
    so they are (saith he) foxes, and corrupt others; for a little
    leaven will leaven the whole lump (often small-like schisms, or
    heresies, such as the Novations and Donatists, &c., have been
    exceedingly defacing to the beauty of the Church), therefore, saith
    he, hunt and take them up.’ How small a friend is our Lord to
    toleration! and how displeased is he with many errors, that the
    world thinks little of! Magistrates, ministers and people may learn
    here, what distance ought to be kept with the spreaders of the
    least errors; and how every one ought to concur, in their stations,
    for preventing the hurt that comes by them.” [95]


1723. Whether this commentary, with its affirmation that “this Song is
a little magazine, for direction and consolation in every condition,”
and whether the doctrine of intolerance palmed upon Chap. ii. 15 of the
Song were published in time to be seen by Whiston, who was neither
convinced by Durham’s arguments nor daunted by his appeal to the
magistrates, ministers, and people; or whether they appeared too late
to be seen by him, I cannot tell. But, in the same year that Durham’s
commentary was published Whiston’s Essay appeared, in which he declares
that he finds in the Song of Solomon, “from the beginning to the end
marks of folly, vanity, and looseness,” and assures us that “it was
written by Solomon when he was wicked and foolish, and lascivious and
idolatrous,” [96] and that the sooner this immoral book is rejected
from the sacred canon the better.

1728. About five years afterwards appeared the bulky Exposition of Dr.
Gill on Solomon’s Song, consisting of one hundred and twenty-two
sermons, which the Doctor delivered to his congregation. In this
confused mass of accumulated learning Gill warmly refutes both Whiston
and others who had written against this book. He acknowledges “the
profit and advantage” which he had received from “the sweet
observations of the excellent Durham,” and affirms that this divine
poem is wholly allegorical; “and sets forth in a most striking manner
the mutual love, union and communion, which are between Christ and his
Church; also expresses the several different frames, cases, and
circumstances which attend believers in this life, so that they can
come into no state or condition, but there is something in this Song
suited to their experience; which serves much to recommend it to
believers, and discovers the excellency of it.” [97] In vain do we look
even here for an exposition based upon the sound rules of grammar and
philology.

1753. It was reserved for Bishop Lowth to commence in this country a
new era in the interpretation of this book. Two of his admirable
“Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews” are devoted to the
investigation of the import and interpretation of this Song, and the
conclusion he arrived at is almost the same as that of Grotius and
Bossuet. “The subject of the Canticles,” says this learned Prelate,
“appears to be the marriage-feast of Solomon, (who was, both in name
and reality, the Prince of Peace); his bride is called Shulamite....
Who this wife of Solomon was, is not clearly ascertained; but some of
the learned have conjectured, with an appearance of probability, that
she was the daughter of Pharaoh, to whom Solomon was known to be
particularly attached. May we not, therefore, with some shadow of
reason, suspect that, under the allegory of Solomon choosing a wife
from the Egyptians, might be darkly typified that other Prince of
Peace, who was to espouse a church chosen from among the Gentiles?”

As to the explanation of the allegory, this learned prelate properly
advises, “that we ought to be cautious of carrying the figurative
application too far, and of entering into a precise explication of
every particular; as these minute investigations are seldom conducted
with sufficient prudence not to offend the serious part of mankind,
learned as well as unlearned.” [98]

Bishop Lowth also takes this poem to be of a dramatic form, and adopts
the division of Bossuet into seven parts.

1764. The excellent and judicious remarks of Lowth were followed by an
elegant version of Solomon’s Song, with a brief Commentary and
Annotations, by Thomas Percy, D.D., Bishop of Dromore. The author
vindicates the theory of Grotius, Lowth, &c., that this poem literally
describes the nuptials of Solomon; and, like Bossuet and Lowth, divides
it into seven parts, answering to the seven days of the supposed
duration of the nuptials, which are distinguished from each other by
different solemnities. In terms, even more severe than those of Bishop
Lowth, Percy censures those commentators, “who have been so busily
employed in opening and unfolding the allegorical meaning of this book
as wholly to neglect that literal sense which ought to be the basis of
their discoveries. If a sacred allegory may be defined a figurative
discourse, which, under a lower and more obvious meaning, delivers the
most sublime and important truths; then it is the first duty of an
expositor to ascertain the lower and more obvious meaning. For till
this is done, it is impossible to discover what truths are couched
under it. Without this all is vague and idle conjecture. It is erecting
an edifice without a foundation, which, however fair and goodly to the
view, will be blown down by the slightest breath of true criticism.”
[99]

1765. Wesley, however, opposed this theory. He maintained that “the
description of this bridegroom and bride is such as could not with
decency be used or meant concerning Solomon and Pharaoh’s daughter;
that many expressions and descriptions, if applied to them, would be
absurd and monstrous; and that it therefore follows that this book is
to be understood allegorically, concerning that spiritual love and
marriage which is between Christ and his Church.” [100]

1768. Harmer advanced a new theory. Whilst advocating with Grotius,
Bossuet, Lowth, Percy, &c., that this Song in its literal and primary
sense celebrates the nuptials of Solomon with the daughter of Pharaoh,
he maintained that the heroes of the plot are not two, as generally
believed, but three—viz., Solomon, the Shulamite, who is the principal
wife and a Jewish queen, and the daughter of Pharaoh, whom Solomon
afterwards married, with which the Jewish queen was exceedingly
displeased, and looked with jealousy upon the Gentile wife as an
intruder. “This event of Solomon’s marrying a Gentile princess, and
making her equal in honour and privilege with his former Jewish queen,
and of her being frequently mentioned afterwards in history, while the
other is passed over in total silence, resembles the conduct of the
Messiah towards the Gentile and Jewish Churches.” ... “Nothing more,
according to that,” says Harmer, “is to be sought for of the mystic
kind, than the making out the general resemblance between Solomon’s
behaviour with respect to his two queens, and the situation of affairs
between the Messiah and the two Churches; of those that observed the
laws of Moses and those that did not.” [101]

The following analysis is gathered from Harmer’s singularly confused
work. Chapter I. describes Solomon and his attendants meeting the
Egyptian bride and her companions; ii. 1–iii. 5, describes the
complaining language of the Jewish queen; iii. 6–v. 1, resumes the
account of Solomon’s journey with the Egyptian bride up to Jerusalem,
and describes the consummation of the marriage; v. 2–vi. 3, relates
Solomon’s conversation with his Jewish wife; vi. 4–9, Solomon’s
conversation with the Egyptian wife in the garden; vi. 10–viii. 7,
begins with Solomon’s astonishment at his being surprised by his Jewish
wife whilst in the garden with the Egyptian wife, and the ensuing
conversation between them; viii. 8, describes the imaginative hope of
the Jewish wife that Solomon’s marriage with the Egyptian would not be
consummated, and that she would, therefore, not be treated as a wife;
viii. 9, gives Solomon’s reply, that the Egyptian princess should be
treated with the highest honours; viii. 10–12, contains a smart reply
of the Egyptian princess to the Jewish queen, in which she at the same
time also notices the addition her marriage had made to the King’s
possessions; viii. 13, states Solomon’s appeal to the Jewish queen in
the presence of all to give her final thoughts respecting her future
conduct; viii. 14, gives her resolution to keep her distance; but at
the same time there appears no thought of renouncing her relation to
Solomon on her part, as “there was not on his.” “Such actually,”
concludes Harmer, “is the state of things with respect to the Messiah,
and the two churches of Jews and Gentiles. The Jewish Church persists
in not receiving the Gentiles as fellow-heirs, but they renounce not
their relation to the Messiah, nor has he utterly excluded them from
hope. The state of distance has long continued, but as they still
remain a distinct body of people, waiting for great events that are to
happen, so the New Testament leads us to expect their reconciliation.”

1770. Different to these strange outlines of Harmer were the effects
which Lowth’s remarks upon this Song produced in Germany. Michaelis,
the celebrated professor at the Göttingen University, in his edition of
the Praelectiones, took a more advanced and decided step in the
interpretation of this book. He not only rejected the allegorical
interpretation, as unsupported by internal evidence, but denied the
theory, defended by Lowth, &c., that this poem celebrates the nuptials
of Solomon, because there is no direct mention made in any part of this
long poem of the marriage ceremony, nor of any circumstance attending
it; no time appearing appropriated to the nuptial banquet itself, the
bride and the bridegroom being separated from and in quest of each
other, wishing and enjoying solitude, always showing themselves in the
street or field when conversing together, or with the virgins, and
never found with the guests or at the banquet; because it cannot be
possibly imagined that a bridegroom would be so necessitated to labour
as not to be able to devote the few days of his nuptial week to the
celebration of his marriage; that he would be compelled immediately to
quit his spouse and his friends for whole days in order to attend his
cattle in the pastures; and especially because we could not imagine
that the bridegroom would at this time of the festival leave his bride,
to whom he professes to be so deeply attached, alone and unhappy, and
not return at night. The learned professor, therefore, concludes that
this Song describes the chaste passion of conjugal and domestic love;
the attachment of two delicate persons who have been long united in the
sacred bond; and then asks, Can we suppose such happiness unworthy of
being recommended as a pattern to mankind, and of being celebrated as a
subject of gratitude to the great Author of happiness? [102]

1771. The honour, however, of first elucidating the true design of this
book is due to J. T. Jacobi; notwithstanding the imperfections of his
attempt. He showed that the importance of this Song is not to describe
the chaste passion of conjugal love, but to celebrate fidelity. The
pattern of this conjugal fidelity is the Shulamite, the heroine of the
book. This humble woman was married to a shepherd. Solomon, being
struck with her beauty, tempted her with the luxuries and splendour of
his court to forsake her husband and enter the royal harem; but the
Shulamite spurned all the allurements, and remained faithful to her
humble husband. [103] However strange the manner in which Jacobi
divides this book, and the interpretation of separate passages, it must
be acknowledged that he was the first in Germany who showed that
Solomon was not the object of the Shulamite’s affections, and that the
beloved was a humble shepherd from whom the King endeavoured to
separate her. It will be remembered that Ibn Ezra, Immanuel, and the
Anonymous Commentary, [104] have already taken the lovers to be a
shepherd and shepherdess, and regarded Solomon as a separate person,
whom the rustic maiden adduces in illustration of her sincere
attachment to her shepherd, affirming that if this great King were to
bring her into his court, and offer her all its grandeur and luxuries,
she would still rejoice in her humble lover.

1772. It seems unaccountable that though the increased attention paid
in this country to the sound exegesis of the Scriptures compelled
expositors to propound the literal meaning of this book, that Durell
[105] could still overlook the two distinct persons referred to in this
poem, viz. the King and the Shepherd, and maintain that the Song of
Songs is an epithalamium on Solomon’s marriage with Pharaoh’s daughter.

1776. It was not to be expected that the opposition of sound critics,
and much less the newly propounded view of Jacobi, would at once
subvert the old allegorical theories, or check fertile imaginations
from inventing new speculations. The Song of Songs was too darling an
object of those whose minds were addicted to allegories and mysticisms
to be so easily surrendered to the simple meaning of the text. So far
from being surprised, we rather expect that every one who rejects the
obvious sense of the Song will find in it some new view which his
predecessors had overlooked. And Herr von Puffendorf’s new theory,
therefore, only realises our expectations. He explained this Song
hieroglyphically, and by a process of reasoning as sound as that of the
other allegorisers, found his interpretation corroborated by analogy.
The sacred picture language constituted the wisdom of Solomon’s days,
and was therefore used among all nations to express everything divine.
As Solomon was more versed in the Egyptian mysteries than any of his
contemporaries, he would necessarily write the divine mysteries
contained in this book in hieroglyphics, in accordance with the custom
of those days. According to the deciphering of these hieroglyphics by
Puffendorf, “this much disputed Song treats almost exclusively of the
sepulchre of the Saviour, and his death, and the communion of
believers, especially of Old Testament saints; but it also describes
their longing for his Advent, whereby, however, the condition of the
New Testament community, and even the resurrection from the dead, are
represented in prophetical types.” [106] On the clause,


    “The virgins love thee.” Puffendorf remarks, “These are the pure
    and chaste souls which are locked up in the dark sepulchre, and
    wait for the light;” and in a note says, “the root ‏עָלַﬦ‎, whence
    ‏עֲלָמוֹת‎, virgins, is derived, signifies to be concealed, as those
    souls were. The Egyptian Neitha, or Minerva, was the tutelar deity
    of pious souls, and was covered with a veil, which none were
    allowed to uncover. The virgins, concealed in the same manner, have
    to expect that through marriage they will emerge into light. Thus
    the souls are here represented, which in the dominion of darkness
    wait for salvation and light.”


The curious reader must consult the Commentary itself to see how this
extraordinary mode of exposition is carried through the book.

1778. About two years after the publication of the deciphered
hieroglyphics of this Song, the allegorical interpretation sustained
some most severe blows from the eminently pious and celebrated poet
Herder. He denounced the allegorisers as violating common sense, and
the established laws of language, and maintained that this Song
celebrated true and chaste love in its various stages.

Upon the question, whether there may not be another sense concealed
under the obvious and literal meaning, Herder remarks—“When I read the
book itself I do not find the slightest intimation, or even the
faintest trace that such a sense was the design of the author. Were I
to admit it, I should also expect to find it in the Song of Ibrahim, in
the odes of Hafiz, and in all the oriental erotic poems which in form
entirely resemble this Song. In the life of Solomon I discover still
less reason for this concealed sense, be it historical, mystical,
metaphysical, or political. For Solomon’s wisdom did not consist in
mysticism, much less in metaphysics, or scholastic church history. His
wisdom was displayed in his common sense, as seen in his view of the
things of this life, in his acute penetration and extensive knowledge
of nature. Subsequent Arabian tradition has indeed attributed to him
also the art of sorcery, and of driving out evil spirits, but never did
even this tradition ascribe to him the downcast look of a mystic, or
represent him as indulging in airy speculations, or as writing a
compendium of Christian Church History.” [107]

Herder admits that this book describes the love of a shepherd and
shepherdess, as well as that of a king; but finding great difficulty to
account for this, he divides the book into separate songs, or amorets,
while at the same time he acknowledges that there is a marked unity
throughout, and that love is described from its first germs to its full
maturity, its ripened fruit, and its first regermination.

1780. This beautiful commentary was followed by an elaborate work of
Kleuker on this Song. [108] He too, with an overwhelming force of
argument, opposes the allegorical interpretation, and maintains that
the book consists of detached songs.

1781. Ann Francis, a lady of much poetical taste, who, assisted by the
learned Parkhurst, published a poetical version of the Song, [109] was
the first who adopted and defended the theory of Harmer, that this book
speaks of two wives, one a Jewish lady, who had been married to Solomon
long before, and the daughter of Pharaoh, whom the king had recently
espoused.

1786. Hodgson, however, was not influenced by the theory of Harmer,
but, with Bossuet, Lowth, Percy, &c., regarded this poem as “an
epithalamium written by Solomon, on his marriage, as some have
supposed, with the daughter of Pharaoh.” [110]

1789. The theory maintained by Abrabanel and Leon Hebraeus, [111] seems
at this time to have found its way into the Christian Church. An
unknown author, mentioned by Magnus, [112] defended the view that the
bride of the Song represents wisdom, with whom Solomon converses.

1790. It is indeed cheering to meet again with some glimpses of light
amidst the dense darkness which gathered around this book. Ammon not
only vindicated its unity against some of his contemporaries, but
showed that it celebrates the victory of true and chaste love in humble
life over the allurements of courtly grandeur. [113]

1801. In this country those who paid more regard to the established
laws of language, and were therefore constrained to admit a literal
sense, mostly adhered to the opinion that this poem is a nuptial song.
Thus Williams maintained that it celebrates the marriage of Solomon
with Pharaoh’s daughter. [114]

1803. Mason Good could not acquiesce in this opinion, because the
matrimonial connexion of the Hebrew monarch with the Egyptian princess
was of an exclusively political character, without any preceding
personal intimacy or interchange of affection; whereas, the connexion
celebrated in this Song, “proceeded from reciprocal affection, from the
gentleness, modesty, and delicacy of mind, which are uniformly and
perpetually attributed to this beautiful and accomplished fair one.”
[115] He, therefore, regards this book as celebrating in distinct
amorets, the reciprocal attachment of Solomon and a female, who was a
native of Sharon, which was a canton of Palestine; conveying also a
spiritual allegory.

1813. Hug, [116] rejecting the literal interpretation, exercised, like
the rest of the allegorisers, the right of introducing a new theory.
According to him, “the bride” means the ten tribes, and “the
bridegroom” is King Hezekiah, and the book describes
allegorico-politically the longing of Israel after the destruction of
Samaria to be re-united with Judah, and the opposition of the citizens
of Judah, represented under the image of the brothers (chap. viii. 8,
9) to this re-union.

1820. The feeble arm raised by Jacobi, Ammon, &c. in the defence of the
true design of this book against the mighty host of allegorisers, was
greatly supported by the learned Umbreit. In the introduction to his
exposition of this Song, Umbreit maintains that the design of the poem
is to celebrate the conquest of virtue in humble life over the
allurements of royalty. A virtuous country-maiden, who was attached to
a shepherd, was brought into Solomon’s harem, and there tempted by the
king with flatteries and promises to transfer her affections; but she,
armed by the power of virtue, resisted all his allurements, and
remained faithful to her shepherd, to whom she was afterwards
re-united. [117]

Though it cannot be said that either Clarke or Boothroyd in any way
elucidated the design of this book, yet they have done great service by
their rejection of the allegorical interpretation.

1825. We must, however, not suppose that the allegorisers, though
considerably diminished in number, had exhausted their inventive
faculties. Kaiser maintains that “the bride” is a new colony near the
Jordan, and the bridegroom represents Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah;
and that the Song celebrates their restoration of the Jewish
constitution in the province of Judah. [118]

1826. The little band, who struggled hard for the defence of the true
design of this book, could now rejoice at the accession of a mighty
leader to their ranks. The celebrated Ewald showed in a masterly manner
that “this poem celebrates chaste, virtuous, and sincere love, which no
splendour is able to dazzle, nor flattery to seduce.” [119]

1829. Döpke, in his elaborate philologico-critical commentary, though
not espousing this view, materially aided the combatants for the
literal interpretation. [120]

1830. It is surprising that the sharp-sighted Rosenmüller, who could
not follow the allegorical interpretation of the church, instead of
adhering to the obvious sense of the poem, adopted the view of
Abrabanel, Leon Hebraeus, &c., that “the bride” represents wisdom, with
whom Solomon is described as conversing. [121]

Whilst the battle between the allegorisers and literalists was being
waged on the continent, the few champions who came forward in England
to defend the literal interpretation received an important addition to
their number in the person of Dr. Pye Smith, who denounced this method
of treating Scripture as contrary to all laws of language, and
dangerous to real religion. He regards this Song as “a pastoral
eclogue, or a succession of eclogues, representing, in the vivid colour
of Asiatic rural scenery, with a splendour of artificial decoration,
the honourable loves of a newly married bride and bridegroom, with some
other interlocutors.” [122]

1839. The controversy between Drs. Pye Smith and Bennett [123] about
the Song of Songs produced a salutary effect, inasmuch as it added
considerably to the number of those who in this country defended the
literal interpretation. A version of Chap. ii. 8–17 appeared in the
Congregational Magazine, [124] in which the translator boldly affirms
that “it celebrates the beautiful scenery of the spring, the attachment
of two individuals to each other, and their meeting in that season of
nature’s gaiety and loveliness.” He, moreover, declares that he can
“see no more reason for the spiritual interpretation which Mr.
Williams, Mr. Fry, and others give it, than for its application to the
revival of letters, the termination of feudalism, or any other
gratifying circumstance in civil or political life.”

1840. Whilst the ranks of the literalists grew stronger in England, the
band that defended the true design of this poem in Germany, also under
the able leadership of Ewald, became stronger, and Hirzel now contended
for the view that the Song of Songs celebrates the victory of virtuous
love in humble life over the allurements of royalty. [125]

1842. The learned but “lynx-eyed” Magnus, however, could see in this
book nothing else than a collection of various erotic pieces, some
perfect, others imperfect, some amended, others interpolated, all the
work of different authors, and written in various ages. [126] Yet his
commentary is full of learning, and well deserves to be mentioned in
this historical sketch.

1845. Entirely different is the opinion of Professor Stuart, the great
Biblical scholar of America, who says, “It seems better and firmer
ground, to regard the Canticles as expressing the warm and earnest
desire of the soul after God, in language borrowed from that which
characterises chaste affection between the Jews.” [127]

1846. It must not be supposed that all the American Professors were of
the same opinion. Dr. Noyes, Professor of Hebrew, &c. in Harvard
University, published a translation of the Canticles with notes,
shortly after the appearance of Stuart’s work, in which he maintains
that it is a collection of erotic songs, without any moral or religious
design, [128] and most powerfully opposes the allegorical
interpretation.

1847. Another Professor, Dr. Stowe, affirmed that “the general idea of
the book, which has just been pronounced ‘as injurious to morals and
religion,’ if interpreted allegorically, [129] is descriptive of the
mutual love of God and his people; the vicissitudes, the trials, the
backslidings, the repentings, and finally the perfect and eternal union
of the church with its Lord and Saviour.” [130]

1849. Though not entirely defeated, yet the ranks of the allegorisers
were materially thinned, and they were driven to adopt a different
course. They no longer sought for some Christian mysteries and doctrine
in every chapter, verse, and word of the Song, but satisfied themselves
with a general allegorical idea, which may be seen both from the above
article of Dr. Stowe, and Keil’s “Introduction to the Song of Songs.”
Dr. Keil submits that it allegorically describes the mutual love
subsisting between God and his chosen people, and how this communion
was in various ways interrupted through the unfaithfulness of Israel,
and how, through their return to the true covenant-God, and through his
unchanging love, it was again restored. [131]

1851. Not even this mild view of the allegory, however, could
conciliate Delitzsch. This learned author, after having interpreted the
book as representing “the mutual love subsisting between Solomon and
Wisdom,” was at last constrained to reject every allegorical
interpretation as untenable. Though adopting the view that the book
poetically describes a love-relationship formed by Solomon, and that
“the idea of marriage is the idea of the Song,” and may figuratively
represent the union of God with his people, he frankly confesses, that
amongst other views, that which regards the poem as celebrating the
victory of virtuous love in humble life over the allurements of
royalty, is to be preferred. [132]

1852. Immediately after the publication of this commentary, containing
some of the most cogent arguments against the allegorical
interpretation, a new translation appeared with an allegorical
exposition by Hahn. Denying that Solomon represents the Messiah,
because at that early period the notion of a personal Messiah was not
yet developed in the minds of the people, this commentator advances a
new theory, that “the bridegroom” represents the kingdom of Israel, and
“the bride” Japhetic heathenism, and that the poem describes,
allegorically, “the kingdom of Israel as destined, in God’s service,
eventually to overcome heathenism with the weapons of justice and love,
and to bring the Heathen into a state of fellowship and love with
itself, and consequently with God.” [133] He takes the Song to be a
dramatico-didactic poem, divisible into six sections.

The first section, Chap. i. 2–ii. 7, describes the longing of the
maiden, who represents Japhetic heathenism, for the pleasurable love of
the king of Israel; her humble supplication to be received into his
fellowship, and the ultimate realization of her desire in that union.

The second section, Chap. ii. 8–iii. 5, supplementing the first,
describes the friendly invitation which the king of Israel gives to
this maiden (the Japhetic heathen) to catch with him the foxes, which
represent the kingdom of Satan upon earth, the Hametic heathen, and to
unite herself with him in the land of Canaan, which is the kingdom of
God, and her acceptance of this invitation.

The third section, Chap. iii. 6–v. 1, supplementing the first and
second, represents this maiden, after being conquered by the power of
the king’s love, and from sincere reciprocal attachment, devoting
herself as an acceptable offering to the service of God, as introduced
into the land of Canaan, which is the type of the kingdom of God, and
describes the completion of her never-ending union with the king of
Israel.

The fourth section, Chap. v. 2–vi. 9, a supplementary explanation of
the first, describes the early love of the king of Israel when he
visited the maiden in the dark night as she lay in a deep sleep, void
of all love to him, entreating to be admitted; her refusal; her
repentance after having become acquainted with his glory; her long
search after him; his accepting her after her repentance had been
tried, &c. &c.

The fifth section, Chap. vi. 10–viii. 4, which explains the second, and
supplements the fourth, describes how the king of Israel revealed
himself ultimately to the maiden; the king, after being long and
painfully sought by the maiden, who, despairing of success, and in a
dejected state, had returned home, was again incited, by some new
charms of hers, followed her, attended by his martial hosts, once more
offered her his love, met with a hearty response, and then she offered
herself to him with all she had, as his property.

The sixth section, Chap. viii. 5–14, which is a supplementary
exposition of the third, and a completion of the fifth, describes how
the maiden, after long and painfully searching, and longing for the
king of Israel, yielded herself up to him in her home, whither he had
followed her, and how she entreated for the favourable reception of her
younger sister, that is, the Hametic heathen, and how the king promised
the maiden that her sister shall eventually be received.

1853. Though this allegorist has repudiated the idea that Solomon
represents the Messiah, at the same time, another allegorist, and that
a no less writer than Hengstenberg, assures us that Solomon can be
regarded only as the Messiah, and that the bride is not Japhetic
heathenism, but the people of God. According to him, the poem
celebrates the Prince of Peace and all the mercies which through him
flow to the people of God, and is divisible into two parts.

The first part, Chap. i.–v. 1, describes the advent of Messiah, the
heavenly Solomon, to save his people; the tribulations and sorrows
which will precede his coming, and especially the bondage of the people
of God to worldly power, as the merited punishment of their
unfaithfulness. These sufferings are represented under the figure of
swarthiness, i. 6; winter and rain, ii. 11; dark nights and a
wilderness, iii. 6. Connected with the coming of Messiah is the
admission of the heathen into the kingdom of Christ, iii. 9–11,
effected through the mediation of the Old Testament people, as
indicated by the name “daughters of Jerusalem.”

The second part, Chap. v. 2–viii. 14, describes the sinning of the
daughter of Zion against the heavenly Solomon, her punishment,
repentance, and the re-union effected through the mediation of the
daughters of Jerusalem (the heathen), whose salvation she had first
assisted to accomplish; the complete restoration of the former mutual
love, in consequence of which the daughter of Zion becomes again the
centre of the kingdom of God; and the immutability of the new covenant
of love in contrast with the mutability of the old. [134]

1853. Simultaneous with this commentary of Hengstenberg, an allegorical
exposition appeared in America, by Professor Burrowes. He differs again
from the preceding in regarding this Song as illustrating by imagery
drawn from the court of Solomon, the mutual love of Christ and the
Church, as exercised in the case of individual believers. He divides it
into three parts.

The first part, Chap. i.–ii. 7, describes the way in which the soul,
longing after the manifestation of the love of Christ, is conducted in
the gratification of that desire, from one degree of pious enjoyment to
another, till, by the vicissitudes of fortune, and by the diversities
in its progress towards heaven, and the enjoyment of Christ’s love as
manifested in private communion in “his chamber;” 7–11, in the way of
duty and self-denial; 12–14, in social communion with him; 15–17, in
delightful repose with him, amid enlarged prospects of spiritual
beauty; chap. ii. 1–3, in the protection and delight here set forth;
4–7, it possesses the greatest possible pleasure on the earth.

The second part, Chap. ii. 8–vii. 9, describes the motives by which the
Lord Jesus would allure such souls away from the present world to be
with him in glory; chap. ii. 8–17, as by the beauty of heaven; chap.
iii. 1–11, by the splendour of the reception awaiting them there, as
well as by the grandeur of the conveyance thither; chap. v. 1–vii. 9,
and by his love for them, which remains constant even amidst their
greatest neglect.

The third section, Chap. vii. 10–viii. 14, describes the effects which
these manifestations of love produce on the heart of saints; chap. vii.
10, assurance of hope; 11, desire to be much alone in communion with
Christ; 12, their engagement in labours of love; 13, consecration to
him of all their gifts; chap. viii. 1, 2, a desire that everything
interposing between Christ and them may be removed; 3, 4, their
avoidance of everything that would cause the withdrawal of Christ’s
love; 5, the pleasing consciousness of leaning on Jesus, and of being
upheld by his everlasting arm; 6, their desire to be constantly near
him, and sustained by his power, and willingness to make every
sacrifice for him; 7, their conviction of the insufficiency of
everything the world could offer to tempt them from Christ; 8–10, their
interest for the salvation of the impenitent; 12, the sense of their
accountability as stewards of God; 13, the privilege of continual
access to the throne of grace; 14, desire for the completion of their
redemption, and for the perfecting of their love to Christ, and of his
to them, by the prospect of his second coming. [135]

From the analysis of the three latest commentaries upon this book, it
will be perceived that allegorical interpreters, even to this day,
differ in their views of its application and design.

1854. After quitting the bewildering maze of allegorism, it is cheering
to come to the commentary of Meier, in which the view that this poem
celebrates the victory of virtuous love in humble life over the
allurements of royalty is defended. [136]

1855. This is also the view propounded by Friedrich [137] and Hitzig,
[138] though the latter embraces a similar theory to Harmer, that there
are two women as chief speakers in the poem.

1856. In this opinion of the superiority of virtuous love to all the
temptations of royalty, the Jew and the Christian, the Englishman and
the German, are beginning to unite. The reviewer in the Jewish Monthly
Journal of History and Science, declares himself in favour of regarding
the Shulamite as resisting all the offers of Solomon and remaining
faithful to her shepherd. [139] Meier, the author of a commentary
mentioned above, in his History of the poetical National Literature of
the Hebrews, recently published, maintains the same opinion. [140] This
poem, says Dr. Davidson, “warns against impure love, encourages
chastity, fidelity, and virtue, by depicting the successful issue of
sincere affection amid powerful temptations. The innocent and virtuous
maiden, true to her shepherd lover, resists the flatteries of a
monarch, and is allowed to return to her home.” [141] Umbreit, in an
article upon this book, just published, states that he still adheres to
the view propounded in his commentary of 1828, [142] noticed above,
that it is a celebration of virtuous love over the allurements of
royalty.

How mournful is the thought which irresistibly forces itself upon the
mind, in reviewing this imperfect sketch of what has befallen this
poem! This book, we have seen, is made to describe the most
contradictory things. It contains the wanderings of the Jews, how they
will ultimately “fill their stomachs with the flesh of the Leviathan
and the best of wines preserved in grapes,” and is the sanctum
sanctorum of all Christian mysteries. It is denounced as a love song,
and extolled as declaring the incarnation of Christ; it speaks of the
meridian church in Africa, and of the betrayal of the Saviour; it
contains a treatise upon the doctrine of free grace against
Pelagianism, and an Aristotelian disquisition upon the functions of the
active and passive mind; it is an apocalyptic vision, a duplicate of
the Revelations of St. John, and records the scholastic mysticisms of
the middle ages; it denounces Arianism, and describes the glories of
the Virgin Mary; it “treats of man’s reconciliation unto God and peace
by Jesus Christ, with joy in the Holy Ghost,” and teaches lewdness, and
corrupts the morals; it records the conversation of Solomon and Wisdom,
and describes the tomb of Christ in Egyptian hieroglyphics; it
celebrates the nuptials of Solomon, and gives us a compendium of
ecclesiastical history to the second advent of Christ; it records the
restoration of a Jewish constitution by Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah,
and the mysteries of marriage; it advocates monogamy and encourages
polygamy; it assists devotion and excites carnal passions. What a
solemn lesson we have here never to depart from the simple meaning of
the word of God!





SECTION VI.—THE DIFFERENT VIEWS CLASSIFIED AND EXAMINED.

The various opinions, enumerated in the preceding section, respecting
the design of this book, may be divided into three classes, the
literal, the allegorical, and the typical. The first considers the
description as real, that the words should be taken as representing an
historical fact; the second considers that the description has no
historical truth for its basis, but contains some latent meaning;
whilst the third admits the literal meaning, but regards it as typical
of spiritual truth. The literal view adopted by us having been given in
sections iii. and iv., we have to examine here only the claims of the
allegorical and typical.



THE ALLEGORICAL VIEW.

The allegorical view principally maintained is, that this poem, in
language borrowed from that which characterises chaste affections
between the sexes, expresses the mutual love subsisting between the
Lord and his Church.



REASONS FOR THE ALLEGORICAL VIEW EXAMINED.

1. The existence of this book in the sacred canon has been adduced as
an argument for its allegorical interpretation.

“In what part of the Hebrew Bible can we find any composition of an
analogous nature? All—every Psalm, every piece of history, every part
of prophecy—has a religious aspect, and (the book of Esther perhaps
excepted) is filled with theocratic views of things. How came there
here to be such a solitary exception, so contrary to the genius and
nature of the whole Bible? It is passing strange, if real amatory Idyls
are mingled with so much, all of which is of a serious and religious
nature. If the author viewed his composition as being of an amatory
nature, would he have sought a place for it among the sacred books? And
subsequent redactors or editors—would they have ranked it here, in case
they had regarded it in the same light? I can scarcely deem it
credible. So different was the reverence of the Jews for their
Scriptures from any mere approbation of an amatory poem as such, that I
must believe that the insertion of Canticles among the canonical books,
was the result of a full persuasion of its spiritual import. Had the
case stood otherwise, why did they not introduce other secular books,
as well as this, into the canon?” [143]

Granting that the design of the book was simply to describe love, we
deny that it would have been deemed unworthy of a place in the sacred
canon. Why should the pleasures of chaste love be considered less
worthy of record in the sacred books, than the sorrow for bereaved
friendship, in 2 Sam. i. 17, &c.? “To those,” says Dr. Mason Good, a
defender of the allegorical interpretation, “who disbelieve the
existence of such an allegory they (the amorets) still afford a happy
example of the pleasures of holy and virtuous love; they inculcate,
beyond the power of didactic poetry, the tenderness which the husband
should manifest for his wife, and the deference, modesty, and fidelity
with which his affection should be returned; and, considered even in
this sense alone, they are fully entitled to the honour of constituting
a part of the sacred Scriptures.” [144] “Why should a passion,” remarks
another allegorical interpreter, “so strong, so universal, so essential
to happiness—to the very existence of the human race, be denied a place
in a Revelation from God to man? As a matter of fact, has it not a
place in every part of the Bible, from Genesis to Revelation? God is
the author of the human constitution as well as of the Bible; and he
has in all respects adapted his revelation to the nature of the beings
for whom it was designed. It would be strange indeed, if one of the
most important and never absent phenomena in the moral and physical
creation of men should never be noticed in a revelation to him from his
Creator. If the viciousness and licentiousness of men have loaded this
subject with vile and filthy associations in vile and filthy minds,
this is not the fault of God or of his revelation. The vine will not be
destroyed, nor the grapes annihilated, because wicked men make
themselves beasts with wine.” [145]

The design of the book, in our view, however, is not to celebrate love,
but to record an example of virtue, which is still more worthy of a
place in the sacred canon.

2. It has been urged, that the language put by the sacred writer into
the mouth of the bride, shows that the poem is to be allegorically
interpreted, because in its literal sense such language would be
contrary to nature and to the modesty of women.

“That this is not a song of human loves,” says Dr. Bennett, [146] “is
clear from the beginning to the end. It opens with the language of a
female: ‘Let him kiss me;’ it is full of her solicitous seeking after
him; it abounds with praises of his person, and her dispraises of
herself, of her person and her conduct; it invites other females to
love him, and it speaks of him as her brother, and of her as his
sister. Let any one examine the Song, and then muse over these facts,
recollecting that Solomon is, in the opening of the poem itself, said
to be the writer. Was ever such a human love-song composed by mortal,
since man either loved or wrote verses? What writer, with the feelings,
or the reason, of a man, would begin a poem on his fair one by
describing her as courting him? Let it not be said, ‘We must not
transfer our modern and northern ideas to the ancient Orientals, who
had not our delicate notions of the female character;’ for this would
only make my case stronger. It would be more abhorrent from the
secluded, submissive character of Eastern brides to ask the gentlemen
to come and kiss them, than it would be from the dignified confidence
of British women. It is not a question of climate or age, but of
nature. The bridegroom, who is supposed to love this fairest of women,
himself puts into her lips this speech: ‘Let him kiss me!’ Never would
human love speak thus. Though men like to court, they do not like to be
courted; and while they think it cruel to be rejected when they court,
they without mercy reject her that courts them; as the forward female
has usually found, from the days of Sappho to this hour. Women were
endowed with the form and the qualities intended to attract courtship,
and they feel it; and when they do not feel it, men despise them. No
man, therefore, in his senses, would think to compliment his fair one
by writing of her, to her, as if she had lost her retiring modesty, her
female dignity, and degraded herself by doing that for which every man
would despise her. The very first word of this Song, then, stands a
witness against the notion of its being a human love-song; for it would
better suit Solomon’s strange woman, that with an impudent face caught
and kissed the young simpleton, than Solomon’s princess-bride, or Dr.
Smith’s supposed chaste monogamist. Till fishes mount to sing with
larks on the shady boughs, and nightingales dive to ocean’s depths to
court the whales, no man, of any age, of any clime, of any rank, can be
supposed to write ordinary love-songs in such a style. We are told, by
the first word, that a greater than Solomon is here, one who must be
courted, and that loves more than human are the theme. This is the
Bridegroom of whom the Psalmist says, ‘He is thy Lord, and worship thou
him:’ ‘Kiss the Son, lest he be angry, and ye perish from the way.’
Such a spouse may exhibit his Bride as asking for his love; every other
must present himself as asking for hers, and begging the acceptance of
his.”

It is allowed by scholars of taste, that, regarded as a mere human
production, this poem is inimitable. “Every part of this Song,” says
the learned Bishop Bossuet, [147] “abounds in poetical beauties; the
objects which present themselves on every side are the choicest plants,
the most beautiful flowers, the most delicious fruits, the bloom and
vigour of spring, the sweet verdure of the fields, flourishing and
well-watered gardens, pleasant streams, and perennial fountains. The
other senses are represented as regaled with the most precious odours,
natural and artificial; with the sweet singing of birds, and the soft
voice of the turtle; with milk and honey, and the choicest of wine. To
these enchantments are added all that is beautiful and graceful in the
human form, the endearments, the caresses, the delicacy of love. If any
object be introduced which seems not to harmonize with this delightful
scene, such as the awful prospect of tremendous precipices, the
wildness of the mountains, or the haunts of lions, its effect is only
to heighten, by the contrast, the beauty of the other objects, and to
add the charms of variety to those of grace and elegance.” Bishop
Lowth, after having descanted upon some passages, remarks, “Nothing can
be imagined more truly elegant and poetical than all these, nothing
more apt or expressive than these comparisons.” [148] If the poet is so
charming in his style, so exquisite and true in his picture of nature,
surely it is but reasonable to give him credit for understanding his
art, that he was acquainted with the manners and habits of the women of
his age, and that he would be as true to nature in the description of
the bride as he is in depicting nature herself. If it be true that
language of such exquisite taste would outrage female decency and
modesty when addressed to a human love, it will surely be more
outrageous when put into the mouth of the humble, penitent, and
submissive Church in addresses to the Lord of lords. Where in the Old
or New Testament do we find any address from the saints to God or
Christ resembling the opening of this poem? The addresses of Abraham,
(Gen. xviii. 23–33,) Jacob, (Gen. xxxii. 10–13,) and of Solomon
himself, (1 Kings viii. 23–53,) and the language in which Christ has
taught us to appeal to God, are characterized by the greatest reverence
and humility. How, then, can it be affirmed, that language which would
violate female modesty and decency in the mouth of a woman to a lover
whom she prizes above all things, is becoming in the mouth of the
Church when addressing the Holy One of Israel?

Dr. Bennett, however, misunderstood the design of the book. The Song,
in its literal meaning, does not begin with representing a woman
courting a man, but describes how a humble and virtuous rustic maiden
was taken away from her beloved into the court of Solomon, and tempted
to transfer her affections, by the splendour and luxuries of royalty;
but even there, amidst all the grandeur, and in spite of all alluring
promises, the maiden was faithful to her espousals, and desired that he
whom she prized above all things would come and rescue her.

3. It is urged that the same language and imagery employed in the Song,
and the bridegroom and the bride here introduced, are elsewhere
spiritually applied to the Lord and his people.

“This sort of imagery,” says Professor Stuart, “is frequent in the Old
Testament, and in the New. Frequently are the Jews charged with ‘going
a whoring after other gods,’ Exod. xxxiv. 15, 16; Lev. xx. 5, 6; Numb.
xv. 39; Deut. xxxi. 16; 2 Chron. xxi. 13; Ps. lxxiii. 27; Ezek. vi. 9.
Here the idea is, that they were affianced to the true God, and could
not seek after idols without incurring the guilt of adultery. So God
calls himself the husband of the Jews, Isa. liv. 5. The nation of
Israel is his bride, Isa. lxii. 4, 5. In Isa. l. 1, Jehovah asks,
‘Where is the bill of divorcement’ on his part, that Israel has
departed from Him? Jeremiah speaks of the espousals of Israel, when
young, in the wilderness.

“In Jer. iii. 1–11, the prophet speaks of Israel as playing the harlot,
and committing adultery, in forsaking Jehovah. In Ezekiel, two long
chapters (xvi., xxiii.) are occupied with carrying through the imagery
drawn from such a connexion. Hosea (i.–iii.) recognises the same
principle, and carries out the imagery into much detail. These are
merely specimens. Ps. xlv. presents the Mediator, the King of Zion, in
the attitude of a husband to the Church, and celebrates the union
between the former and the latter. So in the New Testament this imagery
is very familiar: see Matt. ix. 25; John iii. 29; Rev. xix. 7; xxi. 2.
Especially consult 2 Cor. xi. 2, and Eph. v. 22–32, where the Apostle
has gone into much particularity as to the duties of the marriage
relation, and then avows that he ‘speaks concerning Christ and the
Church.’

“Such is the custom of the Hebrew writers and of the Apostles. If, now,
this imagery is so often employed in all parts of the Bible, what
forbids the idea, that there may be one short book in which it occupies
an exclusive place, and is designed to symbolize the love that existed
between God and his ancient people, or the Church; or rather, which
ought to have existed on their part between God and his spiritually
regenerated people, who have become one (in a spiritual sense) with
him, and are for ever united to him? It cannot be shown, à priori, that
it is even improbable.”

First. What does this argument prove? Surely not what the
representation of this poem IS; it only shows what it might have been.
It shows that if we had indubitable proof, as in the passages cited,
that a whole book in the sacred canon is entirely devoted to symbolize,
under the figure of husband and wife, the covenant-relationship
subsisting between God and his people, we ought not to be surprised at
it, since it would be in harmony with those alleged passages. But
surely it does not follow, that, because we are distinctly told in some
passages of Scripture that the terms, husband and wife, are employed to
symbolize the relationship between God and his people, that they should
have this signification as often as they are employed.

Second. We utterly deny that the covenant-relation which subsisted
between the Lord and Israel was represented by the terms, husband and
wife, before the days of Solomon. The phrase, ‏זנה אחרי אלהים אחרים‎,
to go whoring after other gods, to which reference has been made, does
not mean that Israel, by worshipping idols, committed spiritual
adultery against the true God to whom they were affianced,—thus
presupposing God to be their husband, and Israel his wife,—but
describes a literal fact, the libidinous orgies and prostitutions
identified with heathen worship which the Jews indulged in when
worshipping idols. Numb. xxv. 1; Hos. iv. 13, &c. This is evident from
Exod. xxxiv. 15, 17, where this phrase first occurs, and is applied to
heathen women worshipping their own gods. And though these women stood
in no such covenant-relation to the God of Israel, and therefore could
not incur the guilt of spiritual adultery, yet they are described as
“whoring after THEIR gods.” From these licentious rites, therefore,
originated this phrase, afterwards used to describe the worship of
idols. But even admitting that it does suggest a marriage relationship
between God and his people, the distance between a suggestive phrase of
this kind and an entire book of marital descriptions is so great, that
the one cannot be reasonably supposed to have suggested the other.

Third. We deny that even the language used by the prophets after the
days of Solomon, in the passages cited, is at all analogous to that of
this poem. Let us examine some of the passages themselves. Isa. l. 1:—


    “Where is the bill of your mother’s divorce
    With which I dismissed her?”


Isa. liv. 4–6:—


    “Fear not, for thou shalt not be ashamed,
    And be not abashed, for thou shalt not blush;
    For thou shalt forget the shame of thy youth,
    And the reproach of thy widowhood thou shalt remember no more.
    For he weddeth thee who made thee.
    Jehovah of hosts is his name,
    And the Holy One of Israel redeemeth thee.
    He is called the God of the whole earth.
    For Jehovah calleth thee, as a forsaken wife, when spirit-broken,
    And as a wife of youth when melting in repentance, saith thy Lord.”


Isa. lxii. 4, 5:—


    “No more shall it be said to thee, Thou forsaken!
    And no more shall it be said to thy land, Thou desolate!
    But thou shalt be called, The object of my delight,
    And thy land, The married woman;
    For Jehovah delighteth in thee,
    And thy land shall be married;
    For the young man shall marry the virgin;
    Thy children shall marry thee;
    And with the joy of a bridegroom over his bride
    Shall thy God rejoice over thee.”


Jer. iii. 20:—


    “As a wife faithlessly departeth from her husband,
    So have ye acted faithlessly towards me,
    O house of Israel! saith Jehovah.”


These, and several more of a similar kind, are the passages referred
to, to prove that the bridegroom and bride in this Song mean the Lord
and his people! How totally different is the strain of thought and
expression in those passages to that in the Song!

In the former, the wedded-relation forms the comparison; in the latter,
ante-nuptial love is the theme. In the former, the general idea of the
figure is briefly used, without any particulars of the accompaniments;
in the latter, particulars of the persons, dresses, scenery, are
largely described. In the former, God is represented as the High and
Holy One inhabiting eternity, and, in his infinite condescension and
compassion, loving, with the tenderness of a husband, Israel, who is
represented as an unlovely, ungrateful, and unfaithful wife; in the
latter, the bridegroom and the bride are placed upon an equality, nay,
the bridegroom declares that his heart has been ravished by the charms
and faithfulness of the bride. In the former we are distinctly told
that the husband means the Lord, and the wife the people of Israel, so
that the most superficial reader is compelled to perceive it; in the
latter we have no intimation whatever that the lovers are intended to
represent God and his people, and no reader would ever gather it from
the poem. This will appear all the more forcible when we remember that,
supposing this poem to be a description of the covenant-relation
subsisting between God and his people, it contains the completest
representation of this kind. We should, therefore, naturally expect
that subsequent writers, employing the same figure, would borrow
something of the imagery and colouring from it. But, so far from this
being the case, there is not the slightest analogy between the strain
of thought and expression of this poem and that of subsequent writers.

Fourth. The 45th Psalm, which is supposed to celebrate, allegorically,
the union of the Messiah and the Church, has been adduced as analogous
to the Song of Songs, and therefore an evidence in behalf of the
allegorical interpretation.

“If we admit,” says Hengstenberg, “the allegorical interpretation of
this Psalm, we shall also be obliged to drop the literal meaning of the
Song of Songs.”

Is it certain, however, that this Psalm is all allegory? The Psalm
itself gives not the slightest intimation that it is to be understood
in any other than its literal sense. Let us examine it:—


    “My heart boils with good matter;
    When I think my work is for the king,
    My tongue becomes as a style of a quick writer.
    Thou art beautiful, beautiful above the sons of men:
    Charm is poured upon thy lips,
    Therefore God has blessed thee for ever.
    Gird thy sword on thy thigh, O hero!
    Thy splendour and thy glory, yea, thy glory,
    Ride on victoriously for truth and mildness and right.
    Great things shall thy right hand teach thee!
    Thy arrows are sharp—people fall under thee—
    They dart into the heart of the king’s enemies!
    Thy throne, O God, stands for ever and ever;
    A sceptre of justice is the sceptre of thy kingdom;
    Thou lovest right, and hatest wrong;
    Therefore God, thy God, anointed thee
    With gladdening oil above thy companions!
    Myrrh, aloes, and cassia are all thy garments,
    Out of ivory palaces stringed instruments joyfully greet thee;
    Kings’ daughters are among thy dear ones—
    Upon thy right hand stands the queen in gold of Ophir.

      Hear, O daughter, and see, and incline thine ear;
    Forget thy people and thy father’s house,
    That the king may desire thy beauty,
    For he is thy Lord, and honour thou him.
    O daughter of Tyre, now with presents
    The rich of the people salute thy face.

      The king’s daughter stands in the palace in all the splendour,
    Her clothing is of fabricated gold,
    She is led to the king in wrought raiment;
    Behind her are the virgins, her companions, brought for thee;
    They are conducted with joy and rejoicing,
    They enter the palace of the king.

      Instead of thy fathers shall be thy sons;
    Thou wilt set them as princes over the whole land.
    I wilt celebrate thy name from generation to generation;
    Therefore shall nations praise thee for ever and ever.”


This Psalm is evidently a congratulatory nuptial-song, composed for the
occasion of a king’s marriage with a princess of Tyre. The sacred
writer begins by stating that such is the greatness of the subject,
that it awakens thoughts too big for utterance; but recollecting that
his work is for the king, at once his tongue is loosed, and glides as
rapidly as the stylus of a quick writer (2). He then celebrates the
king’s beauty and eloquence, recognising in it God’s blessing (3), his
valour, symbolized by the conquering sword, the prosperous chariot, the
terrible arm, the well-directed arrow (4–6), his divine throne, and
love of justice (7), his great happiness, resulting from his love for
justice (8), which consists in the splendour around him (9), in his
magnificent harem, and especially in the new princess-bride at his
right hand (10). Having gradually arrived at the subject which is the
occasion of the poem, the sacred writer now addresses the bride, and,
in accordance with Eastern custom, which represents brides as unwilling
to leave their parents on the day of espousals (Comp. Deut. xxi. 13),
telling her to forget her father’s house, as she will have such glory
as is just described (11, 12). The bride is then presented with gifts,
according to Oriental manners, from the first ladies of the kingdom
(13); she appears in all the splendour in the first palace (14), and
thence conducted in grand procession to the king’s palace (15, 16). The
marital procession now being over, the inspired writer congratulates
the king, wishing him a happy issue (17), and concludes by saying that
his renown will rapidly spread (18).

What is there in this Psalm compelling us to understand it
allegorically? The quotation of the sixth verse in Hebrews i. 8, 9,
only proves that this verse refers in a higher sense to the Messiah,
but not that the whole Psalm is descriptive of him. Who would think of
allegorizing the eighth chapter of Isaiah, because verses 17 and 18 are
quoted in Hebrews ii. 13? The throne of David is declared to be an
everlasting throne, 2 Sam. vii. 13, 16; a throne of God, i.e. a divine
throne, since the Messiah was to be the last and ever reigning king.
Hence it is said, ‏וַיֵּשֶׁב שְׁלֹמֹה עַל כִּסֵּא יְהֹוָה לְמֶלֶכְ תַּחַת דָּוִיד אָבִיו‎, “and
Solomon sat upon the throne of Jehovah as king instead of his father
David.”—1 Chron. xxix. 23. Every king, therefore, of that lineage,
occupying the throne, was regarded as the representative of God; as the
predecessor and type of Him who was to be born of the seed of David to
occupy the throne in the highest sense. So that, whether we translate
‏כִּסְּאֲךָ אֱלֹהִים‎ thy throne, O God, taking ‏אֱלֹהִים‎ as a vocative, or thy
God-throne, i.e. the throne committed to thee by God, or, thou art
seated upon a throne of God, or regard the phrase as an ellipsis for
‏כִּסְּאֲךָ כִּסֵּי אֱלֹהִים‎, thy throne is a throne of God, comes substantially to
the same thing. It is, therefore, a groundless assertion, that the
whole Psalm is an allegory, and the reference to it in proof of the
allegorical interpretation of the poem before us is nugatory.

But, even admitting that the 45th Psalm is an allegory, this would by
no means prove that the Song of Songs is also an allegory, for the two
cases differ essentially. In the former the bridegroom is addressed in
verse 8 as God, and this verse is quoted in the New Testament, whereas
in the latter there is nothing of the kind.

4. The custom of oriental nations to express their religious and
devotional sentiments under the disguise of amatory and drinking songs
has been adduced as an argument in favour of the allegorical
interpretation of the Song of Songs.

“The durweesh,” [149] says Lane, “pointed out the following poem as one
of those most common at Zikrs, and as one which was sung at the Zikr
which I have begun to describe. I translated it verse for verse, and
imitate the measure and system of the original, with this difference
only, that the first, third, and fifth lines of each stanza rhyme with
each other in the original, but not in my translation.


    ‘With love my heart is troubled,
      And mine eyelid hindereth sleep:
    My vitals are dissever’d,
      While with streaming tears I weep.

    My union seems far distant,
      Will my love e’er meet mine eye?
    Alas! did not estrangement
      Draw my tears, I would not sigh.

    ‘By dreary nights I’m wasted,
      Absence makes my hopes expire;
    My tears, like pearls, are dropping,
      And my heart is wrapt in fire.
    Whose is like my condition?
      Scarcely know I remedy.
    Alas! did not estrangement
      Draw my tears, I would not sigh.

    ‘O turtle dove! acquaint me
      Wherefore thus dost thou lament?
    Art thou so stung by absence?
      Of thy wings deprived, and pent?
    He saith, ‘Our griefs are equal;
      Worn away with love, I lie.’
    Alas! did not estrangement
      Draw my tears, I would not sigh.

    ‘O First and Everlasting!
      Show thy favour yet to me.
    Thy slave, Ahh’mad El-Bek’ree, [150]
      Hath no Lord excepting Thee.
    By Tá-Há, [151] the great prophet,
      Do thou not his wish deny.
    Alas! did not estrangement
      Draw my tears, I would not sigh.’


“I must translate a few more lines, to show more strongly the
similarity of these songs to that of Solomon; and lest it should be
thought that I have varied the expressions, I shall not attempt to
translate into verse. In the same collection of poems sung at Zikrs is
one which begins with these lines:—


    ‘O gazelle from among the gazelles of El-Yem’en!
    I am thy slave without cost;
    O thou small of age, and fresh of skin!
    O thou who art scarce past the time of drinking milk!’


“In the first of these verses we have a comparison exactly agreeing
with that in the concluding verse of Solomon’s Song; for the word
which, in our Bible, is translated a ‘roe,’ is used in Arabic as
synonymous with ghaza’l (or a gazelle); and the mountains of El-Yem’en
are ‘the mountains of spices.’ This poem ends with the following
lines:—


    ‘The phantom of thy form visited me in my slumber.
    I said, “O phantom of slumber! who sent thee?”
    He said, “He sent me whom thou knowest;
    He whose love occupies thee!”
    The beloved of my heart visited me in the darkness of night;
    I stood, to show him honour, until he sat down.
    I said, “O thou my petition, and all my desire,
    Hast thou come at midnight, and not feared the watchmen?”
    He said to me, “I feared, but, however, love
    Had taken from me my soul and my breath.”’


“Compare the above with the second and five following verses of the
fifth chapter of Solomon’s Song. Finding that songs of this description
are extremely numerous, and almost the only poems sung at Zikrs; that
they are composed for this purpose, and intended only to have a
spiritual sense (though certainly not understood in such a sense by the
generality of the vulgar); I cannot entertain any doubt as to the
design of Solomon’s Song.”

To this we cannot do better than quote the able reply of Dr.
Noyes:—“Now, as to the first of these religious love-songs of the
Mahometan dervishes, whatever slight resemblance it may have to any
part of the Canticles, it differs essentially from any of them in the
circumstance, that the Supreme Being is expressly introduced as the
object of worship. Without this essential circumstance, no one could
tell whether it were originally composed for a love-song, or a
religious hymn expressing a longing for a union of the soul with God,
according to the Sufi philosophy and religion.

“In the second poem, quoted by Mr. Lane, it is to be regretted that he
did not quote the whole of it; for I can by no means admit the
circumstance, that it was sung by the dervishes in their morning
devotions, to be conclusive in regard to the original design of the
hymn. Mr. Lane expressly tells us, in a note, that he found the last
six lines inserted, with some slight alterations, as a common
love-song, in a portion of the ‘Thousand and One Nights,’ printed at
Calcutta, vol. i. p. 225; Lane’s translation, ii. p. 349. Whether the
whole was originally composed as a love-song or a devotional hymn, does
not appear from the parts of it which Mr. Lane gives us. If in the
parts omitted there is any clear reference to the Deity, it is unlike
any of the Canticles. If there is no such reference, the meaning of the
hymn is too doubtful to allow any inference to be drawn from it. For we
might as well allow the singing of Dr. Watts’s version of the Canticles
to be an argument for their original design, as to admit the singing of
the mystic dervishes to be an evidence of the original design of the
hymns.

“Before making some general remarks on this whole subject of attempting
to show the character of the Canticles by reference to the pantheistic
poetry of the Mahometan Sufis, it may be well to mention that reference
has been made even to the poets of Hindostan for the same purpose;
especially to the Gitagovinda, the production of a celebrated Hindoo
poet, named Jayadeva. This appears to be a mystical poem, designed to
celebrate the loves of Crishna and Radha, or the reciprocal attraction
between the divine goodness and the human soul. Now, whatever may be
the resemblance between the Gitagovinda and Canticles in some of their
imagery, there is this essential difference, that, in the former,
Crishna was the chief incarnate god of the Hindoos, [152] and that
there are references to other gods, and to various superstitions of the
Hindoo mythology; whilst in the Canticles there is no reference to any
but human characters. Besides, the author of the Gitagovinda clearly
intimates its religious character in the conclusion of the poem.

“We have seen, then, that there are material differences between the
Canticles and the religious love-songs to which reference has been
made. But supposing the resemblance to be much greater than it is,
those mystical songs do not in any essential respect resemble the
Canticles more than they do the odes of Anacreon, or some of the
eclogues of Virgil, and the idyls of Theocritus. And it is not easy to
see why the resemblance does not prove the religious character of the
odes of Anacreon as much as that of the Canticles.

“But, after all, the great objection remains to any conclusion drawn
from the pantheistic mystic poets, whether of Persia or India, whether
Mahometans or Hindoos, namely, that their productions are founded on a
religion and philosophy entirely different from the Jewish. The
Canticles are productions of a different country, and separated from
any of the songs of the Sufi poets by an interval of nearly two
thousand years. The Jewish religion has nothing in common with the
pantheistic mysticism on which those songs are founded. There is
nothing in the Old Testament of a similar character. If any production
similar to those mystical love-songs had existed in the religious
literature of the Hebrews, undoubtedly we should have found some in the
Book of Psalms, which comprises compositions from the age preceding
that of David to a period long after the return of the Jews from the
captivity at Babylon. But in the most fervent Psalms, the forty-second,
for instance, nothing of the kind is found. Neither is anything similar
to those mystic songs ascribed to the Jewish sect, as described by
Josephus and Philo. Nothing of the kind is laid to the charge of the
Essenes. It is needless to say, that nothing approaching to the like
character is found in the New Testament. Nothing similar is discovered
even in the allegorical paraphrase of the Targumist on the Canticles.
All those religious love-songs are founded on the Sufi religion, or
rather religious philosophy, which, whether it was borrowed from India,
as Von Hammer supposes, or arose independently among the Mahometans,
according to the opinion of Tholuck, has no connexion with, or
resemblance to, the Jewish. It is as different from the latter as
darkness from light. The argument, therefore, which is drawn from the
mystical songs of the Mahometan devotees for ascribing a mystical
character to the Canticles, is without foundation.” [153]



REASONS AGAINST THE ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION.

1. In every allegory, or parable, employed in the Scripture, or in any
good human composition, something is wrought into its texture to
indicate most unmistakably its allegorical design; that, under the garb
of an immediate representation, is conveyed one more remote. Thus, in
the 80th Psalm, 9–17, where Israel is represented under the allegory of
a vine which came out of Egypt, the design is distinctly wrought into
the texture of the allegory. The expression, heathen (‏גוֹיִם‎), at the
very beginning of the allegory, and especially the words, “the Son whom
thou hast chosen for thyself,” (‏עַל בֵּן אִמַּצְתָּה לָךְ‎) in the second clause
of verse 15, which, when compared with “the Son of man, whom thou hast
chosen for thyself,” (‏עַל בֵּן אָדָם אִמַּצְתָ לָךְ‎) in verse 17, are evidently
explanatory of the words, “and protect what thy right hand hath
planted,” (‏וְכַנָּה אֲשֶׁר נָטְעָה יְמִינֶיךָ‎) in the first clause, clearly to show
the more remote concealed under the immediate representation. Thus,
also, in the allegory of the vineyard, and by the prophet Isaiah (chap.
v.), we are distinctly told, in verse 7, that “the vineyard of Jehovah
of hosts is the house of Israel, and the men of Judah are his pleasant
plantation.” Compare also Judges ix. 7–20; 2 Kings xiv. 9, 10; Ezek.
xvi., xxxvii. 1–14; the parables of our Saviour, Acts x. 10–17; Gal.
iv. 22–31. Now, if the author of this poem had intended it to be
understood allegorically, he would have given some indication to that
effect; especially since the allegories occasionally used in some parts
of this very book, chap. iv. 12, v. 1, vii. 7, 8, are rendered plain
and obvious. As there is, however, not the slightest intimation in the
whole of this lengthy poem that it is designed to be allegorical, we
are unwarranted to assume it. To take one portion of the Scriptures
allegorically, without even an obscure hint of it in the writing
itself, is to violate the established laws of language, and to expose
all other portions of the sacred volume to a similar treatment. If one
chooses to allegorize one part without any sanction, another may choose
to allegorize another. But we have no right to depart from the literal
and obvious meaning, without some authority for it from the inspired
writer. This argument is applicable to every allegorical
interpretation, whether historical or hieroglyphical, whether political
or metaphysical.

2. The total silence of our Lord and his apostles respecting this book
is against its allegorical interpretation. If this Song, according to
the first and last allegorisers, “celebrates the glories of the
Messiah, and all the mercies which through him flow to the people of
God,” it is more spiritual and more evangelical than any other portion
of the Old Testament; surpassing even the writings of Isaiah, who is
called the fifth Evangelist, and is, in fact, what Origen called it,
“The Holy of Holies.” Is it possible, then, that our Saviour, and his
apostles, who, in their disputations with the Jews, so frequently
quoted the prophecies of Isaiah and other passages of the Old
Testament, far less evangelical and Messianic, would never have
referred to this book? Is it possible that the apostle Paul, who so
frequently describes the relation of Christ to the Church by the union
subsisting between husband and wife (2 Cor. xi. 2, Rom. vii. 4, Eph. v.
23–32), would be silent about a book which, more than any other in the
Old Testament, sets forth that union? The fact, therefore, that our
Saviour and his apostles never once refer to this book is against the
allegorical interpretation.

3. Is Solomon the man from whom a production of such preeminent
spirituality and evangelical truth could have been reasonably expected?
Is there anything in his private history, his habits of thought, his
moral inclinations, or in the general tone and tendency of his
religious emotions, at any period of his life, as far as they can be
gathered from his history and writings, that would lead us to
anticipate such evangelical piety as this interpretation presupposes?
The same agreement which exists between ordinary writers and their
productions is perceptible in the inspired records. Inspiration, like
Providence, selected the fittest instruments for its work. Thus,
between the history of Moses and his writings, of David and his
writings, of Paul and his writings, of John and his writings, a natural
uniformity exists; and so of other sacred authors. Accordingly, we have
not only to suppose Solomon to have been more spiritually-minded than
any under the Jewish economy, but to have stood upon a level with the
most enlightened and Christ-loving under the present dispensation, in
order to write in such a strain. Where is any such qualification in
Solomon, even remotely intimated in any part of Scripture? The wisdom
which he asked, which he received, and for which he gained celebrity,
was that displayed in his civil government, in social and moral
teaching, of which the first-fruit was given in the decision upon the
litigation of the two mothers. The poetry which he wrote, consisting of
one thousand and five songs, upon natural history, not having been
deemed worthy of a place in the sacred canon, shows that his muse did
not indulge in a devotional strain. The Book of Ecclesiastes, which is
attributed to him by tradition, is the experience of a thorough-going
worldling and libertine, and a confession to men rather than God. The
extensive harem which he had, displays his inordinate desire for revels
and foreign women, which in old age inveigled him into the practice of
idolatry. “His wives,” as the Scriptures teach us, “turned away his
heart after other gods.” And the last we hear of him is, that “his
heart was not perfect with the Lord his God, as was the heart of his
father David.” Is this, then, the man whose love-song is to be regarded
as pre-eminently spiritual, and to be exalted as more evangelically
rapturous than any other portion of Holy Writ? To what period of his
life is this pre-eminent piety to be assigned? If to the latter, that
is the period of his greatest degeneracy; if to the former, how are we
to reconcile his apostasy with so high a degree of spirituality? It is
difficult to conceive of such a mind as that of Solomon brought at any
time into sympathy with the prevailing allegorical exposition of this
Song. Who can conceive that he who caused an irreparable breach in his
kingdom should represent himself as the Prince of Peace, or that he who
was the embodiment of the carnal propensities should describe, under
the figure of chaste love, the union of Christ and his Church? It is
inconceivable. As David was not qualified to build the temple, because
he had been a man of war, and had shed blood, so Solomon was not
qualified to write in such a spiritual strain concerning Christ and his
Church as the prevailing allegorical exposition of this Song, because
he had been a man of lust, and had turned aside to idolatry.

4. For the same reason we cannot conceive that any other writer would
represent the Messiah as symbolized by Solomon. Is it conceivable that
he of whom the whole congregation of Israel complained to Rehoboam,
“Thy father made our yoke grievous—now, therefore, make thou the
grievous service of thy father, and his heavy yoke which he put upon
us, light,” would be chosen to represent the Saviour of the world,
“whose yoke is easy, and his burden light?” We can understand why the
painter of the Judgment Scene, among the celebrated frescoes in the
cloisters of the Campo Santo at Pisa, in Italy, in which the righteous
and the wicked are gathered in their respective positions, placed
Solomon midway between them, as an intimation of his inability to
determine to which he belonged; but we cannot understand how an
inspired writer could choose Solomon, whose lusts were displayed in the
revels of an Eastern harem, and who was seduced to practise idolatry,
to represent Him who was “holy, harmless, undefiled, and separate from
sinners,” together with the pure and holy union subsisting between him
and the Church.

5. In the allegorical interpretation language is attributed to Christ
inconsistent with his dignity and purity. It is almost blasphemous to
suppose Christ thus to address his Church:—


    “The circuits of thy thighs are like ornaments,
    The work of a master’s hand.
    Thy navel is a round goblet,
    Let not spiced wine be wanted in it!
    Thy growth is like a palm tree,
    And thy bosom like its clusters:
    I long to climb this palm tree,
    I long to clasp its branches.
    May thy bosom be unto me
    As the cluster of the vine,
    And the odour of thy breath
    As that of apples.”—Chap. vii. verses 2, 3, 7, 8.


This is the language of seduction, but it is blasphemous when put into
the mouth of Him who spake as never man spake.

6. The fact that three individuals are the principal persons
represented in this Song, and not two, is subversive of the allegorical
theory. That the poem speaks of three individuals, a shepherd, a
shepherdess, and a king, and that the shepherd, and not the king, is
the object of the maiden’s affections, will be evident to every
unbiassed reader of the book, and has been recognised by some of the
Rabbins of the middle ages. For the sake of avoiding repetition, we
refer the reader to the commentary, where the passages pointing out the
distinctions of persons are dwelt upon at large.



THE TYPICAL INTERPRETATION.

The defenders of this view maintain that this book records an
historical fact; that it celebrates the nuptials of Solomon with the
daughter of Pharaoh, or some other heathen princess; and that this
marriage typically represents the union of Christ with the Gentiles.



REASONS AGAINST THIS NUPTIAL THEORY.

As we concur with those who seek “nothing more than a general
resemblance” between the history recorded in this poem and the
experience of the people of God, we have merely to state here our
reasons for rejecting their view of the narrative.

No direct mention is made in any part of this long poem of the marriage
ceremony, nor of any circumstance connected with it. The bride is
described as a shepherdess and keeper of the vineyards (chap. i. 6; ii.
15; viii. 12, &c.); as walking in the streets in the night to seek her
beloved, and as being beaten by the watchmen (iii. 1–4; v. 6, &c.);
which are incompatible with the notion that she was Pharaoh’s daughter,
or any other princess. Besides, the bridegroom is not a king, but a
shepherd; Compare chap. i. 7, ii. 8, and v. 2–4. These, and other
considerations which might have been mentioned, are entirely subversive
of this nuptial theory.





SECTION VII.—AUTHOR, DATE, AND FORM OF THE BOOK.

The title of this poem designates Solomon as the author, but internal
evidence is against it. The writer mentions David in such a manner as
if he were not his father (iv. 4). The words, “Solomon had a vineyard,”
(‏כֶּרֶם הָיָה לִשְלֹמֹה‎) in viii. 11, show that the author was not a
contemporary of Solomon. The subject, especially of the poem, is
decisive against Solomon’s authorship. It is impossible that he should
describe himself as having attempted to gain the espoused affections of
a country maiden, and being defeated by her virtue. The title is
evidently the addition of some other person; for the author of the book
never uses the pronoun ‏אֲשֶׁר‎, but invariably employs the form ‏שׁ‎; nor
would he announce his own production as “the finest or most celebrated
Song.”

The exact date of this poem has been much disputed. The powerful and
fluent style in which it is written, the originality of the figures,
the freshness of the landscapes, the life-like descriptions of local
circumstances, the imagery drawn from the royal court of Solomon, the
horses of Pharaoh, the tower of David, the tower of Solomon, the pools
of Heshbon, show that the poem must have been written in the most
flourishing age of the Hebrew language, and about the time of Solomon.
The Aramaisms, which used formerly to be adduced in order to transfer
the book to an age after the captivity, are now rightly rejected by
modern critics as inconclusive, since almost every poetical composition
of the earliest age contains such Aramaisms. The word ‏פַּרְדֵס‎ (iv. 13),
to which a Persian etymology has been assigned, and which has
especially been used to show the late period of this poem, is of a
Shemitic origin. See Comment, in loco. The form, ‏שׁ‎ for ‏אֲשֵׁר‎, is also
used in Judges v. 7, vi. 17, vii. 12, viii. 26, and ‏דָוִיד‎ with god in
Amos vi. 5, ix. 11, Hos. iii. 5.

The form of the book has also been a matter of great dispute. From its
earliest age it has been regarded as one continued poem in a dramatic
form. Since the time of Richard Simon, however, who pronounced this
book, “summam confusionem, in quo vix ac ne vix quidem personas
discernere queas,” [154] it has been split by many into fragments, and
in turn been regarded as consisting of a number of eclogues, or
armorets, as an epithalamium, or nuptial song, and as a regular drama.
Having traced the unity of the poem in Section III., we need not again
show the unsoundness of the fragmentary theory, which originated from a
misunderstanding of the design of the book. It seems to approach
nearest in form to a drama. Yet we cannot think, with Ewald and others,
that it is a regular drama. The genius, character, and manners of the
Shemitic nations, their deficiency in plastic art, and their aversion
to females appearing on a public stage, seem to militate against it.





SECTION VIII.—EXEGETICAL HELPS.


ANCIENT VERSIONS.

1. The Septuagint, being the oldest version, occupies the first place;
its deviations from the Hebrew have generally been noticed in the
Commentary.

2. The Vulgate, which chiefly follows the Septuagint.

3. The Syriac, which is far superior to the Vulgate.



JEWISH COMMENTATORS.

4. Rashi, found in Buxtorf’s Rabbinical Bible.

5. Rashbam, recently printed for the first time.

6. Ibn Ezra; found in Rabbinical Bible.

7. Immanuel, MS. in the British Museum.

8. An Anonymous MS. Commentary in the Bodleian.

9. Philippson, an excellent modern commentator.



CHRISTIAN COMMENTATORS.

10. Wilcock, an old writer.

11. Bishop Lowth, Praelect. xxx., xxxi.

12. Bishop Percy, Commentary and Annotations.

13. Michaelis, Notes to Bishop Lowth’s Praelect.

14. Jacobi, Das Gerettete Hohelied.

15. Durell, Critical Remarks on Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and
Canticles.

16. Williams, The Song of Songs.

17. Good, The Song of Songs.

18. Umbreit, Lied der Liebe.

19. Ewald, Das Hohe Lied Salomonis, &c.

20. Döpke, Philologisch-critischer Comment.

21. Rosenmüller, Scholia in Vet. Test.

22. Hirzel, Das Lied der Lieder.

23. Magnus, Kritische Bearbeitung und Erklärung des Hohen Liedes.

24. Noyes, A New Translation of the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the
Canticles.

25. Heligstedt’s Continuation of Maurer’s Commentary, which, by an
oversight, is omitted in the Historical Sketch, deserves special
mention: Leipzig, 1847.

26. Delitzsch, Das Hohe Lied untersucht und ausgelegt.

27. Hengstenberg, Das Hohe Lied Salomonis.

28. Meier, Das Hohe Lied in deutscher Uebersetzung.

29. Friedrich, Cantici Canticorum.

30. Hitzig, 16th Lief. des Kurzg. Exeg. Handb.


For a further description of the dates and places of these
commentaries, see the Historical Sketch.








THE SONG OF SONGS,
WHICH IS SOLOMON’S.


SECTION I.

CHAPTERS I.–II. 7.

The scene of this division is in the royal tent of Solomon. The
Shulamite, separated from her beloved shepherd, longs to be reunited
with him whom she prizes above all things (2, 3). She implores him to
come and rescue her; for, though brought by the king into his royal
tent, her love continues the same (4). She repels the scornful
reflection of the court ladies when they hear her soliloquy (5, 6). She
implores her lover to tell her where she may find him (7). The court
ladies ironically answer this request (8). Meanwhile the king comes in,
and tries to win her affections by flatteries and promises (9–11). This
attempt fails, and she opposes to the king’s love her unabated
attachment to her beloved shepherd (12–ii. 6). In an ecstasy she
adjures the court ladies not to attempt to persuade her to love any one
else (7).


    THE SHULAMITE.

    Oh for a kiss of the kisses of his mouth!
    For sweet are thy caresses above wine.
    Sweet is the odour of thy perfumes,
      Which perfume thou art, by thy name diffused abroad,
    Therefore do the damsels love thee.
    Oh draw me after thee! Oh let us flee together!
    The king has brought me into his apartments,
    But we exult and rejoice in thee,
    We praise thy love more than wine,
    The upright love thee.
    I am swarthy, O ye daughters of Jerusalem,
    As the tents of Kedar,
    But comely as the pavilions of Solomon.
    Disdain me not because I am dark,
    For the sun hath browned me.
    My mother’s sons were severe with me,
    They made me keeper of their vineyards,
    Though my own vineyard I never kept.—
    Tell me, O thou whom my soul loveth,
    Where thou feedest thy flock,
    Where thou causest it to lie down at noon,
    Lest I should be roaming
    Among the flocks of thy companions.


    DAUGHTERS OF JERUSALEM.

    If thou knowest not, O fairest among women,
    Go in the footsteps of the flocks,
    And feed thy kids
    By the tents of the shepherds.


    SOLOMON.

    To my steed in the chariot of Pharaoh
    Do I compare thee, O my love.
    Beautiful is thy countenance in the circlet,
    Thy neck in the necklace!
    A golden circlet will we make thee,
    With studs of silver.


    THE SHULAMITE.

    While the king is at his table
    My nard shall diffuse its fragrance.
    A bag of myrrh resting in my bosom
    Is my beloved unto me.
    A bunch of cypress-flowers from the garden of En-gedi
    Is my beloved unto me.


    THE SHEPHERD.

    Behold, thou art beautiful, my love;
    Behold, thou art beautiful,
    Thine eyes are doves.


    THE SHULAMITE.

    Behold, thou art comely, my beloved,
    Yea thou art lovely;
    Yea, verdant is our couch;
    Our bower is of cedar arches,
    Our retreat of cypress roof:
    Chap. II. I am a mere flower of the plain,
    A lily of the valley.


    THE SHEPHERD.

    As a lily among the thorns,
    So is my loved one among the damsels.


    THE SHULAMITE.

    As an apple-tree among the wild trees,
    So is my beloved among the youths.
    I delight to sit beneath its shade,
    For delicious is its fruit to my taste.
    He led me into that bower of delight,
    And overshaded me with love.
    Oh, strengthen me with grape-cakes,
    Refresh me with apples,
    For I am sick with love!
    Let his left hand be under my head,
    And his right hand support me!
    I adjure you, O ye daughters of Jerusalem,
    By the gazelles, or the hinds of the field,
    Neither to excite nor to incite my affection
    Till it wishes another love.





SECTION II.

CHAPTER II. 8–III. 5.


Here we have a second scene, which is also in the royal tent. The
speakers are the Shulamite and the court ladies. The Shulamite, to
account for the cause of the severity of her brothers, mentioned in ii.
6, relates that her beloved shepherd came one charming morning in the
spring to invite her to the fields (8–14); that her brothers, in order
to prevent her from going, gave her employment in the gardens (15);
that she consoled herself with the assurance that her beloved, though
separated from her at that time, would come again in the evening (16,
17); that seeing he did not come, she, under difficult circumstances,
ventured to seek him, and found him (ch. iii. 1–4). Having narrated
these events, and reiterated her ardent affection for her beloved, she
concludes as before, by adjuring the court ladies not to persuade her
to change her love.


    THE SHULAMITE.

    Hark! my beloved!
    Lo, he came
    Leaping over the mountains,
    Bounding over the hills.
    My beloved was like a gazelle,
    Or the young one of a hind.
    Lo! there he stood behind our wall,
    He looked through the window,
    He glanced through the lattice.
    My beloved spake, he spake to me,
    “Arise, my love, my fair one, and come!
    For lo, the winter is past,
    The rain is over, is gone.
    The flowers appear upon the fields,
    The time of singing is come,
    The cooing of the turtle-dove is heard in our land.
    The fig-tree sweetens her green figs,
    The vines blossom,
    They diffuse fragrance;
    Arise, my love, my fair one, and come!
    My dove in the clefts of the rock,
    In the hiding-place of the cliff,
    Let me see thy countenance,
    Let me hear thy voice,
    For sweet is thy voice,
    And thy countenance lovely.”


    THE BROTHERS OF THE SHULAMITE.

    Catch us the foxes, the little foxes
    Which destroy the vineyards,
    For our vineyards are in bloom.


    THE SHULAMITE.

    My beloved is mine, and I am his,
    His who feeds his flock among the lilies.
    When the day cools,
    And the shadows flee away,
    Return, haste, O my beloved,
    Like the gazelle or the young one of the hind,
    Over the mountains of separation.
    Chap. III. When on my nightly couch,
    I still sought him whom my soul loveth;
    I sought him, but found him not.
    I must arise now and go about the city,
    In the streets and in the squares;
    I must seek him whom my soul loveth:
    I sought him, but found him not.
    The watchmen who patrol the city found me:
    “Have you seen him whom my soul loveth?”
    Scarcely had I passed them,
    When I found him whom my soul loveth;
    I seized him and would not let him go
    Till I brought him to the house of my mother,
    Into the apartment of her who gave me birth.
    I adjure you, O ye daughters of Jerusalem,
    By the gazelles or the hinds of the field,
    Neither to excite nor to incite my affection
    Till it wishes another love.





SECTION III.

CHAPTERS III. 6.–V. 1.


The royal tent in the country is broken up, and the royal train comes
up to Jerusalem. Some of the inhabitants of the capital, as they behold
it at a distance, hold a dialogue respecting it (6–11). The shepherd,
coming up to rescue his loved one, obtains an interview with her, and
expresses his delight in her charms (ch. iv. 1–5). The Shulamite moved,
modestly interrupts his description, and tells him that she is ready to
escape with him that very evening (6). He immediately proffers his
assistance, declaring that her charms had inspired him with courage
sufficient for the occasion (7–9); he describes her charms (10, 11) and
her faithfulness (12–16). The Shulamite declares that all she possesses
shall be his (16). Some of the court ladies sympathize with them (ch.
v. 1).


    ONE OF THE INHABITANTS OF JERUSALEM.

    What is that coming up from the country,
    As in columns of smoke,
    Perfumed with myrrh, with frankincense,
    And all sorts of aromatics from the merchants?


    ANOTHER.

    Lo! it is the palanquin of Solomon,
    Around it are threescore valiant men
    From the valiant of Israel:
    All skilled in the sword, expert in war,
    Each with his sword girded on his thigh
    Against the nightly marauders.


    A THIRD.

    A palanquin hath king Solomon made for himself,
    Of the wood of Lebanon.
    Its pillars he hath made of silver,
    Its support of gold, its seat of purple,
    Its interior tesselated most lovely
    By the daughters of Jerusalem.


    A FOURTH.

    Come out, ye daughters of Zion,
    And behold King Solomon;
    The crown with which his mother crowned him
    On the day of his espousals,
    On the day of his gladness of heart.


    THE SHEPHERD, ADVANCING TO THE SHULAMITE.

    Chap. IV. Behold, thou art beautiful, my loved one,
    Behold, thou art beautiful!
    Thine eyes are doves behind thy veil;
    Thy hair is like a flock of goats,
    Springing down Mount Gilead.
    Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep
    Which come up from the washing-pool,
    All of which are paired,
    And not one among them is bereaved.
    Like a braid of scarlet are thy lips,
    And thy mouth is lovely:
    Like a part of the pomegranate
    Are thy cheeks behind thy veil;
    Thy neck is like the tower of David,
    Reared for the builder’s model:
    A thousand shields are hung upon it,
    All sorts of bucklers of the mighty.
    Thy bosom like two young fawns,
    Twins of a gazelle, feeding among lilies.


    THE SHULAMITE.

    When the day cools
    And the shadows flee away,
    I will go to the mount of myrrh,
    To the hill of frankincense.


    THE SHEPHERD.

    Thou art all beautiful, my loved one,
    And there is no blemish in thee.
    With me, with me, my betrothed,
    Thou shalt go from Lebanon;
    Thou shalt go from the heights of Amana,
    From the summit of Shenir and Hermon,
    From the habitations of lions,
    From the mountains of panthers.
    Thou hast emboldened me,
    My sister, my betrothed,
    Thou hast emboldened me,
    With one of thine eyes,
    With one of the chains of thy neck.
    How sweet is thy love, O my sister, my betrothed!
    How sweet is thy love above wine!
    And the fragrance of thy perfumes above all the spices!
    Thy lips, O my betrothed, distil honey:
    Honey and milk are under thy tongue,
    And the odour of thy garments is as the smell of Lebanon.
    A closed garden art thou, my sister, my betrothed,
    A closed garden, a sealed fountain.
    Thy shoots like a garden of pomegranates,
    With precious fruits,
    Cypresses and nards,
    Nard and crocus,
    Calamus and cinnamon,
    With all sorts of frankincense trees,
    Myrrh and aloes;
    With all kinds of excellent aromatics,
    With a garden-fountain,
    A well of living waters,
    And streams flowing from Lebanon.
    Arise, O north wind! and come, thou south!
    Blow upon my garden,
    That its perfumes may flow out!


    THE SHULAMITE.

    Let my beloved come into his garden
    And eat its delicious fruits!


    THE SHEPHERD.

    Chap. V. I am coming into my garden, my sister, my betrothed:
    I am gathering my myrrh with my spices,
    I am eating my honeycomb with my honey,
    I am drinking my wine with my milk.


    SOME OF THE DAUGHTERS OF JERUSALEM.

    Eat, O friends!
    Drink, and drink abundantly, O beloved!





SECTION IV.

CHAPTER V. 2–VIII. 4.


The Shulamite relates to the court ladies a dream which she has had, in
which she manifests great attachment for her beloved (2–8). The court
ladies, surprised at this extraordinary enthusiasm, ask what there is
particular in his person to cause such an attachment (9). The Shulamite
then gives a description of him (10–16). Whereupon the court ladies
inquire where he is, and offer to seek him (ch. vi. 1). The Shulamite,
suspecting their intention, gives an evasive answer to their inquiry
(2, 3). The king, having heard the Shulamite’s beloved mentioned,
immediately comes forward and seeks to win her affections (4–9); in
exalting her beauty, he repeats how the court ladies had praised her
when they first saw her (10). The Shulamite, having explained how she
came to be seen by the court ladies, withdraws (11, 12.) The king calls
her back (ch. vii. 1); and, as she returns, describes her charms, and
wishes to enjoy the love of one so beautiful (2–10). The Shulamite
refuses the king’s desire, stating that her affections were espoused
(11); then addressing herself to her beloved, she asks him to go home
with her, and descants upon their rural pleasures (12–14). Remembering,
however, that circumstances even at home prevented the full
manifestation of her love, she longs for those obstacles to be removed
(ch. viii. 1, 2). Overcome by her feelings, she wishes that none but
her beloved may support her (3), and with the little strength she has
left, adjures the court ladies not to persuade her to change her love
(4).


    THE SHULAMITE.

    I was sleeping, but my heart kept awake,
    Hark! my beloved! he is knocking!
    Open to me, my sister, my love!
    My dove, my perfect beauty!
    For my head is filled with dew,
    My locks with the drops of the night.
    I have put off my tunic,
    How shall I put it on?
    I have washed my feet,
    How shall I soil them?
    My beloved withdrew his hand from the door hole,
    And my heart was disquieted within me.
    I immediately arose to open to my beloved,
    And my hands dropped with myrrh,
    And my fingers with liquid myrrh,
    Upon the handles of the bolt.
    I opened to my beloved,
    But my beloved had withdrawn, was gone!
    My soul departed when he spoke of it!
    I sought him, and found him not;
    I called him, and he answered me not.
    The watchmen who patrol the city found me:
    They beat me, they wounded me;
    The keepers of the walls stripped me of my veiling garment.
    I adjure you, O ye daughters of Jerusalem,
    If ye shall find my beloved,
    What will ye tell him?
    Tell him that I am sick of love.


    DAUGHTERS OF JERUSALEM.

    What is thy beloved more than another beloved,
    O thou fairest among women?
    What is thy beloved, more than another beloved,
    That thou thus adjurest us?


    THE SHULAMITE.

    My beloved is white and ruddy,
    Distinguished above thousands;
    His head is as the finest gold,
    His flowing locks are black as the raven.
    His eyes, like doves in water streams,
    Are bathing in milk, sitting on fulness;
    His cheeks are like beds of balsam,
    Elevations of aromatic plants;
    His lips are like lilies distilling liquid myrrh.
    His hands like golden cylinders, inlaid with chrysolite,
    His body is like polished ivory, covered with sapphires.
    His legs are like pillars of marble
    Based upon pedestals of gold.
    His aspect is like that of Lebanon.
    He is distinguished as the cedars.
    His voice is exquisitely sweet;
    Yea, his whole person is exceedingly lovely.
    Such is my beloved, such my friend,
    O daughters of Jerusalem.


    DAUGHTERS OF JERUSALEM.

    Chap. VI. Whither is thy beloved gone,
    O thou fairest among women?
    Whither is thy beloved turned away?
    Say, that we may seek him with thee.


    THE SHULAMITE.

    My beloved is gone down into his garden,
    To the beds of aromatics,
    To feed in the gardens, and to gather lilies.
    I am my beloved’s, and my beloved is mine;
    He who feeds his flock among the lilies.


    SOLOMON.

    Graceful art thou, O my love, as Tirzah,
    Beautiful as Jerusalem,
    Awe-inspiring as bannered hosts!
    Turn away thine eyes from me,
    For they inspire me with awe!
    Thy hair is like a flock of goats
    Springing down Mount Gilead;
    Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep,
    Which come up from the washing-pool;
    All of which are paired,
    And not one among them is bereaved.
    Like a part of the pomegranate
    Are thy cheeks behind thy veil.
    I have threescore queens,
    And fourscore concubines,
    And maidens without number;
    But she is my only one, my dove, my perfect beauty,
    She, the delight of her mother,
    She, the darling of her parent!
    The damsels saw her and praised her;
    The queens also, and the concubines, and extolled her thus:
    “Who is she that looks forth as the morn,
    Beautiful as the moon, bright as the sun,
    Awe-inspiring as bannered hosts?”


    THE SHULAMITE.

    I went down into the nut-garden,
    To look among the green plants by the river,
    To see whether the vine was budding,
    Whether the pomegranates were in bloom.
    Unwittingly had my longing soul brought me
    To the chariots of the companions of the prince.

                                    (She goes away).


    SOLOMON.

    Chap. VII. Return, return, O Shulamite,
    Return, return, that we may look at thee.


    THE SHULAMITE.

    What will you behold in the Shulamite?


    SOLOMON.

    Like a dance to double choirs.
    How beautiful are thy feet in sandals, O noble maiden!
    The circuits of thy thighs like ornaments,
    The work of a master’s hands.
    Thy navel is like a round goblet,
    Let not spiced wine be wanted in it;
    Thy body is like a heap of wheat,
    Hedged round with lilies.
    Thy bosom is like two young fawns,
    Twins of a gazelle.
    Thy neck is like an ivory tower;
    Thine eyes are as the pools in Heshbon,
    By the populous gate;
    Thy nose is as the tower of Lebanon,
    Looking towards Damascus.
    Thy head upon thee as purple,
    And the tresses of thy head as crimson.
    The king is captivated by the ringlets:
    How beautiful and how charming,
    O love, in thy fascinations!
    This thy growth is like a palm-tree,
    And thy bosom like its clusters.
    I long to climb this palm-tree,
    I long to clasp its branches.
    May thy bosom be unto me
    As the clusters of the vine,
    And the odour of thy breath
    As that of apples;
    And thy speech as delicious wine,
    Which to my friend flows down with mellowed sweetness,
    And causes slumbering lips to speak.


    THE SHULAMITE.

    I belong to my beloved,
    And it is for me to desire him.
    Come, my beloved, let us go into the country,
    Let us abide in the villages.
    We will go early to the vineyards,
    We will see whether the vine flourishes;
    Whether the buds open;
    Whether the pomegranates blossom;
    There will I give thee my love.
    The mandrakes diffuse fragrance,
    And at our door are all sorts of delicious fruit,
    Both new and old;
    I have reserved them, O my beloved, for thee!
    Chap. VIII. Oh that thou wert as my brother,
    As one who had been nourished in the bosom of my mother!
    If I found thee in the street I would kiss thee,
    And should no more be reproached.
    I would lead thee thence,
    I would bring thee into the house of my mother;
    Thou shouldst be my teacher,
    I would cause thee to drink
    Of the aromatic wine,
    Of my pomegranate juice.
    Let his left hand be under my head,
    And his right hand support me!
    I adjure you, O daughters of Jerusalem,
    Neither to incite nor to excite my affection
    Till it desires another love.





SECTION V.

CHAPTER VIII. 5–14.


The Shulamite, released from the palace, returns to her native place
with her beloved (5). On their way home they visit the spot where they
had been first pledged to each other; and there they renew their vows
(6, 7). On their arrival at the Shulamite’s home, her brothers are
reminded of the promise they had made to reward their sister’s virtue
(9, 10). The Shulamite mentions the greatness of her temptations, and
her victory over them (11, 12). The shepherds visit her, to whom she
declares, according to request, her unabated attachment to her beloved
shepherd (13, 14).


    THE COMPANIONS OF THE SHEPHERD.

    Who is it that comes up from the plain,
    Leaning upon her beloved?


    THE SHULAMITE.

    Under this apple-tree I won thy heart,
    Here thy mother travailed,
    Here labouring she gave thee birth.
    Oh, place me as a seal upon thy heart,
    As a seal upon thine hand!
    For love is strong as death,
    Affection as inexorable as Hades.
    Its flames are flames of fire,
    The flames of the Eternal.
    Floods cannot quench love;
    Streams cannot sweep it away.
    If one should offer all his wealth for love,
    He would be utterly despised.


    ONE OF THE BROTHERS OF THE SHULAMITE.

    Our sister is still young,
    And is not yet marriageable.
    What shall we do for our sister,
    When she shall be demanded in marriage?


    ANOTHER BROTHER.

    If she be like a wall,
    We will build upon her a silver turret.
    But if she be like a door,
    We will enclose her with boards of cedar.


    THE SHULAMITE.

    I am like a wall,
    And my bosom is as towers!
    Then I was in his eyes
    As one that findeth favour.
    Solomon had a vineyard in Baal-hammon;
    He let out the vineyard to tenants;
    Each of whom yielded for the fruit of it
    A thousand shekels of silver.
    I will keep my own vineyard:
    Be the thousands thine, O Solomon,
    And the two hundreds to the keepers of its fruit!


    THE SHEPHERD.

    O thou that dwellest in the gardens,
    My companions are listening to thy voice,
    Let me hear thy voice!


    THE SHULAMITE.

    Haste, O my beloved,
    And be like the gazelle, as the young one of the hind,
    Over the mountains of spices.








NOTES


2. Oh for a kiss, &c. That the speaker is a Shulamite shepherdess who
had been separated by king Solomon from her beloved, and that she
desires to be reunited with him, is evident from verses 4, 7, 8; vii.
1, &c. Excited by the pain of separation, the damsel wishes that her
beloved were present, that he could kiss her, for his caresses would
cheer her fainting heart more than the best of wines. Wine, either pure
or mixed (see infra, vii. 3), is often spoken of by the sacred and
profane poets as delighting the hearts of both gods and men, and
reviving their drooping spirits. (Judges ix. 13; Ps. civ. 15; Prov.
xxxi. 6; Eccl. x. 19.) Hence Helen gave a bowl of mixed wine to her
guests oppressed with grief, to raise their spirits. (Hom. Odyss. iv.
220.) Yet the Shulamite declares that she preferred the caresses of her
beloved to this highly prized cordial.

The imperfect form ‏יִשַּׁקֵנִי‎ is used optatively or voluntatively, “Oh
that he would kiss me!” (Gesen. § 127, 3 b; Ewald, § 224 a); i.e. a
kiss: the subject, either in the singular (Gen. xxviii. 11, compare v.
18; Exod. vi. 25; Ps. cxxxvii. 3), or plural (Gen. xxx. 14; Exod. xvii.
5; 2 Sam. xi. 17), is to be supplied from the plural noun ‏מִנְּשִׁיקוֹת‎, as
indicated by the partitive ‏מִן‎. (Compare Gesen. § 154, 3 c; Ewald, §
217, b, i. b.) The singular, however, is preferable, for the Shulamite
does not wish so much for a number of kisses as for the presence of her
beloved; one would be sufficient if he could only come. We thus obtain
a phrase ‏נָשָׁק נְשִׁיקָה‎, to kiss a kiss, i.e. to give a kiss;
corresponding to ‏יָעַץ עֵצָה‎, to counsel a counsel, i.e. to give counsel,
2 Sam. xvi. 23; ‏חָלָה חֳלִי‎, 2 Kings xiii. 14. This construction is of
frequent occurrence in Hebrew, and is also found in Greek and Latin;
(Compare νοσεῖν νόσον, pugnam pugnare; Gesen. § 138 i., Rem. 1; Ewald,
§ 281 a.) The rendering, therefore, of ‏מִן‎ by with (Luther, English
Version, Good, Williams, &c.) is incorrect. Ewald’s and Herxheimer’s
translation, Let one of the kisses kiss me, is both incongruous and
ungrammatical; for in the first place, it is not the kiss that kisses,
but the individual; and secondly, ‏נְשִׁיקָה‎ is feminine, which would
require ‏תִּשַּׁקֵנִי‎, the third fem. ‏דוֹדִים‎, prop. love, the abstract,
which, as in Greek and Latin, is in Hebrew frequently expressed by the
plural, (comp. ‏חַיִּים‎, life, ‏מַמְתַּקִים‎, sweetness, ‏מַחִמַדִים‎, beauty;
vide infra, v. 16; Gesen. § 108, 2 a; Ewald, § 179 a), here
metonomically for the expressions of it—love-tokens, caresses. So Lee,
Magnus, Noyes, Fürst, Philippson, &c. This rendering is demanded by the
context, for this clause gives the cause of the statement in the
preceding one. The change from the third person ‏יִשַּׁקֵנִי‎, to the second
‏דֹדָיךָ‎, or from the second to the third person, is an enallage of
frequent occurrence in sacred poetry. (Deut. xxxii. 15; Isa. i. 29;
Jer. xxii. 24; Gesen. § 137, 3, Rem. 3.) The Sept. and Vulg. have
‏דַּדֶּיךָ‎, thy breasts, instead of ‏דֹדֶיךָ‎, thy caresses. That this is a
gross error is evident from the fact that a man and not a woman is here
addressed. To appeal to the catachresis in Isa. lx. 16, would be
preposterous.

3. Sweet is the odour, &c. Ointments, like wines, were used by the
ancients as cordials (Prov. xxvii. 9), and as restoratives in
consequence of their supposed sanative properties. Hence the anointing
of the sick. (Isa. i. 6, &c.; Jer. viii. 22.) The fainting Shulamite,
therefore, mentions this second cordial. The ‏ל‎ in ‏לְרֵיחַ‎ signifies
in, as regards, quoad, and is frequently used for the sake of giving
prominence to an idea. Thus “Solomon was greater than all the kings of
the earth ‏לְעֹשֵׁר וּלְחָכְמָה‎, in or as regards riches and wisdom.” (1 Kings
x. 23.) Compare also Exod. xx. 5, 6; Ewald, § 217 a. Fürst, Lexicon,
‏ל‎ 5, f. The Sept. has ‏ו‎ instead of ‏ל‎; or it may be, favours the
view of Döpke, Heiligstedt, Meier, &c., that the ‏ל‎ introduces the
nominative; but this requires another anomaly, viz., to refer ‏טוֹבִים‎,
to the nomen rectum, instead of regens, and does not at all improve the
sense. The Syriac, Ibn Ezra, Authorized Version, Percy, Williams,
Noyes, &c., take the ‏ל‎ in the sense of ‏לְמַעַן‎, because, and connect
it with ‏עַל כֵּן‎, therefore, of the last clause; but these words are
never used together for cause and effect. Besides, this explanation,
like the former, interrupts the sense; for the fainting damsel
evidently refers here to the second restorative. Luther strangely
renders this clause, dass man deine gute Salbe rieche. Kleuker,
Rosenmüller, Ewald, Delitzsch, Philippson, &c., translate ‏לְרֵיחַ‎ to the
smell; but this is contrary to the usus loquendi, as ‏רֵיחַ‎ is never
used for the organ which inhales, but invariably means something
exhaled or emitted. Hodgson renders ‏לְרֵיחַ‎, like the scent; but ‏ל‎
never signifies like. The instance in Deut. xi. 18, adduced in support
of his assertion, is gratuitous, for the ‏ל‎ in ‏לְטוֹטָפֹת‎ has not that
meaning.

Which perfume thou art, by thy name, &c. This clause is explanatory of
the preceding one, “Sweet is the odour of thy perfumes, because thou
art that perfume.” The comparison of an agreeable person to perfumes
arose from the great requisition of aromatics in the East. In warm
climates perspiration is profuse, and much care is needful to prevent
its offensiveness. Hence the use of perfumes particularly at weddings,
feasts, on visits to persons of rank (2 Sam. xii. 20; Ps. xlv. 8; Prov.
vii. 17; Amos vi. 6), and most of the occasions which bring people
together with the intention of being agreeable to one another. Hence
the pleasant odours diffused by perfumes soon became a metaphor to
express the attractions which an agreeable person throws around him
(Eccl. vii. 1), just as an offensive smell is used to express the
contrary idea. (Gen. xxxiv. 30; Exod. v. 21.) The word ‏תּוּרַק‎, being
taken as the third person fem., has greatly perplexed interpreters. For
neither ‏שֶׁמֶן‎, to which the Sept., Ibn Ezra, Rashbam, Immanuel, &c.,
refer it, nor ‏שֵׁם‎, to which it is referred by Ewald, Gesenius, &c.,
ever occurs as feminine. Others, to overcome this difficulty, have
either taken ‏תּוּרַק‎ as a proper name (Syria. R. Tobiah) or as an
appellative (Bochart, Hieron. ii. 4, 26.) The true solution seems to be
that the word in question is not the third person feminine but the
second person masculine. So Rashi, Michaelis, Hengstenberg, &c. The
words literally translated would be, like oil art thou poured forth,
with regard to thy name. ‏שִׁמְךָ‎, is the second accusative, comp. Ps.
lxxxiii. 19; Ewald, § 281, 3 c. The words ‏שֶׁמֶן‎ and ‏שֵׁם‎ form a
paranomasia. This figure, which consists of words ranged together of
similar sound, but differing in sense, is frequently used in the Old
Testament; and also occurs in the New. (Compare λιμοὶ καὶ λοιμοὶ, Luke
xxi. 11, and Acts xvii. 25.)

Therefore do the damsels love thee. How natural for a woman, greatly
admiring, and dotingly attached to her beloved, to think that every
damsel must be enamoured of him! The most probable derivation of the
much-disputed ‏עַלְמָה‎, is from ‏עָלָה‎ = ‏עוּל‎, to come up, to grow up;
hence the Poel ‏עוֹלֵל‎, a growth, a child, ‏עֶלֶם‎, one growing up; with
the termination ‏–ֶם‎, (Compare Alma, in Latin, from alo, ἄλδω, and
Fürst, Lexicon, ‏מ‎ 2 c,) and the feminine ‏עַלְמָה‎, a growing damsel,
without any reference to the idea of virginity, for which ‏בְּתוּלָה‎ is
invariably used; Joel i. 8, not excepted. ‏בַּעַל‎ is here used, not to
indicate that the marriage was consummated, but because the Jews
regarded parties consecrated to each other from the very moment they
were betrothed. Hence Mary is called the wife of Joseph, and he her
husband. (Compare Matt. i. 19, 20, &c.) Other derivations assigned to
‏עַלְמָה‎, such as ‏עָלַם‎ = ‏חָלַם‎, to be fat, full, ripe, marriageable
(Gesenius, &c.), or being excited, hence youth as being peculiarly
subject to it (Lee); or ‏עָלַם‎, to hide, be concealed, unrevealed,
unknown; hence ‏עֶלֶם‎ and ‏עַלְמָה‎, persons of a youthful age who were
destitute of the knowledge which springs from sexual intercourse
(Henderson) are exceedingly forced. Jerome’s assertion, as also
Wordsworth’s, on Matt. i. 23, that ‏עַלְמָה‎, is the designation of a
virgin, because it signifies kept secret, as a virgin is under the care
of her parents, is gratuitous, for ‏עַלְמָה‎, is formed from ‏עֶלֶם‎, a
young man, of whom this cannot be said.

4. Oh draw me, &c. The Shulamite wishes that her beloved should not
only come and cheer her fainting heart with the tokens of his love, but
take her away altogether. ‏אַחֲרֶיךָ‎ belongs to ‏מָשְׁכֵנִי‎. (Compare Job xxi.
33.) So the Chaldee, Immanuel, Luther, Mendelssohn, Kleuker, Percy,
Hodgson, Ewald, Meier, Hitzig, Philippson, &c. The Septuagint renders
‏מָשְׁכֵנִי‎, by εἵλκυσάν σε, mistaking it for ‏מְשָׁכוּךָ‎, and adds ‏לְרֵיחַ
שְׁמָנֶידָ‎ after ‏אַחֲרֶיךָ‎, evidently an interpolation from the first clause
of the third verse, which the Vulgate, Percy, &c., follow.

The king has brought me, &c. It was the king, she tells us, who brought
her into his apartments, and thus separated her from her beloved, in
whom, however, she still delights. That this is the import of this
clause is obvious from the words and connexion. The Shulamite began
with invoking her absent beloved in the third person; but no sooner had
she expressed her desire to be with him, than he is, as it were,
present to her mind, and she forthwith, dropping the third person,
addresses him in the second, and so continues to speak to him
throughout the third verse. She begins the fourth verse in the same
way, imploring her beloved, in the second person, to take her away,
telling him that “the king, ‘HE,’ has brought her into his apartments”
(mark the change from the second to the third person); and then
continues and finishes her address to her beloved in the second person.
Now we ask, do not the words ‏הֱבִיאַנִי הַמֶּלֶךְ חֲדָרָיו‎, the king, “HE,” has
brought me into his apartments, placed between ‏מָשְׁכֵנִי אַחֲרֶיךָ‎, do “THOU”
draw me after thee, and ‏נָגִילָה וְנִשְׂמְחָה בָּךְ וגו׳‎, we exult and rejoice in
“THEE,” &c., clearly show that the king here referred to is a separate
person from the beloved to whom the maiden is addressing herself? We
venture to affirm that few readers of the original Hebrew, whose minds
are not biassed by a preconceived theory, can carefully peruse these
three verses without observing that TWO persons are here
introduced—viz. the beloved to whom, and the king of whom, the damsel
speaks. Ibn Ezra, Immanuel, the Anonymous MS. Commentary, &c., could
not help seeing this, and explained the passage, “Were even the king to
bring me into his apartments, I should rejoice and be glad in thee”
(the shepherd). The Septuagint, which is followed by the Vulgate, has
again ‏דַּדֶּיךָ‎, thy breast, instead of ‏דֹדֶיךָ‎, thy love; but see supra,
ver. 2.

The upright love thee. The word ‏מֵישָׁרִים‎, is explained by Rashi,
Rashbam, Döpke, De Wette, Rosenmüller, Gesenius, &c., by sincerely,
uprightly; Ibn Ezra, who is followed by Houbigant, takes it as an
adjective for wine, i.e. ‏יַיִן הֹלֵך לְמַישָׁרִים‎, wine that glides down
smoothly; and Ewald, Boothroyd, Magnus, Hitzig, &c., render it
deservedly, justly. As for ‏אֲהֵבוּךָ‎, it is either referred to ‏עֲלָמוֹת‎,
the damsels love thee more than wine (Ibn Ezra); or is taken
impersonally, i.e. thou art sincerely or deservedly beloved. (Ewald,
Magnus, &c.) But this is against the structure of these verses. For the
second and third verses, consisting of five members, form one stanza,
finishing with the words ‏עֲלָמוֹת אֲהֵבוּךָ‎; and it is evident that the
fourth verse, also consisting of five members, is of the same
structure, and that the concluding words ‏מֵישָׁרִים אֲהֵבוּךָ‎, are intended
to correspond to those at the end of the first stanza. ‏מֵישָׁרִים‎,
therefore, must be taken as a parallelism with ‏עֲלָמוֹת‎, and means the
upright. So the Septuagint (εὐθύτης ἠγάπησέ σε, the abstract for
concrete), Symmachus, (οἱ εὐθεῖς οἱ αγαπῶντές σε,) the Vulgate (recti
diligant te), the Chaldee (‏צַדִּיקָיָא רְחִימוּ‎), English Version (margin),
Mendelssohn, Philippson, &c. ‏מֵישָׁרִים‎, the upright, is designedly
chosen in preference to ‏עֲלָמוֹת‎, damsels, in order to give an indirect
and gentle blow to him who had separated her from her beloved. “Thee,
the upright, and not the seduced love.”

5. I am swarthy, &c. The court ladies, indignant at this statement,
looked with affected disdain upon the discoloured rustic girl. The
Shulamite repels these disdainful looks, for she knows that, though
swarthy, she is comely, else the king would not have noticed her. A
similar idea occurs in Theocritus (Idyl. x. 26–29), where Bambyce,
though sun-burnt, is called beautiful.


        Βομβύκα χαρίεσσα, Σύραν καλέοντι τὸ πάντες,
        Ἰσχνὰν, ἁλιόκαυστον· ἐγὼ δὲ μόνος μελίχλωρον.
        Καὶ τὸ ἴον μέλαν ἐντὶ, καὶ ἁ γραπτὰ ὑάκινθος.
        Ἀλλ’ ἔμπας ἐν τοῖς στεφάνοις τὰ πρᾶτα λέγονται.

        “Charming Bambyce, though some call you thin,
        And blame the tawny colour of your skin;
        Yet I the lustre of your beauty own,
        And deem you like Hyblaean honey-brown.
        The letter’d hyacinth’s of darksome hue,
        And the sweet violet a sable blue;
        Yet these in crowns ambrosial odours shed,
        And grace fair garlands that adorn the head.”


Compare also Virgil, Eclog. x. 38. The comparison between the dark
complexion and the tents of the Kedareens, and between the comeliness
and the pavilions of Solomon, arose from the custom of nomades and
travellers in the East of carrying with them moveable tents, which were
temporarily pitched for the purpose of the pernoctation or protection
against meridian sun. The tents of the Kedareens, a nomadic tribe of
North Arabia (Gen. xxv. 13; Isa. xxi. 17), were and still are to this
day made of coarse cloth, obtained from the shaggy hair of their black
goats (Rosenmüller, Orient. iv. 939; Saalschütz, Archäologie der
Hebräer, Erster Theil, p. 63). Whereas, the curtains of which Solomon’s
pavilion was constructed were, most probably, very fine and beautiful.
From this passage, confirmed by chap. iii. 6, and vi. 12, we see that
this scene took place in the royal tent of Solomon, pitched in the open
air of some favourite spot to which the king resorted in the summer. It
is still the custom of Oriental potentates to go once a-year to some
attractive neighbourhood, where they erect their magnificent tents,
which serve as their temporary abodes. (Morier, Zweite Reise in
Persien, p. 223; Jaubert, Voyage, p. 334). ‏שְׁחוֹרָה‎, swarthy, refers to
‏ﬡָהֳלֵי קֵדָר‎, the tents of Kedar, and ‏נָאוָה‎, comely, to ‏יְרִעוֹת שְׁלֹמֹה‎ the
pavilion of Solomon. ‏נָﬡוָה‎, a contraction of ‏נָﬡֲוָה‎, from the root
‏נָﬡָה‎, is formed from the Pilel. The third radical, which this
conjugation requires to be doubled, appears in this and in two other
words, under the form ‏וה‎. Compare ‏שָׁחַה‎, to bow, Pilel, ‏שָׁחֲוָה‎, hence
the reflexive ‏הִשְׁתַּחֲוָה‎, to bow, or prostrate oneself; ‏מְטַחֲוִים‎,
archers, Gen. xxi. 16; Gesen. § 75, Rem. 18; Ewald, § 121 c. ‏יְרִעָה‎,
prop. a vail, a curtain of a tent, Exod. xxvi. 12, and metonomically
for the tent itself, 2 Sam. vii. 2; 1 Chron. xvii. 1, and like here, in
parallelism with ‏אֹהֶל‎, Jer. iv. 20; x. 20; xi. 29. The Septuagint,
followed by the Vulgate, erroneously renders ‏כִּירִיעוֹת שְׁלֹמֹה‎, ὥς δέῤῥεις
Σολομὼν, as the skins of Solomon, and Bishop Foliot refers it to the
beautiful skin of Solomon’s body, with which the Church compares
herself to set forth her comeliness. Hodgson, misunderstanding the
figure, absurdly renders ‏כְּאָהֳלֵי קֵדָר‎, like the spices of Kedar, and
makes the Shulamite compare herself to the odoriferous trees and
beautiful figures in the (‏יְרִיעוֹת‎), fine tapestry.

6. Disdain me not. In repelling these disdainful looks the Shulamite
states first that her dark complexion is adventitious, being merely
sun-burnt, and as Rashi remarks, ‏נוח להתלבן כשיעמוד בצל‎, will be
white again under the protection of the shade: and secondly, how she
came to be so much exposed to the sun, and this she ascribes to the
anger of her brothers. This anger, however, as it appears from ii.
8–17, was merely a fraternal solicitude for her reputation, which
induced them to give her employment in the vineyards, in order to
prevent her meeting her beloved in the field. ‏אַל תִּרְאוּנִי‎ (i.q. ‏אַל
תִּרְאֲֽינָה אֹתִי‎, Ewald, § 248), is well explained by the Chald., Rashi, Ibn
Ezra, Rashbam, Immanuel, &c., ‏אלֹ תבזוני‎, do not disdain me. ‏רָאָה‎, to
see, is also used for looking down upon any one, Job. xli. 26. Instead
of ‏תִּרְאֻנִי‎, four of Kennicott’s MSS., two of De Rossi’s, and two more,
originally read ‏תיראוני‎, fear me not, which is adopted by Döderlein;
but the reading of the received text is both more supported, and suits
the connexion better; for it can hardly be possible that the damsel was
actually so black as to inspire terror; or that the court ladies were
so highly nervous as to be so easily frightened. Hodgson’s rendering,
mind me not, is incorrect. The ‏ש‎ in ‏שֶׁאֲנִי‎, stands for ‏אֲשֶׁר‎, the ‏א‎
being rejected by aphaeresis, and the ‏ר‎ assimilated; Gesen. § 36.
‏שְׁחַרְחֹר‎, blackish; adjectives denoting colour have frequently the last
two stem letters repeated to render them diminutives; as ‏אֲדַמְדָּם‎,
reddish, Lev. xiii. 19; ‏יְרַקְרַק‎, greenish, Lev. xiii. 49. So Rashi, Ibn
Ezra, Rashbam, Immanuel, Gesen. § 84. 23; Ewald, § 157 c. ‏שָׁזָף‎, i.q.
‏שָׁדַף‎, to scorch, to burn, Gen. xxiii. 17; xli. 6. So the Syriac,
Aquila, Theodotion, Ewald, Gesenius, Meier, Hitzig, &c. The ‏ז‎ and ‏ד‎
frequently interchange, compare ‏גָזַע‎ and ‏גָדַע‎, to cut down; and are
even found to do so by the same inspired writer; compare ‏נִדְעֲכוּ‎, Job.
vi. 17, with ‏נִזְעֲכוּ‎, xvii. 1. ‏בְּנֵי אִמִּי‎, not step-brothers,
(Houbigant, Ewald, Good,) who would not have such power over their
sister, but poetically used for ‏אַחַי‎, my brothers. Comp. Gen. xxvii.
20; Ps. l. 20; lxix. 9. ‏נִחָרוּ‎ is the Niphal of ‏חָרַר‎, to burn, (comp.
Ps. cii. 4; Gesen. § 6, 7, 8, Rem. 5; Ewald, § 140 a. § 193 c.), and
not from ‏חָרָה‎ (Kimchi, Ibn Ezra, Immanuel, &c.) which would be ‏נֶחֱרוּ‎,
Is. xli. 11.

Though my own vineyard, &c. The word ‏כַּרְמִי‎, is either taken to denote
the Shulamite’s personal appearance, or to mean her beloved: and the
phrase is explained, “Through the constant watch which my brothers made
me keep over their vineyard, I could not take care of (‏כַּרְמִי‎) my
complexion; or could not attend to (‏כַּרְמִי‎) my beloved.” But it is a
hazardous mode of interpretation to take an expression in the same
verse in an ordinary and in an extraordinary sense, which ought never
to be done unless required by absolute necessity, which is not the case
here. Dr. Good indeed escapes this inconsistency by assigning a
spiritual meaning to ‏כֶּרֶם‎, (viz. personal estate, one’s own person) in
both clauses; and he submits that “the bride asserts that she had been
compelled to neglect her own person, through the perpetual attention
which was demanded of her by her brothers or sisters in decorating
themselves, or in assisting in their concerns.” But apart from the
unnecessary and unjustifiable deviation from the literal meaning, this
interpretation is entirely at variance with the context. For in the
words, “They have made me keeper of their vineyards,” the Shulamite
evidently means to explain how she came to be exposed to the tanning
sun. Whereas, the supposition of her perpetual attention to the
adornment of her brothers, fails to account for the brown complexion.
If however, with Ibn Ezra, we take these words to explain the severity
of her brothers, everything will be plain and unforced. The damsel
says, “My brothers were so angry—so severe with me that, resolved to
carry out their purpose, they made me keep their vineyards, ‏ובתחילה
קורם זה אפילו כרמי שלי לא נטרתי‎, a thing which I had never done
before, even to my own vineyard. It is utterly inconceivable how those
who maintain that this Song celebrates the marriage of Solomon with the
daughter of Pharaoh can reconcile it with the facts that the damsel’s
dark complexion is here described as adventitious; whereas the
Egyptians, even of the highest and most secluded classes, are naturally
dark, and that she has been made keeper of the vineyards, which would
ill agree with any prince’s daughter. ‏כֶּרֶם‎ is most probably derived
from ‏כָּרָה‎ = ‏כּוּר‎, to dig, hence a garden cultivated by means of axes
and spades in contradistinction to fields worked with ploughs and
harrows. (Compare Saalschütz, Archäologie der Hebräer, vol. i. p. 119.)
For the term. ‏–ֶם‎ vide supra, p. 131. ‏שֶׁלִי‎, i.q. ‏אֲשֶׁר לִי‎ is used
emphatically after ‏כַּרִמִי‎, to mark the contrast, and not, as Houbigant
erroneously supposes, in the sense of ‏בשלי‎, tranquillè, mine own
vineyard I kept not quietly.

7. Tell me, O thou, &c. Having repelled the disdainful looks of the
court ladies, the Shulamite now resumes her address to her beloved; so
that this verse is intimately connected with the fourth; and verses
five and six are, as it were, parenthetical. Is it not surprising that
some can read this verse, and yet believe that the king was the object
of the damsel’s attachment, when this shows so clearly that it was a
shepherd? The violent heat of noonday compels people in the East to
desist from labour, and recline in some cool part of the house (2 Sam.
iv. 5). Shepherds especially, being more exposed to the burning rays of
the sun, lead their flocks under some shady tree near wells and
streams. (Gen. xxix. 7; Ps. xxiii.; Isa. xix. 10.) We have beautiful
descriptions of the same custom by Greeks and Romans. Thus Virgil,
Georg. iii. 331—


        Aestibus at mediis umbrosam exquirere vallem,
        Sicubi magna Jovis antiquo robore quercus
        Ingentis tendat ramos, aut sicubi nigrum
        Ilicibus crebris sacra nemus adcubet umbra.

        “When noon-tide flames, down cool sequester’d glades,
        Lead where some giant oak the dell o’ershades,
        Or where the gloom of many an ilex throws
        The sacred darkness that invites repose.”


Compare also Theocritus, i. 14, 15: vi. 1, 16, 38, 39. ‏אֵיכָה‎ prop.
how, but also of place, where, 2 Kings xvi. 13. Twenty-eight MSS. of
Kenn. and De Rossi, read ‏וְאֵיכָה‎, but this weakens the sentence. We
must supply ‏צֹאנְךָ‎ after ‏תִּרְעֶה‎, and ‏–ם‎ after ‏תַּרְבִּיץ‎, see Ezek.
xxxiv. 15. Immanuel accounts for the dual, ‏צָהֳרַיִם‎, because ‏שזה השם
נופל לא על חצות היום בלבד אלא גם על חלק מהיום קרוב לחצות וחלק מהיום מעט
אחר חצות‎, it speaks of that part of the day immediately preceding noon
as well as of that part which immediately follows noon. ‏שֶׁלָמָה‎, i.q.
‏אֲשֶׁר לָמָה‎, Dan. i. 10, ut ne, well rendered by the Sept. μήποτε, Vulg.
ne. ‏אֲשֶׁר‎ is used as a conjunction, the ‏ל‎ to express design, or
purpose, and ‏מָה‎ for negation, Ewald, § 337, 6. ‏כְּעֹטְיָה‎ has caused
much perplexity to interpreters. It is explained to mean like one
veiled (ὡς περιβαλλομένη, Sept.), as a sign of mourning (Rashi, compare
2 Sam. xv. 30; xix. 5); of harlotry (Rosenmüller, comp. xxviii. 5); of
shame (Umbreit, Hengstenberg, comp. Jer. xiv. 3; Mal. iii. 7); and of
wandering or roaming (Philippson, comp. Jer. xliii. 12). But wherever
covering is used to signify mourning or shame, the part of the body
usually covered, in order to indicate the existence of the emotion, is
invariably stated. Equally untenable is the rendering of harlot; for
Tamar covered her face, not as a sign that she was a prostitute, but to
disguise herself, so that she might not be recognised, and Judah took
her to be a harlot because she sat by the way side, Comp. Jer. iii. 2.
Ewald renders it like one unknown; but this, to say the least, is
remote from the context; Gesenius, like one fainting; but this incurs
the same objection. The explanation of Philippson would have been the
most plausible, if Rashbam and the anonymous MS. had not shown that
‏עָטַה‎ itself means to roam, to wander, by referring to Isa. xxii. 17,
where, according to its parallel, ‏טוּל‎, to cast down, it must signify
to roll about. This meaning bests suits the context here, and is
confirmed by Symach., Vulg., Syriac, Chald.

8. If thou knowest not. The court ladies, hearing the rustic girl say
that she wished to be with her shepherd, tell her ironically to go, and
be employed in the low and toilsome occupation of a shepherdess, rather
than enjoy the exalted and easy life of a royal favourite. Some have
put this answer into the mouth of the beloved; but it is evident from
v. 9, and vi. 1, the only two places where the appellation “fairest of
women” occurs, that it is the reply of the court ladies, which even
Döpke, Good and Noyes, the defenders of the fragmentary theory, admit.
Nothing can be more plain and incontrovertible than the statement in
this verse, that the damsel is a shepherdess, and the beloved a
shepherd, whom, she is told, she would find among his fellow-shepherds.
It is for those who maintain the theory that this Song celebrates the
marriage of Solomon with the daughter of Pharaoh, or some other
prince’s daughter, to get over this fact. ‏לֹא יָדָע‎ is unnecessarily and
incorrectly rendered by Ewald, Meier, Hitzig, &c., unwise. The Sept.,
which is followed by Luther, mistaking the usage of ‏לָדְ‎, translates
this clause ἐὰν μὴ γνῷν σεαυτήν, as if the original were ‏אִם לֹא תֵדְעִי אֶת
נִפְשֶׁךָ‎. The prepo. ‏בּ‎ in ‏בַּנָּשִׁים‎ gives to ‏הַיָּפָה‎ the force of the
superlative. Besides the several modes of expressing the superlative
adduced by Gesenius, § 119, 2, this degree is sometimes also expressed
by the positive and the prepo. ‏ב‎ prefixed to the noun designating the
class to which the person or thing compared belongs: thus ‏אַלְפִי הַדַּל
בִּמְנַשֶׁה‎, my family is the weakest in Manasseh, Judg. xvi. 5; Prov. xxx.
30, comp. also εὐλογημένη συ ἐν γυναιξίν, thou art the most blessed of
women, Luke i. 28, Ewald, § 313 c.

9. To my steed, &c. The court-ladies having turned from her and told
her to go back to her menial employment, her severest trial begins. The
king, having watched his opportunity, enters at that moment, and thus
begins his flattering address. He first praises her beauty and
gracefulness by comparing her to his stately and noble chariot steed.
The anonymous MS. commentary rightly remarks, ‏מוסב למעל שאמרה שחורה
אנו והוא אמר לה דמיתיך לסוסתי ברכבי פרעה שהם שחורים וסוס השחור יפה הוא
יותר משאר סוסים‎, that this simile was suggested by the reference which
the damsel has made in the preceding verse to her dark complexion. The
king, therefore, compares her to his noble steed, whose dark colour
renders it more beautiful than the other horses. Such a comparison must
have been very striking and flattering in the East, where this animal
was so much celebrated for its preeminent beauty. “A young chestnut
mare,” says Layard, Nineveh, i. 91, “belonging to the sheik, was one of
the most beautiful creatures I ever beheld. As she struggled to free
herself from the spear to which she was tied, she showed the lightness
and elegance of the gazelle. Her limbs were in perfect symmetry; her
ears long, slender, and transparent; her nostrils high, dilated and
deep red, her neck gracefully arched; and her mane and texture of
silk.... No one can look at the horses of the early Assyrian sculptures
without being convinced that they were drawn from the finest models.”
Compare also the exquisite and inimitable description of this noble
animal in Job xxxix. 19, &c. and Rosenmüller, Orient. iv. 941. The same
comparison is used by the Greek and Roman poets. Thus Theocritus, Idyl.
xviii. 30, 31:—


        ἢ κάπῳ κυπάρισσος ἢ ἅρματι Θεσσαλὸς ἵππος,
        ὧδε καὶ ἁ ῥοδόχρως Ἑλένα Λακεδαίμονι κόσμος.

        “As towers the cypress mid the garden’s bloom,
        As in the chariot proud Thessalian steed,
        Thus graceful rose-complexion’d Helen moves.”


Compare also Horace, Ode iii. 11. This shows the futility both of those
who affirm that the strangeness of the simile is against the literal
meaning of this Song, and of those who accuse the writer of
uncouthness. Besides, is this comparison more strange or uncouth than
that of a man with a bony ass? (Gen. xlix. 14.) Mark also the other
comparison used in the same chapter, such as of an ox, serpent, &c.
‏סוּסָה‎ is not equitatus, (Vulg. Rashi, Rashbam, English Version,) but
as Ibn Ezra and Immanuel rightly remark, ‏נקבת סוס‎, mare, the regular
feminine of ‏סוּס‎. The ‏–ִי‎ in ‏לְסוּסָתִי‎ is the suffix of the first
person, as the ancient versions have it; and refers to a well-known and
celebrated mare which Solomon possessed and highly prized, and which he
always put into one of Pharaoh’s chariots. ‏בְּרִכְבֵי פַרְעֹה‎, one of
Pharaoh’s chariots, like ‏בְּעָרֵי גִלְעָד‎, one of the cities of Gilead.
Judg. xii. 7.

10, 11. Beautiful is thy countenance, &c. The flattering praises are
followed by enticing promises. “Thou art indeed beautiful,” says the
tempting king, “even in humble ornaments, but thou shalt have more
costly adornments, which will show off thy beauty to greater
advantage.” The mention of the noble steed which was adorned with
costly trappings, contributing so much to its stately and elegant
appearance, naturally suggested the reference here made to the damsel’s
ornaments. The reader will not fail to observe that it is not the
shepherd, but the king who is speaking in verses 9–11. The poor
shepherd had no prancing steed, no Egyptian chariots; he could not
promise the shepherdess such costly ornaments as are here described.
‏תּוֹרים‎ (from ‏תּוּר‎, to go round, hence ‏תּוֹר‎, something round, a
circle, Esth. ii. 12, 15,) small rings or beads strung upon threads,
worn as a head-dress. It is customary in the East for women to wear
strings of beads hanging down from the temples over the cheeks.
Rosenmüller, Orient. iv. 942. Niebuhr, Reise nach Arab. i. 163.
‏לְחָיַיִם‎, cheeks (dual of ‏לְחִי‎), by a synecdoche for the whole face.
‏חֲרוּזִים‎ (from ‏חָרַז‎, to pierce, to perforate), little perforated
balls, or beads strung upon a thread and worn around the neck; i.q. a
necklace. ‏תּוֹרִים‎ and ‏חֲרוּזִים‎ are plurals, because the circlet and
necklace consisted of many composite parts. Whether the circlet was of
gold or brass, or whether the necklace consisted of real pearls,
corals, or steel, the etymology of the words does not at all intimate.
The context alone must decide this. The fact that the Shulamite was a
humble rustic girl, and that Solomon promises to present to her a
golden circlet with silver studs, proves that they were of a common
description. This is another proof that the bride was not a prince’s
daughter; since her ornaments were not even of gold or silver,
notwithstanding the impassionate desire of Eastern ladies for costly
adornments. The Sept. and Vulg. have ὡς τρυγόνες, i.e. “thy neck is as
beautiful as doves, ‏כַּתּוֹרִים‎; they have also ‏כַּחֲרוּזִים‎, like a
necklace; but they have evidently mistaken the ‏ב‎ for ‏כ‎, as well as
the meaning of ‏תּוֹר‎.

12. While the king is at his table. Here we see how signally the first
attempt of Solomon failed to win the affections of the Shulamite. For
no sooner did he go to his repast than the damsel indulges in sweet
expressions of love with her beloved shepherd. Two distinct persons are
here spoken of; the king at the table, and a beloved shepherd, called
“nard.” That by the expression ‏נִרְדִי‎, my nard, the Shulamite means her
beloved is evident from the following verse, where, led on by the
figure of this odorous plant, she continues to call him by the fragrant
names, “bag of myrrh,” “bunch of cypress flowers,” &c. ‏עַד שֶׁ‎, as long
as, while, Sept. ἕως, Vulg. dum. ‏מֵסַב‎ (from ‏סָבַב‎ to sit round a
table, to recline. 1 Sam. xvi. 11, comp. Sept., Chald., Syriac, Arabic,
Vulg. in loco,) seats set round, couches set in a circle, for reclining
at the repast, according to the Oriental custom, (see Rosenmüller,
Orient. iii. 631;) so the Sept. ἀνάκλισις. Vulg. accubitus, Rashbam,
‏בהסיבות אכילות המשתה‎, in the couch at the partaking of the repast;
and comp. Ps. cxxviii. 3. The reading of ‏במסכו‎, in aulaeo, tentorio,
instead of ‏במסבו‎, proposed by Houbigant, is both needless and
unauthorized. ‏נֵרְדְּ‎, spikenard or nard, νάρδος, is the Valeriana
Jatamansi, a plant peculiar to Hither India. It was obtained from India
by way of Arabia and Southern Asia. The perfume extracted from it was
highly prized. Thus we are told (Mark xiv. 31), when the Saviour sat at
meat in Bethany, “there came a woman having an alabaster box of
ointment of spikenard very precious, and she broke the box, and poured
it upon his head,” (comp. also John xii. 31,) which Judas, the
betrayer, estimated at three hundred pence, about eight pounds ten
shillings. The Romans considered this perfume so precious that Horace
promises Virgil a whole cadus, about nine gallons, of wine for a small
onyx-box full of spikenard. See Pliny, Hist. Nat. xiii. 2; Sir W.
Jones, Asiatic Researches, vol. ii. p. 416; Rosenmüller, Mineralogy and
Botany of the Bible, p. 166; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit.; Winer, Bib.
Dict. s.v.

13. A bag of myrrh, &c. This appellation is a continuation of the
figurative expression “nard,” under which the Shulamite described her
beloved in the preceding verse. The Hebrew women were in the habit of
wearing little bags or bottles filled with perfumes, especially with
myrrh, suspended from the neck, and hanging down between their breasts,
under the dress. Comp. Mishna, Sabbath vi. 3; Schroeder de Vestit.
Mulier. p. 155; Hartmann, Hebr. ii. 235. The Shulamite says that her
beloved is to her what this delightful perfume is to others; having him
she did not require any other fragrance. ‏צְרֹר‎ (from ‏צָרַר‎, to tie up,
to close), is a leather smelling-bag or bottle, i.q. ‏בֵּית נֶפֶשׁ‎, tied
up, or closed at the top. ‏מֹר‎, σμύρνα, μύῤῥα, Balsamodendron myrrha,
(from ‏מָרַר‎, to flow,) myrrh, so called from its flowing down, is a
perfume obtained from a shrub growing in Arabia, and much more
profusely in Abyssinia. It formed an article of earliest commerce, was
highly prized by the ancients, and is still much esteemed both in the
East and in Europe. This aromatic liquid either exudes spontaneously
from cracks in the bark, and is called ‏מוֹר עֹבֵר‎, ‏מוֹר דְרוֹר‎,
stilicidious or profluent myrrh (vide infra, v. 5; Exod. xxx. 23), and
on that account is esteemed superior; or is elicited artificially by
bruises or incisions made with stones, and is therefore regarded as
inferior. It was used for incense (Exod. xxx. 23), for perfuming
dresses (Ps. xlv. 9), and couches (Prov. vii. 17), for the purification
of women (Esth. ii. 12), for embalming dead bodies (John xix. 39), and
was worn by women in the bosom. See Pliny, lib. xii. cap. 35;
Rosenmüller, Altherth. iv. 1, 159; Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop.
Bib. Lit. s.v. ‏בֵּן שָׁדַי יָלִין‎ is a relative clause, with ‏אֲשֶׁר‎ implied
(See Gesen. § 123, 3; Ewald, § 332), and refers to ‏צְרֹר הַמֹּר‎. This is
evident from ‏בְּכַרְמֵי עֵין נֶּדִי‎, which refers to ‏אֶשְׁכֹּל הַכֹּפֶר‎; comp. also
iv. 4. The verb ‏לוּן‎ is not here, “lie all night,” but to abide, to
rest, like Job xix. 4, ‏אִתִּי תָלִין מְשׁוּגָתִי‎, where even the Authorized
Version has “mine error remaineth with myself.” Ps. xlix. 13.

14. A bunch of cypress flowers, &c. ‏כֹּפֶר‎ is unanimously regarded by
the ancient versions and the Rabbins to denote the plant called κύπρος
by the Greek, and Al-henna by the Arabs. This plant, which grows in
many places, both in Palestine and Egypt, (Plin. Hist. Nat. xii. 24,)
is a tall shrub, growing from the height of eight to ten feet; it is
exceedingly beautiful and odoriferous. “The dark colour of its bark,
the light green of its foliage, the softened mixture of white and
yellow, with which the flowers, collected into long clusters like the
lilac, are coloured, the red tint of the ramifications which support
them,—form a combination the effect of which is highly agreeable. The
flowers, whose shades are so delicate, diffuse around the most grateful
odours, and embalm with their strong fragrance the gardens in which
they grow, and the apartments which they beautify.... The women take
pleasure in adorning their persons and apartments with those delightful
blossoms.” See Pliny, lib. xii. c. 14; Rosenmüller, Bib. Miner. and
Bot.; Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v. The flowers grow
in dense clusters, whence ‏אֶשְׁכֹּל הַכֹּפֶר‎, cluster of cypress flowers.
En-gedi, more anciently called Hazezon-Tamar, which modern explorers
identify with the present Ain-Jidy, abounded with the best of those
delightful shrubs, (Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v.;
Robinson, Palest, ii. 209–216.) Hence this beautiful appellation, “a
bunch of cypress flowers,” than which nothing could be more expressive
of sweetness and beauty to an Oriental. The word ‏אֶשְׁכֹּל‎ is most
probably derived from ‏אָשַׁךְ‎, to bind, to twine together; hence ‏אֶשֶׁךְ‎, a
bundle, a string, with the addition of ‏–ֹל‎ like ‏גִבְעֹל‎, ‏חַרְגֹּל‎, Gesen.
§ 30, 3; Ewald, § 163 f. This is confirmed by the Talm. ‏אַשְׁכּוֹלֶת‎,
disciples, (Sota 47, a), i.e. a combination of youths; comp. ‏חֶבֶר‎, and
Fürst, Lexicon, s.v. ‏כֶּרֶם‎ here is a field cultivated as a garden;
comp. ‏כֶּרֶם זָיִת‎, an olive-yard. Judg. xv. 5; Job xxiv. 18, and supra,
ver. 6.

15. Behold, thou art beautiful. That is, “It is not I who possess such
attraction, it is thou who art beautiful, yea superlatively beautiful!”
The repetition of ‏הִנָךְ יָפָה‎ enhances the idea. “Thine eyes are doves,”
i.e. “Thine eyes, in which ‘the rapt soul is sitting,’ beams forth the
purity and constancy of the dove.” As the eye is the inlet of ideas to
the mind, so it is also the outlet of inward feelings. Thus it
expresses many of the passions, such as pity, mildness, humility,
anger, envy, pride, &c.; hence the phrases ‏עַין טוֹב‎ (which we also
have), to look with an eye of compassion, Prov. xxii. 9; ‏עַיִן רַע‎,
ὀφθαλμὸς πονηρὸς, an evil eye, Deut. xv. 9, Mark vii. 22. The dove is
the emblem of purity and constancy. Ps. lvi. 1; Matt. x. 16. ‏עֵינַיִךְ
יוֹנִים‎ are taken by the Syriac, Vulg., Ibn Ezra, Rashbam, Immanuel,
Luther, Authorized Version, Kleuker, Percy, Gesenius, Döpke,
Rosenmüller, Meier, &c. as an ellipsis for ‏עֵינֶיךָ עֵינֵי יוֹנִים‎, thine
eyes are doves’ eyes. Gesen. § 144, Rem. Ewald, § 296, b. But such an
ellipsis can be tolerated only in extreme emergencies, whereas here the
natural construction yields an excellent sense. Besides, v. 2 proves
that the doves themselves, and not the eyes, are the point of
comparison, just as the hair and the teeth are (iv. 1, 2) compared to
the goats and sheep themselves, and not merely to their hair and teeth.
And ‏עֵינַיִךְ בְרֵכוֹת‎ (vii. 4), which does not mean, thou hast fish-ponds
eyes, but, thine eyes are like the fish-ponds themselves. Hence the
Sept., Chald., Rashi, Mendelssohn, Hodgson, Ewald, Umbreit, Magnus,
Williams, Hengstenberg, Philippson, Hitzig, rightly reject this
elliptical construction.

16. Behold, thou art comely. The Shulamite, refusing to receive all the
praise, responds: “It is thou who art lovely and attractive;” and
referring to their meeting-spot, she adds, “Lovely is our flowery
couch; the arches of our bowers are formed of the spreading and
interweaving branches of the majestic and odoriferous cedars and
cypresses.” ‏נָעִים‎ is to be mentally supplied before ‏עַרְשֵׂנוּ רַעֲנָנָה‎;
comp. Prov. iii. 11, i.e. Yea, lovely is our verdant couch. The adj.
‏רַעֲנָנָה‎ is formed from the Pilel of the verb ‏רָעַן‎. This conjugation,
which is formed by doubling the third radical (see supra, 5), is used
to describe permanent states or conditions, or some striking property;
comp. Job xii. 5; Gesen. § 55, 2; Ewald, § 120 a. ‏קוֹרָה‎, beam, roof
(Gen. xix. 8), here arch, vault. ‏רָהִיט‎, i.q. ‏רָחִיט‎ in the ‏כְּתִיך‎ (the
‏ה‎ is sometimes pronounced harshly like the ‏ח‎, comp. ‏רָהִיט‎, Exod.
ii. 16, where the Samaritan has ‏רָחִיט‎, and Gesen. § 7, 4), is rendered
by the Sept., Vulg., Ewald, Gesenius, &c. fretted ceilings; by Kimchi
galleries; and the anonymous manuscript explains it bolt, and adds,
‏והנה נקרא רהיט לפי שרץ הנה והנה‎, “it is called bolt because it runs
backward and forward.” But this is not in keeping with the structure of
the verse. ‏רָהִיטֵנוּ‎ stands evidently in parallelism with ‏בָּתֵּינוּ‎, and
accordingly is of a similar import. Rashbam has therefore rightly
rendered it ‏אחד מבניני הבית‎, one of the apartments of the house. As
however the house here described is a bower, ‏רָהִיט‎ would be an arbour.
The etymology of the word is in keeping with this sense. ‏רָהָט‎, i.q.
‏רְהַט‎ = ‏רוּץ‎, to run, to flow, hence ‏רַהַט‎, 1. a gutter, from the
water running down, Gen. xxx. 38; 2. a curl, from its flowing down
(vide infra, vii. 6), and 3. ‏רָהִיט‎, a place upon which one runs, a
charming spot much frequented; just like ‏שׁוּק‎, a place where people
run, a street, from ‏שׁוּק‎, to run. It is now pretty generally agreed
that ‏בְּרוֹת‎, the Aram. for ‏בְּרוֹשׁ‎, is not the fir, but the cypress. It
is quite natural that this lofty tree, which grows to a height of from
fifty to sixty feet, of so hard and durable a nature, and so highly
esteemed among the ancients, (Virg. Georg. ii. 443,) should be placed
together with the majestic cedar. Comp. Sirach, xxiv. 13; Virg. Georg.
ii. 44; Winer, Bib. Dict.; Rosenmüller, Bib. Miner. and Bot. p. 260;
Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v.

1. I am a mere flower of the plain. “As for me,” the Shulamite modestly
insinuates, “my beauty is not peculiar, but is of an ordinary
character, like these flowers which are found in great profusion in the
plain and in the valley. The word ‏חֲבַצֶלֶת‎, which occurs only once more
(Isa. xxxv. 1), is variously explained. The ancient versions vary in
their rendering of it. Thus the Sept. and Vulg. have here ἄνθος, flos,
flower; the Chald., ‏נַרְקוֹם‎, narcissus; so Saadias: whereas in Isa. the
Sept., Vulg., Chald., render it lily. Modern critics are no less
divided. Kimchi, Ibn Ezra, &c., explain it rose; Michaelis, Ewald,
Gesenius, Döpke, Henderson, Meier, &c., take it to be autumn crocus,
colchicum autumnale; De Wette, Rosenmüller, Royle, Winer, &c.,
narcissus; Professor Lee, lily. The etymology of the word is likewise
disputed. Some derive it from ‏בָּצַל‎, a bulb, with ‏ח‎ prefixed, as ‏ח‎
like ‏א‎ is sometimes put before triliterals, in order to form a
quadriliteral, (Gesenius, Lehrg. p. 863, Rosenmüller, Henderson,
Hengstenberg, &c.,) and others take it as a compound of ‏חָבַץ‎ and
‏בָּצַל‎, acrid bulb. (Ewald, Heiligstedt, &c.) The most probable
derivation, however, seems to be ‏חָבַץ‎ = ‏חָמַץ‎, to be bright, to shine;
hence ‏חֲבַצֶל‎ (with the termination ‏–ֶל‎ like ‏כַּרְמֶל‎, ‏עֲרָפֶל‎), a flower;
as most verbs which signify shining are used also to denote verdure and
bloom. Compare ‏נִצָן‎, a flower, from ‏נָצַץ‎, to shine; and Simonis
Arcanum Formarum, p. 352. The word ‏שָׁרוֹן‎ (for ‏יְשָרֹוֹן‎, like ‏סוֹר‎ for
‏יְסוֹר‎, from ‏יָשַׁר‎, to be straight, plain, with the termination ‏–וֹן‎,
comp. Gesen. § 84, 15), is here best translated a plain, or field; so
the Sept., Vulg., Percy, &c. render ‏חֲבַצֶלֶת הַשָּׁרוֹן‎, a flower of the
field; and this admirably suits the ‏שׁוֹשַׁנַּת הָעֲמָקִים‎, lily of the
valley—a flower common in the valley.

2. As a lily among the thorns. Beautifully and ingeniously does the
shepherd take up this humble figure of the Shulamite, and, by a happy
turn, make it symbolical of her surpassing beauty. “It is true, that
thou art a lily, but as a lily surrounded by a multitude of brambles;
so thou appearest among all the damsels.” The expressions ‏בֵּן‎ and ‏בַּת‎
are not merely used for son and daughter, but also, idiomatically,
denote lad and lass, youth and damsel. Gen. xxx. 13; Judg. xii. 9;
Prov. vii. 7.

3. As an apple-tree, &c. The Shulamite returns the compliment: “As the
charming apple-tree, covered with beautifully tinged and sweetly
smelling fruit, appears amidst the wild and barren trees, so doest
thou, my beloved, look among the youths. I delight,” continues the
Shulamite, “to repose beneath the shady tree, because of its charming
fruit.” The comparison between the delight which she had in the company
of her beloved, and the agreeable enjoyment which a shady tree affords,
will especially be appreciated by those who have travelled in the East,
and had the opportunity of exchanging, in the heat of the day, their
close tents for an airy and fragrant bower. Comp. Gen. xviii. 4, 8; 1
Sam. xxii. 6; Rosenm. Morgenl. i. 49; iii. 528. ‏תַּפוּחַ‎ is taken by the
Chald. for ‏אָתְרוּנָא‎, citron; by Rosenmüller and others, for quince. The
expression occurs only six times in the Scriptures; four times in this
book (besides the present instance, see also ii. 5; vii. 9; viii. 5);
once in Prov. xxv. 11; and once in Joel i. 12. It is used in three
passages out of the six for the tree itself, and in the other three for
its fruit. But in all these places the common apple-tree or apple is
quite in keeping with the context, and the etymology of the word, viz.,
‏נָפַח‎, to breathe, to breathe sweetly; hence ‏תַּפּוּחַ‎, from its fragrant
breath, is an appropriate description of the common apple in Syria
(Ovid. Met. viii. 675), and, indeed, in all other countries. It is
evident from proper names (Josh. xii. 17; xvi. 8), that this tree was
much cultivated in Palestine at a very early period. In the Talmud we
frequently meet ‏תַּפוּחַ‎, used to denote the common apple. It is worthy
of notice that the shepherd calls his beloved ‏שׁוֹשָׁנָה‎, fem., whilst she
calls him ‏תַּפּוּחַ‎, mas. The second verb ‏וְיָשַׁבְתִּי‎ is subordinated to the
‏חִמַּדְתִּי‎, by means of the ‏ו‎ and the two words are well rendered by the
Chald. ‏רְגִינַת לְמֵיתַב‎, I delight to sit; comp. ‏אֵיכָכָה אוּכָל וְרָאִיתִי‎, how
shall I endure and witness, for how shall I endure to witness, Esth.
viii. 6. This subordination also occurs without the ‏ו‎; comp. infra,
vii. 8; viii. 2; Job x. 16; xix. 3; Gesen. § 142, 3 a, b; Ewald, § 285.

4. He led me, &c. Having represented her beloved, in the preceding
verse, as a tree, forming with its widely-spread branches and rich
foliage a shady bower, in which she delighted to repose and enjoy its
delicious fruit, the Shulamite here narrates, in the same metaphorical
language, how he took her into that bower of delight, that arbour of
love. The words ‏בֵּית הַיָּיִן‎ mean bower of delight, wine being frequently
used in this book for delight; and are but a designation of the
manifestations of love denoted in the preceding verse by ‏תַּפוּחַ‎,
delicious apple-tree. So also the word ‏דֶגֶל‎, from ‏דָּגַל‎, to cover,
retaining here its primary meaning, cover, shade, corresponds to ‏צֵל‎,
shade, in the last verse. The Sept., Sym., Syriac, Arab., which are
followed by many moderns, read ‏הֲבִיאֻנִי‎, and ‏דִגְלוּ‎, bring me, and
cover me, imper., arising most likely from a wish to produce uniformity
in this and the following verses.

5. Oh, strengthen me, &c. The rehearsal of their past union and
enjoyment kindled the Shulamite’s affections, and made her wish again
for that delicious fruit, i.e. the tokens of his love. The cakes here
mentioned were held in high estimation in the East; here, however, both
the cakes and the apples are to be taken figuratively as expressions of
love. This is obvious from the preceding verse, and from the words,
“for I am sick with love,” for no real cake or apple could cure a heart
suffering from this complaint. ‏אֲשִׁישָׁה‎ (from ‏אָשָׁשׁ‎, to burn, to fire;
hence ‏אֵשׁ‎, fire, like ‏אֵם‎, mother, from ‏אָמַם‎, to join, to unite),
something made by fire, a sort of sweet cake prepared with fire, and is
most probably the same which in Hos. iii. 1 is written more fully
‏אֲשִׁישֵׁי עֲנַבִים‎, grape-cakes. The meaning, cake, is retained in the Sept.
in all the passages (except Isa. xvi. 7, where the Sept. reads ‏אֲנְשֵׁי‎,
instead of ‏אֲשִׁישֵׁי‎, see the parallel place, Jer. xlviii. 31), where
this word occurs. Thus λάγανον ἀπὸ τηγάνου, a cake from the frying-pan,
2 Sam. vi. 19; and in the parallel passage, 1 Chron. xvi. 3, ἀμορίτης,
a sweet cake; in Hos. iii. 1, πέμμα, a baked cake; and ἀμόραις, sweet
cakes, in the passage before us. This meaning is supported by the
Chald. on Exod. xvi. 31, where ‏אֲשִׁישְׁיָן‎ is used for the Hebrew
‏צַפִּיחִית‎, and Mishna Nedarim, vi. 10. Gesenius, Hitzig, Henderson,
Fürst, &c., derive it from ‏אָשַׁשׁ‎, to press, to compress, whence, they
say, ‏אֲשִׁישָׁה‎, a cake made of dried grapes pressed together, and ‏אֲשִׁישׁ‎,
a foundation (Isa. xvi. 7), which is pressed down by treading on it.
But as the transition from cake to foundation is not so easily
conceived, and especially as the meaning to press, attached to ‏אָשׁשׁ‎,
is nowhere to be found in Hebrew (the word in Isa. xvi. 7 is to be
translated cake, see Hengstenberg, Christ. i. p. 315), it is far better
to derive this word as above from ‏אָשַׁשׁ‎, to burn. The Rabbinical
explanation, ‏נִרְבָא דְחַמְרָא‎, flagons of wine, which the Authorized
Version follows, is not borne out by the etymology, nor does it suit
the passages in which this word occurs, and is therefore rightly
abandoned by modern lexicographers. The rendering of Hodgson, “Support
me with cups, around me strew apples;” and that of Michaelis, “Support
me with verdant herbs, spread fragrant fruits under me,” are contrary
to the meaning of the words.

6. Let his right hand, &c. The pressure of the attempts to alienate her
affections from him whom her soul loveth, and the burning desire to be
re-united with him, though well sustained by her noble mind, yet
overcame her body; and whilst momentarily sinking beneath the weight,
the Shulamite desires that no other hand should raise her drooping
head, no other arm support her exhausted frame than that of her
beloved. This verse is to be taken in the optative mood. Comp. Ps. vii.
9; xlv. 2; Ewald, § 329 a.

7. I adjure you, &c. Having evinced her warm and undiminished
attachment to her beloved shepherd, the Shulamite adjures the court
ladies, who, as we have seen, tried to gain her affections for the
king, by everything dear and lovely, not to excite her love for anyone
else till her own (‏אהבה‎) affections wish (‏דוד אחר‎) for another
object. The gazelle, ‏צְבִי‎, so called from the beauty of its form, is
an animal of the antelope kind, of very graceful and elegant figure,
has very slender limbs, large and soft eyes. The great admiration in
which this animal was held in the East, made the Hebrews use it as an
emblem of everything beautiful (Prov. v. 19); and from its being
charming and lovely, it also became an object by which to swear. Such
adjurations are frequently used in the East. Comp. Reland, de Religio
Mah. ii. p. 164: Rosenmüller, Orient. i. 146; v. 22. Dio, in the Æneid,
lib. iv. 314; Bochart, Hieroz. i. p. 899. ‏אֶתְכֶם‎, mas., for ‏אֶתְכֶן‎,
fem. Both masculine pronouns and verbs are sometimes used in reference
to objects which are feminine. See Gesenius, § 121, Rem. i. § 137, 1;
Ewald, § 184 c. ‏אִם‎, after formulæ of swearing, has the effect of a
negative particle (Isa. xxii. 14; Prov. xxvii. 14). This is owing to a
part of the oath being omitted. Comp. 2 Sam. iii. 35; Gesen. § 155, 2
f.; Ewald, § 356 a. ‏עוּר‎, here, is not to arouse, to wake from sleep
(Gesen.), but to rouse, to excite the passions, affections; thus ‏הֵעִיר
קַנְאָה‎, he will arouse his zeal, Isa. xlii. 13; Prov. x. 12. The
repetition of the same verb in the Hiphil and Piel expresses intensity,
Isa. xxix. 9; Zeph. ii. 1. ‏אַהֲבָה‎ is the abstract, love, affection,
iii. 10; vii. 7. After ‏שֶׁתֶּחְפָּץ‎ supply ‏דוֹד אֲחַר‎. Similarly, Rashbam.
The Sept. strangely renders ‏בִּצְבָאוֹת אוֹ בְּאַילוֹת הַשָּׂדֶה‎, ἐν δυνάμεσι καὶ
ἰσχύσεσι τοῦ ἀγροῦ, by the powers and virtues of the field. Thus in
this scene, the first attempts, both on the part of the king and the
court ladies, to win the Shulamite’s affections, signally failed. The
same formula re-occurs iii. 5, and viii. 4, to mark, at the end of the
trials, her successful resistance.

8. Hark! my beloved! Having alluded in the preceding Section (i. 6) to
the ill-treatment which she had received from her brothers, the
Shulamite now relates the cause of that treatment. Thus whilst this
narrative forms the connecting link between this and the preceding
Section, it also gradually acquaints us with her history. The
description given of the arrival and conduct of her beloved is very
graphic and beautiful. She first sees him at a distance, bounding over
the hills with the speed of the swift-footed gazelle, and presently he
is found behind the wall, peeping through the window, and imploring her
in the sweetest language imaginable to go with him into the fields and
enjoy the beauties and charms of nature. ‏קוֹל‎ is not ‏קוֹל רַגְלָיו‎, the
sound of his feet (Ibn Ezra, Hitzig), which could not be heard at such
a distance from the mountains; nor the voice of his song (Döpke,
Philippson), for he could not very well sing when running at such a
speed as here described; but simply means hark! (Ewald, Magnus, Meier),
and is used in animated descriptions to arrest attention, Ewald, § 286
f.

9 My beloved is like, &c. To describe the speed of his approach the
Shulamite compares him to the swift-footed gazelle, and nimble fawn.
This comparison is also used in other parts of Scripture. Thus Asahel
is called light-footed as a gazelle. 2 Sam. ii. 18; Prov. vi. 5; Hab.
iii. 19. “The Eastern buildings generally surround a square inner
court; the beloved is described as gradually making his approach, first
to the wall, then looking through the window.” Here is another
incontestable proof that the object of the damsel’s affection, whom she
describes as coming to her, is not the king, but a shepherd, for the
king could not consistently be represented as bounding over the hills.
Though ‏אַיָּל‎ has a feminine, ‏אַיָּלָה‎, which is used in ver. 7, yet
instead of its being here ‏לְעֹפֶר אֲיָלוֹת‎, we have ‏הָאַיָּלִים‎: see also Ps.
xlii. 2. This is owing to the neglect on the part of the writer to
avail himself of the forms established by usage, Gesen. § 107, 1. Or it
may be that such names were still of a common gender, and the feminines
were only in the process of formation, but not as yet fixedly
established, Ewald, § 175 b. ‏כֹּתֶל‎ occurs only here, but it is evident
from Dan. v. 5, and the Targum, Josh. ii. 15, where it stands for the
Hebrew ‏קִיר‎, that it means a wall forming a part of the house. The
Sept. has here ‏עַל הָרֵי בָתָר‎, from ii. 17.

10, 11. Arise, my love, &c. The Shulamite introduces here her beloved
as speaking. He urges her to go, since the rain is over, and everything
without is charming. ‏עָנָה‎ is idiomatically used in reference even to
the person speaking first, without any antecedent interrogation. (Deut.
xxvi. 5; Isa. xiv. 10; xxi. 9.) The meaning of the word seems to be
simply to impart information, either asked for or not. In the former
case ‏עָנָה‎ obtains the additional idea of a reply, whereas in the
latter it merely means to inform, to tell, like ἀποκρίνομαι in the New
Testament. Comp. ἀποκριθεῖς εἶπε, Matt. xvii. 4; Mark ix. 5. On the use
of the dative ‏לָךְ‎, see Gesen. § 154, 3 e. Ewald, § 315 a. The ἅπα.
λέγ.ἅπαξ λεγόμενον ‏סְתָו‎ properly denotes the winter = the rainy
season, at the end of which, viz. February or March, the spring
advances with surpassing quickness; it excludes the autumn, and thus
differs from ‏חֹרֶף‎. The form ‏סְתָו‎ (from ‏סָתָה‎, to winter), is,
according to the analogy of ‏חֲגָו‎, ‏מְדָו‎, ‏קְצָו‎, see Fürst, Lexicon,
under ‏חֲגָו‎. The Sept. has mistaken the dative ‏לָךְ‎ for the imp. ‏לְכִי‎,
and adds ‏יוֹנָתִי‎, my dove, after ‏יָפָתִי‎, my beauty.

12. The flowers appear, &c. The gradual development is exceedingly
beautiful; the description unfolds with the season. After the graphic
delineation of the meadows strewed with a profusion of variegated
flowers; of the men in the fields, and the birds hovering over them,
joining to pour forth a volume of various sounds; of the delicious
odour of the embalmed fig, and fragrant vine, the beloved exclaims:
“Nature has prepared a rich banquet; come, let us go and enjoy it!” The
Sept., Aquila, Sym., Vulg., Chald., Rashbam, render ‏עֵת הַוָּמִיר‎, by the
season for the pruning of vines: Gesenius defends this rendering, but
against the usage of the word ‏זָמִיר‎, and the connexion. Wherever
‏זָמִיר‎ occurs, either in the singular (Isa. xxv. 5), or plural (2 Sam.
xxiii. 1; Isa. xxiv. 16), it invariably means song or singing.
Moreover, the parallelism, and the whole of the description, demand
that it should be rendered so here. All the pleasures and charms here
depicted are gratifications for the senses, and are adduced by the
beloved as the invitation of nature to enjoy her banquet; whereas the
pruning of the vines would be a summons to engage in toil. Besides, the
vine is mentioned afterwards in its rotation (v. 13), and it would mar
the gradual progression of this minute description to suppose that it
has been uselessly repeated. Hence it has been rightly rendered singing
by Rashi, Kimchi, Ibn Ezra, Anonymous Oxford Manuscript, Mendelssohn,
Kleuker, Ewald, Döpke, Rosenmüller, De Wette, Magnus, Hengstenberg,
Philippson, Fürst, Meier, Hitzig, &c. The objection that ‏זָמִיר‎,
singing, means the song of men, is obviated by referring it here to the
season when both man and bird begin to sing. ‏זָמִיר‎, like other words
of the form ‏קָטִיל‎, expresses the time of the action; comp. ‏אָסִיף‎,
harvest; properly the time when the fruit is gathered. ‏חָרִישׁ‎, the time
of ploughing. Gesen. § 84, 5; Ewald, § 149 e.

The cooing of the turtle, &c. The turtle-dove is a migratory bird (Jer.
viii. 7; Arist. Hist. Anim. viii. 3, 12, 16; Pliny, Hist. Nat. x. 36;
Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v.); it resides in the
winter farther south than Palestine, and returns in the spring, when
its cooing voice in the woods announces the return of that season.

13. The fig-tree sweetens her green figs. The word ‏חָנַט‎ is now
rendered by many commentators, according to the example of Ibn Ezra, to
sweeten, to embalm, to spice; i.e. the fig-tree sweetens her fruit by
filling it with aromatic juice. This rendering is confirmed by the use
of ‏חָנַט‎, to embalm (Gen. l. 2, 26), which was done with spices and
aromatic plants (2 Chron. xvi. 14; John xix. 40). The Sept., Aquila.,
and Vulg. render ‏חָנַט‎, puts forth, but this signification cannot be
deduced from the root. Ewald, Magnus, Hitzig, have “the fig-tree
reddens,” &c., but the verb is not used in this sense in Hebrew. ‏פָּג‎
(from ‏פָּגַג‎ immature), an unripe fig, Sept. ὄλυνθος, Vulg. grossus; so
in the Talmud and Ibn Ezra, ‏פרי טרם שיתבשל‎, the fruit before it is
ripe.

The vines blossom, &c. It is well known that the blossoming vine smells
sweetly; comp. Pliny, Hist. Nat. xiv. 2. ‏וְהַנְּפָנִים סְמָדַר‎, lit. the vines
are in blossom, i.e. the vines blossom; so Sym. οἰνάνθη, Vulg.
florentes. Substantives are frequently used in Hebrew instead of
adjectives to express properties; thus ‏וְהַפִּשְׁתָּה גִבְעֹל‎, the flax was
bolled. Exod. ix. 31; Ezra. x. 13. This peculiarity is to be accounted
for by supposing either that the adjectives were not as yet formed, or
if formed were still not currently used. Gesen. § 106, 1; Ewald, § 296
b. ‏לָכְי‎ stands for ‏לָךְ‎; comp. ver. 10; the ‏י‎ has been occasioned by
the preceding form ‏קוּמִי‎, and succeeding words ‏רַעֳיתִי יָפָהִי‎, which
terminate in ‏י‎. This is not unfrequently the case, see Job xix. 29;
Eccl. viii. 17; Prov. viii. 35; Mich. i. 8. The Sept. has here again
‏לְכִי‎ for ‏לָךָ‎, and ‏יֹונָתִי‎ after ‏יָפָיָתִי‎.

14. My dove in the clefts, &c. Having described the charming aspect of
nature, he repeated his invitation to her to go with him into the
fields. Impatient at her apparent delay, the beloved, whilst calling
her by the endearing epithet “dove,” delicately ascribed to her the
timorous character of that bird. Doves in the East make their nests in
the clefts of elevated rocks and cliffs (Jer. xxviii. 28), which they
are exceedingly afraid to leave when once frightened. Thus Homer,
Iliad, xxi. 493:


        Δακρυόεσσα δ’ ὕπαιθα θεὰ φύγεν, ὥστε πέλεια,
        Ἣ ῥά θ’ ὑπ’ ἴρηκος κοίλην εἰσέπτατο πέτρην,
        Χηραμὸν, οὐ δ’ ἄρα τῇ γε ἁλώμεναι αἴσιμον ἦεν.

        “As when the falcon wings her way above,
        To the cleft cavern speeds the frighten’d dove,
        Straight to her shelter thus the goddess flew.”


See also Virg. Æn. v. 213. ‏חֲגְוֵי‎ is the plural construct. of ‏חֲגָוְ‎
(from the root ‏חָגָה‎, to make incisions in, to split or perforate
rocks); according to the analogy of ‏קַצְוֵי‎, plural const. of ‏קְצָו‎ and
‏מַדְוֵי‎ from ‏מְדָו‎, vide sup. ii. 11. ‏מַדְרֵגָה‎, (from ‏דָּרָג‎, cognate with
‏דָּרַךְ‎, to ascend,) a place reached by climbing or ascending, a steep, a
precipice. The Mazora marks the ‏י‎ in ‏מַרְאֵיךְ‎ as superfluous,
evidently to avoid the apparent incongruity between the adjective
‏נָאֲוָה‎, which is in the singular, and the noun ‏מַרְאֵיךְ‎, apparently
plural. But the ‏י‎ here may be retained, and the word may still be
singular. For many nouns from roots ‏ל״ה‎ preserve in the singular
before a suffix the original ‏י‎ of the root, and thus have the
appearance of the plural: e.g. ‏מִקְנֶיךָ‎, thy castle (Isa. xxx. 23), from
‏מִקְנֶה‎, ‏מַרְאָיו‎, the same expression, Job xli. 1; Gesen. § 93, 9;
Ewald, § 256 b.

15. Catch us the foxes, &c. The Shulamite here quotes the words of her
brothers, who had overheard the invitation. To prevent the meeting of
the lovers, the brothers gave the damsel employment in the vineyard, to
catch and keep out the foxes. To this she refers in i. 6, when,
repelling the disdainful looks of the court ladies, and accounting for
her brown complexion, she mentions the severe treatment of her
brothers. ‏שׁוּעָלִים‎, foxes, as well as jackals, were very numerous in
Palestine (Judg. xv. 4; Lam. v. 18; Ps. lxiii. 11; Neh. iv. 3). There
was a district actually called ‏אֶרֶץ שׁוּעָל‎, from the abundance of these
creatures, 1 Sam. xiii. 17. These animals are gregarious, found in
packs of two or three hundred (Boch. Hieroz. lib. iii. 12), and are
described, both by sacred and profane writers, as destructive to
vineyards, Sam. i. 17, 18; and Theocritus, Idyl. v. 112:


        Μισέω τὰς δασυκέρκος ἀλώπεκας, αἳ τὰ Μίκωνος
        Αἰεὶ φοιτῶσαι τὰ ποθέσπερα ῥαγίζοντι.

        “I hate those brush-tail’d foxes, that each night
        Spoil Micon’s vineyards with their deadly bite:”


also Idyl. i. 47–50. The young foxes are especially injurious to the
vineyards, because they burrow in holes in the ground, Neh. iv. 3. The
brothers, in the last clause, assign a reason for their proposal; the
‏ו‎ in ‏וּכְרָמֵינוּ‎ is therefore to be rendered for, Gesen. § 155, 1 c.
The Sept. inadvertently omits the word ‏שׁוּעָלִים‎.

16. My beloved is mine, &c. The Shulamite tells the court ladies how
she had consoled herself under these circumstances of separation:
“Though my brothers succeeded in separating us bodily by assigning to
me this post of keeping the vineyards, yet our affections are
inseparable; and though still separated from me, my beloved is mine and
I am his; his who tends his flock in the meadows abounding with
flowers.” It seems as if the words, “he who feeds his flock among the
lilies,” were designedly added, whenever the damsel speaks of her
beloved, to show unmistakably that he was a shepherd. How such passages
can be reconciled with the supposition that the king is the object of
the maiden’s attachment, or, according to others, that the maiden is
the daughter of Pharaoh, is difficult to divine.

17. When the day cools, &c. She also relates how she had comforted her
beloved, telling him that this state of separation would not last long;
that he must come in the evening, when unobserved, with the same
swift-footed speed as he came in the morning. ‏עַד שָׁיָפוּחַ הַיּוֹם‎, i.q. ‏עַד
שֶׁיָפוּחַ רוּחַ הַיּוֹם‎, when the day breeze blows, i.e. in the evening,
shortly before sunset, when a gentle and cooling breeze blows in the
East (see Pliny, Hist. Nat. ii. 47); hence ‏רוּחַ הַיּוֹם‎, Gen. iii. 8,
opposed to ‏חוֹם הַיּוֹם‎, xviii. 1. That this is the sense of ‏שֶׁיָפוּחַ
הַיּוֹם‎, and not day-break (English Ver.), or morning-breath (Good), is
evident from the immediately following ‏וְנָסוּ הַצְלָלִים‎, which expresses
the same idea in other words, i.q. evening; comp. Job xiv. 2. The
shadows are said to flee away when at sunset they become elongated and
stretched out; thus as it were run away from us, further and further,
till they eventually vanish in the dark of night. Hence David, speaking
of the approaching sunset of his life, says, ‏יָמַֹי כְּצֵל נָטוּי‎, My days
are like an elongated shadow, Ps. cii. 12; cix. 23. Comp. also Virg.
Eclog. i. 84, and ii. 66. So Herder, Kleuker, Ewald, Gesen., Döpke,
Rosenmüller, Magnus, Heiligstedt, Fürst, Philippson, Meier,
Hengstenberg, Hitzig. The rendering of Hodgson, Good, &c., “till the
day-breath,” and their reference to the passage of Milton, “Sweet is
the breath of morn” (Par. Lost, iv. 641), is gratuitous. The words ‏הֶרֵי
בָתֶר‎ are rendered by the Sept. ὄρη τῶν κοιλωμάτων, mountains of
cavities, i.e. decussated mountains, from ‏בָּתַר‎, to divide, to cut,
which Gesenius and Heiligstedt explain, a region divided by mountains
and valleys, but very unsatisfactorily. The Syriac and Theodo. have
θυμιαμάτων, taking ‏בָּתֶר‎ for ‏בְּשָׂמִים‎, which is adopted by Meier; but
this emendation is unsupported by MSS., and has evidently arisen from
viii. 14. The Vulg. and Rashbam take ‏בָּתֶר‎ as a proper name, montes
Bether; but neither place nor mountain is known by such name. The
Chald., Ibn Ezra, Rashi explain ‏הָרֵי בָתֶר‎ by mountains of separation,
i.e. mountains which separate thee from me: this is followed by Luther,
Ewald, De Wette, Hengstenberg, Philippson, Hitzig, and is most
consonant with the context. We have seen (ver. 9), that there were
mountains separating the houses of the lovers, which the shepherd had
to cross to reach the Shulamite; and as she told him to go back and
return in the evening, it was evident that he had to cross again those
separating mountains.

1. When on my nightly couch, &c. Through some means or other her
beloved did not come in the evening according to request, and, unable
to wait any longer, she retired. Her thoughts, however, kept her awake,
and her confidence in him made her look for him even when on her couch.
The words ‏עַל מִשְׁכָּבִי וְגו״‎ do not mean, “I sought him in my bed,” at
which unnecessary umbrage has been taken, but “Even when I reclined
upon my nocturnal couch, I could not give him up; I still sought to
find him.” ‏מִשְׁכָּבִי בַּלֵילוֹת‎ means my couch used at nights, i.q. ‏מִשְׁכַּב
הַלֵּילוֹת‎, in contradistinction to ‏מִשְׁכַּב הַצָהֳרַיִם‎, a couch used at
noonday, 2 Sam. iv. 5. This is evident from the plural ‏בַּלֵילוֹת‎, in the
nights, and from ver. 8, where the same plural is used to describe
nocturnal marauders. The affirmation of Harmer, therefore, that no
reasonable doubt can be made that these are the words of one to whose
bed the beloved was no stranger, falls to the ground. The Sept. adds,
ἐκάλεσα αὐτὸν καὶ οὐχ ὑπηκούσεν ἐμὲ, from chap. v. 6.

2. I must arise now, &c. Seeing, however, that her beloved did not
come, and apprehending that some disaster might have befallen him on
his way, the Shulamite determined to go and find him. The ‏–ָה‎ in
‏אֲקוּמָה‎ is expressive of self-summons and determination: “I said to
myself, Come! I must arise now!” Comp. Ps. ii. 3; lv. 3; Gesen. § 128,
1; Ewald, § 228 a.

3. The watchmen, &c., found her whilst engaged in seeking her beloved,
and she at once inquired of them whether they had seen him. The
interrogative particle is here omitted. This is sometimes the case when
the whole sentence, as here, is interrogative, in which case it is
distinguished by the prominence given to the word upon which the force
or weight of the interrogation more especially falls; as by the tone in
which it is uttered, e.g. ‏זֶה חַסְדְּךָ אֶת־רֵעֶךָ‎, “This thy kindness to thy
friend!” 2 Sam. xvi. 17; xviii. 29; Gesen. § 153, 1; Ewald, § 324 a.

4. Scarcely had I passed them, &c. The abruptness of the description
here is very characteristic. She informs us that she had put a question
to the watchmen, but, in her hurry to find her beloved, does not tell
us the answer which she received. The construction ‏כִּמְעַט שֶׁ—עַד‎,
scarcely when, is nowhere else to be found in the Old Testament; it may
be resolved to ‏זמן אשר עברתי מהם כמעט‎, the time that I passed them
amounted to a little while.

5. I adjure you, &c. Having expressed her deep attachment to her
beloved shepherd, she again adjures the court ladies not to persuade
her to love any one else. Comp. ii. 7. The Sept. has again ‏צְבָאוֹת‎,
powers, and ‏אֵילוֹת‎, virtues; vide supra, ii. 7.

6. What is that, &c. The situation changes. The state tents have been
broken up in the neighbourhood of the Shulamite’s home, and the royal
train travels towards Jerusalem. Some of the inhabitants, as they see
at a distance the procession almost enveloped in the fragrant cloud of
smoke arising from the incense profusely burned, exclaim, “What is that
coming up from the country?” “The burning of perfumes in the East, in
the preceding part of processions, is both very ancient and very
general. Deities (images) were probably the first honoured with this
ceremony, and afterwards their supposed vicegerents, human divinities.
We have a relic of the same custom still existing among ourselves, in
the flowers strewed or borne in public processions, at coronations,
&c., and before our great officers of state: as the Lord Chancellor,
the Speaker of the House of Commons; and in some corporations, the
mace, as an ensign of office, has the same origin, though now reduced
to a gilded ornament only.” See Calmet, Dictionary, and Rosenmüller,
Orient. iv. 948. ‏מִי‎ is properly used of persons, but also of things,
especially when the notion of person or persons is in them, e.g. ‏מִי לְךָ
כָּל הַמַּחְנֶה הַזֶּה‎, “What is all this company with thee?” Gen. xxxiii. 8;
Mich. i. 5. That this is here the meaning of ‏מִי‎, is evident from the
answer, ‏הִנֵּה מִטָּתוֹ‎, Behold, it is the palanquin. ‏מִדְבָּר‎ (from ‏דָבַר‎, to
range in order, to guide, to drive flocks), here is not desert, but, as
frequently, an uninhabited plain or country, where flocks are tended,
in contradistinction to town, where people dwell. Comp. Isa. xlii. 11;
Jer. xxiii. 10; Joel ii. 22. ‏תִּימְרוֹת‎, the plur. of ‏תִּמָרָה‎, like
‏צִדְקוֹת‎, from ‏צְדָקָה‎, columns or clouds, only occurs once more, Joel
iii. 3, and is most probably derived from ‏תָּמַר‎, to ascend, to rise up
like a column or cloud. The ‏י‎ has merely been inserted to help the
pronunciation (comp. Exod. xxv. 31; Ps. xix. 4.), and, indeed, nineteen
MSS. and originally another omit the ‏י‎, which is undoubtedly the
correct reading. The ‏כּ‎ in ‏כְּתִּימְרוֹת‎ signifies as in. Comp. Isa. v.
17; xxix. 7; Gesen. Gram. § 118, 3, Rem. ‏כֹּל‎ is used for a plurality
comprising, or consisting of, divers single things or objects, and is
to be rendered all kinds. Comp. Lev. xix. 23; Neh. xiii. 16; Fürst,
Lexicon, under ‏כֹּל‎ 5; Gesen. § 108, 4, § 111, 1. ‏לְבֹנָה‎ (λίβανος,
λιβανωτὸς, arbor thuris, thus), frankincense, so called from its white
colour, was early known and extensively used by the Jews (Exod. xxx.
34; Lev. ii. 1, 2; Isa. lxiii. 23) and other nations (Tibull. Lib.
Eleg. ii.; Ovid. Trist. Lib. V. Eleg. v. 11) in sacrifices for
fumigation. It is represented as a shrub, growing on mountains, and
thorny, both in Arabia (Isa. lx. 6; Jer. vi. 20) and in Palestine,
according to the passage here; reaches a height of about five feet, and
resembles in its leaves and fruit the myrtle. The frankincense is
obtained by incisions which are made twice a year; the first in the
beginning of autumn, which is white and pure (‏לְבֹנָה זָכָּה‎, Exod. xxx.
34), and is regarded as superior; and the second incision is made in
the winter, when the resin thus obtained is reddish, and considered
much inferior. Comp. Winer, Bibl. Dict. p. 681, et seq.; Pliny, Hist.
Nat. xxxii. 14.

7, 8. Lo! it is the palanquin, &c. Another bystander, recognizing it at
a distance, exclaims that it is the cortége of Solomon, consisting of
his palanquin and guard. ‏מִטָּתוֹ שֶׁלִשְׁלמֹהֹ‎, i.q. ‏מִטַּת שְׁלֹמֹה‎; comp. Gesen. §
121, 5, note; Ewald, § 309 c. This construction, however, has no real
analogy in the Scriptures; it frequently occurs in latter Hebrew
writings. Comp. ‏תהתיתו של ההר‎, the bottom of the mountain, in Rashbam
on the Song of Songs, iv. 1. The ‏גִבּרִֹים‎ here mentioned, were a
separate class of the body-guard formed by David; and, as
co-religionists (‏גִבֹּרֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל‎), seem to have been chosen to protect the
monarch on his excursion against any attack of nocturnal marauders, so
frequent and so much dreaded in the East. Comp. Job i. 15, with Gen.
xvi. 12. The ‏מ‎ in ‏מִגִּבֹּרֵי‎ is used partitively, vide supra, i. 2.
‏אֲחוּזֵי חֶרֶב‎, skilled in the sword. ‏אָחַז‎, to take hold, also to handle
artfully, like ‏תָּפַשׂ‎, to take hold, to handle skilfully. The participle
‏אָחוּז‎, though of a passive form, has an active signification; this is
not unfrequently the case, especially when it belongs to an
intransitive verb. Comp. ‏בּטוּחַ בַּיהוָֹה‎, he trusted in Jehovah, Ps. cxii.
7; Gesen. § 50, 3, Rem. 2; Ewald, § 149 d. This removes the apparent
contradiction caused by the Authorized Version, “They all hold swords;”
when in the next clause, as Hodgson and Good remarked, we are told that
each had his sword on his thigh. ‏אִישׁ‎, a man is used as a distributive
for each, every. Comp. Gen. xv. 18; xlii. 25; Gesen. § 124, 2, Rem. 1;
Ewald, § 278, b. We must supply ‏חָגוּר‎ after ‏אִישׁ‎. Comp. Exod. xxii.
27; Ps. xlv. 4. ‏פָּחַד‎, fear, metonymically for the object of fear (Gen.
xxxi. 42, 53), here marauders. This is evident from Ps. xci. 5; Prov.
iii. 24. ‏בַּלֵילוֹת‎, in or during the nights, i.e. nocturnal marauders.
Vide supra, iii. 1.

9. A palanquin, &c. As the train draws nearer, a third person
recognizes it as the newly-made palanquin, of which he gives a
circumstantial description. Palanquins were and are still used in the
East by great personages. They are like a couch, sufficiently long for
the rider to recline, covered with a canopy resting on pillars at the
four corners, hung round with curtains to exclude the sun; they have a
door, sometimes of lattice-work, on each side. They are borne by four
or more men, by means of strong poles, like those of our sedan-chairs;
and in travelling great distances, there are always several sets of men
to relieve each other. The materials of which these palanquins are
made, and the style of their construction, depend upon the rank and
wealth of the owners. The word ‏אַפִּרְיֹון‎ is most probably derived from
‏פָּרָה‎, to run, to be borne quickly. Comp. τρόχος, from τρέχειν,
φορεῖον, from φέρω, currus from currendo, ferculum from fero. The form
‏אַפִּרְיּוֹן‎ is, according to the analogy of ‏דִּמְיוֹן‎, likeness (Ps. xvii.
12), and ‏פִּדְיֹון‎, ransom (Exod. xxi. 30); comp. Gesen. § 84, 15; Ewald,
§ 163 c. with a prosthetic ‏א‎ (Gesen. § 19, 4; Ewald, § 162 c,)
followed by a Dagesh forte like ‏אַפֶּדֶן‎, a palace, Dan. xi. 45; see
Fürst, Lexicon. Ewald, however, derives it from ‏פרה‎ = ‏ברה‎, to work
out, to build, to form, hence ‏אֲפִּרְיוֹן‎, ein Prachtstück. Kimchi derives
it from ‏פָּרָה‎, to be fruitful, and says it is called ‏אַפִּרְיוֹן‎, because
‏שפרין ורבין עליה‎, people increase and multiply therein. But this is
contrary to the description here given of the procession. Besides, a
bridal bed has no (‏מֶרְכָּבָה‎) seat. ‏עָשַׂה‎, to make, means also to have
made, to order to be made. A person is frequently described in
Scripture idiom as doing that which he orders to be done. 2 Sam. xv. 1;
Gal. ii. 5, 6. The ‏מִן‎ in ‏מַעַצַי‎ denotes the material of which the
frame-work was made. Ps. xlv. 4. The wood of Lebanon, i.e. cedars and
cypresses, Zech. xi. 1, 2; 1 Chron. ii. 8.

10. Its pillars he hath made, &c. The description here given of the
costly construction of this magnificent palanquin is by no means a mere
poetic embellishment. A similar litter was presented by the British
government in 1766 to the Nabob of the Carnatic, of which the following
account is given by Williams in loco, from the public prints of the
time: “The beams are solid gold, the inside beautifully decorated with
silver lining and fringe throughout; the panels are painted in the
highest style of finishing, and represent various groups and heads of
animals, after the manner of Asia, beaded with gold richly raised above
the surface, and engraved. The stays and different other ornaments are
of embossed silver.” Curtius (viii. 9, 23) gives us a description of
the procession of an Indian potentate, which strikingly resembles the
one here depicted. “When the king shows himself in public, his servants
go before him with silver censers, which fill the air, throughout the
way along which he is borne in the palanquin, with delicious odour. He
himself is reclining upon a golden couch, covered with pearls and
veiled with purple curtains, embroidered with gold; the life-guard
bring up the rear.” ‏רְפִידָה‎ (from ‏רָפַד‎, to support, ii. 5), that which
supports the back when sitting; so the Sept. ἀνάκλινον; Vulg.
reclinatorium; Döpke, Rosenmüller, Hitzig, &c. ‏מֶרְכָּב‎, a seat, comp.
Lev. xv. 9. The words ‏תּוֹכוֹ רָצוּף אַהֲבָה מִבְּנוֹת יְרוּשָּׁלַיִם‎, are either to be
translated: its centre is tesselated most lovely, by the daughters of
Jerusalem;—the noun ‏אַהֲבָה‎ may be used adverbially for lovely,
charmingly, comp. ‏אֹהֲבֵם נְדָבָה‎, “I will love them freely,” Hos. xiv. 4;
Ewald, § 279 c, § 204; so Luther, Kleuker, Herder, De Wette,
Rosenmüller, Philippson, &c.; and the ‏מִּן‎ in ‏מִבְּנוֹת‎ may denote the
author or instrument, see Isa. xxii. 3; xxviii. 7; Eccl. xii. 11;
Gesen. Gram. § 143, 2;—or they may be rendered, the middle thereof is
wrought, as expressive of their love, by the daughters of Jerusalem;
taking ‏אַהֲבָה‎, love, for the effect, or proof of it; comp. ‏דוֹדִים‎, i.
2, and ἀγάπη in Greek; so Le Clerc, Bp. Percy, Drs. Good and Clark. The
interior of these couches is generally painted with baskets of flowers
and nosegays, intermixed with short sentences or mottoes, expressing
the power of love.

11. Come out, O ye daughters, &c. As the royal train begins to enter
the city, a fourth bystander calls the daughters of Zion to come out
and see the monarch in his joyful attire. Thus the inspired writer
beautifully puts into the mouth of several spectators the description
he desires to give. The crown here mentioned is not the symbol of
royalty, but the emblem of happiness (Job xix. 9). Crowns or chaplets
of flowers were worn in ancient times on occasions of festivity and
rejoicing; comp. Apocryp. Wisdom, ii. 7, 8. Conjugal life being
regarded as the most happy, it became a custom among the Jews, as well
as among other nations, to put crowns on the heads of the newly-married
people. Rosenmüller, Orient. iv. 196. “In the Greek Church in Egypt,”
says Maillet, “the parties are placed before a reading-desk on which is
the book of the Gospels, having two crowns upon it of flowers, cloth,
or tinsel. The priest, after benedictions and prayers, places one on
the bridegroom’s, the other on the bride’s head, covering both with a
veil.” (See also Talmud, Sotha, ix. 14; Selden, Uxor. Hebr. II. xv.
139; I. F. Hirt, de Coronis apud Hebraeos nuptialibus sposi sposaeque).
The Jews still call the bridegroom ‏מֶלֶךְ‎, and the bride ‏מַלְכָּה‎. The
design of Solomon in putting on this crown is evidently to dazzle the
rustic girl. The arrival and entrance of the royal train in the
capital, recorded in verses 6–11, evidently show that the circumstances
narrated in the preceding sections took place out of Jerusalem, and
that the apartments into which the king brought the damsel, as stated
in ch. i. 4, were not in the capital, but, as we see from ch. vi. 11,
12, in the neighbourhood of the Shulamite’s home. The abnormal ‏צְאֶינָה‎
is here intentionally used instead of the normal ‏צֵאנָה‎, to correspond
in form with ‏רְאֶינָה‎; just as ‏מוֹבָא‎, entrance (Ezek. xliii. 11), is
employed instead of ‏מָבוֹא‎, to correspond with ‏מוֹצָא‎, see also Jer. l.
20; Ezek. xvi. 50; infra, viii. 5; Gesen. § 59, Rem. 3; Ewald, § 118 d.
The female inhabitants of the town are designedly called ‏בְּנוֹת צִיוֹן‎,
to distinguish them from the ‏בְּנוֹת יְרוּשָׁלַיִם‎, which is the appellation
of the court ladies.

1. Behold, thou art, &c. The shepherd, who had followed afar off the
royal train in which his beloved was conveyed to the capital, obtains
an interview with her, and is now addressing her. Thine eyes are doves;
see supra, i. 15. Thy hair is like a flock of goats, i.e. the tresses,
dangling from the crown of her head, are as beautiful as Mount Gilead
covered with the shaggy herd. The hair of Oriental goats is exceedingly
delicate, soft (Gen. xxvii. 16), long, and black (1 Sam. xix. 13); and
when the sun shines upon it, reflects such a glare that the eye can
hardly bear the lustre (see Boch. Hieroz. i. 2, 51. Rosenmüller,
Orient. i. 85). ‏הַר גִּלְעָד‎ is the name of a chain of limestone mountains
beyond Jordan, intersected by numerous valleys (Gen. xxxi. 21; Jer. l.
19). This ridge extends over the regions inhabited by the tribes of
Reuben, Gad, and the northern part of Manasseh (Numb. xxxii. 40; Deut.
iii. 13; Josh. xvii. 1–6). It was famous for its luxuriant verdure,
aromatic simples, and rich pastures; and hence attracted the flocks
(Numb. xxxii. 1); and animals from this region were regarded as of a
superior quality, like gold from Ophir. Nothing, therefore, could more
beautifully express the curly hair of a woman, dangling down from the
crown of her head, than the sight, at a distance, of a flock of goats
running down from the summit of this verdant hill on a beautiful day.
‏צַמָּה‎ (from ‏צָמַם‎, i.q. Chald. ‏צַמְצַם‎, ‏צָמַם‎, to bind, to twine, to
veil), is well explained by Rashbam, ‏ענין עילוף ומעטה היא‎, a kind of
cover, or veil; so Sym., Sept., Isa. xlvii. 2, Michaelis, Döpke,
Gesenius, De Wette, Lee, Percy, Williams, Hitzig, &c. The rendering of
the Sept. here, ἐκτὸς τῆς σιωπήσεώς σου, behind thy silence, which is
followed by the Syriac and Arabic, is both contrary to the etymology of
the word, and meaningless. The other translations, viz. locks (Auth.
Vers., Ewald), a plait of hair (Hengstenberg), cannot be substantiated.
The word ‏גָּלַשׁ‎, which occurs only here and vi. 5, is of difficult
interpretation, and has produced a variety of renderings. The Sept. has
here ἀπεκαλύφθησαν, and vi. 5, ἀνεφάνησαν, the Syriac ܣܠܰܩ‎, the Vulg.
here ascenderunt, and vi. 5, apparuerunt. The Rabbins also differ in
their interpretations. Rashi explains it ‏שנקרחו‎, that make bare, i.e.
quit or descend the mountain. Ibn Ezra, ‏שנשקפו‎, which look down;
Rashbam, ‏שנראו‎, which are seen, i.e. while coming down from the
mount. Modern commentators are not less at variance. Luther translates
it shorn; Houbigant, which hang down; Kleuker, Ewald, which shows
itself; Döpke, Gesenius, Hitzig, Philippson, which lie down; Magnus,
which climb up; Percy, Hengstenberg, which come up, i.e. from
Jerusalem. Amidst these conflicting opinions, it appears best to take
‏גָּלַשׁ‎, like its kindred ‏פָּלַשׁ‎, in the sense of rolling down, running
down; see Fürst. Lexicon, s.v. This meaning accords best with the
comparison here used, and leaves to the preposition ‏מִן‎ its natural
signification. The omission of ‏הַר‎ in the Sept., Arabic, and a few
MSS., is evidently owing to the carelessness of a transcriber.

2. Thy teeth, &c. The compliment passed upon the black hair is followed
by another on the white teeth: “Thy teeth resemble in whiteness woolly
sheep just washed.” This comparison will appear more striking when we
remember that the wool of Scripture is proverbial for its whiteness,
and is placed in juxtaposition with the colour of snow, Isa. i. 18;
Dan. vii. 9; Rev. i. 14; Book of Enoch xlvi. 1. The Sept., which is
followed by many modern commentators, takes the comparison to be
between the shorn skin of the sheep and the teeth; but this is
untenable. For, 1. The skin of shorn sheep can never have the whiteness
which the context here demands; 2. Shorn sheep would yield a very
incongruous figure, if teeth were compared with them; 3. Sheep, as now,
were generally washed before and not after they were shorn; 4. The
passage in vi. 6, shows that ‏קְצוּבוֹת‎ is merely a poetical epithet for
‏רְחֵלִים‎, not because they were then shorn, but because they are
periodically shorn. The explanation of ‏קְצוּבוֹת‎ by well numbered
(Rashi), or by ‏יש להן מדה אחת כאילו נחצבת כל אחת כמו חברתה‎, same size
(Kimchi, Ibn Ezra), are against vi. 6.

All of which are paired. That is, each upper tooth has its
corresponding lower one; thus they, as it were, appear in pairs, like
this flock of white sheep, each of which keeps to its mate, as they
come up from the washing-pool. And no one of them is deprived of its
fellow, i.e. no tooth is deprived of its corresponding one, just as
none of the sheep is bereaved of its companion. The Hiphil of ‏תָּאַם‎, to
be double, to be pairs (Exod. xxvi. 24; xxxvi. 29), is to make double,
to make pairs, to appear paired. ‏שַׁכֻּלָּה‎ is deprived, bereaved, Jer.
xviii. 21. On the masculine suffixes in ‏כֻּלָּם‎ and ‏בָּהֶם‎, referring to
‏קְצוּבוֹת‎, fem., see supra, ii. 7. The words ‏שֶׁכֻּלָּם‎ and ‏שַׁכֻּלָּה‎ form a
paranomasia; see i. 2. The rendering of ‏מַתְאִימוֹת‎ by ‏כלם יולדות
תאומים‎, all bearing twins (Kimchi, &c.), which some try to justify by
submitting that sheep as well as goats in the East frequently bear
twins (Arist. Hist. Anim. i. 6, 19; Theocret. i. 25; iii. 34), is
incompatible with the figure. The teeth surely, which are here compared
to the flock, cannot be said to bear twins like the sheep. Those who
attempt to get over this difficulty by referring it to the rows of the
teeth, are, to say the least, guilty of introducing a new subject.

3. Thy mouth is lovely. ‏מִדְבָּר‎ is translated by the Sept., Syriac,
Vulg., Rashi, Ibn Ezra, Rashbam, speech, language; but this is
incompatible with the description here given, which depicts the members
of the body, and not their actions. It is therefore more consonant with
the context to take ‏מִדְבָּר‎ as a poetical expression for the instrument
of speech; not the tongue (Schultens, Kleuker, Döpke), which is kept
within the mouth, and not when put out (‏נָאֲוָה‎) beautiful; but the
mouth itself, (Ewald, Gesenius, De Wette, Umbreit, Rosenmüller, Meier,
Philippson, &c.) The objection of Magnus (who translates it voice), and
of Hitzig (who translates it palate), that the rendering of mouth would
produce tautology, inasmuch as the mouth consists of the lips, and
these have already been described, is gratuitous: for an individual may
have lips like scarlet, and yet not have a lovely mouth. The ‏מ‎ in
‏מִדְבָּר‎, added to the root ‏דָבַר‎, to speak, in order to form the noun,
denotes the instrument with which one speaks: compare ‏מַזְלֵג‎, an
instrument with which to draw out = a fork, from ‏זָלַג‎, to draw out;
‏מַפְתֵּחַ‎, an instrument for opening = a key, from ‏פָּתַח‎, to open, Gesen.
§ 84, 14; Ewald, § 160, 6. This corroborates the rendering we defended.

Like a part of, &c. That is, the rosy cheeks visible beneath the veil
resemble the vermilioned part of the pomegranate. Eastern poets
frequently compare the colour of the cheeks with pomegranates and
apples. Thus in a Persian ode quoted by Sir William Jones: “The
pomegranate brings to my mind the blushes of my beloved, when her
cheeks are covered with a modest resentment:” and Ibn Challecan, as
adduced by Magnus in loco: “Believest thou that the apple can divert my
looks from thee, when I behold thy cheeks?” Ibn Ezra, who is followed
by some modern commentators, explains ‏פֶּלַח‎ by ‏ציץ הרמון האדום‎, the
red flower of the pomegranate; but this is contrary to 2 Kings iv. 39,
where the root ‏פלח‎ is used for dissecting fruit, and 1 Sam. xxx. 12.
Others again take the simile to be between the interior of the
pomegranate, when cut or burst open, and the cheeks; but this being
flat would by no means represent the round form of the coloured cheek
here referred to. The comparison appears natural, striking, and
beautiful, according to Rashi’s explanation of ‏פֶּלַח‎, viz. ‏חצי רמון
שבחוץ שהוא אדום‎, that external half of the pomegranate which is red,
one half of the pomegranate being brown, and the other beautifully
vermilioned, intermixed with yellow and white; and it is to the latter
part to which reference is here made. So the Sept. λέπυρον, the peel,
or the external. Rashbam, Döpke, Hitzig.

4. Thy neck is like, &c. That is, “The erect and bold carriage of thy
neck, decked with ornaments, resembles that high, commanding tower,
adorned with trophies.” Though the text supplies us with no clue for
finding out what tower this was, yet the comparison implies that it
must have been one well known and celebrated for its imposing aspect
and symmetrical proportions. Sandys (iii. 137), who is followed by
others, identifies this tower with some ruins still found in the
uttermost angle of Mount Zion, which bears that name. ‏ תַּלְפִּיּוֹת‎ is
rendered by the Sept. Θαλφιώθ, as a proper name; but there is no place
known by such a name. Aquila has εἰς ἐπάλξεις: so Vulg. cum
propugnaculis, battlements, Sym. ὕψη, heights; but it is difficult to
divine how these renderings are to be made out from the form and
meaning of the word. The Talmud Jerushalmi, Berachoth, section 4, and
Saadias explain it ‏תל שהכול פונים לו‎, an elevation towards which all
look, i.e. by which they are guided. Ibn Ezra seems to favour the view
that ‏לְתַלְפִּיּוֹת‎ is a compound of ‏לְתַלוֹת פִּיוֹת‎, for the suspension of
arms. But the Talmudic explanation rests upon the favourite whim of
making a word of every letter. Ibn Ezra’s explanation incurs the
objection that ‏פִּיוֹת‎, by itself, never means swords or arms. Besides,
it is evident that this interpretation owes its origin to the
immediately following clause, ‏אֶלֶף הַמָּגֵן תָּלוּי עָלָיו‎. Gesenius derives it
from the Arabic ‏תָּלַף‎, to destroy; hence ‏תַּלְפִּי‎, destructive, deadly;
poetically, for arms. But, apart from the difficulty of making
‏תַּלְפִּיּוֹת‎, even according to this derivation, to mean weapons, according
to this rendering there is no connexion between this clause and the
figure. It is therefore better, with Rashi and Rashbam, to take
‏תַּלְפִּיּוֹת‎ as a contraction for ‏תְּאַלְפִּיּוֹת‎ from the root ‏אָלַף‎, to teach.
The radical ‏א‎ in the feeble verbs ‏פ״א‎, does not unfrequently fall
away: thus ‏וַתַּזְרֵנִי‎, 2 Sam. xxii. 40, for ‏וַתְּאַזְּרֵנִי‎, and in the same
verb, ‏מַלְּפֵנוּ‎ for ‏מְאַלְּפֵנוּ‎, Job xxxv. 11; Gesen. § 68, 2; Ewald, § 54.
‏תַּלְפִּיּוֹת‎ (plur. of ‏תלפית‎, according to the analogy of ‏תַּבְנִיוֹת‎, from
‏תַּבְנִית‎, ‏תַּרְמִיוֹת‎, from ‏תַּרְמִית‎), would therefore signify instruction;
the plural being here used for the abstract, see supra, i. 2. This
derivation is confirmed by the Chald., which periphrases ‏תַּלְפִּיּוֹת‎ by
‏אוּלְפַן דְּאֹורַיְתָא‎, instruction of the law, and bears out the figure, and
yields a beautiful sense. The Shulamite’s neck is not compared to some
common turret, but to that splendid tower which was built for a model,
that, as Rashbam rightly remarks, ‏כל אומנין בנאים מתלמדים ממנו‎, all
architects might learn their designs from it.

A thousand shields, &c. It was customary to adorn the walls of towers
and castles with all sorts of splendid arms, Ezek. xxvii. 11. The
castles of the maritime people, whose conquest is recorded by the
Kouyunjik bas-reliefs, and distinguished by the shields hung round the
walls. Layard’s Nineveh, ii. 296. ‏אֶלֶף‎, thousand stands for a round,
large member, Isa. xxx. 17; lx. 22; Ps. cv. 8; Eccl. vi. 6. ‏כֹּל‎, all
kinds, all sorts, see supra, iii. 6.

5. Thy bosom, &c. The point of comparison is the lovely sight which
these objects present. The gazelles, as we have seen (ii. 7), are the
symbol of beauty. To add however to their native charms, they are
represented here as browzing in pasture-ground abounding with lilies.
To this lovely spectacle, than which nothing could be more beautiful to
an Oriental, her breasts are compared. The explanation which Bochart,
Patrick, Henley, Percy, Good, give of this comparison, viz. “The two
paps rise upon the breast like lilies from the ground; among which, if
we conceive two red kids feeding, that were twins and perfectly alike,
they appeared like the nipples or teats upon the paps, to those that
behold them afar off,” is extravagant.

6. When the day cools, &c. Transported with joy at the sight of her
beloved shepherd, the Shulamite interrupts the praises of her personal
charms, which, on seeing her again, he began to pour forth, by
exclaiming: When the day cools, that is, “this very evening, as soon as
it gets dark, I will quit the royal abode, and go to our beautiful and
open country, to the flowery meads, where are found aromatic plants
growing in abundance.” For an explanation of the first part of this
verse, see ii. 17, also spoken by the Shulamite. That such mountains of
myrrh and hills of frankincense actually existed, is evident from
Florus, Epitome Rerum Rom., lib. iii. c. 6., where Pompey the Great is
said to have passed over Lebanon, and by Damascus, “per nemora illa
odorata, per thuris et balsami sylvas.”

7, 8. Thou art all beautiful, &c. Gladdened with her declaration, the
shepherd, crowning and closing his description in the words, “Thou art
a perfect beauty,” responds, “Thou shalt go with me, I will help thee
to quit these lofty heights, the abode of lions and panthers—the royal
residence; and safely conduct thee to the place whither thou wouldst
go.” Lebanon is the name of a long range of mountains on the north of
Palestine (Deut. ii. 24; Josh. i. 4), consisting of two parallel
chains, which run from south-west to north-east. Though the Scriptures
have only one name, viz. Lebanon, for both these chains, yet the
present inhabitants of that country, as well as modern Travellers, have
found it convenient to call the westermost chain, facing the
Mediterranean,—Lebanon; and the eastern one, facing the plain of
Damascus,—Anti-Libanus, from its being at Tyre, parallel with and
opposite to the Syrian Lebanon. Amana, ‏אֲמָנָה‎, is the name of the
southern part of Anti-Libanus, at the root of which, it is supposed,
issues the river of the same name; see 2 Kings v. 12. Hermon, ‏חֶרְמֹון‎,
is the name of the highest summit of a chain at the northernmost
boundary of Palestine, and belongs also to Anti-Libanus (Josh. xi. 17;
xiii. 5), and is now identified with Jebel-el-Sheikh. It consists of
several mountains, viz. Sirion, ‏שִׁרְיוֹן‎, Shenir, ‏שְׁנִיר‎, and Sion,
‏שִׂיאֹן‎; whence its plural name ‏חֶרְבוֹנִים‎, see Fürst, Lexicon, s.v.
Lebanon, Amana, Shenir and Hermon are here not intended to denote
various parts of the range of mountains, but are merely different names
of the royal residence. The word ‏תַּשׁוּרִי‎ is well rendered by the Sept.,
Syriac, &c., thou shalt go; comp. Isa. lvii. 9. The Common Version look
is incompatible with the context and parallelism. Surely no one would
invite his beloved to go with him to dangerous mountain-tops, to take a
view of the country! Persons are generally anxious to avoid perilous
places. The lions and panthers denote the king and his courtiers, Ezek.
xix. 7; xxii. 25; Nahum ii. 12. ‏כָּלָה‎, rendered spouse in the
Authorized Version, is taken by some to denote a newly-married woman.
The word however only means betrothed = a female under an engagement to
marry. This is the sense in which the Jews still use the expression.
The Sept., which is followed by the Vulg. and Luther, translates ‏אִתִּי‎,
δεῦρο, mistaking it for ‏אֲתִי‎, the imp. of ‏אָתָּה‎, to come. The Vulg.
rendering of ‏תָּשׁוּרִי‎ by coronaberis, evidently savours of allegorism.
For the Septuagint’s rendering of ‏אֲמָנָה‎, by πίστις, see Introduction,
p. 21.

9. Thou hast put heart into me, &c. This extraordinary amount of
strength and courage which he feels, to enable him to rescue her from
the abode of the lion, and to lead her safely home, has been infused
into his heart, he says, by the sight of his beloved one. So the
Anonymous Oxford Manuscript, ‏שבשביל אהבתך נתגברתי ונבוא לי לב חדש שיש
לי כח ללחם עם האריות והנמרים‎. As the Piel has sometimes an intensive,
and sometimes a privative meaning (see Gesen. § 52, 2; Ewald, § 120), a
difference of opinion exists as to the signification of ‏לִבֵּב‎ here. The
Sept. has ἐκκαρδίωσας ἡμᾶς, thou hast unhearted us; the Vulg.
Vulnerasti cor meum; Ibn Ezra, ‏לקחת לבי‎, thou hast taken away my
heart; Gesenius, De Wette, &c. adopt this rendering. Against this
however it is urged, that it is incompatible with the context. The
beloved here accounts for his extraordinary strength and courage, which
would enable him to rescue his beloved one from her critical position;
and to say, “Thou hast deprived me of all heart,” would be a positive
contradiction. To be in such an unusually courageous frame, the
individual must have been full of heart, and not disheartened. Hence
Herder, Ewald, Döpke, Lee, Meier, &c., translate ‏לִבַּבְתִּנִי‎, thou hast
put heart into me; thou hast made me bold. This is confirmed by Sym.,
Syriac, Arabic, and Chald. ‏אַחוֹתִי‎, my sister, does not imply that the
betrothed was related to her beloved, but is used as an expression of
endearment, Prov. vii. 14; Tobit vii. 12; the Apoc. Esth. xv. 8, and
soror in Latin. Good’s rendering of ‏אַחֹתִי כַלָּה‎ by my sister-spouse, and
his remark that the pronoun “my” between the two substantives, being a
useless interpretation of the versions, are gratuitous. ‏כָּלָּה‎ has no
suffix here, not because it is to be joined with ‏אֲחֹתי‎, but because
this word, like ‏אָב‎ in Chald., never takes the suffix 1 pers.; and
versions therefore made in languages whose idioms allow of the suffix
are right in so expressing it.

With one of thine eyes, &c. It is customary with Eastern women to
unveil one of their eyes in conversation, in which case a part of their
neck ornaments becomes also visible. Niebuhr, Travels in Arabia, i.
262; see Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. Art. Veil, figure 536, and infra,
viii. 9. The Anonymous MS., however, explains ‏בְּאֶחַד מֵעֵינַיִךְ‎ by ‏בהבטה
אחת שאת מבטת בי באחד מעיניך‎, one look of thine eyes. The rendering at
once (Hodgson, Good) is incongruous. The attempt of the Masorites to
substitute ‏בַּאַחַת‎, fem., for ‏בְּאֶחַד‎, mas., having evidently arisen from
their anxiety to avoid the apparent incongruity of coupling a masculine
numeral with a feminine noun, is unnecessary. The true solution lies in
the fact, that members of the human body, although usually feminine,
are most of them employed occasionally as masculine. Job xxi. 20; Zech.
iv. 10; and infra, vi. 5; Gesen. § 107, 4 b; Ewald, § 174 d. ‏עֲנָקָ‎ is
not look (Vulg.), nor turn (Percy, Good), nor stone (Ewald, Magnus),
but chain. This is evident from Judg. viii. 26, and Prov. i. 9, the
only two passages where this word occurs again (except as a proper
name), and is translated by the Sept. (Judg. and Prov.) κλοιός,
necklace, Aquila, περιτραχήλιος, πλόκαμος, neckband, neck-work; Sym.
κλοιός, ὁρμίσκος, necklace; Vulg. (Judg. and Prov.) torques. So Ibn
Ezra, ‏מני חלי קשוריﬦ על הצואר‎, a kind of ornamental band, tied round
the neck, Rashi, Rashbam, Gesenius, De Wette, Döpke, Lee, Philippson,
Meier, Hengstenberg, &c. The objection urged by Hitzig, that an
inanimate ornament could not effect such great things, is obviated by a
reference to the Book of Judith, xvi. 9, where we are informed that the
fair one succeeded in captivating even the savage Holofernes with her
sandals: τὸ σανδάλιον αὐτῆς ἥρπασεν ὀφθαλμὸν αὐτοῦ. Besides, the
meaning here is, that the slightest view of her is sufficient to
inspire him with vigour and courage. The termination ‏–וֹן‎ in ‏צַּוָּרוֹן‎,
like ‏וּן‎, in Syriac, forms the diminutive; and, like diminutives in
other languages, is expressive of affection; Gesen. § 86, 2, 4; Ewald,
5, 167 a. The plur. termination ‏–ָיִךְ‎ in ‏מִצֲוְּרֹנָיִךְ‎, is to be accounted
for on the score that the Hebrews sometimes use plural forms for
certain members of the body. Comp. ‏פָּנִיﬦ‎, face, Gesen. § 108, 2 a;
Ewald, § 178 a.

10. How sweet is thy love, &c. Here the lover tells his loved one why
the sight of her is so animating and emboldening. For the comparison of
love with wine, see i. 2, 3. The Sept., which is followed by the
Syriac, Vulg., Arabic, and Luther, has here again ‏דַדֶּיךָ‎, thy breasts;
but see i. 2. The Sept. has also ὀσμὴ ἱματίων σου, ‏וְרֵיחַ שִׂמְלֹתַיִךְ‎, for
‏וְרֵיחַ שְׁמָנַיִךְ‎, evidently taken from the following verse.

11. Thy lips, O my betrothed, &c. Every word which falls from her lips
is like a drop from the honeycomb. This comparison is used in other
parts of Scripture, and by the Greeks and Romans. Thus Prov. v. 3:—


        “The harlot’s lips distil honey,
        And her palate is smoother than oil.”


Theocrit. Idyl. xx. 26:—


        τὸ στόμα καὶ πακτᾶς γλυκερώτερον· ἐκ στομάτων δὲ
        ἔῤῥεέ μοι φωνὰ γλυκερωτέρα ἢ μέλι κήρω.

        “More sweet my lips than milk in luscious rills,
        Lips, whence pure honey, as I speak, distils.”


Also Idyl. i. 146, 8, 82; Homer, Iliad, i. 249; Hor. Epist. i. 19, 44.
That we are to understand by distilling honey, “lovely words,” and not
saliva oris osculantis, is evident from Prov. xvi. 24, where pleasant
words are compared to a honeycomb, and the passage already quoted, just
as slanderous words are represented as poisons, Ps. cxl. 3.

And the odour of thy garments, &c. The Orientals were in the habit of
perfuming their clothes with aromatics. Thus we are told that the
garments of Jacob emitted a pleasant smell, Gen. xxviii. 27; Ps. xlv.
9; Rosenmüller, Orient. i. 122. In consequence of the odoriferous trees
which abounded on it, Lebanon became proverbial for fragrance. Hence
the prophet Hosea (xiv. 7), describing the prosperous state of
repenting Israel, says ‏וְרֵיחַ לוֹ כַּלְבַנוֹן‎, and his odour shall be as that
of Lebanon. This passage is sufficient to show the error of the Vulg.
in rendering ‏כְּרֵיחַ לְבָנוֹן‎ by sicut odor thuris, as if it were ‏כְּרֵיחַ
לְבוֹנָה‎. The perfumed attire which the Shulamite had on, and which the
shepherd here praises, is evidently not the humble clothes which she
had brought with her, but some splendid apparel recently given to her
by the king.

12. A closed garden, &c. The trees of Lebanon, referred to at the end
of the last verse, suggested this beautiful metaphor of a garden, under
which the shepherd describes the unsullied purity and chastity of the
Shulamite. Gardens in the East were generally hedged or walled in, to
prevent the intrusion of strangers (Isa. v. 5; Joseph. De Bell. Jud.
vii.). From this arose the epithet, “closed garden,” for a virtuous
woman, shut up against every attempt to alienate her affections. The
contrary figure is used in viii. 9; there accessibility is described as
“a door,” i.e. open to seduction.

A sealed fountain, &c. Another metaphor to express the same idea. The
scarcity of water in arid countries renders fountains very valuable. To
secure them against the encroachment of strangers, the proprietors
formerly fastened their fountains with some ligament, and the
impression of a seal upon clay, which would quickly harden in the sun,
that would soon dissolve wax. This mode of rendering pits safe is found
in Dan. vi. 18; Matt. xxvii. 66. A fountain sealed in this manner
indicated that it was private property. Hence its metaphorical use, to
represent chastity as an inaccessible fountain. It is better, with the
Sept., Syriac, Arabic, Chald., Vulg., upwards of fifty of Kennicott’s
MSS., and many modern commentators, to read ‏גַּן‎, instead of ‏גַּל‎. This
is confirmed by the intensive phraseology of the shepherd, used in his
addresses, which is produced by a repetition of the same words. Comp.
supra, vv. 8, 9.

13. Thy shoots, &c. Having compared his loved one to a garden, the
shepherd is anxious to show that the one she resembled is not of an
ordinary character. It is an orchard full of the most costly trees, and
producing the most delicious fruit. ‏שְׁלָחַיִךְ‎, well rendered by the Sept.
ἀποστολαί σου: and Kimchi, ‏התפשטות‎, thy shoots, branches (Gen. xlix.
21; Ps. lxxx. 12) is figuratively used for the members of the body, and
not for “the children who shall spring from her,” as Hodgson supposes.
‏פַּרְדֵּס‎, found elsewhere only Eccl. ii. 5; Neh. ii. 8, has been derived
by some from the Persian, and by others from the Sanscrit. There is no
necessity, however, for seeking its etymology in other languages. The
Hebrews, who had gardens at so early a period, would surely not borrow
names for them from other nations. ‏פַּרְדֵּס‎, according to the analogy of
the quadriliteral ‏פַּרְשֵׁז‎, is a compound of ‏פָּרַד‎, to divide, and ‏פָּרַס‎,
to separate, to enclose; hence a protected, an enclosed place, a
garden. This is corroborated by the fact that ‏גַּן‎, a garden, is also
derived from a root (‏גָּנַן‎), which means to separate, to enclose.
Compare also the German and English, Gärten, garden, and Saalschütz,
Archäologie der Hebräer, vol. i. p. 117. And like many other Hebrew
expressions, this word was adopted in other languages. ‏רִמּוֹנִים‎,
pomegranate-trees: the Hebrews frequently use the same expression to
denote the tree and its fruit, see supra, ii. 3. ‏פְּרִי מְגָדִים‎, i.q.
‏פִּרְיֵיְ מֶגָד‎, precious fruits: when a compound idea is to be expressed in
the plural, the governed noun only is often put in the plural form;
e.g. ‏בֵּית אָבוֹת‎, ancestral houses, Numb. i. 2; Gesen. § 108, 3. The
precious fruits are those of the pomegranate-tree. The words ‏כְּפָרִים עִם
נְרָדִים‎, are still genitives to ‏פַּרְדֵּס‎. For ‏כֹּפֶר‎, and ‏נֵרְדְּ‎, see supra,
i. 12, 13.

14. Nard and crocus, &c. Both the ancient versions and modern
commentators generally agree that by the word ‏כַּרְכֹּﬦ‎, which occurs only
here, the well-known saffron plant is meant. Calamus (‏קָנֶה‎, reed, also
written ‏קְנֵה בשֵֹׁם‎ and ‏קָנֶה הַטּוֹב‎, sweet calamus, Exod. xxx. 23; Jer.
vi. 20, κάλαμος ἀρωματικός, Calamus odoratus), was well known and
highly prized among the ancients, and was imported to Palestine from
India (Jer. vi. 20; xxvii. 19); it was, however, also found in the
valley of Mount Lebanon, (Polyb. v. 46; Strabo, xvi. 4). It has a
reed-like stem, of a tawny colour, much jointed, breaking into
splinters, and its hollow reed filled with pitch, like the web of a
spider. The best, which, according to Pliny (Hist. Nat. xii. 12 or 48),
grows in Arabia, diffuses around a very agreeable odour, and is soft to
the touch (see Rosenmüller, Bib. Bot.; Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto,
Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v.) Cinnamon (‏קִנָּמוֹן‎, κίναμον, Laurus cinnamomum),
indigenous to Ceylon in the East Indies, and is called by the natives
Karonda-gouhah; it is now, however, also cultivated on the Malabar
coast, in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo, in China and Cochin-China.
The cinnamon-tree, which grows on the coast, is generally about twenty
or thirty feet high, and reaches a still greater height in groves: it
is adorned with numerous boughs, bearing oval and laurel-like leaves,
of a scarlet colour when young, but changing to bright green, and
growing to the length of from four to six inches when matured, and
putting forth whitish blossoms, which ripen into fruit, resembling
those of the juniper-tree in June: the fruit, though possessing neither
the smell nor the taste of the cinnamon, when boiled secretes an oil,
which, after cooling, becomes hard, white, and fragrant. The wood
itself, which is white, inodorous, and soft as fir, is used for a
variety of purposes. It is the rind which, when peeled off and dried in
the sun, yields the much-valued cinnamon. (See Rosenmüller, Bibl. Bot.;
Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v.) Aloe (‏אָהָל‎, Ἀλοή.
John xix. 39. ἀγάλλοχον, ξυλαλοή, arbor alois), a tree which grows in
India and the Moluccas, the wood of which is highly aromatic. The stem
of this tree is as thick as a man’s thigh; the top is adorned with a
bunch of thick and indented leaves, broad below, and narrowing
gradually towards the point, and are about four feet long: its
blossoms—which are red, intermixed with yellow, and double like a
pink—yield the pod, producing a red and white fruit, about the size of
a pea. This tree, in consequence of its singularly beautiful appearance
and odoriferous wood, which is used as a perfume, is very gratifying
both to the sight and smell, and is held by the Indians in sacred
veneration. (See Rosenmüller, Bib. Bot.; Winer, Bib. Dict. s.v.) ‏רֹאשׁ‎,
head metaph., chief, most excellent. Exod. xxx. 23; Ps. cxxxvii. 6;
Ezek. xxvii. 22.

15. With a garden-fountain, &c. To finish the picture of this charming
garden, the shepherd introduces into it fountains, streams, rills, and
cooling breezes, to rouse and waft the balmy fragrance through its
delightful retreats. The fact that the Shulamite has been called a
sealed fountain proves that this verse is not descriptive of her. For
it would be contradictory to call her in one verse a sealed fountain,
and in the other a stream flowing from Lebanon, i.e. an open stream.
‏מַעְיַן גַּנִּים‎ a fountain of gardens, i.e. a fountain belonging to
gardens, usually found in gardens to irrigate them. ‏נֹזְליִם‎, a part.
noun plur., denoting flowing streams. The ‏מִן‎ indicates the place
whence these streams issue. ‏מַיִם חַיִּים‎ living water, i.e. perennial;
waters, gushing forth from fountains, or moving along, appear as if
they were living; whilst those in a stagnant condition seem dead. Gen.
xxvi. 19; Jer. ii. 13; Zech. xiv. 8; see also ὕδωρ ζῶν, Rev. vii. 17,
and flumen vivum, Virg. Æn. ii. 719.

16. Arise, O north wind! These are still the words of the shepherd,
who, to complete the picture, invokes the gentle breezes to perflate
this paradise. Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, Williams, Good, Ewald, Delitzsch,
Philippson, &c., take this clause to begin her reply; but this is
incompatible with the figure. She herself, and not anything separate,
has been described as this charming garden. She could, therefore, not
say “blow through MY garden” (‏גַנִּי‎), which would imply that this
garden of hers was something apart from her person. Moreover, the
expression ‏גַנּוֹ‎, his garden, which she uses, shows that ‏גַנִּי‎, my
garden, is spoken by him. So Rashi, Döpke, Magnus, Hitzig, &c. That the
south and north winds are merely poetical designations for a gale
generally, without any particular reference to the peculiarities of the
wind when blowing from these respective regions is evident from a
comparison of Numb. xi. 31 with Ps. lxxviii. 26. This does away with
the conflicting conjectures which have been hazarded, to account for
the invocation of the wind from these opposite quarters of the earth.
‏צָפוֹן‎ and ‏תֵּימָן‎, prop. the north and southern quarters, are
poetically used, ‏רוּחַ צָפוֹן‎, and ‏רוּחַ תֵּימָן‎, the north and south wind.
Ps. lxviii. 26. ‏בְּשָׂמִים‎, spices, here their odours.

Let my beloved come, &c. The Shulamite, continuing this beautiful
apostrophe, responds: “If my person really resembles such a paradise,
this garden is yours; yours are all its productions.” ‏פְּרִי מְגָדָיו‎,
literally the fruit of his deliciousness, i.e. his delicious fruit.
When a compound idea is expressed by one noun followed by another in
the genitive, a suffix which refers to this whole idea is sometimes
appended to the second of the two nouns. Comp. ‏אֱלִילֵי כַּסְפּוֹ‎, his silver
idols, Isa. ii. 20; Gesen. § 129, b; Ewald, § 291, b; ‏גַן‎ being of a
common gender, the suffix in ‏מְגָדָיו‎ may either refer to garden, or to
beloved; it is more in keeping with the construction to refer it to the
beloved, just as the suffix in ‏גַּנְּוֹ‎ refers to him. The fruit is the
beloved’s because the garden is his, and therefore he may enjoy it.

1. I am coming into my garden, &c. The shepherd, as he embraces his
beloved, expresses his unbounded delight in her charms. The perfect
forms, ‏בָּאתִי שָׁתִיתִי‎, ‏אָכַלְתִּי‎, ‏אָרִתִי‎, are used for the present, Gesen.
§ 126.

Eat, O friends, &c. Some sympathizing court ladies, at a distance,
seeing the mutual happiness of the lovers, urge them to take their fill
of delight. The explanation of Rashbam and others, that this address is
to the companions of the beloved to partake of a friendly meal; or, as
others will have it, that it is an invitation to the marriage feast, is
against the context. The expression ‏אִכְלוּ‎, eat ye, must be taken in
the same sense as ‏אָכַלְתִי‎, I eat; and it would be most incongruous to
suppose that the beloved, who enjoys the charms of his loved one, would
call on his friends to do the same. Dr. Geddes, who is followed by Dr.
Good, alters the text into ‏אכל רעי שת ושכיר דודי‎, Eat, O my friend!
drink, yea, drink abundantly, O my beloved! and puts it into the mouth
of the Shulamite; thus making it an answer to what the beloved said in
the preceding clause. But such conjectural emendations ought to be
repudiated. It is most in accordance with the context to take these
words as an epiphonema of some sympathizing court ladies. The
parallelism and the accents require us to take ‏דוֹדִים‎ as a concrete,
synonymous with ‏רֵעִים‎, friends; so the Sept., Vulg., Syr., Rashbam,
Ibn Ezra, Rashi, Mendelssohn, &c.

2. I was sleeping, &c. The sympathies manifested by some of the court
ladies for the Shulamite, at the close of the last section, encourage
her to relate to them a dream which she recently had. The purpose of
this narration is the description of the shepherd to which it leads,
and which is necessary to the completion of the whole drama. ‏יְשֵׁנָה‎,
like the participle form generally, may be used to express all the
relations of time. Comp. ‏כִּי כֻלָּם יְשֵׁנִים‎, for all were sleeping, 1 Sam.
xxvi. 12; 1 Kings iii. 20. Gesen. § 134, 1; Ewald, § 306 d. ‏לֵב‎,
heart, here the seat of thought. The Hebrews regarded the heart, not
only as the seat of the passions, but also of the intellectual
faculties of the mind. The whole clause is merely another way of saying
‏בַּחֲלֹמִי‎, Gen. xli. 17. The circumlocution is chosen in preference to
‏בַּחֲלמִי‎, to indicate that the powers under which the exhausted frame
succumbed, could not keep her mind from dwelling upon the object of her
affections. ‏קֹל‎, hark; vide supra, ii. 8. ‏דֹפֵק‎ is best taken with the
Sept., Syriac, Vulg., and many modern commentators, as a separate
clause, he is knocking. The Sept. adds ἐπὶ τὴν θύραν, at the door,
after ‏דֹפֵק‎, he is knocking.

Open to me, &c. She introduces him speaking. To make his request the
more urgent, he pleads that he had been drenched with dew. The dew
falls so copiously in the East, during certain months, that it
saturates the clothes like rain. See Judges vi. 38; Rosenmüller,
Orient. i. 122; Winer, Bib. Dict. s.v. A similar passage occurs in
Anacreon, iii. 10, where love is represented as standing at night
behind the door, begging for admittance, and pleading the same excuses.


        Ἄνοιγε, φησί
        Βρέφος εἰμί, μὴ φόβησαι
        Βρέχομαι δέ, κἀσέληνον
        Κατὰ νύκτα πεπλάνημαι.

        “‘Fear not,’ said he, with piteous din,
        ‘Pray ope the door and let me in:
        A poor unshelter’d boy am I,
        For help who knows not where to fly:
        Lost in the dark, and with the dews,
        All cold and wet, that midnight brews.’”


Comp. also Propert. i. 16, 23; Ovid Amor. ii. 19, 21. ‏תַמָּתִי‎, my
perfect one, is well explained by Rosenmüller by ‏מוּם אֵין בָּךְ‎, there is
no fault in thee, iv. 7; 2 Sam. xiv. 25.

3. I have put off my tunic; was the answer she gave in her dream.
‏כֻּתֹּנֶת‎, χιτών, tunic, is an inner garment, commonly of linen,
descending to the ankles, which is taken off when one retires. On the
costume of the Hebrews, see Rosenmüller, Orient. ii. 19; Winer, Bib.
Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v.; Saalschütz, Archäologie der
Hebräer, vol. i. c. 2.

I have washed my feet, &c. In the East, where people wear sandals,
which protect the soles only, or go barefoot, as in the passage before
us, the feet soon get dirty and parched; it is therefore essential and
refreshing to wash the feet after much walking (Gen. xviii. 4; xix. 2),
or before retiring to rest: remembering this, we can appreciate the
hospitality shown to travellers in providing for the washing of their
feet, Judges xix. 21. On the masculine suffix in ‏אֲטַנְּפַם‎, referring to
the feminine ‏רַגְלַי‎, see iv. 9.

4. My beloved withdrew his hand, &c. Hearing her excuses for not
getting up, he at last grew weary and ceased knocking, which
immediately caused her uneasiness. The words ‏שָׁלַח יָדוֹ מִן הַחוֹר‎ are
better translated, he sent away his hand from the hole = withdrew; so
the Sept. and Rashbam, ‏ההזירה לעצמו מן החור בדלת‎, he took his hand
back from the hole in the door. The expression ‏מֵעִים‎, like ‏רַחֲמִים‎,
has not the modern sense of bowels, which is restricted to the lower
viscera, but denotes, like τὰ σπλάγχνα in Greek, the upper viscera,
comprising the heart, lungs, liver, &c. Hence it is used for the heart
alone as the seat of passion, Isa. lxiii. 15; Jer. xxxi. 20; and for
‏נֶפֶשׁ‎, soul, Job xxx. 27; Ps. xl. 9. ‏הָמָה‎, to hum, to make a noise,
which is frequently used for the roaring produced by the waves of the
troubled sea (Isa. li. 15; Ps. xlvi. 4; Jer. v. 22), is employed to
denote the motion of an agitated heart. With upwards of fifty MSS. and
several editions we read ‏עָלַי‎, in me, instead of ‏עָלָיו‎, to him; the
phrase thus exactly corresponds to ‏תֶּהֱמִי נַפְשִׁי עָלָי‎, Ps. xlii. 6, 12.

5. My hands dropped with myrrh, &c. Alarmed at his ceasing to knock,
she flew at once to open the door, and in trying to unfasten it, her
hands came in contact with the liquid myrrh which her beloved had
poured upon the bolts, and which dropped from her fingers. So Immanuel,
‏כי שרצתי לפתח לדודי ונגעתי בידי במקום אשר נגע בו דודי כששלח ידו מן
החור נתבשמו ידי וקבלו מן הריח שהיה בידי דודי עד שעבור‎ Lovers, in
ancient times, whilst suing for admission, used to ornament the door
with wreaths, and perfume it with aromatics. Thus Lucretius, iv. 1171,


        At lacrimans exclusus amator limina sæpe
        Floribus, et sertis operit, posteisque superbos
        Unguit amaracino, et foribus miser oscula figit.

        “Then, too, the wretched lover oft abroad
        Bars she, who at her gate loud weeping stands,
        Kissing the walls that clasp her; with perfumes
        Bathing the splendid portals, and around
        Scattering rich wreaths and odoriferous flowers.”


Comp. also Tibul. i. 2, 14. So Herder, Kleuker, Ewald, Döpke,
Rosenmüller, Philippson, &c.; Rashbam however is of opinion that the
liquid myrrh which distilled from the Shulamite’s hand, was the perfume
with which she had anointed herself after washing. Whilst Percy
supposes that “she got up in such haste, that she spilt upon her hand
the vessel of liquid myrrh, which she had brought to anoint and refresh
his head, after having been exposed to the inclemencies of the night.”
‏מוֹר עֹבֵר‎, liquid myrrh, see i. 2; and not, as Le Clerc erroneously
supposes, current myrrh, that kind of myrrh which is most passable in
traffic. The Vulg. has, Et digiti mei pleni myrrha probatissima,
evidently mistaking the prep. ‏עַל‎ for ‏מָלְאוּ‎, and takes the words
‏כַּפּוֹת הַמַּנְעוּל‎ over to the following verse, Pessulum ostii mei aperui
dilecto meo.

6. My beloved had withdrawn, &c. To her great grief she found, when
opening, that her beloved had gone. The asyndeton ‏חָמַק עָבַר‎ is very
expressive, and the use of the two synonymous terms strengthens the
sense. This figure, which is effected by the omission of the
conjunctive particle, is used in animated descriptions, both by sacred
and profane writers. Comp. Σιώπα, πεφίμωσο, Mark iv, 39. Winer, New
Testament Gram. § 66, 4. The phrase ‏יָצָא נֶפֶשׁ‎, properly denoting the
departure of the soul from the body, (Gesen. xxxv. 18; Ps. cxlvi. 4,)
like ‏יָצָא לֵב‎, is used to express the momentary loss of the senses,
i.e. to faint. ‏בְּדַבְּרוֹ‎, in his speaking, i.e. when he had spoken of it,
(Judg. viii. 3; 1 Sam. xvii. 28), i.e. of his going away: so Rashi,
‏שאמר לא אבא אל ביתך כי מתחילה לא אבית לפתוח‎, “Because he said I will
not now enter thy house, for thou didst at first refuse to open me,”
and Immanuel, ‏נפשי יצאה בדברו אלי הנני הולך לדרכי אחרי שלא תפתחתי
הדלת‎. “My soul departed when he told me, Now I am going away, because
thou wouldst not open me the door.” We must employ a finite verb with a
conjunction to express in English the Hebrew construction of the
infinitive with a preposition, and the relation of time must be
gathered from the connection, Gesen. § 132, 2, 3.

7. The watchmen who patrol the city, &c. That the seeking and calling
mentioned in the last verse were not confined to the door, is evident
from this verse. ‏פְצָעוּנִי‎, ‏הִכּוּנִי‎ are again an asyndeton. ‏רָדִיד‎,
which occurs only once more, Is. iii. 23, is a kind of veil-garment,
which Oriental ladies still wear, and denotes more properly an out-door
cloak. See Schroeder, Vestit. Mul. p. 368; Gesen. on Isa. iii. 23;
Winer, Bib. Dict. s.v.; Saalschütz, Archäologie der Hebräer, vol. i. p.
28.

8. I adjure you, &c. Having mentioned the indifference with which she
had treated her beloved, the Shulamite is anxious to impress upon the
court-ladies that this was in a dream, and that in reality, so far from
her affections being abated, she was as dotingly attached to him as
ever; and begs of them, if they should see him, to tell him so. For the
masculine termination in ‏תִּמְצְאוּ אֶתְכֶם‎ and ‏תַּגִּידוּ‎, see ii. 7. We must
supply ‏הַגִּידוּ לוֹ‎, tell him, after ‏מַה תַּגִּיודוּ לוֹ‎, what will you tell
him? The omission is designedly made, to give animation to the request.
The emendation proposed by Houbigant, to read ‏הגידנו‎, instead of
‏חגידו‎, is gratuitous, like all his emendations. The Sept. adds ἐν
ταῖς δυνάμεσιν καὶ ἐν ταῖς ἰσχύσεσιν τοῦ ἀγροῦ, “by the powers, and by
the virtues of the field,” the false rendering of ‏בִּצְבָאוֹת אוֹ בְּאַיְלוֹת
הַשָּׂדֶה‎, from the preceding formula of adjuration.

9. What is thy beloved, &c. The great solicitude manifested by the
Shulamite for her beloved, induces the court ladies to ask what
peculiar attractions there were in him more than in an ordinary lover,
to cause such an unusual manifestation of feeling, and thus an
opportunity is afforded her to give a description of him. It is evident
from this question of the court ladies that Solomon is not the beloved
of whom the Shulamite has been speaking in the preceding verses. For
surely these court ladies knew the aspect and character of Solomon
better than the Shulamite. This is, moreover, established beyond doubt
from ch. vi. 2, 3, where the damsel, at the end of the description,
designedly states that the object of her delineation and attachment, is
the shepherd. The particle ‏מִן‎, prefixed to ‏דוֹד‎, with which the
comparison is made, expresses the comparative, Gesen. § 191, 1. For
‏הַיָּפָה בַּנָּשִׁים‎, see i. 8, and for the form ‏הִשְׁבַּעְתָּנוּ‎, Ewald, § 249, d.

10. My beloved is white, &c. The Shulamite answers this question by
giving a very graphic description of her beloved. The colour of his
countenance and body is such a beautiful mingling of white and red as
is seldom seen, and by which he is distinguished above thousands. A
similar description is found in Virg. Æn. xii. 65, seq.


        Flagrantes perfusa genas: cui plurimus ignem
        Subjecit rubor, et calefacta per ora cucurrit.
        Indum sanguineo veluti violaverit ostro,
        Si quis ebur, aut mixta rubent ubi lilia multâ
        Alba rosâ; tales virgo dabat ore colores.

        “At this a flood of tears Lavinia shed;
        A crimson blush her beauteous face o’erspread.
        Varying her cheeks by turns with white and red.
        The driving colours, never at a stay,
        Run here and there, and flush and fade away.
        Delightful change! thus Indian ivory shows,
        Which, with the bordering paint of purple glows;
        Or lilies damask by the neighbouring rose.”


Comp. also Ovid. Am. ii.; Eleg. v. 39; Hor. Od. i. 13, v. 2; iv. 10; v.
4; Tibul. Eleg. III, 4; vv. 29, 30. ‏צַח‎, bright, white; compare Lam.
iv. 7, where it stands in parallelism with ‏זַךְ‎, clear; from the same
passage we also see that the predicates ‏צַח‎, white, and ‏אָדַם‎, red,
are not restricted to the countenance, but refer to all the parts of
the body which the Oriental costume left exposed, to the carnation as
it were of the picture. ‏דָּגוּל‎ denom. from ‏דָּגֶל‎, banner; prop. to be
furnished with a banner, i.e. his singular beauty renders him as
distinguished above multitudes, just as a standard-bearer is marked
above all other soldiers. ‏מִן‎, more, above, vide supra, ver. 9, ‏רְבָבָה‎
indefinitely for a large number, see Gesen. xxiv. 60.

11. His head is as pure gold. That is of consummate excellency. Having
characterized his whole person as charming, the Shulamite describes the
beauty of the individual parts of his body, and begins with his head.
Gold is frequently used, both in Scripture and in profane writers, to
denote consummate excellency and beauty. Thus the illustrious
personages are called gold and fine gold in Lam. iv. 1; and Theocritus
(Idyl. iii. 28.) calls the beautiful Helen golden. The words ‏כֶּתֶם פָּז‎
are variously rendered. The Sept. has χρυσίου καιφάζ, gold of Cephaz,
Aquila and Sym. λίθεα τοῦ χρυσίου, so the Syriac ܒܐܦܷܐ ܕܕܰܗܒܳܐ‎, a
precious stone of gold. The Chald. has ‏דְהַב טָב‎; so the Vulg. aurum
optimum. The Rabbins too vary in their explanations of these words. Ibn
Ezra takes ‏כֶּתֶם‎ to be a diadem, and ‏פָּז‎, precious stones. Rashi
indefinitely ‏סגולת מלכים‎, choice things, which kings treasure up.
Rashbam explains ‏כָּתֶם‎ by a heap of gold, and ‏פָּז‎ by ‏זהב מופז‎, and
says it is called ‏פָּז‎, “because its colour is like pearl.” The
majority of modern commentators, after the Sept., Vulg., Chald., take
‏כֶּתֶם‎ as a poetical expression for gold, and derive it from ‏כָּתַם‎, to
hide, to conceal; like ‏סְגוֹר‎, gold (Job. xxviii. 15), from ‏סָגַר‎, to
shut up, to conceal, because precious metals are generally kept shut up
or concealed. This meaning and derivation of the word are supported by
the fact that treasures and precious things are generally expressed in
Hebrew by words whose roots signify to conceal; comp. ‏אוֹצָר‎, a
treasure (1 Kings vii. 51; xiv. 26), from ‏אָצַר‎, to shut up; ‏מַטְמוֹן‎, a
treasure, gold (Isa. liv. 2; Prov. ii. 4), from ‏טָמַן‎, to hide; ‏צָפוּן‎,
riches (Job xx. 26), from ‏צָפַן‎, to conceal. As for ‏פָּז‎, it is
translated by some purified, pure, from ‏פָּזַז‎, to separate, to purify
(Gesenius, &c.); and by others solid, massy, from ‏פָּזַז‎, to be strong,
solid (Rosenmüller, &c.). But ‏פָּז‎ never occurs as an adjective to
‏כֶּתֶם‎, or to ‏זָהָב‎ (‏זָהָב מוּפָז‎, 1 Kings x. 18, is a contraction of ‏זָהָב
מְאוּפָז‎, comp. Jer. x. 9); the word itself invariably means gold (see
Job xxvii. 17; Ps. xix. 11; xxi. 4; cxix. 27; Prov. viii. 19; Cant. v.
15; Isa. xiii. 12; Lam. iv. 2.); and accordingly ought to be rendered
so here: “thy head is as gold, gold.” As this, however, would produce
tautology, it is therefore best to take ‏פָּז‎ as a contraction of ‏אוּפָז‎
(a variation of ‏אוֹפּיר‎; see Gesenius, s.v.; Henderson on Jer. x. 9,
and Stuart on Dan. x. 5), with which this word goes together, 1 Kings
x. 18; Jer. x. 9; Dan. x. 5. As ‏אוּפָן‎ = ‏כֶּתֶם אוֹפִיר‎, is regarded as
the best gold; hence the rendering of the Vulg. aurum optimum, and
Chald. ‏דְהַב טָב‎.

Black as the raven, i.e. of the purest and most jet black, so highly
esteemed by the Orientals as well as by the classical writers. Thus
Hafiz, as quoted by Dr. Good:—


        “Thy face is brighter than the cheek of day.
        Blacker thy locks than midnight’s deepest sway.”


And Ossian, Fingal, 2: “Her hair was the wing of the raven.” Comp. also
Anac. xxix.; Ovid. Am. El. xiv. 9. ‏תַּלְהַּלִּים‎, is rendered by the Sept.
ἐλαταί, the young leaves of the palm; so the Vulg. sicut elatæ
palmarum; similarly Gesenius, De Wette, &c., pendulous branches of the
palm; but this signification does not lie in the root ‏תָּלַל‎, which
simply means waving, hanging, or flowing down; hence ‏תַּלְתַּלִּים‎
(according to the analogy of ‏זַלְזַלִּים‎ and ‏סַלְסַלִּים‎, comp. Ewald, § 158,
b) flowing curls, locks.

12. His eyes, like doves, &c. The vivid and black pupils of his eyes,
sparkling forth from the encircling lactean white, in which they are,
as it were, bathing and sitting on the fountain of tears, resemble
doves bathing gaily in pellucid streams. The doves themselves, and not
their eyes, are the point of comparison (vide supra, i. 15, and iv. 1.)
Doves are very fond of bathing, and hence choose for their abode
regions abounding with streams (Boch. Hieroz. ii. 1, c. 2.) The deep
blue or grey dove, reflecting the lustrous dark hue about its neck when
bathing in the limpid brook, suggested this beautiful simile. A similar
figure occurs in the Gitagovinda: “The glances of her eyes played like
a pair of water-birds of azure plumage, that sport near a full-blown
lotos in a pool in the season of dew.” The words ‏רֹחֲצוֹת בֶּחָלָב‎, bathing
in milk, referring to the eyes, are descriptive of the milky white in
which the black pupils of the eyes are, as it were, bathing. ‏עַל מִלֵּאת‎,
on the fulness, also referring to the eyes, correspond to the ‏עַל אֲפִיקֵי
מַיִם‎, by the brooks of water, which are predicated of the doves.
Hodgson’s rendering of ‏יֹשְׁבוֹת עַל מִלֵּאת‎, by “and dwell among the ripe
corn,” is absurd.

13. His cheeks are like beds of balsam, &c. His round cheeks with the
pullulating beard, resemble beds growing aromatic plants. The Sept.,
Arabic, Æth., Chald., read ‏מְגַדִּלוֹת‎, the part. Piel, instead of
‏מִגְדְּלוֹת‎, which many modern commentators follow, but without MS.
authority. The lily here referred to is most probably the crown
imperial, of a deep red colour, whose leaves contain an aqueous
humidity, which gathers itself in the form of pearls, especially at
noon, and distils clear and pellucid drops; see Rosenmüller, Alther,
iv. 138; Winer, Bib. Dict. s.v. There is, however, no necessity for
referring the words “distilling liquid myrrh,” to the lilies. Indeed,
it seems to be more consonant with the context, to take them as
predicated of the lips, expressing the sweetness of his conversation.
Comp. iv. 11.

14. His hands are like, &c. His rounded arms and fingers tipped with
well-shaped nails, as if inlaid with precious stones, resemble golden
cylinders: and his white and smooth body, covered with a delicate blue
vest, resembles polished ivory. ‏גָּלִיל‎ (from ‏גָּלַל‎, to roll), a roller,
a cylinder. Kleuker, Gesenius, Döpke, &c., translate ‏יָדָיו גְּלִילֵי זָהָב
χρυσός, gold, and λίθος, a stone), is of a yellow or gold colour, and
pellucid. Being of a glass lustre, the chrysolite is beautifully chosen
to represent the nails. The words ‏מְמֻלָּאִים בַּתַּרְשִׁישׁ‎ refer to ‏יָדָיו‎. The
expression ‏מֵעִים‎, prop. the internal parts of the human frame (v. 4),
is here used for the external = the body; so Dan. ii. 32. ‏עֶשֶׁת‎ is
taken by most modern commentators to denote something fabricated, or
wrought; an artificial work; thus deducing this sense from the
secondary meaning of ‏עָשַׁת‎, which the Syriac (ܥܰܒܕܳܐ‎, work,) seems to
favour; but this is incompatible with the description here given of the
beloved. The Shulamite, throughout the whole of this delineation,
depicts the splendour and colour of the body as they dazzle the eye,
but makes no reference to the wondrous construction of the frame, which
could have been discerned only by the exercise of the intellect. It is
therefore better, with Ibn Ezra, Kimchi, Rashi, Rashbam, Luther, Auth.
Version, Mendelssohn, Kleuker, Williams, Good, Hengstenberg, &c. to
take ‏עֶשֶׁת‎, from ‏עָשַׁת‎, in its primary meaning, to shine, to be bright,
in the sense of brightness, polish; comp. Jer. v. 28.

Covered with sapphires. These words refer to his body, and describe the
purple tunic covering the snowy white skin. Good, Meier, &c. take it to
describe the blue veins which were seen through his clear snowy skin,
like a sapphire stone through a thin transparent plate of ivory. But
this is against the meaning of ‏מְעֻלֶּפֶת‎, which signifies covered, and
not inlaid; the external covering, and not the internal seen through
the outer cover. Commentators are not agreed whether that which we call
the genuine sapphire, a transparent stone of a beautiful sky-blue
colour, in hardness and value next to the diamond, is meant by ‏סַפִּיר‎;
or the sapphire of the ancients, which, according to Pliny, (Hist. Nat.
xxxvii. 39; Theophrast. De Lapid. 231,) is a stone of a pure blue
colour, and has frequently pebble spots of a golden yellow hue, which
were formerly thought to be really gold, and is evidently our lapis
lazuli, lazure-stone. As the latter does neither suit Job xxviii. 6,
for the lazure-stone is not very precious; nor Exod. xxviii. 18, since
it is too soft to bear engraving, it is more probable that the real
sapphire is meant by ‏סַפִּיר‎ in the Scriptures. This stone is often
found in collections of ancient gems; see Rosenmüller, Bib. Bot. and
Miner.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v. The Syriac, which translates
‏מְעֻלֶּפֶת סַפִּירִים‎ by ܥܰܠ ܡܰܦܚܳܐ ܣܦܻܝܐܳܐ‎, upon the sapphire breathing, must
have had another reading.

15. His legs are like pillars of marble, &c. His white legs, standing
upon beautiful feet, resemble the purest marble columns based upon
golden pedestals. ‏שׁוֹק‎, as Kimchi well explains it, ‏מה שהוא על הרגל
חליל ויגיע עד הברכים‎, is that part of the limb from the knee to the
foot. That ‏אַדְנֵי פָז‎ refers to his feet (Ibn Ezra, Rashbam, Kleuker,
Meier, Hitzig, &c.), and not to his sandals (Good, Williams, &c.), is
evident from ver. 11 and 14, where the head and the hands, the visible
parts of the body, are described as golden; and it is but natural that
the feet, the only remaining exposed parts, should also be described as
golden.

His aspect is like that of Lebanon. Having depicted the single parts of
his body, the Shulamite now joins them together, and presents them in
one whole, the appearance of which impresses the mind with a sense of
beauty and majesty, like that of Lebanon. “That goodly mountain, even
Lebanon” (Deut. iii. 25), being so luxuriant in its vegetation and rich
in scenery, appeared very beautiful and majestic at a distance.
“Lebanon is a noble range of mountains, well worthy of the fame it has
so long maintained. It is cultivated in a wonderful manner, by the help
of terraces, and is still very fertile. We saw on some of its
eminences, more than 2,000 feet high, villages and luxuriant
vegetation; and on some of its peaks, 6,000 feet high, we could discern
tall pines against the clear sky beyond. At first the clouds were on
the lofty summit of the range, but they cleared away, and we saw
Tannin, which is generally regarded as the highest peak of Lebanon.
There is a deep ravine that seems to run up the whole way, and Tannin
rises to the height of 10,000 feet. The rays of the setting sun gave a
splendid tint to the lofty brow of the mountain.”—Mission of Inquiry to
the Jews, p. 240, &c.; comp. also Isa. xxxv. 2; Rosenmüller, Alterth.
i. 2. p. 239; Volney, Travels, i. 293.

He is distinguished as the cedars, i.e., in his stature. The lofty
cedar, towering above all other trees, is easily distinguished from the
rest (Ezek. xxxi. 3–16; Amos ii. 9). A similar comparison occurs in
Theocritus, xviii. 30, as quoted above, i. 9. The Chald., Ewald,
Magnus, Philippson, &c., take ‏בַּחוּר‎ for young man, youth; comp. Ruth
iii. 10; Isa. lxii. 5, “A young man like the cedars;” but the point of
comparison is lost in this case. Besides, we should then expect the
sing. ‏אֶרֶז‎, and not the plur. ‏אֲרָזִים‎. Moreover, 2 Kings xix. 23, and
Jer. xxii. 7, where the same phrase ‏מִבְחַר אֲרָזִים‎ is used, is against
it.

16. His voice is exquisitely sweet, &c. The members, after being
analysed separately, have been viewed as a whole; but the beautiful
person thus described is inanimate, like the splendid marble columns or
the lofty cedars, to which she had compared him. In this verse the
Shulamite represents the charms of his speech; and thus affirms his
whole person, bodily and mentally, as most lovely. “Such,” she
triumphantly exclaims, “is my friend; and now, ye daughters of
Jerusalem, judge for yourselves wherein my beloved is more than another
beloved.” ‏חֵךְ‎, prop. palate, is used for the organ of speech, and
speech itself, Job vi. 30; xxxi. 10; Prov. v. 3. That ‏חֵךְ‎ here does
not mean any part of the body, is evident from the context; for it
would be preposterous to recur to the palate or mouth after the whole
person had been described. ‏מַמְתַּקִּים‎ and ‏מַחֲמַדִּים‎ are abstracts (see i.
2), adjectively used (Gesen. § 106, 1, Rem. 1), to give intensity to
the idea; comp. Gen. i. 2. ‏כֻּלּוֹ‎, his whole person, bodily and
mentally.

1. Whither is thy beloved gone, &c.? The court ladies, moved by this
charming description, inquire of the Shulamite what direction he took,
and offer to seek him. The word ‏הַגִּדִי‎ is omitted after ‏דֹודֵךְ‎, for the
sake of brevity and pathos. For the superlative force of ‏הַיָפָה בַּנָּשִׁים‎,
vide supra, i. 8.

2, 3. My beloved is gone down into his garden, &c. The Shulamite,
knowing that the court ladies are anxious to induce her to transfer her
affections to the king, replies in a vague manner, that he is gone to
his garden, he is not lost, nor has her affection to him abated, though
they are now separated, nor does she fear that his love for her is
diminished. This incontestably proves that the object of the damsel’s
affection, of whom she gave a description in the preceding, is not the
king, but, as she herself tells us here most unequivocally, a shepherd.
For ver. 3, comp. chap. ii. 16.

4. Graceful art thou, O my love, &c. Just as before (i. 9), Solomon
made his appearance as soon as the Shulamite inquired after her
beloved, so here he comes forward again when she speaks of her absent
lover; thus endeavouring to show his own attachment to her. He
addresses her, as before, in the most flattering terms: “Thou art as
graceful as the delectable Tirzah, as charming as the delightful
Jerusalem, as striking and conquering as an imposing army in full
battle array.” Tirzah was the royal residence of the kings of Israel
after the revolt of Rehoboam, and retained that distinction till the
time of Omri, who built Samaria (1 Kings x. 15–21; xvi. 14; 2 Kings xv.
4). It was a city of fascinating appearance, as its name, ‏תִּרְצָה‎,
delightful, indicates; and hence yielded a very flattering comparison.
The Sept. takes ‏תִּרְצָה‎ as an appellative, ὡς εὐδοκία; so Aquila, κατ’
εὐδοκίαν, Sym. εὐδοκήτη, Syriac, ܐܝܰܟ ܨܶܒܝܳܢܳܐ‎ The Chald. paraphrases it
‏בִּזְמַן דצְבוּתֵךְ‎, in the time of thy willingness, and Rashi inclines to
it; the Vulg. has suavis et decora. But there can be no doubt, as Ibn
Ezra, Rashbam, and all modern commentators take it, that it is a proper
name, Tirzah, the capital of Jeroboam’s kingdom. It may be that the
ancient versions resorted to the expediency of taking ‏תִּרְצָה‎ as an
appellative, because they wished to avoid the contrast of the two
capitals, since this would speak against Solomon being the author of
this book. Jerusalem, “the perfection of beauty” (Lam. ii. 15),
afforded another excellent figure.

Awe-inspiring as bannered hosts! The fascinating power of a woman is
frequently compared to the prowess of an armed host. Comp. Prov. vii.
26. ‏אָיוֹם‎, which occurs once more in connexion with ‏נוֹרָא‎, Hab. i. 7,
means awful, awe-inspiring, imposing. ‏נִדְגָּלוֹת‎, Niph. part. prop.
bannered, people furnished, or arrayed with banners, hence armies,
hosts. The feminine is here used to express a collective idea; comp.
‏אֹרְחוֹת‎, caravans, Isa. xxi. 13; Gesen. § 107, 3 d; Ewald, § 179 c.

5. Turn away thine eyes from me, &c. These awe-inspiring hosts are
described as concentrated in her eyes, which Solomon implores the
Shulamite to remove from him. “The artillery of the eyes,” says Dr.
Good, in loco, “is an idea common to poets of every nation.” Thus
Anacreon, xvi.


        Σὺ μὲν λέγεις τὰ Θήβης,
        Ὁ δ’ αὖ Φρυγῶν ἀϋτάς·
        Ἐγὼ δ’ ἐμὰς ἁλώσεις.
        Οὐχ ἵππος ὤλεσέν με,
        Οὐ πεζὸς, οὐχὶ νῆες·
        Στρατὸς δὲ καινὸς ἄλλος,
        Ἀπ’ ὀμμάτων με βάλων.

        “Sing thou of Thebes—let others tell
        How Troy’s foundations rose and fell;
        My numbers shall alone repeat
        My own rencounters and defeat.
        Me fleets and armies ne’er appal—
        ’Tis to a different host I fall:
        A host within thine eyes, my fair,
        That lurk and ply their arrows there.”


Comp. also Ode ii. ‏רָהַב‎, in Kal, to tremble (Isa. lx. 5), and Hiphil,
to cause to tremble or fear, to frighten, to awe. Similarly the Sept.
ἀνεπτέρωσάν με. Vulg. me avolare fecerunt, “they make me flee for
fear;” and the Syriac ܐܰܪܗܶܒ‎, they make me fear. The explanation of Ibn
Ezra, ‏חזקו ממני‎, which is followed by the Authorized Version, cannot
be deduced from the root; nor does it suit the context. Equally
untenable is the explanation ‏הגיסו לבי‎, Rashi and Rashbam. For ‏הֵם‎,
mas, with ‏עֵינַיִךְ‎, fem. see supra, iv. 9.

6, 7. Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep, &c. For the interpretation
of the second half of ver. 5 and vers. 6, 7, see iv. 1–3, where the
same description is given, with the exception that there ‏קְצוּבוֹת‎ is
used for sheep, and here ‏רְחֵלִים‎, and that the first half of ver. 3 is
here omitted in the Hebrew, which is here given by the Sept. We cannot
refrain from quoting the beautiful explanation of these figures from
the manuscript commentary of Immanuel: ‏תלתלי שערך ושורותיו נופלים זה
על זה לדמיון עדר העזים שהם נתלים זה על זה בהרים ושניך הﬦ לבניﬦ ושויﬦ
לדמיון עדר הרחליﬦ, שצמדם לבן והם עולים מן הרחצה שכלם מתאימות שב אל שניה
שהם שוות, ושכולה אין בהם שאין שן משניה נגרע ונחסר או הם תואר הרחלים שהם
שוות ואין בהם שכילה וכן שניה דומות אליהם.‏‎ The Septuagint adds after
‏וְשַׁכֻּלָּה אֵין בָּהֶם‎, and not one among them is bereaved, in ver. 6; ὡς
σπαρτίον τὸ κόκκινον χείλη σου, καὶ λαλιά σου ὠραία, like a braid of
scarlet are thy lips, and thy mouth is lovely, from chap iv. 3.

8, 9. I have threescore queens, &c. The flattery and praise here exceed
all that have been previously offered. Solomon protests that, though he
is surrounded by a numerous retinue of women of all ranks, the
Shulamite is the sole possessor of his heart: she who is the best
beloved of her mother, and whose consummate beauty has elicited the
highest praises from the queens, concubines and maidens. The
discrepancy between the number of Solomon’s wives and concubines here
stated, and that described in 1 Kings xi. 3, maybe reconciled by taking
‏שִׁשִׁים‎, ‏שְׁמֹנִים‎ and ‏אֵין מִסְפָּר‎ for indefinite and large numbers: many,
very many, without number: so Kleuker, Rosenmüller, Magnus, &c. “We
must supply ‏לִי‎, to me, after ‏הֵמָּה‎, there. For ‏הֵמָּה‎, mas, instead of
‏הֵנָּה‎, fem., see ii. 7. The pronoun ‏הִיא‎, she, is the subject in all
the three clauses, and ‏אַחַת‎ in the first and second clause, and ‏בַּרָה‎
in the third are predicates. We must supply ‏לִי‎ after ‏אַחַת הִיא‎, she
is my only one; just as ‏אַחַת הִיא לְאִמָּה‎. The word ‏אֶחָד‎ is used for the
only one of its kind (Job xxiii. 13; Ezek. ii. 64; vii. 5), favourite;
comp. ‏גּוֹי אֶחָד בָּאָרֶץ‎, 2 Sam. vii. 23.

10. Who is she that looks forth, &c. That Solomon quotes here the
eulogy mentioned in the preceding verse, which the court ladies
pronounced upon the superlative beauty of the Shulamite when they first
beheld her, has long been recognised by the Rabbins, and is now
admitted by most interpreters. This is, moreover, confirmed by Prov.
xxxi. 28, where the same words, ‏אִשֵּׁר‎ and ‏הַלֵּל‎, are used, and the
following verse contains the eulogy which the husband utters. The
rising morning, with its red light looking down from heaven over the
mountains (Joel ii. 2); the beautiful and placid complexion of the
moon, and the refulgent and resplendent appearance of the sun, have
often afforded, both to the Oriental and to the Greek and Latin
writers, exquisite similes for beauty and grandeur. Thus Sirach (l. 5,
6), describing the High Priest, says:—


    “How splendid he was in his interview with the people.
    In his coming out from the house of the veil!
    As the morning star amid the clouds,
    As the moon when full in her days,
    As the sun when beaming upon the temple of the Most High.”


Comp. also Rev. i. 16; Theocritus’ description of Helen, xviii. 26–28;
Lane’s Arabian Nights, i. 29. ‏חַמָּה‎ and ‏לְבָנָח‎ are poetical epithets
for the sun and moon, Isa. xxiv. 23.

11, 12. I went down into the nut-garden, &c. As Solomon had referred,
in uttering his encomium, to her first coming within sight of the court
ladies, the Shulamite here instantly interrupts the king, in order to
explain how that came to pass. “I did not go to meet the king, to
exhibit myself and be admired by him or his royal retinue; I merely
went into the garden with the intention of seeing whether there were
any herbs to take home for use, and whether the fruit promised well;
and this (‏נַפְשִׁי‎) intention of mine brought me unawares near the
monarch and his cortége.” Though ‏אֱגוֹז‎, nut-tree, (so Sept., Vulg.,
Chald.,) nut occurs nowhere else in the Old Testament, yet its meaning
is established from the cognate languages, and its frequent usage in
the Talmud and latter Hebrew writers, ‏רָאָה ב‎, to look among (Gen.
xxxiv.), with the intention of choosing that which pleases, Gen. vi. 2.
‏אִבֵּי הַנָּחַל‎, the green or vegetables growing by the river side; so the
Sept. γενήματι τοῦ χειμάῤῥου, and Rashbam, ‏על שפת הנחל‎. The Sept. has
here ‏שָׁם אֶתֵּן אֶת דּוֹדַי לָךְ‎, from chap. vii. 14, which the Arabic,
Æthiopic, and several modern commentators wrongly follow, as it has no
MS. authority, and has evidently arisen from a misunderstanding of this
passage.

12. Unwittingly, &c. This verse has caused much perplexity to
interpreters. The ancient versions, finding the sense obscure, have
altered almost every word, and hence increased the difficulty. Thus the
Sept. has οὐκ ἔγνω ἡ ψυχή μου· ἔθετό με ἅρματα Ἀμιναδάβ, which Luther
follows: “Meine Seele wusste es nicht, dass er mich zum Wagen Aminadib
gezetzt hatte:” They take ‏נֶפֶשׁ‎ as the subject, alter ‏לֹא יָדַעְתִּי‎, the
first person com., into ‏לֹא יָדְעָה‎, the third fem., to agree with ‏נֶפֶשׁ‎,
a fem. noun, ‏שָׂמַתְנִי‎, the third fem., into ‏שַׂמְנִי‎, the third masc.
referring it to Solomon, and regard ‏עַמִּי נָדִיב‎ as a proper name. The
Vulg. has Nescivi, anima mea conturbavit me propter quadrigas Aminadab;
altering ‏שָׂמַתְנִי‎, the Kal of ‏שׂוּם‎, to put, to place, into the Hiphil
of ‏שָׂמֵם‎, to be astonished, ‏מַרְכְּבוֹת‎ into ‏מֵרִכְבוֹת‎, the plural of
‏רֶכֶב‎, with the preposition ‏מ‎, and taking ‏עַמִּי נָדִיב‎ as a proper
name. Passing over these textual alterations, and the emendations
proposed by modern commentators, as unauthorized, we shall first
examine the words as they are in the text, and then the most plausible
interpretations deducible therefrom. ‏לֹא יָדַעְתִּי‎ are rightly taken by
most, though differing in their opinion as to the rendering of the
remainder of the verse, as adverbial, in the sense of suddenly,
unwittingly, and as subordinate to ‏נַפְשִׁי שָׂמַתְנִי‎, my soul has
unwittingly put me, or placed me; comp. Job v. 9; Isa. xlvii. 11; Jer.
l. 24. The verb ‏שׂוּם‎, to put, to place, may be construed with two
accusatives, one of the person, and the other of the thing; and
‏מַרְכְּבוֹת‎ may be taken as the second accusative (comp. Ps. xxxix. 9; 1
Sam. viii. 1; Mich. i. 7), or ‏מַרְכְּבוֹת‎ may be taken as a designation of
place after ‏שׂוּם‎, a verb of motion; comp. Isa. xl. 26. ‏מֶרְכָּבָה‎, a
chariot, used for warlike purposes, or for state or pleasure, Gen.
xlvi. 29; Exod. xv. 4; 2 Sam. xv. 1. The expression ‏עַמִּי‎ may either
mean populares mei—(the Hebrews having no separate word for
“countryman,” use this expression to denote one of their own people
(Gesen. xxiii. 11; Lam. ii. 11), and ‏נָדִיב‎ may be an adjective for
‏הַנַּדִיב‎, as the article is sometimes omitted through following a noun
with suffix)—or ‏עַמִּי‎ may here be used, like ‏עִישׁ‎, for companions,
attendants, followers, (Eccl. iv. 16,) the ‏י‎ in ‏עַמִּי‎ not being a
suffix, but paragogic, and a mark of the const. state (Deut. xxxiii.
16; Lam. i. 1), and ‏נָדִיב‎, a noun in the genitive of the king or
prince. As to how much stress there is to be laid on the Sept., which
takes ‏עַמִּי נָדִיב‎ as a proper name, and is followed by the Arabic,
Æthiop., Vulg., and which also produced some variations in the
orthography of these words, we need only refer to vii. 2, where the
same version renders ‏בַּת נָדִיב‎ by θυγάτηρ Ἀμιναδὰβ. The verse,
therefore, may either be translated: “My soul has unwittingly made me
the chariots of my noble countrymen,” or, “My soul has unwittingly
placed at, or brought me to the chariots of my noble people, or to the
chariots of the companions of the prince.” Now against the first
rendering we urge, in the first place, that if the chariots be taken in
the accusative, and hence in a figurative sense, we are unavoidably led
into a bewildering maze of conjectural and fanciful opinions. The
following may serve as a specimen. Rashi takes the chariots to be a
sign of ignominy. ‏נפשי שמתני להיות מרכבות להרכיב עלי נדיבות שאר
אומות‎, “My soul has made me to be chariots for foreign princes to ride
upon”; i.e. I have willingly brought upon me a foreign yoke. Ibn Ezra
takes the chariots as a figure for swiftness, ‏לא ידעתי שהייתי הולכת
במרוצה אליך כמו מרכבות עמי נדיב הגדול שיש בעמי‎, “I did not know that I
was hurrying on to thee with the rapidity of the chariots of the great
prince who is among my people;” which the Syriac, ܐܳܐ ܝܶܕܥܰܬ ܢܰܦܫܝ ܣܳܡܬܰܥܝ
ܒܡܳܪܒܳܒܬܐ‎, though sharing somewhat in the errors of the Sept. and Vulg.,
seems to favour. Herder takes the chariots as a symbol of martial
power, guard, and protection (Ps. xx. 8; 2 Kings ii. 11, 12).
Hengstenberg affirms that the chariots signify champion, guard,
defence. And secondly, this translation interrupts the connexion of
this verse with the preceding one. Now the second rendering avoids all
this. Solomon has repeated in verse 10 the praise which the court
ladies had pronounced on the Shulamite when they first saw her; the
Shulamite (in ver. 11, 12), in reply, explains how she came to the
carriages of the court ladies.

1. Return, return, &c. Here we see how little all the persuasions,
promises, and eulogies of the king and courtiers affected the sincere
and deeply rooted affections of the Shulamite for her beloved shepherd.
No sooner had she explained (as she incidentally informs us) how she
came to be noticed and taken up by the king, than she actually started
off. But the king entreated her to return, that he might look at her
once more. The Shulamite, pausing a little, turns round and modestly
asks:

What will you behold in the Shulamite? That is, what can ye see in a
humble rustic girl? ‏הַשּׁוּלַמּית‎, as is evident from the article, is a
gentile noun, according to the analogy of ‏הַשּׁוּנַמִּית‎, (1 Kings i. 3; 2
Kings iv. 12, 25.) Ewald, § 156 c: and a female inhabitant of Shulem,
i.q. Shunem. Shulem still exists as a village, now called Sôlam, about
three miles and a half north of Zerîn, (Jezreel), and lies on the
declivity, at the western end of the mountain of Duhy, the so-called
Little Hermon. “There is little room for doubt that it is the ancient
Shunem of the tribe of Issachar, where the Philistines encamped before
Saul’s last battle, (Josh. xix. 18; 1 Sam. xxviii. 4.) From the same
place, apparently, Abishag the Shunammite was brought to the aged
David; and here it was probably that Elisha often lodged in the house
of the Shunammite woman, and afterwards raised her son from the dead (1
Kings i. 3; 2 Kings iv. 8–37; viii. 1–6). Eusebius and Jerome describe
it in their day as a village lying five Roman miles from Mount Tabor,
towards the southern quarter, and they write the name already Sulem.”
Robinson, Palestine, iii. 169, &c. The transition of ‏ל‎ into ‏נ‎ is of
frequent occurrence; comp. ‏לָחַץ‎ and ‏נָחַץ‎, to burn. (Gesen. Lexicon,
‏ל‎ a; Ewald, § 156, c.) ‏שׁוּלַמִּית‎ is not the feminine of the name
‏שְׁלֹמֹה‎, which would be ‏שְׁלֹמִית‎; comp. Lev. xxiv. 11; 1 Chron. iii. 19;
Ewald, § 274, f.

Like a dance to double choirs, replies the king, i.e. “to see thee is
like gazing at the charming view of a festive choir expressing their
merriment in a sacred dance. The Hebrews, in common with other nations
(Strabo, 10), used sacred dancing, accompanied by vocal and
instrumental music, as expressive of joy and rejoicing (Exod. xv. 20; 2
Sam. vi. 15; Ps. cxlix. 3). A sight of such an assemblage of various
beauties, all swelling their voices into one song of joy, and blending
their several forms in one choral dance of joy, must have afforded a
delightful picture. No wonder that such a scene is described by Homer
(Iliad, xviii. 590,) as portrayed on the famous shield of Achilles, and
that


        “On either side spectators numerous stood,
        Delighted.”


To this charming scene, therefore, does the captivated monarch compare
the view of the Shulamite. ‏מְחוֹלָה‎, from ‏חוּל‎, to turn round, a dance,
the joyous dancing on a festive occasion. ‏ַחְנֶה‎, prop. a camp, also a
multitude, a band of people, Gen. l. 9. ‏מַחֲנַיִם‎ is the regular dual,
and not the plural (Sept., Vulg., Gesenius, Döpke, &c.), and is here
used because this dance consisted of a band arranged in a double line,
something like our country dance. On the different kinds of Oriental
dances, see Rosenmüller, Orient. ii. 19–22; Wilkinson, Manners, &c.,
ii. 328–340. Saalschütz, Archäologie der Hebräer, vol. i. 302. The
words ‏כִּמְחֹלַת הַמַּחֲנַיִם‎ have elicited a variety of interpretations. Some
take ‏מַחֲנַיִם‎ as a proper name, and say that reference is here made to
some particular mode of worship practised in that place in consequence
of Jacob’s sojourn there; but this is purely imaginary. Others again
suppose that an allusion is made to Gen. xxxii. 2, 3, and hence render
‏מַחֲנַיִם‎ by ‏מַחֲנֵי אֱלֹהִים‎ or ‏צְבָאוֹת‎; but this is unfounded, since we
have not the slightest intimation in that passage that the angels were
engaged in dancing.

2. How beautiful are thy feet in sandals! The Shulamite, in obedience
to the king’s request, returns, and as she advances, Solomon is
arrested by her beautiful feet, with which he begins his last highly
flattering delineation of her beauty, and his last attempt to win her
affections. ‏נְעָלִים‎, Chald. ‏סַנְדְלִין‎, sandals, formed an important part
of an Oriental costume (Ezek. xvi. 10; Judith xvi. 9). The ladies
bestowed great pains upon, and evinced much taste in ornamenting this
article of dress, which attracted the notice of the opposite sex. ‏בַּת
נָדִיב‎ does not mean a descendant of a titled family, but, according to
a common Hebrew idiom, which applies ‏בַּת בֵּן‎, and other terms of human
kindred to relations of every kind, expresses that she herself was of a
noble character. Comp. 1 Sam. i. 16; Gesen. § 106, 2 a; Ewald, § 287 f.

The circuits of thy thighs like ornaments, &c. To describe the
beautiful appearance of an object, the Orientals frequently compared it
to some precious metal or gem; see supra, v. 11; Prov. xxv. 12. The
simple metal or gem, however, seems not to suffice here to express the
exquisite symmetry of these parts of the body; they are, therefore,
compared with some beautifully-wrought and highly-finished ornaments,
formed of such materials. The rendering of ‏פְּעָמִים‎ by steps (Sept.,
Vulg., Ewald, Döpke, Hengstenberg, &c.), and ‏חַמוּקֵי‎ by Schwingungen,
movements (Hengstenberg), is contrary to the scope of the description,
which obviously depicts the several members of the body (beginning with
the feet and gradually ascending to the head), and not their actions.
‏חֲלָאִים‎ is not the dual (Luther), but the plural; according to the
analogy of ‏צְבִי‎, ‏צְבָאִים‎; ‏פְּתִי‎, ‏פְּתָאִים‎. The ‏א‎ in the plural is
preferred to the ‏י‎ in consequence of the preceding A sound. Gesen. §
93, 66; Ewald, § 186 e.

3. Thy navel is like a round goblet, &c. The reference and the import
of the figure are obvious. ‏מֶזֶג‎, i.q. ‏מֶסֶךְ‎, mixture, mixed wine. The
ancients were in the habit of mixing wine with spices, to make it more
stimulating and exciting. Wine thus mixed was called ‏יַיִן הַרֶקַח‎, viii.
2, the vinum aromatites of the Greeks and Romans. (Comp. Ps. lxxv. 9;
Prov. ix. 5; Isa. v. 22; Mishna, Maaser sheni, ii. 1; Baba Mez. v. 2;
Pliny, Hist. Nat. xiv. 15; Gesen. Thesaurus, p. 808; Winer, Bib. Dict.
s.v.) ‏שָׁרְרֵךְ‎ is one of the few instances in which ‏עע״‎ are resolved
before suffixes, owing to the broadness of the vowels when preceding
‏ל‎, or ‏ר‎. Comp. ‏גַּל‎ with suffix ‏גַּלְלוֹ‎: ‏צִלְלוֹ צַל‎: ‏הַרֲרָם הַר‎,
Ewald, § 265; Fürst, Lexicon, s.v. ‏–גַל‎. The particle ‏אַל‎ expresses a
subjective wish, Gesen. Lexicon, ‏אַל‎, ii. 6, Ewald, § 320.

Thy body is like a heap of wheat, &c. The point of analogy seems to
subsist between the appearance of the body and that of a quantity of
corn heaped up, ‏עֲרַמָה‎, which Ibn Ezra well explains ‏עבה מלמטה ודקה
מלמעלה‎; so also Rashbam. Remembering that corpulency was deemed
essential to an Eastern beauty, this comparison will appear obvious.
Selden, who is followed by others, takes this passage as a prediction
of the bride’s fertility: as:—“Wheat and barley were among the ancient
Hebrews emblems of fertility; and it was usual for standers-by to
scatter these grains upon the married couple, with a wish that they
might increase and multiply.” Uxor Hebraica, lib. ii. cap. 15. “A
custom,” adds Williams, “which might probably originate from this
passage, or vice versâ.”

But though it is true that it was a common practice among the Jews at
marriages to distribute among the company dried seeds (Talm.
Chethuboth, ii. 1), probably to indicate a wish that the newly-married
couple might be fruitful, it does not follow that it was the practice
at so early an age, or that it is the meaning here. Were this the sense
here, we should expect that the Jewish commentators, who well knew and
practised the manners and customs of their own people, would have
recognised it. Whereas, Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, &c., explain this
figure as referring to the appearance.

Hedged round with, &c. The threshing-floors in ancient times were in
the open air; and when the wheat had been threshed out, fanned and
heaped up, each heap was stuck round with thorns, in order to keep off
the cattle. (Hos. ii. 5, 6.) To render the figure more beautiful, and
the compliment more flattering, the enamoured king changes the hedge of
thorns into a fence of lilies. Others, however, refer these words to a
robe embroidered with lilies, covering her body; and others, again, to
some ancient custom of surrounding or covering the newly-threshed heap
of wheat with a sort of garland of flowers, indicating the joy of the
husbandman at the return of the harvest.

4, 5. Thy bosom is like, &c. These verses, with a little variation
arising from the fact that a different person is the speaker here,
contain the same figures as iv. 4, 5. The comparison between the
beautiful symmetry, erect bearing, and ivory colour of the neck, and
between the elegant structure, lofty altitude, and white colour of a
tower, appears more striking and apposite from the description given by
Josephus of the towers of Jerusalem: “They were so very tall, they
appeared much taller by the place on which they stood; for that very
old wall, wherein they were, was built on a high hill, and was itself a
kind of elevation that was still thirty cubits taller, over which were
the towers situated, and thereby were made much higher to appearance.
The largeness also of the stones was wonderful; for they were not made
of common small stones, nor of such large ones only as men could carry,
but they were of white marble, cut out of the rocks: each stone was
twenty cubits in length, and ten cubits in breadth, and five in depth.
They were so exactly united to one another, that each tower looked like
one entire block of stone, so growing naturally, and afterwards cut by
the hand of the artificer into the present shape and corners; so
little, or not at all, did their joints or connexion appear.” (Jewish
War, book v. chap. iv. 4.—Whiston’s translation.) The comparison of the
neck with ivory is also used by Anacreon (Ode xxix. 28, 29), in his
description of Bathyllus:—


        Τὸν Ἀδώνιδος παρελθὼν
        ἐλεφάντινος τράχηλος.

        “But never can thy pencil trace
        His ivory neck of Paphian grace.”


Thine eyes, &c. That is, are as bright and serene as the celebrated
translucent pools of this city. Heshbon, a town in the southern parts
of the Hebrew territory, about twenty miles east of the point where the
Jordan enters the Dead Sea, originally belonged to the Moabites (Numb.
xxi. 25), and afterwards came into possession of the Amorite king Sihon
(ibid.; Deut. ii. 24; Josh. iii. 10). It was conquered by Moses shortly
before his death (Numb. xxi. 25), and was first assigned to the tribe
of Reuben (Numb. xxxii. 37; Josh. xiii. 17), and afterwards to the
tribe of Gad, and became a Levitical city (Josh. xxi. 39; 1 Chron. vi.
81). It was retaken by the Moabites when the ten tribes were carried
into exile (Isa. xv. 4; xvi. 9; Jer. xlviii. 2), but the Jews conquered
it again afterwards (Joseph. Antiq. lib. xiii.) The ruins of Heshbon,
the name by which the place is still known, have been visited and
described by modern travellers. (Burckhardt, Travels, p. 365; Biblical
Repos. for 1833, p. 650; Robinson, Palestine, ii. 278.) Heshbon was the
pride of Moab, was famous for its fertility, verdure of plantation, and
beautiful reservoirs. Hence the simile here. A similar comparison is
used by Ovid, De Arte Ama. ii. 722:—


        “Adspicies oculos tremulo fulgare meiantes,
        Ut sol a liquida saepe refulget aqua.”


‏בַּת רַבִּים‎ is well explained by Rashbam, the populous, ‏שרוב בני העיר
יוצאין ונכנסין בה‎, “because, through it a multitude of the inhabitants
of the town walk in and out;” ‏שהרבים באים להסתכל שם‎, “because it is
the chief place of concourse.” ‏בַּת‎, daughter, like ‏בֶּן‎, son, is
idiomatically used in Hebrew to express quality. Compare ‏בֶּן־שֶׁמֶן‎, a
son of fatness, i.e. fat; Isa. v. 1, and supra, vii. 2. The Septuagint,
which is followed by the Vulgate, not understanding this idiom, renders
it literally ἐν πύλαις θυγατρὸς πολλῶν, by the gates of the daughter of
many.

Thy nose, &c. This tower must have contained a projection or an
overhanging part, celebrated for its great symmetry and elegance. Hence
the comparison between the beautifully projecting tower and the
well-proportioned nose.

6. Thy head upon thee, &c. ‏כַּרְמֶל‎ stands here for ‏כַּרְמִיל‎, purpura; so
Ibn Gamach, Ibn Ezra, Fürst, &c. This shell-fish is of a spiral form,
and “the exquisite juice which is so greatly sought after for the
purpose of dyeing cloth is situate in the middle of the throat. This
secretion consists of a tiny drop contained in a white vein, from which
the precious liquid used for dyeing is distilled, being of the tint of
a rose, somewhat inclined to black.” Pliny, Hist. Nat. ix. 60, 61;
Arist. Hist. Anim. lib. v. c. 14. The simile here subsists between the
spiral form of this shell-fish and the pyramidal shape in which the
hair was anciently tied up on the top of the head. The Chinese and
other Eastern women still wear their hair rolled up into a knot or
bunch at the top of the head; and even in this country ladies used to
dress their hair in a somewhat similar manner. The rendering of the
ancient versions of ‏כַּרְמָל‎, by Mount Carmel, which the majority of
modern interpreters follow: they take the simile to be between the
beautiful appearance of the bride’s head and the charming, luxuriant,
and picturesque summit of this celebrated mountain; but this is against
the parallelism and 2 Chron. ii. 16, 13; iii. 14. ‏כַּרְמֶל‎ = ‏כַּרְמִיל‎ is
derived from ‏כָּרַם‎, to be shiningly red, with ‏–ִיל‎ appended, according
to the analogy of ‏פְּתִיגִיל‎; vide Fürst, Lexicon in voce; or it may be
that this shell-fish was so called because it was found on the shore
near Carmel. At all events, there is no need to look for the etymology
of this word out of the Shemitic family.

And the tresses, &c. Fine hair is frequently compared by the Greeks and
Romans with purple. Thus Anacreon, xxviii. 11, 13.


        γράφε δ’ ἐξ ὅλης παρειῆς
        ὑπὸ πορφύραισι χαίσταις
        ἐλεφάντινον μέτωπον.

        Then paint, from her full cheeks,
        Beneath her purple hair,
        Her ivory forehead.


Compare also Virgil, Georg. i. 405; Tibul. i. 4, 63. The purple here
referred to is that kind which Pliny describes as “nigrans adspectu
idemque suspectu refulgens.” ‏אַרְגָּמָן‎, the costly colour extracted from
the shell-fish, is from ‏רָגַם‎, kind. ‏רָקַם‎, to colour, with the
prostetic ‏א‎ and termination ‏–ָן‎; vide supra, chap. iii. 9.

The king is captivated, &c. The ringlets, like the lashes of the
eyelids, are frequently represented as the net of love. Prov. vi. 25;
Sirach ix. 3, 4. Thus Jami, in his Joseph and Zuleikha, chap. i., as
quoted by Dr. Good, says:—


        “When Love in graceful ringlets plants his toils,
        The fool he catches, and the wise man foils;
        But, thence released, the sage his snare discerns,
        And Reason’s lamp with wonted lustre burns.”


‏מֶלֶךְ‎ stands for ‏הַמֶּלֶךְ‎; the article is not unfrequently omitted in
poetry; comp. Ps. ii. 2; xxi. 2; Gesen. § 109; Ewald, § 277, b. ‏רָהִיט‎,
a ringlet, so called from its flowing down over the shoulders; vide
supra, chap. i. 16. The construction of ‏מֶלֶךְ‎ with ‏אַרְגָּמָן‎, i.e. royal
purple (one of the Greek translators in the Hexapla, Vulgate, Syriac,
Luther, Houbigant, &c.), is against the punctuation and the evenness of
the metre, interferes with the interpretation of the remaining words,
and has evidently arisen from a misunderstanding of the passage.
Besides, no people is known by such a name. It was owing to a feeling
of being consistent that the editor of Calmet felt himself constrained
to take ‏אַרְגָּמָן‎ as a proper name, Argamen, to correspond with the
parallel ‏כַּרְמֶל‎; and to explain this clause as alluding to a particular
mode of plaiting the hair, like the weaving of Arech, a city in
Babylonia, supposed to be famous for its weaving manufactories.

How beautiful, &c. The captivated king, having described the beauty of
the several parts of the body, now combines the separate members into
one lovely form, and endows it with life and fascination, which none of
the inanimate beauties to which he had compared her, however admirable,
possessed. ‏אַהֲבָה‎, love, abstract for concrete, loved one, vide supra,
chap. v. 1. ‏תַּעֲנוּג‎, charm, attraction, such as living beings possess.
Aquila and the Syriac, separating the word ‏בְּתַּעֲנֻגִים‎, render it θυγάτηρ
τρυφῶν, ‏בַּת עֲנֻגִים‎.

7. This thy growth, &c. The beautiful growth of the palm-tree, like
that of the cedar and cypress, supplied a forcible image to the
ancients. Thus the Son of Sirach, xxiv. 13, 14:—


        “I grew up as a cedar of Lebanon,
        And as a cypress upon Mount Hermon;
        I grew up as a palm-tree in En-gedi,
        And as a rose-tree in Jericho.”


Comp. also Homer, Odyss. vi. 162, and supra, chap. v. 15. ‏אֶשְׁכֹּל‎,
bunch, cluster, of grapes, dates, or flowers; the context must decide
which. Here, from its close proximity to ‏תָּמָר‎, palm-tree, dates are
most probably intended. For the etymology of ‏אֶשְׁכֹּל‎, see supra, chap.
i. 14; and for its form, both here and in ver. 9, Ewald, § 212 d.

8. I long to climb, &c. After this flattering description Solomon tells
the Shulamite how greatly he desires, and how happy he should be to
enjoy, the affections of one so lovely and charming. We earnestly
request those who maintain the allegorical interpretation of the Song
seriously to reflect whether this verse, and indeed the whole of this
address, can be put into the mouth of Christ as speaking to the Church.
Would not our minds recoil with horror were we to hear a Christian
using it publicly, or even privately, to illustrate the love of Christ
for his Church?—‏אָמַר‎, to speak, also to wish, to desire, Gen. xliv.
28; Exod. ii. 14; 1 Sam. xx. 4. ‏אָמַרְתִּי‎ does not express the past, but
the present; comp. ‏דָמְתָה‎ in the preceding verse; Gesen. § 126, 3;
Ewald, § 135 b. The second verb ‏אֶעֱלֶה‎ is subordinate to the first,
vide supra, chap. ii. 3. ‏גֶּפֶן‎ is added to ‏אֶשְׁכֹּל‎, to distinguish it
from the dates in ver. 7.

And the odour of thy breath, &c. That is, be as sweet and as quickening
as that of apples. ‏אַף‎ is used in preference to ‏פֶּה‎, because the
nostril, or the breathing (which ‏אַף‎ literally means) is regarded by
the Hebrews as that which in distension betokens pleasure, anger, &c.
The appropriateness of this expression will be more manifest when we
remember that hitherto all that the Shulamite showed towards Solomon
were resistance and independence. There is also a play of words here,
‏אַף‎ being derived from ‏אָנַף‎, to breathe, and ‏תַּפּוּחַ‎, from ‏נָפַח‎, to
breathe. Hodgson strangely renders ‏וְרֵיחַ אַפֵף‎, “the fragrance of thy
face,” because several MSS. read ‏אפיך‎ with a yod.

9. And thy speech, &c. That is, Let thy language to me be as the
sweetness of delicious wine. Rosenmüller, Döpke, De Wette, Noyes,
Delitzsch, Hengstenberg, &c., put these words into the mouth of the
maiden. But it is incredible that this modest woman would approve of
these expressions with regard to her own person, and that she would
continue the words ‏דּוֹבֵב שִׂפְתֵי יְשֵׁינִים‎. ‏חֵךְ‎, palate, metonymically for
speech; vide supra, chap. v. 16. ‏טוֹב‎ is used as a substantive, and
placed in the genitive after ‏יַיִן‎; comp. Ps. xxi. 4; Prov. xxiv. 25;
Ewald, § 287 b. The phrase ‏הֹלֵךְ לְמֵישָׁרִים‎ describes the smooth or mellow
wine, which is of a very superior quality, and highly prized, Prov.
xxiii. 31. The expression ‏לְדוֹדִי‎ is added in order to describe still
more forcibly the nature of the wine, and affords a more striking
illustration of the pleasantness of the damsel’s speech. Her voice is
not merely compared to wine, valued because it is sweet to everybody;
but to such wine as would be sweet to a friend, and on that account is
more valuable and pleasant. Ammon, Ewald, Heiligstedt, Hitzig, &c.
regard ‏לְדוֹדִי‎ as having erroneously crept in here from ver. 11, whilst
Velthusen, Meier, &c. point it ‏לְדוֹדַי‎ in the plural; but this is
unsupported by MSS. Hodgson, taking ‏לְדוֹדִי‎ for ‏לְדוֹדִים‎, translates it
ad amores, delightfully, corresponding to ‏לְמֵישָׁרִיﬦ‎ in the next clause.
But this rendering, to say the least, is contrary to the general
meaning of this word. The rendering of Williams, “which I sent to those
whom I love for their integrity,” is preposterous.

And causes slumbering lips, &c. The wine is of such an animating
nature, that it even causes silent lips to speak. Thus Horace, Epist.
lib. i. Ep. v. 19:—


        Fecundi calices quem non fecere disertum?

        “Whom have not soul-inspiring cups made eloquent?”


Others, however, with less probability, explain these words to mean
wine of so excellent a flavour, as to induce those who have indulged in
it to dream of it, and converse about it; or wine so delicious and
tempting that it leads to excess, in consequence of which the drinkers
fall asleep, and then either disclose the subject of their dream, or
mutter unintelligible words. ‏דּוֹבֵב‎ is not gently flowing, suffusing
(Ewald, Döpke, Gesenius, De Wette, Lee, Magnus, Noyes, Meier,
Philippson, Hitzig, &c.), but causing to speak (Vulg., Rashi, Ibn Ezra,
Rashbam, Mendelssohn, Kleuker, Hengstenberg, Fürst, Delitzsch, &c.)
This is corroborated by the derivative ‏דִּבָּה‎, which primarily means
something spoken, a report, either good or bad, as is evident from Gen.
xxvii. 2; Numb. xiv. 37, where the adjective ‏רָעֳה‎, evil, is joined to
it; and from Ezek. xxxvi. 3, where it stands in parallelism with ‏שְׂפַת
לָשׁוֹן‎, and by the frequent usage in the Talmud and other Hebrew writers
of the word ‏דָּבַב‎, for speaking. ‏דּוֹבֵב‎ is the Poel of ‏דָּבַב‎, a form
frequently used in verbs ‏ע״ע‎ (comp. ‏הֹולֵל‎, Eccl. vii. 7; ‏סוֹבֵב‎, Ps.
lix. 7; Gesen. § 67, 8), and, like the Piel, is often the causative of
Kal, Gesen. § 55, 1. The Sept., Vulg., Sym., Syr., read ‏שְׂפָתַיִﬦ וְשִׁנַּיִﬦ‎,
the lips and the teeth, instead of ‏שִׂפְתֵי יְשֵׁנִיﬦ‎; but this is neither
supported by MSS., nor yields a better sense.

10. I belong to my beloved, &c. The Shulamite gently but decidedly
refuses the wishes of the king, declaring that her affections are fixed
on one whom she ardently loves, and on whom alone it is her sacred duty
to look. Even Ibn Ezra and Rashbam, though explaining it differently,
admit that the maiden here refuses the petitioner of the last verse on
the plea that she belonged to her beloved. ‏עָלַי‎, lit. on me, i.e. it
is upon me as a duty. ‏עַל‎ is frequently used to denote duty or
obligation, which rests upon one like a burden, and must be discharged.
Thus ‏עָלַי לָתֵת‎, “it was my duty to give,” 2 Sam. xviii. 11; ‏זִבְחֵי שְׁלָמִיﬦ
עָלַי‎, “peace-offerings are due from me,” Prov. vii. 14; Gesen. Lexicon,
‏עַל‎ A. 1, α γ. Ewald, § 217, 4 γ. The suffix in ‏תְּשׁוּקָתוֹ‎ expresses the
object, i.e. the desire for him. This is often the case; comp. ‏יִרְאָתוֹ‎,
his fear, i.e. the fear for him, Exod. xx. 20; Gesen. § 121, 5; Ewald,
§ 286 b. We thus obtain the same sense of this clause which Hodgson
gives it, without changing the words into ‏זעליו תשוקתי‎, upon the
slender authority of one MS. to support the first, and three MSS. to
support the second alteration.

11. Come, my beloved, &c. Having distinctly and finally refused the
king, who forthwith quitted her, the Shulamite now addresses her
beloved shepherd, who approached her, urging their departure from the
royal palace for their festive bowers in Nature’s hall. The want of
separate names, or initial letters of names, generally used in profane
composition to indicate the speaker or the person spoken to, is amply
supplied here by the skill of the inspired poet in putting into the
mouth of the Shulamite such rural language as shows most plainly that
she was a rustic maiden, and that her beloved, whom she here addresses,
is a shepherd. Comp. also chap. i. 7; ii. 8; v. 2, 4, &c. To ascribe
these words to a princess addressing king Solomon is preposterous.
Döderlein, Ewald, Meier, &c., take ‏כְּפָרִיﬦ‎ as the plural of ‏כֹּפֶר‎,
cypress, vide supra, i. 14; iv. 13; but 1 Chron. xxvii. 25, where
‏כְּפָרִיﬦ‎, like here, coupled with ‏שָׂדֶה‎, field, forms a contrast to
‏עִיר‎, city, is against it. ‏הַשָּדֶה‎ is the accusative of place, 1 Sam.
xx. 11; Gesen. § 118, 1.

12. We will go early, &c. Transported with the thought of her speedy
arrival at her mother’s house, the Shulamite vividly depicts to her
beloved the scenes of home, where they will again together enjoy rural
life. It may be that Milton thought of this passage when he wrote the
words:—


        “To-morrow, ere fresh morning streak the east
        With first approach of light, we must be risen,
        And at our pleasant labour, to reform
        Yon flowery arbours, yonder alleys green,
        Our walks at noon with branches overgrown.”

                                Paradise Lost, iv. 623, &c.


‏נַשְׁכִּימָה לַכְּרָמִים‎ is constructio praegnans, and is well explained by
Rashbam, ‏נשכימה לטייל בכרמיﬦ‎, “we will rise early to stroll in the
vineyards.” Comp. Gen. xliv. 33; Numb. xiv. 24; Gesen. § 141.

There will I give, &c. The shepherd, gladdened with the fact that his
loved one is restored to him, is desirous of expressing his joy and
affection, but the Shulamite, anxious to get off as quickly as
possible, tells him that at home, amidst the charms of nature, they may
indulge in sweet effusions of love. The Sept. and Vulg. have here again
‏דַּדַּיִם‎, breasts, instead of ‏דֹודִים‎, love. But in addition to what has
already been remarked, we would state that whenever breasts are
mentioned in this Song, ‏שָׁדַיִם‎ is invariably used.

13. The mandrakes diffuse, &c. Another reason for hastening away from
the royal prison into the rural home. There nothing will be wanting;
they have there the highly prized apples, they have all sorts of
precious fruit, which she left on the trees for him. A similar passage
occurs in Virgil, Ecl. i. 37, where the loved one kept fruit on the
tree for her lover:—


        Mirabar, quid moesta deos, Amarylli, vocares;
        Cui pendere suâ patereris in arbore poma:
        Tityrus hinc aberat.

        “We stood amazed to see your mistress mourn;
        Unknowing that she pined for your return:
        We wonder’d why she kept her fruit so long,
        For whom so late th’ ungather’d apples hung:
        But no, the wonder ceases, since I see
        She kept them only, Tityrus, for thee.”


‏דּוּדָאִים‎, which occurs only once more, (Gen. xxx. 14), is, according to
the testimony of the ancient versions, the mass of commentators and
modern travellers, the mandrake-plant, Atropa mandragora, called
yabrochack by the Arabs, the fruit of which is highly valued by the
Orientals for its supposed exhilarating, aphrodisiac, and procreative
properties. “It grows low, like lettuce, to which its leaves have a
strong resemblance, except that they have a dark green colour. The
flowers are purple, and the root is for the most part forked. The
fruit, when ripe, in the beginning of May, is of the size and colour of
a small apple, exceedingly ruddy, and of a most agreeable flavour.” See
Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit.; Winer, Bib. Dict. s.v. Here, however, this
plant is mentioned merely to fill out the picture of charming and
highly prized plants, without reference to any supposed internal
properties, and has evidently been suggested by the preceding ‏דּוֹדִי‎,
beloved. ‏דּוּדָאִים‎, lit. love-apples, is the plural of ‏דּוּדַי‎, from the
root ‏דּוּד‎, to love, with the termination ‏–ַי‎, like ‏לוּלָאוֹת‎, the
plural of ‏לוּלַי‎, from the root ‏לוּל‎. Gesen. § 93, 6, 6; Ewald, § 189
g. ‏וְעַל פְּתַחֵינוּ‎ is well explained by Rashbam, ‏אצל פתח פרדס שלנו‎, “in
our garden, close to our door,” &c. ‏עַל‎ has not unfrequently the sense
of neighbourhood and contiguity. Gesen. Lexicon, ‏עַל‎ 3. Others however
render ‏עַל‎, over, i.e. “and over our doors grow,” &c.; others again
translate in, i.e. “in our house are,” &c., taking ‏פֶּתַח‎ in the sense
of house; comp. Prov. xiv. 19, but with less probability. Houbigant’s
transposition of letters, viz. ‏על תפחינו‎, in nostris malis aureis,
instead of ‏על פתחינו‎, is an idle conjecture.

1. Oh that thou wert as my brother, &c. The charming description which
the Shulamite gave of their happiness when at home, recalled to her
mind the obstacles which they met with, even there; and hence she is
led to wish that he had sustained to her the relation of a brother,
that, whether in the street or the house, none might misinterpret or
interrupt the manifestation of their attachment. ‏מִי יִתֵּן‎ is used to
express the optative. Comp. Deut. v. 29; xxviii. 67; Ps. xiv. 7; Job
vi. 8; Gesen. § 136, 1; Ewald, § 329 c. ‏כְּאָח‎ is the accusative. The
rendering of the Septuag., Τὶς δῴη σε, ἀδελφιδέ μου, θηλάζοντα μαστοὺς
μητρός μου; and Luther, “O dass ich dich, mein Bruder, der du meiner
Mutter Brüste saugest, draussen fände,” are wrong. ‏יֹונֵק שְׂדֵי אִמִּי‎, does
not mean “an infant still sucking the breasts.” (Grotius, Gill, Good,
Williams, &c.), but “one who had sucked and is now a youth;” it is the
second accusative to ‏מִי יִתֶּנְךָ‎, and stands in parallelism with ‏אָח‎,
brother; like the participle ‏יֹולֶדֶת‎ (which does not mean one who just
gave birth), and ‏אֵﬦ‎, vide supra, chap. vi. 9. ‏אֶמְצָאֲךָ‎ is conditional,
with the particle ‏אִﬦ‎ implied, Judg. xi. 36; Prov. xxiv. 10; Ewald, §
367 b. ‏גַם‎ is used poetically for ‏וְ‎, and, Judg. v. 4; Joel i. 12.
‏יָבֻזוּ‎: the third person is used to express the indeterminate third
person, the passive in English. Gen. xli. 14; Gesen. § 157, 3. For
‏לִי‎, me, five MSS. and two editions read ‏לָךְ‎, thee, which Ewald
adopts. But this is against the majority of MSS. and all the versions,
and does not at all improve the sense.

2. I would lead thee, &c. As a brother, she could unreservedly bring
him from the spot, where she met him in the street, to her mother’s
house. We must supply ‏מִשָּׁם‎, thence, before ‏אֱנְהָגְךָ‎; so Rashbam. Simple
as the word ‏תְּלַמְּדֵנִי‎ seems to be, it has nevertheless produced a
variety of renderings. The Septuagint and Syriac, followed by Percy,
entirely omit it, and interpolate here ‏וְאֶל חֶדֶר הוֹרָתִי‎, and into the
apartment of her who gave me birth, from chap. iii. 4; after ‏בֵית אִמִּי‎,
the house of my mother. Ibn Ezra, the Authorized Version, Kleuker,
Döderlein, Hitzig, &c., supply ‏אֲשֶׁר‎, who, before ‏תְּלַמְּדֵנִי‎, and refer
it to ‏אִמִּי‎, my mother. But this interrupts the construction, and,
against the scope of the description, introduces the mother as an
actress. Hodgson and the editor of Calmet, strangely enough, render it
Talmudni, as a proper name of the maiden’s mother. The most natural way
seems to be to take it with the Vulgate, Chaldee, Rashbam, Luther,
Ewald, Döpke, De Wette, Delitzsch, Hengstenberg, Philippson, &c., as
the second person masculine.

I would cause thee to drink, &c. On the aromatic wine, see supra, chap.
vii. 3. The pomegranate-juice was and still is a favourite beverage in
the East. “The Orientals,” says Dr. Kitto, “indulge largely in
beverages made with fresh juice of various kinds of fruits. Among
these, sherbet made with pomegranate-juice is particularly esteemed,
and, from its agreeable and cooling acidity, the present writer was
himself accustomed to prefer it to any other drink of this
description.” ‏יַיִן‎, is either an anomalous construct (Gesenius; Fürst,
Lex. s.v.), or the absolute, and ‏הַרֶקַח‎, apposition in the accusative.
Compare ‏מַיִם לַחַץ‎, 1 Kings xx. 27; Gesen. § 116, 6, Rem. b; Ewald, §
287 h. ‏אֶשָׁקְךָ‎ and ‏אֲשְׁקְךָ‎ are a paranomasia, vide supra, chap. i. 3.
‏עַסִיס רִמֹּנִי‎, my pomegranate-juice, i.e. which I myself have prepared.
The noun in the genitive, expressing the quality of the nominative, has
the suffix; compare ‏הַר קָדְשִׁי‎, my holy mountain, Ps. ii. 6; Gesen. §
121 b; Ewald, § 291 b. From an oversight of this most probably arose
the readings of ‏רמנים‎ or ‏רמונים‎ (several MSS.), ‏רִמֹּנַי‎ (Vulgate,
Syriac), the supposition that ‏רִמֹּנִי‎ is an adjective (Schultens), and
the opinion that it is an abbreviated plural from ‏רִמֹנִים‎, like ‏מִּנִּי‎
for ‏מִנִּים‎, (Ps. xlv. 9, Meier, Fürst, Lexicon, ‏מ‎, 3 b.)

3. Let his left hand, &c. Exhausted with the attempt to describe her
unfailing attachment for her beloved shepherd, an attachment far deeper
than external circumstances permit her to manifest, the Shulamite
desires that no other hand should raise her drooping head, no other arm
support her enfeebled frame, than those of her beloved; compare chap.
ii. 6.

4. I adjure you, &c. This last affecting scene, having brought the
Shulamite’s struggle to a successful termination, is closed by her
adjuring the court ladies as before (ii. 7, and v. 3), to make no more
attempt to draw her affections away from her beloved to any one else,
since they were unalterably fixed. The Septuagint, which is followed by
Good, &c., supplies here ‏בִּצְבָאוֹת אוֹ בְּאַיְלוֹת הַשָּׂדֶה‎, from ii. 7, and v. 3.
It is obvious, from the change of ‏אִם‎ into the more urgent negative
particle ‏מַה‎, (comp. Job xxxi.; Ewald, § 325 b), that the variation is
designedly made; and indeed the haste in which the Shulamite is to
depart with her beloved does not permit her to use the lengthy
adjuration.

5. Who is it that comes up, &c. The last successful resistance secured
for the Shulamite her liberty. Convinced that even the blandishments of
a king cannot overcome the power of virtuous love in the heart of a
rustic damsel; satisfied that “all the wealth of his house” could not
buy it, Solomon dismisses her. Then, reunited to her beloved shepherd,
the happy pair immediately depart for home. As they approach their
native place the inhabitants, beholding them at a distance, exclaim,
“Who is it that comes up from the plain, leaning upon her beloved?”
‏הַמִּדְבָּר‎, the plain (vide supra, iii. 6), most probably the plain of
Esdraelon, at present known by the name of Merij Ibn ’Amir, lying
between Jezreel and Sulem (Robinson, Palestine, iii. 169), which the
lovers had to cross on their way home. ‏מִתְרַפָּקֶת‎ (from ‏רָפַק‎, to lean;
hence ‏מַרְפֵּק‎, an arm, on which one leans, Talm. Sabbath, 92),
supporting herself, being weary with so long a journey. So the Sept.
ἐπιστηριζομένη; the Vulg. innixa, &c. As for the additional
λελευκανθισμένη in the Sept., and deliciis affluens in the Vulg., the
one most probably arose from the word ‏בָּרַה‎, used in chap. vi. 10,
where a similar question occurs, and the other from a marginal gloss,
‏מתפנקת‎ or ‏מתנענעת‎.

Under this apple-tree, &c. As they drew nearer home they beheld the
endeared spot—the memorable shady tree under which the shepherd was
born, and where their mutual love was first kindled. These sweet
musings are at length terminated by the Shulamite, who joyfully
recounts the pleasing reminiscences of that place. The frequent
meetings of shepherds and shepherdesses under shady trees, (vide supra,
chap. i. 7), often resulted in the formation of a sacred tie. The
solemn vow of love was then engraven on the bark of the tree, as a
witness of their union. Thus Theocritus, Idyl. xviii. 47, 48:—


        γράμματα δ’ ἐν φλοιῷ γεγράψεται, ὡς παριών τις
        ἀννείμῃ, Δωριστὶ, σέβου μ’· Ἑλένας φυτὸν εἰμί.

                                “——and on the bark,
        In Doric, shall be engraven for all to mark,
        ‘To me pay honour—I am Helen’s tree.’”


Compare also Idyl. xxiii. 46; Propert. I. xviii. 22; Virg. Ecl. x. 53;
and Pope, Past. iii. 66, 67.

Here thy mother, &c. Confinements in the open air are of frequent
occurrence in the East (Gen. xv. 16). “There are in Asia,” says Dr.
Chardin in his manuscript notes, “large districts in which no midwives
are to be found, and even if some live there they are little known, for
mothers assist their daughters, and often female relatives or
neighbours fill the place of the former. In Kurman, I saw a woman who
was delivered without any assistance in the open fields, three hours
from a village, and to my great surprise, she arrived not much later in
town where I was. The people there smiled at my astonishment, remarking
that similar cases were very frequent in their country.” (See
Rosenmüller, Orient. i. 188; Paxton, Illustrations of Scripture, i.
462; Kalisch on Exod. p. 18.) ‏עוֹרֵר‎, to excite, to move to love, vide
supra, ii. 7; iii. 5; viii. 4. ‏חִבְּלָתְךָ‎ does not mean conceived thee
(Aquila, Schultens, Hitzig, &c.), which the Shulamite could not know,
nor plighted, or engaged thee, (Houbigant, Michaelis, Percy, Kleuker,
Good, Williams, Boothroyd, Magnus, Meier, &c.), which is contrary to
the Piel signification of this verb, but signifies laboured with thee,
(Sept., Syriac, Chaldee, Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, Luther, Ewald, De
Wette, Gesenius, Philippson, &c.); compare Ps. vii. 15, and Hupheld in
loco. To put these words into the mouth of the bridegroom as addressing
his bride, (Percy, Good, Williams, Boothroyd, Delitzsch, Hitzig, &c.),
is contrary to the words in the text, which have masculine suffixes.
The form ‏חִבְּלָתְךָ‎ is used instead of ‏חִבְּלַתְךָ‎, to correspond in sound
with ‏יָלְדָתְךָ‎ in pause, vide supra, iii. 11. ‏יָלְרָתְךָ‎, i.q. ‏יָלְדָה אוֹתְךָ‎.
The Vulgate, which seems here to savour of allegorism, translates ‏שָׁמָּה
חִבְּלָתְךָ אִמֶּךָ שָׁמָּה חִבְּלָּה יְלָדָתְךָ‎, ibi corrupta est mater tua, ibi violata est
genitrix tua. “The tree,” the Roman Catholics explain of the cross;
“the individual” excited to love under it, the Gentiles redeemed by
Christ at the foot of the cross; and “the deflowered and corrupted
mother” means, the synagogue of the Jews (the mother of the Church),
which was corrupted by denying and crucifying the Saviour.

6. Oh, place me as a seal, &c. That is, “Let me be near and dear to
thee.” The Shulamite, having shown her faithfulness during a period of
extraordinary trials, could now look up to the witnessing tree with an
inward satisfaction. It is therefore very natural that she should
remind her beloved, in the presence of this witness, of his vows. In
ancient times, when the art of writing was confined to a very few, and
writing materials were not so easily procurable, rings or signets, with
names engraven upon them, were generally used as manual signs. This
contrivance for a signature soon became used as an ornament. People who
could afford it had these seals or signets made of silver or gold,
inlaid with precious stones. Being indispensable articles of use, and
highly prized as decorations, they were carried in the bosom, suspended
from the neck by a string (Gen. xxxviii. 15), or were worn on the right
hand (Jer. xxii. 24; Sirach xlix. 11), and thus became a symbol of what
is dear and indispensable. Jehovah himself uses this metaphor, Jer.
xxii. 24:—


        “Though Coniah, the son of Jehoiakim, king of Judah,
        Were as a seal on my right hand,
        Yet I would pluck thee thence.”


Comp. also Hag. ii. 23; Sirach xvii. 22; Rosenmüller, Orient. vi. 252;
i. 183; iv. 190; Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v.

For love is strong as death, &c. True love seizes with a tenacious
grasp. Like death, it rules with resistless sway; like Hades, it is
never moved to give up its object: neither power nor prayer can
overcome it. ‏קָשָׁה‎, hard, firm, inexorable. ‏קִנְּאָה‎ is not jealousy
(Sept., Vulg., Authorized Version, Percy, Kleuker, Good, Williams,
&c.), but devout affection, ardent love (Ewald, Gesenius, De Wette,
Noyes, Meier, Hitzig, Philippson &c.); it is here used as an
intensitive term for love, as is evident from the parallelism and the
connexion.

The flames of the Eternal. These words are exegetical of “flames of
fire;” i.e. the flames of love, though having the same energy as those
of fire, are not of the same origin; they emanate from the Eternal, the
source of all love. Whether, with Ben Asher, we read ‏שַׁלְהָבָתְיָהּ‎,
conjointly, like ‏מַאֲפָלְיָהּ‎, Jer. ii. 31; or with Ben Naphtali, ‏שַׁלְהֶבָת
יָהּ‎, separately, which is followed by most editions, Rashi, Ibn Ezra,
and the majority of modern critics, and which is required by the
parallelism; this predicate does not state that the flames of love are
“most vehement,” but affirms that they emanate from the Eternal. ‏יָה‎,
an abbreviation of ‏יַהֲוֶה‎ (see Kalisch on Exod. iii. 14; xi. 2; Fürst,
Lexicon, s.v.), like ‏אֵל‎, Isa. xiv. 13, is the genitive of cause or
origin. Comp. ἡ ἀγάπη ἐκ τοῦ Θεοῦ ἔστι, 1 John iv. 7. ‏שַׁלְהֵב‎, flame,
may either be a quadriliteral, formed from ‏שַׁהֵב‎, Arabic, to burn, with
the insertion of the ‏ל‎ after the first radical, according to the
analogy of ‏זַלְעַף‎, violent heat, (Ps. ii. 6), from the root ‏זָעַף‎, to
be hot; or, which is more probable, is the Shaphel conjugation of
‏לָהַב‎, to burn. Fürst, Lexicon, s.v.; Gesen. § 55, 6; Ewald, § 122 a.
The Sept. has φλόγες αὐτῆς, ‏שִׁלְהָבֹתֶיהָ‎. That the original reading of the
text was ‏שַׁלְהֲבֹתֶיהָ שַׁלְהֲבֹת יָהּ‎ (Ewald, Döpke, Hitzig, &c.) is purely
conjectural.

7. Floods cannot quench love. Being a flame of celestial origin no
terrestrial influence, however great, can destroy or wash it away; it
is not subjected to means resorted to for the extinction of ordinary
fires. ‏מַיִם רַבִּים‎, prop. much water, i.e. a great quantity of it (Numb.
xx. 11), floods. ‏שָׁטַף‎, to wash, or sweep away, Job xiv. 19; Isa.
xxviii. 17.

If one should offer all, &c. Such divine love spontaneously flows from
the heart, and cannot be purchased with money; though one offered all
his riches for it, they would be utterly despised. This affirmation,
whilst true in itself, is levelled against the king, who attempted to
gain love by flatteries and praises (vide supra, i. 11; vi. 8), but was
utterly rejected (vii. 11). ‏אִישׁ‎ any one, one, Gen. xiii. 16; Exod.
xvi. 29; Gesen. § 122, Rem. 2. ‏בּוֹז‎, the infinitive absolute, is
employed before the finite verb ‏יָבוּזוּ‎, to express intensity, Gen.
xliii. 3; 1 Sam. xx. 6; Gesen. § 131, 3 a; Ewald, § 280 b. ‏יָבוּזוּ‎, the
third person plural, is used for the passive, see supra, chap. viii. 1.

8. Our sister is still young, &c. The brothers are here introduced, on
the arrival of the Shulamite, as repeating the promise which they had
once given to their sister if she kept virtuous, and, when espoused,
remained true to her vows. One of the brothers inquires of the others
what they should do for the Shulamite when she reached womanhood, and
is demanded in marriage. ‏אֲחוֹת לָנוּ‎, i.q. ‏אֲחוֹתֵינוּ‎, our sister, and is
well rendered by the Sept. ἀδελφὴ ἡμῶν, the Vulg. soror nostra, Luther,
unsere Schwester. The adjective ‏קָטוֹן‎, like ‏גָדוֹל‎, prop. denoting
size, is also used with reference to age. Gen. ix. 24; xxvii. 15; Judg.
xv. 2. ‏שָׁדַיִם אֵין לָהּ‎, i.e. she has not yet reached puberty. ‏בְּיוֹﬦ‎,
when, Gen. ii. 4. ‏דִבֵּר בְּ‎, to speak for, to demand in marriage, 1 Sam.
xiii. 9; xxv. 39.

9. If she be like a wall, &c. To this inquiry the second brother
replied, that if, having reached that age, she should firmly resist
every allurement as a battlement resists the attack of an enemy, they
would decorate her as an impregnable wall; i.e. highly reward her. The
expression “wall” is figuratively used for impregnability, Jer. ii. 18;
so Immanuel, ‏שעמדה הזקה כהומה‎. The silver turret here mentioned most
probably refers to the silver horn, a highly prized ornament which
women wear on their heads. “One of the most extraordinary parts of the
attire of their females” (Druses of Lebanon), says Dr. Macmichael, “is
a silver horn, sometimes studded with jewels, worn on the head in
various positions, distinguishing different conditions. A married woman
has it affixed to the right side of the head, a widow to the left, and
a virgin is pointed out by its being placed on the very crown. Over
this silver projection the long veil is thrown, with which they so
completely conceal their faces as to rarely have more than one eye
(vide supra, chap. iv. 9), visible.” Comp. also Bowring, Report on
Syria, p. 8.

But if she be like a door, &c. That is, accessible (vide supra, chap.
iv. 12), she shall be barricaded with cedar planks—be punished by being
locked up. The word “door” is metaphorically used for open to
seduction. The cedar wood is mentioned because it is exceedingly
strong, and increases the idea of strict vigilance. Similarly Immanuel,
‏ואם דלת שכבר נפתח נצור עליה לרח ארז כלמ׳ נביאה במצור ונסגור בעדה שלﬡ
תראה, וכלוה אדז שהוה הזק ותקיף‎.

10. I am a wall, &c. The Shulamite now triumphantly responds, that she
had proved impregnable as a wall, and had now reached womanhood, and
therefore the promised reward was due to her. ‏שָׁדַי כַּמִּגְדָלוֹת‎, i.q. ‏שָׁדַי
נָכֹנוּ‎, Ezek. xvi. 7, is well explained by Rashbam, ‏הגיע זמני להינשא‎,
my time for marriage has arrived, and is an answer to ‏שָׁדַיִם אֵין לָהּ‎, in
the preceding verse.

Then I was in his eyes, &c. That is, in her brother’s eyes. He now,
being convinced of his sister’s chastity, gave her the reward of
virtue. The suffix in ‏בְּעֵינָיו‎, his eyes, does not refer to Solomon
(Ewald, Hitzig, Philippson, &c.), whose name has not been mentioned,
but to the brother (Ibn Ezra, &c.), who last spoke. ‏שָׁלוֹם‎, peace, has
no reference to the name ‏שְׁלֹמֹה‎, but is used in the sense of ‏חַן‎,
favour, and refers to chap. i. 6; comp. Gen. xxxiv. 7 with ver. 11.

11. Solomon had a vineyard, &c. Having been obliged, when demanding her
promised reward, to describe her virtue as an impregnable wall, the
Shulamite now relates more circumstantially how she had resisted the
attempt to gain her affections. Solomon had a large vineyard in
Baal-hammon, which he offered to consign to her if she granted his
request; but the Shulamite refused his offer, telling him he might keep
his large estate to himself, for she was quite satisfied with her
humble possession. Many are the conjectures hazarded as to the locality
of Baal-hammon, which occurs nowhere else, and no place is known by
this name. It is taken for Baal-Gad, or Heliopolis (Rosenmüller, Bib.
Geog. ii. p. 253), for ‏חַמּוֹן‎, Hammon, a place in the tribe of Asher,
Josh. xix. 28 (Ewald), and for Βελαμὼν or Βαλαμὼν, Belamon or Balamon,
a place mentioned in the book of Judith, viii. 3, not far from the
plain of Esdraelon, Judith iii. 9 (Meier, Hitzig). It is, however, more
probable, according to Rashi, that Baal-hammon was in or near
Jerusalem, and was called ‏בַּעַל הַמּוֹן‎, place of the multitude, because
its beauties and charms attracted a multitude of people, thus
presenting a greater temptation for the Shulamite. The Vulgate
strangely renders ‏כֶּרֶם הָיָה לִשְׁלֹמֹה בְּבַעַל הַמּוֹן‎, vinea fuit pacifico in ea,
quae habet populos.

He let out the vineyard, &c. This is intended to show the value of the
vineyard. It was so extensive that it was leased out to a number of
tenants, and every one of them paid a thousand shekels annually, and
yet had two hundred shekels left for himself. ‏נֹטְרִיﬦ‎, an indefinite
number of keepers or farmers. ‏אִישׁ‎ each, vide supra, ver. 7. The
suffix in ‏בְפִרְיוֹ‎, his fruit, refers to ‏כֶּרֶם‎, vineyard, which is
masculine. ‏כֶּסֶף‎, silver, stands for ‏שֶׁקֶל כֶּסֶף‎, silver shekel:
substantives denoting weight, measure, or time, are frequently omitted.
Gen. xx. 16; xxxvii. 28; Acts xix. 9; Gesen. § 120, 4, Rem. 2; Ewald, §
287 i. The amount of a shekel is supposed to be about two shillings and
sevenpence. The shekel of the sanctuary, however, like all the weights
and measures of the Temple, was computed at double the ordinary. See
Ezek. xlv. 12; 1 Kings x. 17; comp. with 2 Chron. ix. 16; Mishna,
Shekalim, Maaser Sheni; Winer, Bib. Dict. s.v. A thousand shekels,
therefore, would be about one hundred and thirty pounds. Remembering
that each of these farmers had to pay this sum annually, and that money
in those days had fifteen or twenty, nay, according to Michaelis (Mos.
Rech. § 243), fifty times its present value, we shall be able to judge
of the allurement which this ample estate offered.

12. I will keep my own vineyard, &c. And yet, notwithstanding all this,
the Shulamite prefers to keep her little vineyard, and be with her
beloved shepherd, rather than unfaithfully give him up for riches and
honours. ‏כַּרְמִי שֶׁלִּי‎, my own vineyard, the vineyard which belongs to me;
vide supra, chap. i. 6. ‏לְפָנָי‎ lit. is before me; it is mine, and I
will keep it: this is obvious from the immediately following ‏לְךָ‎,
thine, keep thou it. The words ‏הָאֶלֶף לְךָ וגו״‎ are to be taken as an
exclamatory phrase, Ewald, § 329 a. ‏אֶלֶף‎ is here used collectively for
all the thousands put together, which come in annually from the
farmers; so ‏מָאתַיִם‎, the two hundreds. The Vulgate translates here
again the proper ‏שְׁלֹמֹה‎, mille tui pacifici.

13. O thou that dwellest in the gardens, &c. The companions of the
shepherd, who had manifested their joy at the successful arrival of the
happy pair (vide supra, ver. 5), and rejoice that one of their humble
occupation has brought such honour upon the whole class, visit the
Shulamite, to hear from her own mouth her avowed attachment to her
beloved. The shepherd, therefore, requests her to gratify this desire.
She is no more ‏הַיּוֹשֶׁבֶת בְּחַדְרֵי הַמֶּלֶךְ‎, sitting in the apartments of the
king, vide supra, chap. i. 4, but has the honourable appellation of
‏הַיּוֹשֶׁבֶת בַּגָנִים‎, dwelling in the gardens. ‏חֲבֵרִיﬦ‎, companions, i.e. my
companions, fellow-shepherds, i. 8.

14. Haste, O my beloved, &c. The Shulamite complies with the request.
In the presence of all, she calls the shepherd her beloved, and tells
him always to hasten to her with the speed of the swift-footed gazelle;
vide supra ii. 9, 17. He has no more to cross “the mountains of
separation” (see ii. 17), for they are united. These rugged mountains
have now given place to the much-wished-for aromatic hills, iv. 6.








FOOTNOTES


[1] ‏אמר ר״ש בן עזאי מקובל אני מפי שבעים ושנים זקנים ביום שהושיבו את ר׳
אליעזרבן עוריה בישובה ששיר השירם וקהלת מטמאים את הירים. אמר ר׳ עקיבה חם
ושׁלום לא נחלק אדִם מישראל עדֹ שיר השיריﬦ שלא תטמא את הידים שאין כל העולֹם
כדאי כיום שכתן בו שיר השירים לישראל, שכל הכובים קרש ושיר השירים קדש
קושים.‎ As the phrase ‏מטמא את הידים‎, polluting the hands, has
recently been quoted by Dr. Davidson (The Text of the Old Testament,
&c. p. 796), in direct contrariety to its meaning, we shall here give
an explanation of it. Let it be observed, that in the Mishna, whence
the above passage is quoted, the phrase is applied to all the Holy
Scriptures (‏כל כתבי הקדש מטמאין את הידים‎). The reason of this is
given in the Talmud, (Sabbath, 14 a,) where the question is asked, why
Holy Writ is reckoned among the eighteen subjects which are decreed as
polluting the hands? The answer there given is, because the
Theruma-food and the Thorah, both being regarded as holy, used to be
placed near each other. When it was afterwards discovered that the
sacred books were thereby exposed to danger (damage by mice), the
Rabbins decreed that they should henceforth be regarded as unclean, in
order to prohibit them from coming in contact with those sacred
eatables. Hence the decree ‏כל כתבי הקדש מטמאין את הידים‎, all Holy
Scripture pollutes the hands, which exclusively applies to holy, i.e.
inspired books. Wherever, therefore, it is said that a book is ‏מטמא את
הידים‎, polluting the hands, it affirms that it is canonical; and when
it is said ‏אין מטמא את הידים‎, it does not pollute the hands, it means
that the book is not canonical. Thus we are told ‏שיר השירים מטמא את
הידים שנאמר ברוח הקדש‎, “the Song of Songs pollutes the hands because
it is inspired.” And of the non-canonical ‏ספר בן סיר׳ וכל הספרים
שנכתבו מכאן ואליך אינן מטמאין את הידיﬦ‎, “The book of the Son of
Sirach, and all the books written from that time and afterwards, do not
pollute the hands.”

[2] Baba Bathra, 14.

[3] Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. iv. 26.

[4] For a full elucidation of this verse, see Henderson, “Divine
Inspiration,” pp. 219–224.

[5] See Gesenius, Lexicon in voce.

[6] Herodotus, i. 196.

[7] Ælian, V. H. iv. 1. Strabo, xvi. 745.

[8] Homer, Odyss. viii. 318, &c.; Pausanias, iii. 12, 2.

[9] Tacitus, Germ. xviii.

[10] Michaelis, the Laws of Moses, § 85; Rosenmüller, Orient. i. p.
132, &c.; Grant’s Nestorians, p. 214; Perkins, Eight Years in Persia,
p. 236.

[11] Est. ii. 3, 14, 15; iv. 4; Joseph. Ant. lib. xv. c. 7, 4.

[12] Plutarch’s Lives. Themistocles.

[13] Alexander, History of Women, Introd. p. vii.

[14] Lane, Arabian Nights, Vol. I. pp. 38, 39.

[15] Euripides, Iphi. in Aulis.

[16] Ant. lib. iv. c. 8, 15.

[17] Hilochoth Eduth, c. ix. 1.

[18] This is the date according to Aristobulus, which has, however,
been questioned. See Frankel, Vorstudien zu der Septuaginta; De Wette,
Einleitung, §§ 40, 41; Herzog, Real-Encyklopädie für protestantische
Theologie, art. Alexandrinische Bibelübersetzung; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib.
Lit., under Septuagint.

[19] Hävernick’s Einleitung Dritter Theil, p. 475.

[20] Ewald, p. 34. Döpke, philologisch-critischer Commentar zum
Hohenliede, p. 34.

[21] Vide Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit., art. Wisdom of Jesus; De Wette,
Einleitung, § 316.

[22] Keil, in Hävernick’s Einleitung Dritter Theil, p. 476.

[23] Das Hohelied Salomonis, p. 254.

[24] Vide Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit., under, Wisdom of Solomon; De Wette,
Einleitung, § 314.

[25] Rosenmüller, Scholia, p. 270, sqq. Delitzsch, Das Hohelied, p. 66.

[26] Cont. Apion. 1. § 8.

[27] Kleuker, Samlung der Gedichte Salomon’s, p. 54. Hengstenberg, p.
255.

[28] Vide Stuart on the Old Testament Canon, sect. 12, p. 245.
Davidson’s Edit. Henderson, Divine Inspiration, p. 349.

[29] Succa ad fin.

[30] Torath Cohanim. Tosiftha Synhedrin, c. 7. Aboth di R. Nathan, c.
27. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, Dritter Band, p. 211.

[31] Vide Jost, Allgemeine Geschichte des Israelitischen Volkes (1850),
Zweiter Band, pp. 63, 130, sqq. 153, Graetz, Geschichte der Juden,
Dritter Band, p. 210. Vierter Band, pp. 243–246, 441–443, 446, 473.
Zunz, Vorträge, p. 52.

[32] ‏א״ר יהושע בן לוי מאי דכתיב צרור המור רודי לי בן סרי ילין אמר׳
כגסת ישׁראל לפגי הקב״ה רב״שע אף ע״ס שמיצר ומימר לי דורי גף שרי ילין
אשכול הכופר דודי לי בכרמי עפ גדי מי סהכל טלו מכפר לי על עון גדי סכרמתי
לי מאי משמע דהאי כרמי לישגא דמכניש הרה אמר בר זוטרא בריה דרב נחמן כדתנן
כסא של כינס שכורמי עליו את הכלימ: וא״ר יהושע בן לוי מאי דכתיב לחייר
כערגת הבושם כל דיבור ודיבור שיצא מפי הקב״ה נתמלא כל העולם כולו בשמים
וכּיון שמדיביר ראשון נתמלא דיבור שני להכין הלך חוציא הקב״ה חרוח
מאוצרותיו והיה מעביר ראשון ראשון שו״א שפתותיו שושנים נוטפות מור עובר אל
היקרי שושנים אלא ששונים: וא״ר יהושע בן לוי כל דיבור וריבור שיצא מפי
הקב״ה יצתה נשמתן של ישראל שנ״א נפשי יצאה בדברו ומאחר שמדיבור ראשון יצתה
נשמתן דיבור שני היאן קיבלו הוריד טל שעתּיד להחיות בו מתים והחיה אותם
שנא״ נשם נרבות חניף אלהים נחלת. ונלאה אתה כוננתה. מסנת שבת פח‎

[33] Daily Bible Illustrations, the Song of Songs, p. 449.

[34] Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Zweite Auflage, Erster Theil,
Erste Abtheilung, § 82, p. 401.

[35] The Hebrew word ‏יין‎, consisting of two ‏יי‎ 20, and ‏ן‎ 50,
caused this explanation. This mode of interpretation is called
‏גֵימַטְרִיָּא‎, Gematria, γεωμετρία, each letter of the word being taken
according to its numerical value and the text interpreted accordingly.

[36] This interpretation is derived from reducing the word ‏בך‎ to its
numerical value, 22. See note on verse 1.

[37] Vide supra, p. 26.

[38] Hieros. Berach. p. 3. b.

[39] Vide supra, p. 26.

[40] Ibid. p. 28.

[41] Comp. Wolfii Bibl. Rabbin. Vol. i. pp. 932–936; Ewald und Dukes,
Beiträge zur Geschichte der Alten Auslegung und Spracherklärung des
Alten Testamentes, Zweites Bändchen, p. 5, seqq. We must confess that
Dukes’ arguments, here produced against the genuineness of this
commentary, appear inconclusive. Such an allegorical exposition is just
what might have been expected from Saadias, judging from his
predilection for Rabbinisms and allegorising, which appears in his
translation of the Pentateuch. Moreover, ‏רבים מההלקים‎ does not
necessarily imply commentaries written before Saadias, but may refer to
the opinions of some of his contemporaries. It is, however, probable
that the translator of it into Hebrew has omitted some verbal
explanations, deeming them unnecessary for his purpose.

[42] ‏שיר השירים דע אחי כי תמצא רבים מתחלקים בפירוש שיר השירים ובאמת הם
מתהלקימ שנמשל שיר השירים למנעולים שברחו מפתחותיהן ויש אומרים שהוא נאמר
על מלכות בני ישראל ויש אומרים על ימות המשיח ויש אומרים בעבור הגלרת
ומשיה ואומרים כי דודי הוא משיח וכלה התורה וזה חטא וטעות גדול וראש
כפרנות, אבל האמת כי דודי הק״בה שנאמר אשירה נא לידידי שירת דודי לכרמו ו
פרש אותו ישעיה הנביא ואמר כי כרם ה׳ צבאות בית ישראל וזכר שלמה בזה הספר
מיציאת מצרים עד אחר ימות המשיח והמשיל לישראל עם הק״בה לחתן עם כלה שהוא
קרוב אליה והיא קרובה אליו וכשבא עמה בראשונה מבית אביה קראה רעיתי
וכשהגיע עמה לביתו קראה כלתי וכשמצאה חן בעיניו קרא אותה אחותי ושבח אותה
מהראש ועד הרגלים וכשקצף עליה אחר כך שבה היא והללה אותו מהראש ועד הרגליﬦ
אחר כך שב הוﬡ והלל אותה פעם שניה ובשלﬡ נכון לבﬡ החתן עﬦ הכלה אלﬡ בשטר
ועדיﬦ לכך תחלﬨ דבור שלמה אמר ישקני מנשיקוﬨ פיהו הטעﬦ הﬦ המצות והחקיﬦ
שנתן הק״כה לישראל ל ידי מושה ואהרן ומדים הצדיקים והוא תורה שבכתב ותורה
שבל פה ד שיבא לישראל שם טוב בערלם בחכמתם שנאמר ויבא לך שם בגוים ביופיך
כי כליל הוא עד שרבו אומות העולם להכנס תהת כנפי חשכינה ולהתגייר והם ערב
רב ויתרו ואהרים ולכך אמר לריח שמניך טובים והטעם שנסה הק״בה ממצרים עד
בּואם בארץ כנען אם הולכים בדרכיו שנאמר לכתך אחרי במדכר כארץ וגו״.‎

‏משכני הטעם אומר בזה הפסוק הילוך ישרﬡל בירﬡת קב ׳ה וכיון ששמעו עשר
דברות בששה כסיון ועשיית העגל בי ׳ז בתמוז תמה שלמה ואמר בעבורם‎

‏שחורה אני הטעם שחורה ונﬡוה שחורה בעבודת העגל ונאוה בשומען עשר דברות
ואמרו ישראל ששכח עונם בשלשת אלפי איש רשעי ישראל שעבדו ע ׳ז שהרגו נגד
השמש לכפר חטא גדול שנאמר כ, אתה עשית בסתר ואני ﬡעשה נגד כל ישראל ונגד
השמש והאומות שמוני נוטרת עבודת אלהים אחרים שעבדתי עבודה זרה שנאנמר
וימירו את כבודם בתכנית שור אוכל עשב‎

[43] Vide Sachs, Religiöse Poesie der Juden in Spanien, p. 267. Zunz,
die Synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters, pp. 63, 64.

[44] This refers to the giving of the Law, and God’s speaking face to
face. Compare the Chaldee on the verse.

[45] Through receiving the law Israel was anointed, i.e., became wise,
and the fame of their wisdom was diffused abroad. Compare Saadias on
the passage.

[46] i.e., Let the guiding Pillar allure us in the path of obedience.

[47] i.e., Swarthy through the sin of the calf, comely through the
reception of the Law. Compare the Chaldee.

[48] Zunz, Zeitschrift für die Wissenschaft des Judenthums, 1823, p.
272, seqq. Jost, Allgemeine Geschichte des Israelitischen Volkes,
Zweiter Band, p. 374.

[49] Introduction to the Commentary.

[50] Introduction to the Commentary.

[51] Commentar zu Kohelot und dem Hohen Liede von R. Samuel ben Meier
herausgegeben von Adolph Jellineck. Leipz. 1855. This Commentary has
just been published for the first time, edited by the learned Adolph
Jellineck, who constantly enriches the Hebrew literature by bringing
before the public some ancient writings.

[52] See Zunz, zur Literatur und Geschichte, i. 70, 71.

[53] Introduction to the Commentary.

[54] See Reland, Analecta Rabbinica, Vitæ celeberrimorum Rabbinorum, p.
69–80. Fürst, Biblioth. Judaica, i. p. 251–257. Herzog,
Realencyklopädie, art. Aben Ezra.

[55] Introduction to the Second Gloss.

[56] Introduction to the First Gloss.

[57] Preface to the Commentary.

[58] ‏פירוש ׳ן כספי. אמר יוסין כספי אחר שקדﬦ לזו פי׳ קהלת ומשלי שהבר
שלמה ע״ה בחכמתו ראוי לנו שנכתוב דברים מה בפי׳ שיר השירים שחבר גם כן
שלמה ע ״ה, ואין אני צריך לפרש המלות כי כבר פירשוﬦ לפני, לכן לﬡ אדבר רק
על כונת הספר הזה בכלל, וארמוז רמזים בפרטיﬦ, זגם זאת הכוונה לא מלבי, כי
המאור המאיר לאדץ האיר עינינו בזה כשהודיעו זה ובפרט פרק נ״ﬡ משלשי, ודי
בו באוהו רמז לנו ולדומ׳ לנו, ולכן אומר שאין ספק אצלי שזה הספר הוא מן
ממין השוי מן המשלים שזכר המורה ז״ל בתחלת ספרו שאיז כל מלה יש במשל לענין
הנמשל כמו שהוﬡ הענין באותה הפרשה שזכר שגﬦ הוﬡ מעניני החשוק והחשוקה כמו
שהוﬡ ענין זה הספר, רק שאין העניניﬦ שוים בוה, כי אותו הספור הוﬡ משל
לדבוק החמרי והצורה הטכעית, וזה הספר הוﬡ משל לדבוק השכל הפועל עם שכל
האדם, שהוא נחלק לד׳ מינים, זהנכבד שבם הוא השכל הנאצל, ולכן כוון שלמה
ע״ה לרמזו בכל זה הספר בפרט ואם הענין נאות לכלל, ולכן היותר מדוקדק הוא
שקרא היפה בנשים זה הכח היותר יקר, וקרﬡ הרוד הנעים השכל הפעל. אבל ג״כ
כוון לרמוז על כלל הנפש המדברת, פי זה צריך במשלנו בכמה מקומות בזה הספר,
וידוע כי זה השכל הפועל הוﬡ‎ ‏המניע המעורר ואת הנפש עד שיבﬡ מן הכח אל
הפועל, כמו שירוע ליודע החכמות, וגם תצטרך הנפש שתדרוש אותו שכתו״, אם
תדרשו וימצﬡ לך, ואחר שיבארנו וה הענין בכלל, אין לנו צורך מבאר פרטי
המאמרים ואין טעﬦ מיוחר במכוון רק במעט מהם להעיר על זה ער שרובו שהוﬡ
כללו אינו רק יפויים ותקויים דרך מלאכת השיר וידועת הגיון וזה הודיענו
שלמה ע״ה בראש ספרו וﬡ׳ שיר השירים, יודע עוד ענין כולל והוא כי שלמה ע״ה
חבר ג, ספרים הנמצאים בידינו, ובעבור שדבור הנביאים ע״ה הוﬡ על ג, מינינ
שכלו נגלה ופשוטו אין בו תוך כלל, וזה נקרﬡ כלו כסף, והאחד שכלו נסתר אין
בו גנלה רק משל ודמיון נמור, וזה כלו זהב, והאחד שיש בו נסתר וגננלה, אשר
זה יכונה תפנחי זהב, לכן תבר שלמה ע״ה נ׳ הספרים, והיה קהלת מן המין
הראשון, ושיר השירימ מן המין הב׳ ומשלי מן המין השלישי, וזכור זה והקש על
זה בתורה ובכל כתבי הקדש והנביאים ע״ה אך במאמר ובמאמר בסכנה נדבר בזה
נחליף מין במין עד שנחליף חי במות, כי זה יביאנו לא׳ מב׳ טעיות אם הניתם
במאמרם מה שהוא כזב ושקר, ומה שלא היה כוונת האומר אותו ולא יהיה א״כ מה
שנא׳ אנחגו גקרא פירש אבל הוא חביר ותדוש ספר, ולא אקרא אגי פירש אלא א״כ
נכא עד תכלית כווגת המחבר הספר, ופני הספר יוכיחו במין מין בחינת זכי המוח
וטובו השכל המתישבים כי לא נוכל לעשות מופתים נמורי על זה, ודיכי האמת עד
לעצמו, עוד דע עגין יקר והוא כי בזה כוון למשה ע״ה כמו שכוון ביתר ספריו,
וכן כל הנביאים ע״ה לפרש מלות ושמות נפררות שבאו בתורת משה ובפרט ממה
שכתוב בתורה כעגין מעשה בראשית ומעשה מרכבה שזהו עקר התירת, נשמע הפלנת‎
‏תחבולת המלאכה שעשו הנביאים ע״ה ואחריהם ר׳ז׳ל בספריהם כאשר רצן להעמיק
רמז לא יזכדו שם למלה כמו שהם בתירה אבלל ימירוהו בשם ומלה אחרת שהוה כמו
נרדף לראשון ע״ד יין וחמר פ־דס, ומזה המין הפלגת בדבר ר׳ז׳ל כי לא נעלמה
מהם חכמה, אבל ׳לא צריכים אנחנו בזה ודי באלו הע־ות זה הספר לפי כוונתינו,
ולאל ההודאה ית׳ שמ אמן.‎

[59] ‏שיר השירים אשר לשלמה אמר עמגואל ב׳כ׳ר שלמה ז׳צ׳ל אחרי הודות ל׳ה
ית׳ על טוב גמולותיו, אומר כי הספר הזה על דעה רבותי׳ ז׳ל דוא מבתר הספרימ
שנאמרו ברוח הקודש. ונחלקו המפרשים בבארו, והתחלפו דעותיהם בו כפי התחלפות
הכרתם, כי קצתם והﬦ אותם שלא נפרדו מהמורגש, והתכלית אשר אליו עיניהם
נשואות וכלות אליו כל היום, הוא יקר העולם הזה ותפארתו, והגמול הגדול אשר
אליו ייחלו חלף עבודתם ומשכורתם מאת האלהים, שובם לגדולתם אל ארץ זבת חלב
ודבש, ולמלאות כריסם מבשר לויתן, ומורם מן היין המשומר בענביו יפרשו הספר
הזה הנכבד, שידבר מספור מעשי האבות, ורדתם למצרים, וצאתם משם ביד חזקה
ובזרוע נטויה, וקבולם התורה, ובואם אל ארץ זבת חלב ודבש, ועמידת ישראל
בארץ, וגלותם ממנה, ושובם אל הארץ בבנין בית שני, וגלותם משם שנית,
והגאולה העתידה, והם יחשבו שיהיה הספר הזה שהוא קודש קדשים, כאחד מן
הספרים ההמונים, וכספרי דברי הימים אשר לאחד מן המלכים אשר תועלתם מועט
והקריאה בהם אבוד הזמן. וקצת מן החכמים האלהים אשר השיגו מעלת החכמה
האמיתית, ונפרדו מהמורגש, ובזו לענינים הזמנים, ונכספה גם כלתה נפשם
לחצרות ה׳, וכשתהיינה עומדות רגליהם בירושלם שלמעלה, ולבם ובשרם ירננו אל
אל חי, פשטו לבושי הכסילות מעליהם, ולבשו מחלצות השכל, וחקרו בדעתם סודות
הספר הזה היקר, וראו דרך נקבי משכיות הכסף, אשר אל תפוחי משל הזהב הטמון
בקרבו, ועברו ימיו באני שכלם, והוציאו פשטו מתהומותיו, וגזרו אומר שהספר
הזה חובר לבאר ולגלות בו אפשרות שוב השכל הנפרד המעורר צורת הנפש המשכלת
והמשפיע עליה שפע טובו, והרעיה משל אל השכל החמרי, המשתוקק אל שפה השכל
הפועל, וכוסף להדמות אליו כפי היכולת להדבק בו, ולשוב במדרגתו שהוא התכלית
המכוון ממנו. והחכמים האלהים אשר קדם זכרם, זכרו כוונת הספר הזה בכלל,
ובארו קצת פסוקיו דרך העברה, ולא בארו הספר הזה על הסדר מראשו לסופו, עד
שבא החכם המפורשם ר׳ משה אבן תיבון, ובאר הספר הזה על דרך החכמה, והוא מלא
חכמת וכליל יופי, אלא שעבר על קצת פרטיו, ולא הזכיר המכוון בהם. ובראות
חכמי דורינו מה שכתב החכם הנזכר, נכספו לבוא אל חדריו, והפצירו בו בגזירת
האהבה, לחבר באור הספר הזה על הדרך אשר דרך החכם הנזכר, ולהעמיק על פרטיו,
ולחדש בהם חדושים לא נזכרו בספרו, ולהעמיד פשטי הספר הזה גם כן על
מתכונתם, ביד ה׳ הטובה עלי. ובראתי כי ידם עלי חזקה, ולמלאות בקשתם חובה,
אזרתי בעז מתני, וחברתי באור הספר הזה כפי קוצר השגתי, ודרכתי דרך החכמה
הנזכר, והזכרתי קצת מדבריו, ושניתי בקצתם, והותרתי וחסרתי כפי מה שהראוני
מן השמים, וזה החלי לעשות. וראוי שנזכר בתחלה כונת הספר הזה בכללו וחלוק
פרשיותיו. ואומר כי כל החכמים האמתיים, אשר נדבה רוחם אותם לדבר בבאור
הספר הזה על דרך החכמה, ראו בעין שכלם שהספר הזה נחלק לשלשה חלקים
ראשונים. החלק הראשון הוא מתחלת הספר עד על משכבי בלילות. החלק השני הוא
מן על משכבי בלילות עד אני ישנה. החלק השלישי הוא מן אני ישנה ולבי ער עד
סוף הספר. והשלוש פרשיות הנזכרות הם רמז לשלשה מיני בני אדם ובאור זה.‎

‏הפרשה הראשונה והיא מתחלת הספר עד על משכבי בלילות, הוא המשל על האדם
שהיה בגן עדן בכח או בפעל, קודם שחטא, כל זמן שלא הוציא לפועל בחירתו לטוב
או לרע, באמרו ויטע האלהים גן בעדן מקדם וישם שם את האדם אשר יצר ויצמח ה׳
אלהים מן האדמה כל עץ נחמד למראה וטוב למאכל ועץ החיים בתוך הגן ועץ הדעת
טוב ורע, והרשהו י״ת וצוהו מכל עץ הגן, ויורהו ה׳ עץ לבלתי אכול ממנו פן
ימות באמרו ומעץ הדעת טוב ורע לא תאכל ממנו כי ביום אכלך ממנו מות תמות
ואם היה בבחירת האדם לאכול מעץ החיים ואכל וחי לעולם בלא פצע ובלא פגע רע
באמרו ראה נתתי לפניך את החיים ואת הטוב ואת המות ואת הרע ובחרת בחיים
למען תחיה  וזה משל על מי שישתדל ללמוד החכמה על סדר וירא פן יחרד מהביט
אל האלהים בראותו שאין פירותיו מבושלים והוא אמרו בפרשה הזאת הראשונה סוב
דמה לך דודי לצבי או לעפר האילים על הרי בתר  ואמרו אחזו לנו שועלים קטנים
מחבלים כרמים וכרמינו סמדר וזה מורה כי עדיין לא נתבשלו הפירות ולא הזכירה
הרעיה הנזכרת בזאת הפרשה הראשונה שאכלה מהפירות כי אמרה בצלו חמדתי וישבתי
ופריו מתוקי לחקי הוא ספור חשקה והעד חמדתי וטעם פריך דבריו וחכמתו ומוסרו
ובכל זאת הפרשה הראשונה מדברת בענין שכל האדם בעודו נער שלא הוציא לפועל
מיציאותו המכוון ממנו וכחות הגוף גוברות עליו ושלא השתדל כי אם בלימודיות
ובטבעיות  וזאת הפרשה הנזכרת נחלקת לשני חלקים החלק הראשון הוא מתחילת
הספר ער קול דודי זה בא והוא משל למי שהוא ירא ה׳ וסר מרע ויורע השם י״ת
דרך קבלה ואין בו שום חכמה  ומן קול דודי הנה זה בא עד סוף הפרשה הראשונה
משל אל מי שלמד חכמת הלמודים וחכמת הטבע‎

‏והפרשה השנית שהיא מן על משכבי בלילות עד אני ישנה הוא משל אל מי שמצא
אשת חיל  אל אישה תשוקתה  מבקשת דודה על משכבה ואשר בטח בה לב בעלה והוציא
לפועל מה שהיה בו בכח ושלח ידו ולקח גם מעץ החיים ואכל וחי לעולם הוא אמרו
בזאת הפרשה השנית כמעט שעברתי מהם עד שמצאתי את שאהבה נפשי אחזתיו ולא
ארפנו עד שהבאתי אל בית אמי ואל חדר הורתי  והזכיר יום חתונתו ויום שמחת
לבו שהוא יום הנשואים והדבוק האמתי, ושהיה לו מטה באמרו הנה מטתו שלשלמה,
ושעשה לו אפריון, ושהגיע למלוכה, ואמר׳ המלך שלמה ובמלך שלמה מה שלא הזכיר
בן בשאר הפרשיות, כי לא הזכיר בהם כי אם שלמה ושולמית בלשון נקבה לפחיתותה
והדוד העיד על רעיתו שמצאה גן נעול ושהיו שלחיה פרדס רמונים עם פרי מגדים
כלומר אפי׳ מה שהרוב מהם הוא חמוץ הוא מתוק וערב ומבושל, והעיד כי כֻלָּהּ יפה
ומום אין בה, וקראה כלה ששה פעמים מה שלא עשה כן בשאר, כלל כי היא אשתו
האמיתית והמיוחדת לו מכל וכל, וחלתה פני דודה שיבוא לגנו ויאכל פרי מגדיו,
כלומ׳ הפירות שלו והראוים לו, והוא שהזכיר הוא באמרו שלהיך פרדס רמונים עם
פרי מגדים, לא שתתן היא לבעלה ותאכילהו מהפירות הראוים לאשה הנשמעת לדברי
הנחש והנסתת לו. והדוד העיד על עצמו שבא לגנו, ואכל ושתה ושהאכיל והשקה
רעיו, ושעשה להם משתה, כי במשול צדיקים תעלוז קריה, והוא אמ׳ באתי לגני
אחתי כלה אריתי מורי עם בשמי אכלתי יערי עם דבשי שתיתי ייני עם חלבי אכלו
רעים שתו ושכרו דודים. וזה שלח ידו ולקח מעץ החיים ואכל וחיי לעולם, בלא
פצע ובלא מכה, ועבר שלשתם על הסדר ונכנס בהם בשלום ויצאה בשלום. והענין
שעבר כולם והשלימם על סדר בלא הריסה ובלא טעות, וכחותיו החמריות, והם
השומרים הסובבים בעיר, וכל שכן השכליות, והם שומרי החומות, כלם כאחד טובים
ומישרים אליו הדרך, לא שיעותו דרכה ויבטלו או יאחרו פעלתה, עד כי שאלה
משומרי העיר את שאהבה נפשי ראיתם, ולרוב ישרם ושלמות דעתם כאלו הם רואים
ומראים, ואמנם לא הושיבו לה דבר, כי אין מטבעם להראותו, אבל כמעט שעברה
מהם ורחקה מהם רוחק מועט, מצאה דודה והתחברה עמו, באמרה כמעט שעברתי מהם
עד שמצאתי את שאהבה נפשי אחזתיו ולא ארפנו עד שהביאתיו אל בית אמי ואל חדר
הורתי. יעשר מטה ואפיריון וחדוה, ושמחה ומשתה כאשר בארנו. וזאת הפרשה
השניה גם כן נחלקת לשני חלקים. החלק הראשון הוא מן על משכבי בלילות עד מי
זאת עולה מן המדבר והחלק השני הוא מן מי זאת עולה עד אני ישנה והחלק השני
הוא באור החלק הראשון.‎

‏והפרשה השלישית שהיא מן אני ישנה עד סוף הספר הוא משל אל אדם שיש לו אשה
חוטאת, הנסתת לנפש המתאוה, והנשמעה אליו, ואשר אכלה מעץ הדעת טוב ורע,
ותתן גם לאישה עמה ויאכל, ואמרו עמה, כי האדם לא יוכל לאכול ממנו, כי אם
עמה, כי לא גלה הקב״ה אותו לאדם, ולא עתיד לגלותו, ואין לו בו שליחות יד,
כי אם על יד האשה כי היא אשר תמצאהו ואש׳ תקחהו, והיא אשר תרדוף ההנאות,
ונמשכת אחר התאות, זאת אישה לא בקשה לפני משכבה, ולא המתינה לו, והלכה
לישן והפשיטה בגדיה ורגליה רחצה ואצבעותיה מבושמים במור עובר לנצחי וקיים
גם התעצלה לפתוח מהר, וקול דודה דופק, ואמ׳ פתחי לי אחותי רעיתי וגו׳.
ואמנם אחר כן משל בה אישה, והיתה בעלת תשובה, כי לא נשקעה בשינה, אבל היה
לבה ער, ופתחה לדודה בעצלותה הגדול, והנה דודה חמק עבר ובקשותהו ולא
מצאתהו וקראתהו ולא ענה אותה, ומצאוה שומרי החומות והשומרים הסובבים בעיר
והכוה ופצעוה ונשאו את רדידה מעליה, והענין שכולם עותו דרכה ומנעו אותה
מהשיג דודה, כי קשה להם לפרוש אחרי אשר טעמו טעם חטא, עד כי לא נזכר בתורה
באדם אחרי שגורש מגן עדן ששלח ידו ולקח מעץ החיים ושב ורפא לו, א׳ע׳פ שהיה
לו היכולת בזה באמרו ועתה פן ישלח ידו ולקח גם מעץ החיים ואכל וחי לעולם,
ש׳ר׳ל הלואי ישלח ידו כי צדיק ה׳ צדקות אהב ולא אל חפץ רשע הוא באמרו חי
אני נאום ה׳ אם אחפוץ במות הרשע כי אם בשוב רשע מדרכו וחי, ועם כל זה לא
נזכר בתורה שאכל מעץ החיים אחר כך, ואולי הוא רמז כי קרוב הוא לנמנע, למי
שאכל מעץ הדעת טוב ורע לאכול עוד מעץ החיים ”כי זוג שני קשה לזוגו בקריעת
ים סוף“ שהוא שנוי טבע, א׳ע׳פ שאינו נמנע לגמרי לפי האמת וכן השאיר שלמה
הדבר סָתוּם ואם ספר גורל חשקם אחרי כן, ושבח כל אחד מהם את חבירו כדרך
חושקים, לא נמצא בהם שנדבקו עולם, ושעשו חתונה ומטה ואפיריון ומשתה ושמחה
כדרך איש ואשתו, ואחרית דבריה שהיה דודה מזהיר אותה, ואומר לה חברים
מקשיבים לקולך ואין דרך האשה להשמיע קולה לבחורים ”כי קול באשה ערוה“ וחלה
פניה להשמיע לו קולה ולא לאחר, והיא העזה פניה ותאמר לו, ברח דודי ודמה לך
לצבי או לעופר האיילים על הרי בשמים, כאלו היו החברים הבעלים, והדור היה
החושק מסתתר ובורה מפניהם פן יפגעו בו. והפרשה הזאת גם כן נחלקת לשני
חלקים, החלק האחד הוא מאני ישנה ער מי זאת עולה והחלק השני מן מי זאת עולה
עד סוף הספר, והחלק השני באור לחלק הראשון. זאת היא הלוקת הספר לפי מה
שהסכימו החכמים אשר דברו בבאור הספר הזה.‎

[60] De Rossi, pp. 114–117. Fürst, Bibl. Jud., vol. i. pp. 82–84.

[61] ‏ויהי כאשר האליצוני ומתרדת שנתי הקיצוני התבוננתי בפירושים אשר
הגיעו לידי ואמתיק סודו והנם חלוקים ואם להתכוין את המשל כולם דבקים, מהם
מי שפירש אותו בדקדוק מלותיו ונעם מליצותיו וחשק האהבה הכלולה כי יבעל
בחור בתולה והניח המשל מגזר מכל סביביו היין השומר בענבו, מהם מי שפרש
אותו בין הגוף והנשמה, אשה אות חכמה המעורות אל הדרך הישרה להיות לו מגן
ועורה, וזכר האריך לדבר הוסיף וגרע ודרש וחבר, מהם מי שפירש אותו על דרך
המדרש והסתום אספ ודרש ובכל אשר לעשות הפליא כאלי הריק מכלי אל כלי, מהם
מי שפירש אותו על דרך ענין הפסוקים לכונתו בצע אמרתו באמרו כי כולו
דמיובים ביציאת השכלים מן הכח אל הפועל אשובו על ירמיון הדוד הוא השכל
הפועל בחכמה והחשוקה היה הנפש השלימה והנריל גוף הספר במאמריו ונכרים באו
שעריו עד אשר הקורא בו בלשונו רכל נלאתי כלכל לא אוכל ואם זה היתה כונת
החכם שלמה בשירו מה הועיל שבחו וזמרו יתר מזה ראש הפלוסופים בקצר ענין
ובנה עליו בנין על כל יאמר בעזני בספר מלחמות ה׳ אין זה כונת השיר ותפארתו
אשר היתה באמנג אתו.‏‎

From a MS. in the possession of the Bodleian. Oppenheim Collection, No.
261.

[62] De Rossi, pp. 294, 295.

[63] Fürst, Bib. Jud. vol. i. p. 187.

[64] This commentary is erroneously called Tamach’s, the euphemic
expression ‏תמ״ך‎, i.e. ‏תְּהִי מְנוּחָתוֹ כָבוָר‎, used for the departed, being
mistaken for a proper name. Vide Fürst, Bib. Jud. vol. ii. p. 243.

[65] Ibid. vol. i. p. 314.

[66] Ibid. vol. i. pp. 41, 42.

[67] Vide Magnus, Das Hohe Lied Salomo’s, p. 26.

[68] De Amore dial., c. iii. Delitzsch im Literaturblatt des Orients,
1840, No. 6, &c.

[69] Melizat Jeshurun. Vienna, 1816.

[70] Gottesdienstliche Vorträge. Berlin, 1832, p. 334.

[71] 1834—Dr. Zunz also wrote a valuable introduction to Rebenstein’s
Commentary on the Song of Songs (Berlin, 1834), in which he gives a
catalogue of Hebrew writers on this book, existing in MS. I am sorry
that all my exertions to obtain it have proved abortive.

[72] Vierter Band., p. 367.

[73] Israelitische Bibel, Dritter Theil. 1854, pp. 660, 661.

[74] The following is a list of the names of some of the commentators
and their works, selected from a large number of authors who have
written upon this book, and which we could not analyse in our
historical sketch.

Abi-Simra, ‏מִכְתָּם לְדָוד‎ (printed, according to de Rossi, at
Constantinople). Affendopulo, ‏סֵ׳ עֲשָׂרָה מַאֲמָרוֹת‎ (Dod Mordechai, c. 3,
Vienna, 1830). Allemanno, ‏חֶשֶׁק שְׁלֹמֹה‎. Almosneno, ‏יְדֵי מֹשֶׁה‎ (Venice,
1597). Arepol, ‏שַׂר שָׁלוֹם‎ (Ssafet, 1579). Asulai, ‏נַחַל אֶשְׁכּוֹל‎, and ‏פְּנֵי
חַמָּח‎ (Leghorn, 1800.) Bär. b. Naphtali, ‏מַתְּנוֹת כְּהֻנָּה‎ (Amsterdam, 1725).
Baruch b. Isaac, ‏זָרַע בַּרַכְ‎ (Amsterdam, 1730). Birs, ‏שִׁירָה לְדָוִד‎
(Grodno, 1797). Chiquitilla, in MS. Cohen, ‏זְקַן אַהֲרֹן‎ (Venice, 1657).
Eliezer b. Judah, ‏יֵין הָרֶקַח‎ (Lublin, 1608). Elijah b. Salomon-Abraham,
‏בִּ אוּר עַל ג׳מְגִלּוֹת‎, in MS. Gensburg, ‏נַסְתָּלִי שְׂבַע רָצוֹן‎ (Hamburg, 1708).
Jaabez, ‏קֹדָשׁ הִלּוּלַים‎ (in Frankfurter’s Bible, Amsterdam, 1724–27). Ibn
Jaehaj (in the Amsterdam Rab. Bible, 1724). Ibn Jaish, ‏מָקוֹר בָּררּך עַל
שה״ש‎ (Constantinople, 1576). Jacob b. Isaac, ‏צְאָינָה וּרְאֶינָה‎ (Berlin,
1709). Jacob b. Joel, ‏שְׁאֵרִית יַעֲקֹב‎ (Altona, 1727). Jacob-Lissa, ‏אִמְרֵי
יֹשֶׁר‎ (Dyrhenfurt, 1815–19). Joseph-Jossel, ‏פּוֹרָת יוֹסֵף‎ (Wandsbeck,
1727). Kara, in MS. Dav. Kimchi, in MS. Landsberger, ‏שׁוֹמֵר אֱמוּניִם‎
(Offenbach, 1724). Lando, ‏נִקֻדוֹת הַכֶּסֶף‎ (Venice, 1619). Libowitzer, ‏סֵ׳
אַיֶּלֶת אֲהָבִים‎ (Korez, 1791), Loanz, surnamed Baal Shem, ‏רִנַּת דּוֹדִים‎
(Basle, 1606). Löw b. Joshua, ‏לֵב אַרְיֵה‎ (Wilmersdorf, 1674). Saul Löw,
‏בִנְיַן אֲרִיאֵל‎ (Amsterdam, 1778). Meyer (Frankfort on the Main, 1679).
Solomon Ibn Melech, ‏מִכְלַל יֹפִי‎ (Amsterdam, 1661). Salomon b. Jacob
(Prague, 1628).

[75] Origenes Selecta in Psalmos 1. Hieronymus Apologia adversus
Rufinum. See on this subject Frankel, Monatschrift, 1852, p. 219, and
Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, Vierter Band, p. 279.

[76] Davidson, Introduction to the Old Testament, &c., p. 790.

[77] Comp. Hieronymus ad Pamachium; Prefacio in Paralipomena, in
Tobiam, in Job. To his ingratitude and bitter vituperations against the
Jews, this people may trace many of their subsequent sufferings from
so-called Christians. (Com. Hiero. adversus Rufinum ii., Graetz,
Geschichte der Juden, Vierter Band, p. 462.)

[78] Bernardi Oper. vol. ii. (Paris, 1719), p. 276, et seqq.

[79] “Ecclesia humilis et abjecta inter hostes saeculi, et hoc fuit
usque ad tempus Constantini.”

[80] Comment. in Cant. Canticor.

[81] Homil. xxxii.

[82] Bib. Sac., book vi. haer. xiii. p. 664.

[83] An Exposition upon the Book of Canticles. London, 1624, p. 2.

[84] A Commentary on the Canticles. Amsterdam, 1644, p. 2.

[85] Annotations upon the Five Books of Moses, the Book of the Psalms,
and the Song of Songs (London, 1639), pp. 4, 5.

[86] Est ὀαριστὺς inter Salomonem et filiam regis Aegypti,
interloquentibus etiam choris duobus tum juvenum tum virginum, qui in
proximis thalamo locis excubabant. Nuptiarum arcana sub honestis
verborum involucris hic latent: quae etiam causa est, cur Hebraei
veteres hunc librum legi noluerint nisi a jam conjugio proximis.
Creditur autem Salomon, quo magis perennaret hoc scriptum, ea arte id
composuisse, ut sine multa distorsione ἀλληγορίαι in eo inveniri
possent; quae Dei amorem adversus populum Israeliticum exprimerent;
quod et sensit et ostendit Chaldaeus hic paraphrastes, nec aliter
accepit Maimonides. Ille autem amor typus cum fuerit amoris Christi
erga ecclesiam, Christiani ingenia sua ad applicanda ad eam rem hujus
carminis verba exercuerunt laudabili studio. Nam et Apostoli Christi
cum ecclesia conjunctionem matrimonio comparaverant. Eph. v. 32; 2 Cor.
ii. 2; Apoc. vii. 8. Annot. in Vet. Test.

[87] Vide Opera Cocceii, Tom. viii. fol. Amstel. Tom. ii. Synopsis et
Medulla prophet. Cantici.

[88] A brief Exposition of the whole book of Canticles (London, 1648),
p. 4.

[89] A Commentary upon the Book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song
of Songs (London, 1650), pp. 174, 175.

[90] Comm. Apocalypticus in Canticum Canticorum, 1688.

[91] Praef. in Cant. Paris, 1693.

[92] Paraphrase and Annotations on the Song of Songs, in loco.

[93] Preface to the Exposition of the Song of Solomon.

[94] Clavis Cantici, or an Exposition of the Song of Solomon
(Edinburgh, 1723), pp. 11, 12.

[95] Exposition, pp. 103, 106.

[96] A Supplement to Whiston’s late Essay towards restoring the true
text of the Old Testament (London, 1723), pp. 5, 7.

[97] An Exposition of the book of Solomon’s Song, &c. (London, 1854),
p. 10.

[98] See Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, Lect. xxx.; p.
345, Gregory’s Translation, Third Edition.

[99] Preface to the Song of Solomon, newly translated from the original
Hebrew, with a Commentary and Annotations, London, 1764.

[100] Explanatory Notes upon the Old Testament, by John Wesley,
(Bristol, 1765.) Vol. III. p. 1926.

[101] The Outlines of a new Commentary on Solomon’s Song, London, 1768;
second edition, 1775, pp. 74, 75, 81.

[102] Notes to Bishop Lowth’s Praelectiones.

[103] Das durch eine leichte und ungekünstelte Erklärung von seinen
Vorwürfen gerettete Hohelied, 1771.

[104] Vide supra, pp. 46, 56.

[105] Critical Remarks on Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles,
1772.

[106] Umschreibung des Hohenliedes, oder die Gemeine mit Christo und
den Engeln im Grabe, nebst andern biblischen Erklärungen. Herausgegeben
von D. Conrad Heinrich Runge. Bremen, 1776.

[107] Salomon’s Lieder der Liebe, &c. Herder’s Sämmtliche Werke in
vierzig Bänden, Dritter Band, pp. 82, 83. Stuttgart und Tübingen, 1852.

[108] Sammlung der Gedichte Salomons, &c. Hamm, 1780.

[109] A poetical Translation of the Song of Solomon, London, 1781.

[110] Solomon’s Song, translated from the Hebrew, by Bernard Hodgson,
LL.D. Principal of Hertford College, Oxford, 1786.

[111] Vide supra, p. 58.

[112] Neueste Uebersetzung des Hohen Liedes, Basel, 1789; see Magnus,
Comment, p. 26.

[113] Salomon’s verschmähte Liebe, oder die belohnte Treue. Leipzig,
1790.

[114] The Song of Songs, a new translation, with a Commentary and
Notes. London, 1801, pp. 54, 55.

[115] Song of Songs, &c., translated from the original Hebrew, with
Notes, critical and explanatory. London, 1803, Preface pp. xii. xiii.
xiv.

[116] Das Hohelied, in einer noch unversuchten Deutung. Freyburg, 1803.

[117] Lied der Liebe, das älteste und schönste aus dem Morgenlande.
Göttingen, 1820, second edition, 1828, pp. 20, 21.

[118] Das Hohelied, ein Collectiv-Gesang auf Serubabel, Ezra und
Nehemia, als die Wiederhersteller einer Jüdischen Verfassung in der
Provinz Juda. Erlangen, 1825.

[119] Das Hohelied Salomo’s übersetzt mit Einleitung, Anmerkungen, &c.
Göttingen, 1826.

[120] Philologisch-critischer Commentar zum Hohen Liede Salomo’s.
Leipzig, 1829.

[121] Rosenmüller, Scholia, ix. 2, p. 270.

[122] Script. Test. to the Messiah, vol. i. book i. chap. ii. note A;
and Congregational Magazine for 1837, p. 415.

[123] Congregational Magazine for 1837 and 1838.

[124] For 1838, p. 471, et seq.

[125] Das Lied der Lieder oder Sieg der Treue. Zürich, 1840.

[126] Kritische Bearbeitung und Erklärung des Hohen Liedes Salomo’s.
Halle, 1842.

[127] Critical History and Defence of the Old Testament Canon, p. 360,
ed. Davidson.

[128] A New Translation of the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the
Canticles. Boston, 1846, p. 119.

[129] Ibid. p. 132.

[130] Article in the Biblical Repository for April, 1847, reprinted in
the Journal of Sacred Literature for 1852, p. 338.

[131] Hävernick’s Einleitung in das Alte Testament. Dritter Theil, p.
504.

[132] Das Hohelied untersucht und ausgelegt von Franz Delitzsch.
Leipzig, 1851, pp. 31, 175.

[133] Das Hohe Lied von Salomo, übersetzt und erklärt von Heinrich
Augustus Hahn. Breslau, 1852, p. 7.

[134] Das Hohe Lied Salomonis ausgelegt von W. Hengstenberg. Berlin,
1853, p. 239.

[135] A Commentary on the Song of Solomon, by the Rev. George Burrowes,
Professor in Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. Philadelphia, 1853, pp.
87–90.

[136] Das Hohe Lied in deutscher Uebersetzung, Erklärung, und
kritischer Textausgabe, von Ernst Meier, Professor der Morgenländischen
Sprachen. Tübingen, 1854.

[137] Cantici Canticorum poetica forma; dissertatio Ernesti Fred.
Friedrich. Königsberg, 1855.

[138] Das Hohe Lied erklärt von Ferd. Hitzig. 16te Lieferung des
Kurzgef. exegetischen Handbuch’s zum Alten Testament. Leipzig, 1855.

[139] Monatschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums,
herausgegeben vom Oberrabbiner Dr. Frankel. Leipzig, 1856, p. 215, et
seq.

[140] Geschichte der poetischen National-Literatur der Hebräer von Dr.
Ernst Meier. Leipzig, 1856, p. 215, et seq.

[141] The Text of the Old Testament considered, &c., by Samuel
Davidson, D.D. London, 1856, p. 806.

[142] Herzog’s Real-Encyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und
Kirche. Stuttgart, 1856, vol. vi. p. 220.

[143] Stuart, Critical History and Defence of the Old Testament Canon,
pp. 342, 343, ed. Davidson.

[144] Song of Songs, &c., Preface, p. 19.

[145] An Article on Solomon’s Song, by the Rev. C. E. Stowe, D.D.,
Professor of Biblical Literature, reprinted in Kitto’s Journal of
Sacred Literature, 1852, pp. 331, 332.

[146] Reply to Dr. Pye Smith, Congregational Magazine for 1838, pp.
148, 149.

[147] Praef. in Canticum Canticorum, Œuvres, tom. i. p. 467, 4to. edit.

[148] Lecture xxxi. p. 350, third edition.

[149] Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, vol.
ii. p. 215, et seqq.

[150] The author of the poem. The singer sometimes puts his own name in
the place of this.

[151] Tá-Há is a name of the Arabian prophet.

[152] Crishna continues to this hour the darling god of the Indian
women. The sect of Hindoos, who adore him with enthusiastic and almost
exclusive devotion, have broached a doctrine which they maintain with
eagerness, and which seems general in those provinces, that he was
distinct from all the Avatars, who had only an ansa, or portion of his
divinity; while Crishna was the person of Vishnu himself in a human
form.—Sir W. Jones, Asiatic Researches, vol. i. p. 260.

[153] Noyes, A New Translation of the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and
Canticles, pp. 130–132.

[154] Historia Crit. Vet. Test. l. i. c. iv. p. 28.

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