diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/69329-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/69329-0.txt | 9729 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 9729 deletions
diff --git a/old/69329-0.txt b/old/69329-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5c31271..0000000 --- a/old/69329-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9729 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Song of Songs, by Christian David -Ginsburg - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Song of Songs - Translated from the Original Hebrew with a Commentary, Historical - and Critical - -Author: Christian David Ginsburg - -Release Date: November 11, 2022 [eBook #69329] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net/, with help of volunteers of - Project Ben-Yehuda (פְּרוְֵֹקט - בֶּן-יְהוּדָה) for the Hebrew text. (This - file was produced from images generously made available by - The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SONG OF SONGS *** - - - - - THE - SONG OF SONGS: - - Translated from the Original Hebrew, - - WITH A - COMMENTARY, HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL. - - - BY - CHRISTIAN D. GINSBURG. - - - שֶׁקֶר הַחֵן וְהֶבֶל הַיֹּפִי - אִשָּׁה יִרְאַת־יְהוָה הִיא תִתְהַלָּל:—Prov. xxxi. 30. - - - LONDON: - LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS. - - 1857. - - - - - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - -Preface vii. -Introduction: - - Section I.—Title of the Book, and its Signification 1 - Section II.—Canonicity of the Book 2 - Section III.—Design and Method of the Book 4 - Section IV.—Importance of the Book 12 - Section V.—Historical Sketch of the Exegesis of the Book 20 - Section VI.—The different Views classified and examined 102 - Section VII.—Author, Date, and Form of the Book 124 - Section VIII.—Exegetical Helps 126 - -Commentary 127 - - - - - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The following is an exposition of the first of the five books called -Megiloth, all of which, having engaged the attention of the Author for -several years, will now, God willing, be brought before the Public in -regular succession. The Author’s aim has been to investigate and -elucidate the true meaning of the original, in accordance with the -established laws of historico-grammatical exegesis, and to show that, -in its literal sense, the Song of Songs teaches a great moral lesson, -worthy of Divine inspiration. - -The resemblance, however, between the narrative here recorded and the -experience of the people of God is striking and apposite. The -Shulamite, espoused to her shepherd, is tempted by a mighty potentate -with riches and pleasures to transfer her affections; but, strengthened -by the power of divine love, she resists all temptation, remains -faithful to her beloved, and is ultimately rewarded. The people of God, -espoused to “the Shepherd and Bishop of their souls,” are tempted by -the prince of this world to forsake their Lord, but, strengthened by -grace divine, they resist all allurements, and eventually receive the -crown of glory. - -The references to Genesius’ and Ewald’s Grammars are to the last -editions, which differ in the numbering of the sections from the -earlier ones; Fürst’s valuable Lexicon, to which frequent reference is -made, is not yet completed. - -The author tenders his hearty thanks to his esteemed friend, the Rev. -Isaac Salkinson of Hamburg; to the Rev. J. M. Charlton, A.M.; the Rev. -R. Robinson, of York-road; the Rev. G. Rogers, of Albany-road; and to -Nathaniel Bridges, Esq., A.M., for perusing the MS. and proofs, and for -kind suggestions. Thanks are also due to those gentlemen in London and -Oxford, who have facilitated the author’s access to MSS. and other rare -works in the British Museum and the Bodleian Library. - -May the Divine Spirit, whose words the Author has attempted to -elucidate, render the attempt profitable to the readers! - - - London: 16, Barkham Terrace, St. George’s, - May, 1857. - - - - - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -SECTION I.—TITLE OF THE BOOK, AND ITS SIGNIFICATION. - -This book is called שִׁיר הַשִּׁירִיﬦ, which is literally translated by the -Septuagint, ᾄσμα ᾀσμάτων, by the Vulgate, Canticum Canticorum, and by -the English Version, Song of Songs; and, according to a Hebrew mode for -expressing the superlative degree by repeating the same noun in the -genitive, denotes the finest, the most beautiful, or the most excellent -Song. Compare עֶבֶד עֲבַדִים, servant of servants, i.e. most abject -servant (Gen. ix. 25); קֹדֶשׁ קָדָשִׁים, holy of holies, i.e. most holy -(Exod. xxix. 37; Numb. iii. 32; Deut. x. 14; Eccl. i. 2; Hos. x. 15; -Jer. vi. 28; Gesenius, Grammar, § 119, 2; Ewald, Lehrbuch, § 313, c). -Medrash Yalkut renders it שִׁיר הַמְּשׁוּבַּח וְהַמְּעוּלֶה בַּשִּׁירִים, a song more -celebrated and sublime than all songs; as Rashi, Ibn Ezra Rashbam, -Luther, and many others. The opinion of Kleuker, &c., that this -interpretation of the Rabbins is more owing to their preconceived -notion of the sublime contents of the book than to the real meaning of -these words, is refuted by Rashbam himself, who, having explained this -phrase by “most excellent song,” refers not to the contents of the book -for its corroboration, but adduces similar constructions of the -superlative from other passages of the Bible, viz., אֶלֹהַי הַאֱלֹהִים, and -אֲדוֹנֵי הַאֲדוֹנִים (Deut. x. 17). Other explanations, such as a song of -songs, i.e. a song from the songs of Solomon (Kimchi), or a collection -of songs (Kleuker), or a chain of songs, or string of strings, -comparing שִׁירֹ with the Chaldee שֵׁיר, שׁוּרָה, Greek σειρὰ, chain -(Velthusen, Paulus, Good, &c.), are contrary to the Hebrew usage of the -word שִׁיר, and the construction of שִׁיר הַשִּׁירִים. More recent -commentators, and even those who regard this book as a collection of -separate songs (as, for instance, Döpke, Magnus, Noyes, &c.) admit that -the Rabbinical interpretation of this title is the only admissible one. -The ל prefixed to שְׁלֹמֹה, is the so-called Lamed auctoris, used in -the inscriptions of Psalms and other Hebrew poems to designate the -author. Comp. Ps. iii. 1; iv. 1, &c. The addition of אֲשֶׁר here, which -is not found in the other inscriptions, is owing to the article in שִׁיר -הַשִּׁירִים, which generally, though not always, is followed by this -pronoun; comp. Gen. xxix. 9; xl. 5; xlvii. 4; 1 Kings iv. 2; Gesen. § -115, 1; Ewald, 292 a. The rendering therefore of אֲשֶׁר לִשְׁלֹמֹה by -respecting Solomon, is contrary to usage, and is rightly rejected by -modern grammarians and lexicographers. - -This Song is the first of the (הָמֵשׁ מְגִילוֹת) five Megiloth, or books -which are annually read in the Synagogues; viz. The Song of Songs on -the Feast of the Passover; Ruth on Pentecost; Lamentations on the Ninth -of Ab; Ecclesiastes on Tabernacles; and Esther on Purim. The present -arrangement of these five books in the Hebrew canon is according to the -order of the festivals on which they are read. - - - - - -SECTION II.—CANONICITY OF THE BOOK. - -This book possesses all the external marks which entitle other writings -to a place in the list of the sacred books. The evidence for its -canonicity is as conclusive as that which is commonly adduced to prove -the canonicity of any other portion of the Old Testament. In the Mishna -Yadim (sect. iii. 5), we find the following testimony respecting it -from R. Akiba, one of the most celebrated Rabbins, who lived at the end -of the first century, and was president of the academy of Bani-Brac: No -Israelite has ever disputed the canonicity of the Song of Songs. No day -in the whole history of the world is of so much worth as the one in -which the Song of Songs was given to Israel; for all the Scriptures are -holy, but the Song of Songs is most holy. Another Rabbi (Simeon b. -Azzai), in the same place, says, I received it from the mouth of the -seventy-two elders, at the time when R. Eliezer b. Azzaria was -appointed Elder, that the Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes are canonical. -[1] We have here positive evidence that this book existed in the canon -in the Apostolic age; and that it was comprised in the sacred books, -which our Lord calls τὰς γραφὰς, the Scriptures, Matt. xxii. 29. It -has, therefore, been transmitted to us both by the Jewish and Christian -churches as canonical. It was translated into Greek, between the years -90 and 130, by Aquila, who was anxious to furnish his Jewish brethren -with a faithful version of the sacred books; and also by Symmachus and -Theodotion, before the end of the second century. It is contained in -the catalogue given in the Talmud; [2] and in the catalogue of Melito, -Bishop of Sardis (fl. 170, A.D.), which he brought from Palestine, -whither this learned and pious prelate expressly travelled to obtain -information respecting the number of the sacred books. [3] Those who in -modern days have questioned the canonicity of this book have done so, -not from external evidence, but from misapprehension of its design. - - - - - -SECTION III.—DESIGN AND METHOD OF THE BOOK. - -We have no sympathy with those who affirm that the Old Testament -Scriptures contain all the national writings which were esteemed -valuable in Hebrew literature, that this Song was placed among those -writings simply because it possessed much poetic beauty, and was -supposed to be the composition of a person so celebrated throughout the -East as Solomon, and that it is destitute of any moral or practical -instructions. We believe that every book of the Old Testament is -inspired; and has, on that account, obtained a place in the Hebrew -Canon. This is the unanimous testimony, not of the Jewish church only, -but is corroborated by Christ and his apostles. Paul, referring to the -Old Testament, most distinctly affirms, that “all Scripture is given by -inspiration of God; and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for -correction, for instruction in righteousness.” 2 Tim. iii. 16. [4] As -this Song undoubtedly formed a part of the Scriptures to which the -apostle alluded, it must, therefore, be inspired, and must serve some -of those purposes of inspiration. - -The particular design of this book has been much disputed. It is here -maintained, that, upon careful examination, it will be found to record -an example of virtue in a young woman who encountered and conquered the -greatest temptations, and was, eventually, rewarded; the simple -narrative of which, divested of its poetic form, is as follows. There -was a family living at Shulem, consisting of a widowed mother, several -sons, and one daughter, who maintained themselves by farming and -pasturage. The brothers were particularly partial to their sister, and -took her under their special care, promising that her prudence and -virtue should be greatly rewarded by them. In the course of time, while -tending the flock, and, according to the custom of the shepherds, -resorting at noon beneath a tree for shelter against the meridian sun, -she met with a graceful shepherd youth, to whom she afterwards became -espoused. One morning, in the spring, this youth invited her to -accompany him into the field; but the brothers, overhearing the -invitation, and anxious for the reputation of their sister, in order to -prevent their meeting, sent her to take care of the vineyards. The -damsel, however, consoled her beloved and herself with the assurance -that, though separated bodily, indissoluble ties subsisted between -them, over which her brothers had no control. She requested him to meet -her in the evening, and as he did not come, she feared that some -accident had befallen him on the way, and went in search of him, and -found him. The evening now was the only time in which they could enjoy -each other’s company, as, during the day, the damsel was occupied in -the vineyards. On one occasion, when entering a garden, she -accidentally came in the presence of King Solomon, who happened to be -on a summer visit to that neighbourhood. Struck with the beauty of the -damsel, the King conducted her into his royal tent, and there, assisted -by his court-ladies, endeavoured with alluring flatteries and promises, -to gain her affections; but without effect. Released from the King’s -presence, the damsel soon sought an interview with her beloved -shepherd. - -The King, however, took her with him to his capital in great pomp, in -the hope of dazzling her with his splendour; but neither did this -prevail: for while even there, she told her beloved shepherd, who had -followed her into the capital, and obtained an interview with her, that -she was anxious to quit the gaudy scene for her own home. The shepherd, -on hearing this, praised her constancy, and such a manifestation of -their mutual attachment took place, that several of the court-ladies -were greatly affected by it. - -The King, still determined, if possible, to win her affections, watched -for another favourable opportunity, and with flatteries and -allurements, surpassing all that he had used before, tried to obtain -his purpose. He promised to elevate her to the highest rank, and to -raise her above all his concubines and queens, if she would comply with -his wishes; but, faithful to her espousals, she refused all his -overtures, on the plea that her affections were pledged to another. The -King, convinced at last that he could not possibly prevail, was obliged -to dismiss her; and the shepherdess, in company with her beloved -shepherd, returned to her native place. On their way home, they visited -the tree under which they had first met, and there renewed their vows -of fidelity to each other. On her arrival in safety at her home, her -brothers, according to their promise, rewarded her greatly for her -virtuous conduct. - -The plot, if such it may be called, gradually develops itself, like -most poetic narratives of a similar kind. Various speakers are -introduced in the poem, as the Shulamite shepherdess, the shepherd, the -King, the court-ladies, the inhabitants of Jerusalem, the brothers of -the Shulamite, and the companions of the shepherd, all of whom are -represented as speaking more or less, but without any such distinctions -as we find in Job, as “After this Job opened his mouth and cursed his -day—Then Eliphaz the Temanite answered and said—Then answered Bildad -the Shuhite and said—&c.,” and without separate names, or initial -letters of names to indicate the speakers, which renders it difficult -to gather the history it contains; and especially as some of the -statements appear at first sight to have little or no logical sequence. -The Song of Songs differs materially in this respect from all the other -books of Scripture; but not, as is well known, from the poems of -profane writers. - -Notwithstanding the aforementioned difficulty, an attentive reader of -the original will find nearly as much help from the masterly structure -of this Song, as can be obtained from the divisions and initial letters -in modern dramas, by which the different speakers are distinguished, -and the various statements are connected in a regular narrative. - -The recurrence, for instance, of the same formula of adjuration three -times (ii. 7; iii. 5; viii. 4), and the use of another closing sentence -(v. 1), divide the Song into five sections. The heroine of the book, -when speaking with her beloved or with the king, is easily -distinguished by the feminine gender of the verb, or of the adjective -or the noun; as, i. 5, “I am swarthy but comely,” where both -adjectives, swarthy (שְׁחוֹרָה) and comely (נָאוָה), are feminine in the -original, and plainly indicate the speaker. The beloved shepherd, when -he speaks, or is spoken to, or is spoken of, is recognised by the -pastoral language (i. 3, 4, 7; ii. 12; iii. 4, &c.); the King is -distinguished by express allusions to his position (i. 9–11; vi. 4–vii. -10); the court-ladies, when speaking to the Shulamite, are recognised -by the phrase, “fairest of women” (i. 8; v. 9; vi. 1), and when spoken -to by “daughters of Jerusalem” (i. 5; ii. 7; iii. 5, 10; v. 8; viii. -4); the brothers of the Shulamite are introduced as speaking in ii. 15, -compared with i. 6 and viii. 8, 9; the inhabitants of Jerusalem, in -iii. 6–11, and the companions of the shepherd, in viii. 5, are -sufficiently indicated by the context. - -On a careful examination of the statements of the various speakers in -these five sections, it will be found that the narrative, though not -recorded in the order we have stated, may be easily deduced from it. - -In the FIRST section—ch. i. 2, 7—the heroine of the Song, who, as is -evident from verse 8 and vii. 1, is a Shulamite shepherdess, ardently -wishes for the presence and love-tokens of her beloved, who, as she -herself most distinctly tells us (ver. 7, and ii. 16; vi. 3), is a -shepherd; she wishes him to take her away from the royal apartments -into which the King had brought her, for she loves him above all things -(verses 2, 3, 4); these apartments (or royal tent), as we learn from -iii. 6–11, were out of Jerusalem, and in the neighbourhood of the -Shulamite’s home, where the King temporarily resided, and where he met -with the damsel (vi. 11, 12). In reply to the disdainful looks of the -daughters of Jerusalem, in whose presence she had expressed her desire -for the shepherd, and who had contrasted their fair and delicate -countenances with her own, she insists that her swarthy complexion need -not render her contemptible, for it was not natural, but had arisen -from the duties which her brothers had unjustly required of her (v. 6); -she then resumes the address to her beloved, asking him, as if he were -present, to tell her where he tends his flock (7). The daughters of -Jerusalem, who, as we see from vi. 9, are the court-ladies, comprising -the maidens, concubines, and queens, ironically answer this question -(8). The watchful King, having heard that she wished for her beloved, -immediately comes forward, and, with flatteries and promises, tries to -win her affections (9, 10, 11); but without effect; for as soon as the -King retires she shows her unabated attachment to her shepherd (12; ii. -6), and concludes by adjuring the court-ladies not to persuade her to -transfer her affections to another (7). - -The SECOND section—ch. ii. 8; iii. 5—though apparently disconnected -from the first, is found, upon investigation, to be a proper and -natural sequence. The Shulamite, in rebutting the contempt of the -court-ladies, had reflected with some severity upon her brothers for -sending her to keep the vineyards; but this had been done merely to -account for the darkness of her complexion; and having been interrupted -in her warm address to her beloved, which she hastened to resume, she -was obliged to be satisfied with this passing allusion to that event. -It was natural, therefore, to expect that, at the first opportunity, -she would state more circumstantially how her brothers came to be -severe with her, and why they had made her a keeper of the vineyards, -which she proceeds to do in this section. She tells the court-ladies -that her brothers were displeased with her because they had overheard -the shepherd inviting her to accompany him into the fields to enjoy -together the charms of nature (8–14), on account of which, in their -anxiety for her reputation, they changed her employment, told her to be -a “keeper of the vineyards,” in order to separate her from her beloved -(15). She, moreover, relates that they consoled themselves with the -assurance that, though separated bodily, indissoluble ties subsisted -between them, over which her brothers had no control (16); that she -invited him to come again in the evening, when unobserved (17); and -that, seeing he did not come, she went in search of him, &c. (ch. iii. -1–4). Having thus evinced her deep attachment for the shepherd, she -again concludes by adjuring the court-ladies not to persuade her to -transfer her affections to another (5). - -This section, therefore, follows the preceding one, to set forth the -cause of the brother’s severity in having made her a “keeper of the -vineyards,” and thus gives a further insight into her previous history. - -The THIRD section (ch. iii. 6, v. i.) relates the second unsuccessful -effort of Solomon to gain the Shulamite’s affections. The King, -determined to gain his purpose, takes the damsel, with great pomp, into -the capital (ch. iii. 6–11), in the hope of dazzling her with his great -splendour; but he is again disappointed. In the midst of the imposing -magnificence, the damsel tells her beloved shepherd, who has followed -her thither, and obtained an interview with her, and expressed his -delight at seeing her again (ch. iv. 1–5), that she is anxious to quit -the palace for her rural home (6). Her beloved, on hearing this, offers -his assistance to effect an escape (7, 8), and praises her constancy -and charms (9–16); whereupon they both manifest their mutual attachment -in so affecting a manner that even some of the court-ladies are moved -(ch. iv. 16, v. 1), with whose expression of sympathy the section -concludes. - -The bearing which this section has upon the whole plan is, in the first -place, to develop the progress of the history itself, inasmuch as it -records the conveyance of the Shulamite from her rural home into the -royal capital; and, in the second place, to relate her faithfulness in -resisting another temptation, in which the grandeur of the procession -which elicited so much admiration from the inhabitants of Jerusalem, -and the splendour of the court, which dazzled the eyes and fed the -vanity of so many of its inmates, had far less charms for her than the -presence of her shepherd in a humble home. - -The FOURTH section (ch. v. 2–viii. 4) records the last and greatest -trial which the Shulamite had to encounter, and which she also -overcame. It commences with a dream which she had recently had, and -which she relates (ch. v. 2–8) to the court-ladies whose sympathy with -her has been shown at the close of the preceding section. The narration -of this dream gives the damsel an opportunity of describing the -personal appearance of her beloved (10–16), and thus we are gradually -led on to her chief trial and success. The court-ladies, having -listened to this charming description, inquire whither her beloved is -gone, and offer their assistance to seek him (ch. vi. 1); but she, -suspecting the motive, gives them an evasive answer (2, 3). The King, -ever watchful for a favourable opportunity to show his attachment to -her, as soon as he hears of the inquiry after the damsel’s beloved, -comes forward with most alluring flatteries and promises. He begins -with praising her beauty (4–7), and then promises to raise her to the -highest rank of all his numerous retinue of women (8, 9), who -themselves are constrained to extol her beauty (10). But the damsel, -having explained how she came to be seen by those court-ladies, spurns -all those praises and promises, and goes away (11, 12); the King calls -her back (ch. vii. 1), and, having again described her beauty and -attractions (2–8), wishes that he might enjoy the favours of so -charming a person (9, 10); but she refuses the King’s overtures, on the -plea that her affections are engaged, and that it is her duty to be -faithful to her beloved (11); then, addressing herself to her beloved, -she asks him to go with her from the palace to their rural home (12, -ch. viii. 3); and concludes with again adjuring the court-ladies not to -persuade her to transfer her affections to another (4). - -This section, as we have seen, is intimately connected with the -preceding one. The damsel, having obtained the sympathies of some of -the court-ladies, according to the close of the last section, relates -to them, at the opening of this (ch. v. 2–8), a dream which she had -recently had; which gives the damsel an opportunity of describing the -appearance of her beloved, and this description gradually introduces -the last and the greatest trial which she has to encounter. - -The FIFTH section—ch. viii. 5–14—states the result of the damsel’s -victory over all her temptations. The King, convinced that nothing -could induce her to transfer her affections, dismisses her; and -accompanied by her beloved shepherd, she quits the court for her humble -country residence. On their way, they visit the tree under which they -were first espoused (viii. 5), and there implore that the flame which -had been kindled in their hearts might be lasting. A most graphic and -powerful description of the nature of true love follows, in which all -her trials are recounted (6, 7). The damsel then reminds her brothers -of the promise they had made her, and obtains the reward of virtue. - -Thus this Song records the real history of a humble but virtuous woman, -who, after having been espoused to a man of like humble circumstances, -had been tempted in a most alluring manner to abandon him, and to -transfer her affections to one of the wisest, and richest of men, but -who successfully resisted all temptations, remained faithful to her -espousals, and was ultimately rewarded for her virtue. - - - - - -SECTION IV.—IMPORTANCE OF THE BOOK. - -Few, it is presumed, will question the importance of a Book, in the -sacred canon, which records an example of virtue in a humble -individual, who had passed successfully through unparalleled -temptations. - -The avowed object of Holy Writ is to teach all that is good and -conducive to human happiness. Lessons of wisdom and virtue are -interspersed throughout the Old and New Testaments. The Apostle Paul -urges the Philippians to think of whatsoever is true, noble, just, -pure, lovely, and of good report: of everything, in short, that is in -any way profitable or praiseworthy. These lessons are not communicated -to us in abstract forms, or enforced by powerful argument merely, but -they are presented in the most attractive examples drawn from the lives -of illustrious men and women, who, amidst the greatest trials and -temptations, have pre-eminently maintained their integrity. The -Patriarch Job is set forth as an example of patience, and the Prophets -as patterns of suffering affliction (James v. 10, 11). An example of -virtue, very similar to the one in the Song before us, is recorded in -Gen. xxxix. 7, &c., where a Hebrew slave is tempted by a woman of rank, -but resists the temptations; and though left to suffer for a season, is -ultimately rewarded for his virtue. Such instances, therefore, are in -harmony with the design of Scripture, and its method of teaching. - -The individual who passes through the extraordinary temptations -recorded in this Song, and remains faithful, is a woman. Who can find a -virtuous woman? This was the question of the Ancients, was reiterated -in the middle ages, and is still asked by many. Here is a reply to -Solomon’s own enquiry. He has found one at least of spotless integrity, -and her virtue is recorded in Scripture, for the defence of women -against a prevalent, but unjust suspicion. - -The second chapter of Genesis clearly states, that the man and the -woman were created with the same intellectual and moral powers. The -words used by God respecting the creation of the woman are, “the being -of man in his solitary state is not good. I will make him a help-mate -corresponding to him;” that is, one that shall be exactly like him in -affections, in sympathies, in mind, in fact his counterpart; she shall -be the reflection of his own person. That this is the meaning of -כְּנֶנְדּוֹ is evident from the Septuagint, which renders it in verse 18, -κατ’ αὐτόν, and verse 20, ὅμοιος αὐτῷ; and from the Syriac and the -Vulgate; as well as from the Rabbinical usage of כְּנֶנֶד, to express -things exactly like one another. [5] The word of God affirms here, that -the woman was created exactly with the same capacities as the man, and -contains no intimation of subserviency to him, or of being in the -slightest degree weaker or less virtuous than he. The fact that the -Tempter assailed the woman, and not the man, so far from showing that -the woman was weaker, would rather prove that she was stronger; that -the cunning serpent knew this, and was persuaded, if he could only -prevail over the woman, she, with her superior influence, would be sure -to succeed with the man, as the sad result showed. - -The curse which God pronounced upon the guilty pair, proves that the -woman was created with the same intellectual and moral capacities as -the man. Had the woman been weaker in these respects than the man, she -would not have been accountable in an equal degree for her sin, and -would not have been punished with the same severity. - -No alteration has taken place in their relative position, in this -respect, since the fall. The curse upon the woman in relation to the -man does not refer to any intellectual or moral, but to a physical, -inferiority. Hitherto the Protoplasts resided in Paradise, and -subsisted upon its delightful fruit; and the employment of the man was -mere recreation. Henceforth they were to be driven from that happy -abode; the woman was to experience all the sorrow and pain of pregnancy -and parturition, and must look to her husband for support from his -hard-earned labour. The man, consigned to rough labour in the field, -exposed to the assault of brutes, was henceforth to have more physical -strength and daring; while the woman, destined to manage the affairs at -home, and to rear up a family, was to exercise the power of patient -endurance. The man, with his superior strength and boldness, was -henceforth to be the protector; the woman, suffering and mild, the -protected. He was to be the tiller of the ground, and she, in addition -to the sorrow peculiar to her condition, must depend on what he might -provide for her; and hence her desire was to be unto him; that is, she -should be looking up to him for protection and maintenance, and thus he -would rule over her. That this is the whole meaning of the phrase וְאֶל -אִישֵׁדְ תְּשׁוּקָתֵדְ וְהוּא יִמְשָׁל בָּדְ, Gen. iii. 16, is evident from the clause -immediately preceding, which describes the woman’s constant suffering, -and precludes the possibility of securing maintenance for herself; and -also from the following verse, where the man is destined to labour hard -for bread. - -The notion, therefore, that the woman is intellectually or morally -weaker than man, is not the teaching of the word of God. While man, -through his superior out-of-door qualities, or physical strength and -courage, is the supporter, protector, and ruler of the woman; she, -through her superior in-door qualities, her endurance and her charms, -ameliorates his government, and sways his inmost heart. Their different -characteristics, arising from their different destinations, were -designed to blend together so as to produce a happy harmony, and to -make both one. - -But how vilely and treacherously has man employed his superior strength -and audacity! Instead of maintaining, protecting, and defending the -woman, he has used his strength to oppress, to crush, and to degrade -her. As the human race became more and more alienated from their -Creator, intrinsic merit and moral character were despised, and -physical force became rampant; the stronger, as among animals, -oppressed and preyed upon the weaker, and thus woman became the slave -of man, and was absolutely sold in the capacity of daughter or wife, as -cattle and other property. Thus Eliezer, the servant of Abraham, -purchased Rebekah as a wife for Isaac, his master’s son, (Gen. xxiv. -53). Jacob, having nothing to give as a compensation for his wives, was -obliged to serve fourteen years for them (Gen. xxix. 18–28). Shechem, -wishing to obtain Dinah for a wife, and ascribing the unwillingness of -Jacob to part with her to the insufficiency of the compensation he had -offered, says—“Ask me never so much dowry and gift, and I will give -according as ye shall say unto me: but give me the damsel to wife (Gen. -xxxiv. 12).” Compare, also, Exod. xxii. 15, &c.; 1 Sam. xviii. 25; Hos. -iii. 2. This custom of purchasing wives was general among the -Orientals. “In Babylon, [6] the following course was pursued in every -village once a-year. All the maidens of a marriageable age were -collected together, and brought in a body to one place; around them -stood a crowd of men. Then a crier, having made these maidens stand up -one by one, offered them for sale, beginning with the most beautiful; -and when she had been sold for a large sum, he put up another who was -next in beauty. They were sold on condition that they should be -married. Such men among the Babylonians as were rich and desirous of -marrying used to bid against one another, and purchase the most -beautiful. But such of the lower classes as were desirous of marrying, -did not regard beauty, and were willing to take the plainer damsels -with a sum of money given with them. For when the crier had finished -selling the most beautiful of the maidens, he made the plainest stand -up, or one that was a cripple, and put her up for auction, for the -person who would marry her for the least sum. This money was obtained -from the sale of the most beautiful; and thus the beautiful portioned -out the plain and the crippled.” Wives were purchased among the -Assyrians and Arabians also; [7] among the ancient Greeks [8] and -Germans [9] and are still bought among the Orientals of the present -day. [10] - -Fearful consequences, arising from such a mode of obtaining wives, were -inevitable, and soon became apparent. As the procuring of wives -depended upon the offer which any one was able to make, those that -could afford it purchased as many as they pleased. Hence the practice -of polygamy, than which nothing produces more contempt for the proper -character of women, or tends more to their degradation. As these -contracts were formed without the parties being previously known to -each other, and without any affection subsisting between them, the -woman, instead of being the help-mate or companion of man became his -slave, and was kept for the gratification of his carnal appetites, or -at best was regarded as a plaything for a leisure hour. Her rights were -denied, her education was neglected, her intellect was degraded, her -moral character was questioned. Man, seeking to possess as many wives -as he could afford, gave the woman no credit for virtue. Acting upon -this suspicion and false accusation, he placed her in the most -inaccessible part of the house; dogs or eunuchs guarded the doors of -her chambers; [11] the harem was made as impenetrable as a prison; none -but the nearest relatives were allowed to see her, and when permitted -to pass through the streets her countenance was thickly veiled, and -eunuchs watched her every step. Plutarch relates that when women -travelled they were placed in a conveyance closely covered on all -sides, and that it was in such a covering that Themistocles fled from -Persia, his attendants being instructed to tell every inquirer that -they were conveying a Grecian lady from Ionia to a nobleman at Court. -[12] The sacred books of heathen nations teem with loud execrations -against the natural unfaithfulness and immorality of women. “The lust -of a woman,” says the pundits, “is never satisfied, no more than fire -is satisfied with fuel, or the main ocean with receiving the rivers, or -the empire of death with the dying of men and animals.” And again: -“Women have six qualities: the first is an immoderate desire for jewels -and fine furniture, handsome clothes and nice victuals; the second, -immoderate lust; the third, violent anger; the fourth, deep resentment, -no person knowing the sentiments concealed in their hearts; the fifth, -another person’s good appears evil in their eyes; the sixth, they -commit bad actions.” [13] The wickedness of women is a subject upon -which the stronger sex among the Arabs, with an affectation of superior -virtue, often dwell in common conversation. That women are deficient in -judgment or good sense, is held as an undisputed fact, as it rests on -an assertion of the Prophet; but that they possess a superior degree of -cunning, rests upon the same authority. Their general depravity is -affirmed to be much greater than that of men. “I stood,” said the -Prophet, “at the gate of Paradise, and lo, most of its inmates were the -poor; and I stood at the gate of hell, and lo, most of its inmates were -women.” In allusion to women, the caliph Omar said, “Consult them, and -do the contrary of what they advise,” which Moore has thus -paraphrased:— - - - “Whene’er you’re in doubt, said a sage I once knew, - ’Twixt two lines of conduct which course to pursue, - Ask a woman’s advice, and whate’er she advise, - Do the very reverse, and you’re sure to be wise.” - - -When woman was created, “the devil,” we are told, “was delighted, and -said, ‘Thou art half of my host, and thou art the depository of my -secret, and thou art my arrow, with which I shoot and miss not.’” [14] -They were made so much to feel their inferiority, that Iphigenia is -made to say, “One man, forsooth, is better than ten thousand women.” -[15] - -Though the Jewish women were treated more leniently, and enjoyed -greater privileges than their sex in other nations, yet it is evident, -from a variety of circumstances in Old Testament history, that they -were not wholly emancipated from a state of unnatural inferiority. -Polygamy was practised amongst the Jews, and its debasing effects were -obvious. The harems, the veils, and eunuchs were not uncommon to their -women. Weakness of moral character was imputed to them; unfaithfulness -and incontinency were dilated upon (Num. v. 12; Prov. xxxi. 10; Eccl. -vii. 28). Josephus tells us [16] that women, in consequence of their -natural levity, were not admitted as legal witnesses in courts of -justice. Maimonides teaches the same; “There are,” says this great -luminary, “ten sorts of disqualifications, and every individual in whom -one of them is found, is disqualified from giving evidence; and these -are women, slaves, children, idiots, the deaf, the blind, the wicked, -the despised, relations, and those interested in their testimony; these -are the ten.” [17] The Rabbins endeavour to justify this inhuman -treatment of women from the law of Moses. “Women,” say they, “are -disqualified by the law from giving testimony: for it is said, ‘At the -mouth of two witnesses,’ where the word ‘witnesses’ is of the -masculine, and not feminine gender.” It is not to be wondered at, -therefore, that the Jew, among his thanksgivings, should say to the -Almighty every morning, “Blessed be thou, O Lord our God, King of the -universe, that thou hast not created me a woman.” - -Now, if one sex of the human family has been so degraded by the other; -if she whom God created to be a help-mate and counterpart has been -reduced by man to the slave of his carnal lusts; if such slavish and -inhuman treatment has been justified on the false plea of the natural -unfaithfulness and incontinency of the sex; if exclusion from society -and imprisonment have been deemed necessary for the preservation of her -morals, how greatly has woman been alienated from the original design -of her creation! how unjustly has her character been aspersed! how -inhumanly has she been treated! and how great is the importance of a -book which celebrates the virtuous example of a woman, and thus strikes -at the root of all her reproaches and her wrongs! - -The importance of this view of the book may be further seen from the -fact, that, in proportion to the degradation of women, men themselves -have become degraded; for, deprived of the meliorating influences which -the delicacy and tenderness of women were designed to have over them, -and never more needed than in their fallen state, they have abandoned -themselves to their worst passions and desires, and thus their whole -civil and social condition has been proportionally undignified and -unblest. Look, on the other hand, at the state of society where woman -is restored to her rightful position, there we shall find refinement of -manners, purity of conversation, mutual confidence and affection, -domestic happiness, intellectual enjoyment, freedom of thought and -action, sympathetic repose, and whatever, in fact, tends to mitigate -the unavoidable evils of the present life; all referable, in a greater -or less degree, to the unrestricted influence of woman upon the child -and upon the man. In religion, her influence is still more potent. If -first in the transgression, she is first in the restoration; and were -man as ready to follow her in doing good as he has been in doing evil, -the world would long ago have been in a holier and happier state than -it is at present. Who constitute the principal part of our worshipping -assemblies? Women. Who form the chief portion of the members of our -churches? Women. Who are the chief agents in the religious education of -our children? Women. Who are the main support of our various benevolent -and evangelical institutions? Women. Let it not be said, then, that a -Book which celebrates the ascendency of a virtuous woman in humble life -over all the blandishments of wealth and royalty, is unworthy of a -place in Holy Writ. - -The importance of this book is, moreover, enhanced by the circumstances -more immediately connected with the time in which it was written. - -The conduct of Bath-sheba with David was calculated to confirm man in -his opinion that woman was naturally unfaithful and incontinent, and -that it was requisite to exclude her from society, in order to preserve -her morals. But the narrative here recorded forms a contrast to the -conduct of Bath-sheba. It shows the power of virtue in a woman, even of -humble life. As the wife of an officer of rank, accustomed to luxury -and wealth, the temptations of Bath-sheba were not so great, and yet -she surrendered to them. Whereas the Shulamite, a humble shepherdess, -to whom the promise of costly apparel and of elevation from a low and -toilsome occupation to the highest rank, must have been an -extraordinary allurement, triumphed over them all. If one woman yielded -to small incitements, this book shows that another overcame -unparalleled temptations, and thus checked the clamour against woman -which might have arisen from the conduct of Bath-sheba with David. - - - - - -SECTION V.—HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE EXEGESIS OF THE BOOK. - -No book has furnished a wider field for the speculation and visionary -projects of those who substitute their own imagination and enthusiastic -feelings for the teaching of Scripture, than the Song of Solomon; the -varieties and absurdities of which are a solemn warning against -departing from the rules of sound philology and critical -interpretation. - -An enumeration of all the different interpretations of this Song would -be too lengthy, and is not required. It will be sufficient to glance at -the leading expositions. We begin with the Jewish. - -323–246, B.C. [18] It has been supposed that the Septuagint, which may -be regarded as the oldest Jewish exegetical tradition, contains some -intimation that the translators of the Old Testament into Greek and -their Jewish brethren of those days must have interpreted the Song of -Solomon in an allegorical manner. The only passage adduced in -corroboration of this opinion is, Ch. iv. 8, where the Septuagint -renders מֵראֹשׁ אֲמָנָה from the top of Amana, by ἀπὸ ἀρχῆς πίστεως, from -the top of faith. That this appeal is nugatory is obvious from the -rendering of תִּרְצָה Tirzah by εὐδοκία, delight, vi. 4, and of בַּתנָדִיב -noble daughter by θύγατερ Ναδάβ, daughter of Nadab, vii. 1; whence it -is evident that the Septuagint frequently mistook proper names for -appellatives and adjectives, and vice versâ. It appears inconceivable -that a profound scholar like Keil, who is well acquainted with the -frequent errors of the Septuagint, should quote this as a special and -sufficient proof that “the Alexandrian version took this Song in an -allegorical sense,” [19] especially as he knew that some have drawn -from it the very opposite conclusion, who have argued that if the -authors of the Septuagint had understood this book in any other than -its obvious sense, they would have betrayed it in the translation. [20] - -180, B.C. Jesus Sirach, xlvii. 14–17, is next adduced as furnishing -some clue to the Jewish interpretation of this book. Ecclesiasticus, -according to some, is a name given to it κατ’ ἐξοχὴν, because of its -being the most remarkable and useful of the ecclesiastical or -apocryphal books; others say it was so called from its resemblance to -Solomon’s Ecclesiastes, and others, again, with more probability, that -this name was given to it by the Latins, to denote its use in the -church. Its Greek name, however, Σοφία Ἰησοῦ υἱοῦ Σειράχ, wisdom of -Jesus son of Sirach, is more appropriate. It specifies at once the -author, who mentions his own name in Ch. l. 27. The age given to the -book here, is that which is thought most probable. [21] This apocryphal -writer says in his apostrophe to Solomon,—“How wise wast thou in thy -youth, and, as a flood, filled with understanding! Thy mind covered the -earth, and thou filledst it with enigmatic sayings. Thy name went forth -to the distant isles, and thou wast beloved for thy peace. Countries -admired thee for songs, and proverbs, and enigmas, and solutions.” The -17th verse is supposed to include the whole writings of Solomon -contained in the Old Testament; and it is affirmed that παραβολαὶ -αἰνιγμάτων in verse 15, cannot be understood to mean the Proverbs -(παροιμία) since these are separately mentioned in verse 17, hence it -follows that they refer to the allegorical interpretation of this Song. -[22] - -Even Hengstenberg, who, though a defender of the allegorical -interpretation, remarks, [23] “Sirach xlvii. 17, has wrongly been -referred to in support of the allegorical interpretation. For the words -ἐν ᾠδαῖς καὶ παροίμιαις καὶ παραβολαῖς καὶ ἐν ἑρμηνείαις ἀπεθαύμασάν σε -χῶραι depend upon the historical narration in the Books of the Kings, -and do not refer to the writings comprised in the Canon. This is -evident from the mention of the ἑρμηνείαι, whereby the solutions of the -enigmas in contradistinction to the enigmas themselves, can alone be -meant. Comp. 1 Kings x. 1–3. Whereas in the Canon no such ἑρμηνείαι are -to be found. Verse 15, in which Keil finds a special reference to the -allegorical interpretation, likewise alludes to 1 Kings x., especially -to verse 24.” - -120, B.C. The Book of Wisdom has also been supposed to contain a clue -to the interpretation of this Song. The author and the age of the Book -are points of great contest. All that can be concluded with any degree -of probability is, that the author was an Alexandrian Jew, who lived -after the transplanting of the Greek philosophy into Egypt, and that he -seems to refer to the oppression of the later Ptolemies. [24] In ch. -viii. 2, Solomon is represented as speaking to Wisdom; “Her I loved and -sought from my youth, I sought to bring her home for my bride, and I -became a lover of her beauty.” Because Solomon is here made to speak of -Wisdom as his bride, it has been maintained to be an explanation of the -Song of Songs, as though the brides were necessarily the same. [25] Let -any impartial reader peruse the description of Wisdom in the chapter -quoted, and that of the bride in the Song of Songs, and he will be -convinced that there is no intentional resemblance whatever. - -37–95, A.D. Josephus is also said to have understood this Song in an -allegorical sense, although it is not in a single instance quoted by -him. His arrangement of the Books of the Old Testament is the only -ground of this argument. It is said, as he [26] mentions twenty-two -books which are justly accredited as Divine, (τὰ δικαίως θεῖα -πεπιστευμένα) and describes five as belonging to Moses, thirteen to the -Prophets, and the remaining four as containing hymns to God, and rules -of life for men (αἱ δὲ λοιπαὶ τέσσαρες ὕμνους εἰς τὸν Θεὸν καὶ τοῖς -ἀνθρώποις ὑποθήκας τοῦ βίου περιέχουσιν) viz., the Psalms, Job, -Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, no place is left for this Song except among -the Prophets; and if Josephus placed it there, it follows that he must -have understood it allegorically. [27] But were we to admit that -Josephus placed this Song among the prophetical writings, we should -deny the conclusion attempted to be drawn from it. For according to the -same mode of argumentation, we might infer that Josephus understood -Ruth and Esther allegorically, for he also places these books among the -prophetical writings. The fact is, that this historian, as he tells us -himself, reckons the historical books among the prophetical ones. But -we demur to the assertion that Josephus put this Song among the -prophetical writings; it is far more likely that he placed it among the -four books which he describes as consisting of hymns to God and -precepts for the life of men. [28] - -We come now to the Talmud, in which passages from this Song are quoted -and interpreted. This elaborate work, consists of what is called the -Mishna, constituting the text, and the Gemara, which is a commentary -upon it, derived from two sources, viz.—Jerusalem and Babylon. The -Jews, from time immemorial, had an unwritten law תּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּעַל פֶּה δόγματα -ἄγραφα, in addition to the written one, תּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּכְּתָב, ἔγγραφος, -contained in the Pentateuch. Hillel of Babylon (born 75 B.C.), who, -next to Ezra, was celebrated by posterity as the restorer of the law, -[29] first arranged and divided this oral law into six parts:—1, -concerning sowing; 2, women; 3, festivals; 4, the rights of property; -5, holy things; 6, pure and impure things. This, which comprises -everything that appertains to the Jewish law, was called מִשְׁנָה Mishna, -δευτέρωσις, or the second recension of the law. In order to reconcile -the Sadducees, who denied every law not founded on Holy Writ, Hillel -laid down seven hermeneutic rules, whereby the Scriptures might be -interpreted in such a manner that the oral law could be deduced from -it. [30] When fears were afterwards entertained lest the oral tradition -should be lost, Rabbi Judah Hakkadosh (i.e. holy), in the year 220 -A.D., collected everything that had been said upon the subject, -preserving the division of Hillel, and probably making some additions -of his own. This he did in a manner so masterly and satisfactory, that -it superseded every other previous attempt, and constitutes the present -Mishna. - -The Mishna became the chief object of study. The rules of Hillel were -increased and much acted on; expositions were given upon the reasons -that led to the decisions in the Mishna; the expounders were called -אֲמוֹרָאִים Amoraim, public lecturers, and the exposition גְמָרָא Gemara. - -After the death of Judah, many of his learned disciples, objecting to -the appointment of his second son Gamaliel, to his father’s office, -emigrated to Babylon, and having erected schools there, pursued the -study of the Mishna. The academy they established in Sura rivalled the -one in Tiberias. The Gemara of Tiberias, collated about 358 (A.D.) by -an unknown individual, is called Talmud Jerushalmi; and the Gemara of -Sura, the compilation of which was begun by R. Ashe (352–427), -continued by his disciple and friend, Rabina, and finished about 525, -is called Talmud Babli. The latter surpasses the former in -comprehensiveness, perspicuity, and depth, is about four times as -large, and fills 2947 folio pages. Both united are called The Talmud -תַּלְמוּד book of instruction; and also גְמָרָא Gemara. It contains the -civil and ceremonial law, debates on various branches of art and -science, moral sayings, anecdotes, expositions on different passages of -Scripture, &c. [31] - -100–500, A.D.—In Yadaim, (Sect. iii. 5.) we find that R. Akiba, one of -the greatest Rabbins who lived in the first century, and president of -the Academy of Bai-Barc, said, “The whole world was not worthy of the -day in which this sublime Song was given to Israel; for all the -Scriptures are holy, but this sublime Song is most holy.” There can, -therefore, be no doubt that the mysteries which this distinguished -Rabbi found in the Song of Songs, he regarded as greater than those he -discovered in any other portion of the Sacred Scriptures. - -Subsequent Rabbins quote and explain different passages. Thus, Ch. i. 2 -is discussed in Abodah Sarah (Sect. 2, p. 35). It is asked, “How are -the words, ‘Thy love is better than wine’ understood?” Answer: When -Rabbi Dimi came to Babylon, he said, “This verse is thus understood: -the Congregation of Israel said to God, ‘Lord of the Universe, the -words of thy friends (namely, the sages) are more excellent than even -the wine of the Law.’” - -Here we see that the beloved is taken to be God, and the loved one the -Congregation of Israel. - -Ch. i. 3, is quoted and expounded, a little further on, in the same -tract of the Talmud, in the following manner. “R. Nachman ben R. -Chasdah once said, in his discourse, the words ‘Delicious is the odour -of thy perfumes,’ denote a learned man; for such an one is like a box -of perfumes; if it is covered up, no one can smell the perfumes, but -when it is opened the odour becomes widely diffused. It is so with a -learned man without disciples, no one knows of his learning; but if he -gets a circle of disciples his name and his learning become widely -diffused. And not only this, but he himself will increase learning by -teaching, so that things which he formerly did not understand will now -become plain to him; for it is written in the same verse עלמות אהבוך -DAMSELS LOVE THEE; read עלומות HIDDEN THINGS will love thee, i.e., -will become plain to thee; and not only this, but even the angel of -death will love him; read then על־מות HE WHO IS OVER DEATH will love -thee; and still more, he will inherit both worlds, this world and the -world to come; read also עולמות WORLDS love thee.” - -Ch. i. 13, 14, and v. 13, are quoted and explained in Sabbath, p. 88, -b., “Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi saith, What is meant by צרור המור דודי לי -בין שדי ילין is the congregation of Israel, who is saying before the -Holy One thus: O Lord, though my beloved (i.e. God) oppresses me, and -is embittered against me, yet he still lodges with me. By אשכול הכופר -דודי לי בכרמי עין גדי is meant, He who is the owner of all things, -will forgive me the sin of the calf, with which I covered myself. A -question is raised, How does בכרמי signify my covering? Then Rabbi -Mar-Sutra ben Rabbi Nachman quotes כסא של כובס שכורמי עליו את הכלאם -from another part of the Talmud (Kelim 35), where כרם means to cover. -R. Joshuah ben Levi proceeds, What is meant by לחייו כערוגת הבושם is, -At every commandment which proceedeth from the mouth of the Holy One on -Mount Sinai, the world was filled with aromatics. A question is asked, -If the world was filled at the first commandment, where was the odour -diffused at the second commandment? Answer, The Holy One sent his wind -from his stores, and carried them away successively, as it is written, -שפתותיו שושנים do not read שושנים but ששונים repeating in -succession. Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi concludes, At every commandment -uttered by the mouth of the Holy One, the soul of Israel was drawn out -of them, as it is written, ‘My soul went out when he spake.’ A question -is again asked, If their soul was drawn out at the first commandment, -how could they receive the second? Answer. He (i.e. God) caused the dew -to come down, by which he will raise the dead, and revived them, as it -is written, ‘Thou, O God, didst send a plentiful rain, whereby thou -didst confirm thine inheritance, when it was weary.’” Ps. lxviii. 9. -[32] - -Here, again, we see that the bridegroom is taken to be the Holy One, -the Owner of all things, and the bride the congregation of Israel. The -reader, looking into the text of the Talmud quoted in the note, will -observe that most of this interpretation has been obtained, either by -the separation of words, the transposition and change of letters, or by -substituting in the commentary words, similar in sound to those in the -Scriptures. Thus, צרור a bundle, a bag, is explained by מיצר -oppress; מור myrrh by מימר embitter; אשכול a cluster by איש שהכל -לו He whose are all things; כופר cypress flowers by כפר pardon; -עין גדי En-gedi by עון עגל the sin of the calf. - -This mode of interpretation is not confined to the Song of Songs, but -is applied to all parts of the Bible, and is an illustration of the way -in which the hermeneutic rules laid down by Rabbi Hillel, and augmented -by R. Ishmael, and others, were carried out. - -550, A.D.—The Targum or Chaldee paraphrase is the first entire -commentary upon the Song of Songs which has been handed down to us. The -author is unknown. Kitto erroneously affirms, that it was “made several -centuries before the time of Christ, and probably before the -traditionary interpretation of the author himself (i.e. the author of -this Song) would entirely be lost.” [33] The inferior style in which it -is written, the copious use it makes of legends of a very late date, -and especially the mention it makes of the Gemara (Ch. i. 2), which was -not completed till nearly the middle of the sixth century, prove most -distinctly that this paraphrase was made in the sixth century. -Hävernick, [34] however, is equally wrong in affirming that the -Mahomedans are mentioned in Ch. i. 7. That the sons of Ishmael here -alluded to are not the Mahomedans, is evident from Ch. vi. 7. of the -same paraphrase, where we are told that these בְּנוֹי דְיִשְׁמָעֵאל headed by -Alexander the Great, came to wage war against Jerusalem at the time of -the Maccabees. - -The Targum takes the Song of Songs as an allegory, describing -prophetically the history of the Jewish nation, beginning with their -Exodus from Egypt, and detailing their doings and sufferings, down to -the coming of the Messiah, and the building of the third Temple. - -Thus, according to this allegory, Ch. i. 3, describes Jehovah’s fame, -which went abroad in consequence of the wonders he wrought when -bringing the Israelites out of Egypt; verse 12 describes the departure -of Moses to receive the two tables of stone, and how the Israelites, in -the mean time, made the golden calf; verse 14 describes the pardon of -that sin, and the erection of the Tabernacle; Ch. iii. 6–11, describes -the passage of the Israelites, under the leadership of Joshua, over the -Jordan, their attacking and conquering the Canaanites, and the building -of Solomon’s Temple; Ch. v. 2, describes the Babylonian captivity; Ch. -vi. 2, the deliverance of Israel through Cyrus; and the building of the -second Temple; Ch. vi. 7, &c., describes the battles of the Maccabees; -Ch. vii. 11, 12, the present dispersion of the Jews, and their future -anxiety to learn the time of their restoration; Ch. viii. 5, &c., -describes the resurrection of the dead, the final ingathering of -Israel, the building of the third Temple, &c., &c. - -“The beloved,” according to the Targum, is the Lord; “the loved one” is -the Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved” (Ch. i. 7) -are the Edomites and the Ishmaelites; “the daughters of Jerusalem” are, -in Ch. i. 5, the Gentile nations; in ii. 7, iii. 5, viii. 4, the -Congregation of Israel; and in v. 8, the prophets; “the brothers of the -loved one” are the false prophets; “the little sister,” in viii. 8, is -the people of Israel; the speakers in the same verse are the angels; -the speaker in viii. 13, is the Lord; “the companions,” in the same -verse are the Sanhedrim. - -The following specimen of the Targum, on the first chapter of this -Song, will give the reader an idea of the way in which the paraphrase -develops the allegorical construction of this book. - - - 1. The Song of Songs, &c.—The songs and praises which Solomon the - prophet, King of Israel, sang, by the spirit of prophecy, before - God, the Lord of the whole world. Ten songs were sung in this - world, but this song is the most celebrated of them all. The first - song Adam sang when his sins were forgiven him, and when the - sabbath-day came, and protected him, he opened his mouth and said, - “A song for the sabbath-day,” &c. (Ps. xcii.) The second song Moses - and the children of Israel sang when the Lord of the world divided - the Red Sea for them, they all opened their mouths and sang as one - man, the song, as it is written, “Then sang Moses and the children - of Israel.” (Exod. xv. 1.) The third song the children of Israel - sang when the well of water was given to them, as it is written, - “Then sang Israel.” (Numb. xxi. 17.) The fourth song Moses the - prophet sang, when his time came to depart from this world, in - which he reproved the people of the house of Israel, as it is - written: “Give ear, O heavens, and I will speak.” (Deut. xxxii. 1.) - The fifth song Joshua the son of Nun sang, when he waged war in - Gibeon, and the sun and moon stood still for him thirty-six hours, - and when they left off singing their song, he himself opened his - mouth and sang this song, as it is written: “Then sang Joshua - before the Lord.” (Josh. x. 12.) The sixth song Barak and Deborah - sang in the day when the Lord delivered Sisera and his army into - the hands of the children of Israel, as it is written: “Then sang - Deborah, &c.” (Judg. v. 11.) The seventh song Hannah sang when a - son was given her by the Lord, as it is written: “And Hannah prayed - prophetically, and said.” (1 Sam. ii. 1, and the Targum in loco.) - The eighth song David the King of Israel sang for all the wonders - which the Lord did for him. He opened his mouth and sang a hymn, as - it is written: “And David sang in prophecy before the Lord.” (2 - Sam. xxii. 1, and the Targum in loco.) The ninth song Solomon the - King of Israel sang by the Holy Spirit before God, the Lord of the - whole world. And the tenth song the children of the captivity shall - sing when they shall be delivered from their captivity, as it is - written and declared by Isaiah the prophet: “This song shall be - unto you for joy, as in the night in which the feast of the - passover is celebrated; and gladness of heart as when the people go - to appear before the Lord three times in the year, with all kinds - of music, and with the sound of the timbrel, to go up to the - mountain of the Lord, and to worship before the Lord, the Mighty - One of Israel.” (Is. xxx. 29, and the Targum in loco.) - - 2. Let him kiss me, &c.—Solomon the prophet said, “Blessed be the - name of the Lord who has given us the law through Moses the great - scribe, written upon two tables of stone; and the six parts of the - Mishna and the Talmud traditionally, and who spoke with us face to - face, as a man that kissed his friend, because of his great love - wherewith he loved us above the seventy nations.” [35] - - 3. Thy perfumes, &c.—At the report of thy wonders and mighty deeds - which thou hast done for thy people the house of Israel, all the - nations trembled who heard of thy famous strength, and thy great - miracles; and in all the earth was heard thy holy name, which is - more excellent than the anointing oil that was poured upon the - heads of kings and priests; therefore the righteous love to walk - after thy good way, because they shall inherit both this world and - the world to come. - - 4. Draw me, &c.—When the people of the house of Israel went out of - Egypt the shechinah of the Lord of the world went before them in a - pillar of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night, and the - righteous of that generation said, Lord of the whole world, draw us - after thee, and we will run in thy good way! Bring us to the foot - of Mount Sinai, and give us thy law out of thy treasury in heaven, - and we will rejoice and be glad in the twenty-two letters [36] with - which it is written, and we will remember them, and love thy divine - nature, and withdraw ourselves from the idols of the nations; and - all the righteous, who do that which is right before thee, shall - fear thee and love thy commandments. - - 5. I am swarthy, &c.—When the house of Israel made the calf, their - faces became black, like the sons of Cush, who dwelt in the tents - of Kedar; but when they returned by repentance, and were forgiven, - the shining splendour of their faces was increased to that of - angels, because they made the curtains for the tabernacle, and the - shechinah of the Lord dwelt among them; and Moses, their teacher, - went up to heaven and made peace between them and their King. - - 6. Do not look down upon me, &c.—The congregation of Israel said - before all the nations, Do not despise me because I am blacker than - you, for I have done your deeds, and worshipped the sun and moon; - for false prophets have been the cause that the fierce anger of the - Lord has come upon me, and they taught me to worship your idols, - and to walk in your laws; but the Lord of the world, who is my God, - I did not serve, and did not walk in his precepts, and did not keep - his commandments and laws. - - 7. Tell me, &c.—When the time came for Moses the prophet to depart - from this world, he said to the Lord, It is revealed to me that - this people will sin, and be carried into captivity; show me now - how they shall be governed and dwell among the nations, whose - decrees are oppressive as the heat and the scorching sun in the - summer solstice, and wherefore is it that they shall wander among - the flocks of the sons of Esau and Ishmael, who make their idols - equal to thee, as though they were thy companions. - - 8. If thou knowest not, &c.—The Holy One, blessed be his name, said - to Moses, the prophet, “I suffer myself to be entreated to abolish - their captivity; the congregation of Israel, which is like a fair - damsel, and which my soul loves, she shall walk in the ways of the - righteous, and shall order her prayers according to the order of - her governors and leaders, and instruct her children, who are like - to the kids of the goats, to go to the synagogue and the schools; - and by the merits of this they shall be governed in the captivity, - until the time that I send King Messiah, and he shall lead them - quietly to their habitations; yea, he shall bring them to the house - of the sanctuary, which David and Solomon, the shepherds of Israel, - shall build for them.” - - 9. I compare thee, &c.—When Israel went out of Egypt, Pharaoh and - his hosts pursued after them with chariots and horsemen, and their - way was shut up on the four sides of them; on the right hand and on - the left were wildernesses full of fiery serpents, and behind them - was wicked Pharaoh with his army, and before them was the Red Sea, - what did the holy blessed God do? He was manifested in the power of - his might upon the Red Sea, and dried the sea up, but the mud he - did not dry up. The wicked and the mixed multitude, and the - strangers who were among them, said, The waters of the sea he was - able to dry up, but the mud he was not able to dry up. In that very - hour the fierce anger of the Lord came upon them, and he sought to - drown them in the waters of the sea, as Pharaoh, and his army, and - his chariots, and his horsemen, and his horses were drowned, had it - not been for Moses the Prophet, who spread his hands in prayer - before the Lord, and turned away the anger of the Lord from them. - Then he and the righteous of that generation opened their mouths, - and sang a song, and passed through the Red Sea on dry land, - through the merits of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the beloved of the - Lord. - - 10. Beautiful are thy cheeks, &c.—When they went out into the - wilderness the Lord said to Moses, “How comely is this people, that - the words of the law should be given unto them, and they shall be - as a bridle in their jaws, that they may not depart out of the good - way, as a horse turneth not aside that has a bridle in his jaws; - and how fair is their neck to bear the yoke of my commandments; and - it shall be upon them as a yoke upon the neck of a bullock which - plougheth in the field, and feeds both itself and its owner.” - - 11. Circlets of gold, &c.—Then was it said to Moses, “Go up into - heaven, and I will give thee the two tables of stone, hewn out of - the sapphire of the throne of my glory, shining as the best gold, - disposed in rows, written with my finger, on which are engraven the - ten commandments, purer than silver that is purified seven times - seven, which is the number of the things explained in them in - forty-nine various ways, and I shall give them by thy hands to the - people of the house of Israel.” - - 12. While the King, &c.—Whilst Moses, their teacher, was in heaven - to receive the two tables of stone, and the law and the - commandments, the wicked of that generation and the mixed multitude - that was among them rose up and made a golden calf, and caused - their works to stink, and an evil report of them went out in the - world; for before this time a fragrant odour of them was diffused - in the world, but afterwards they stank like nard, the smell of - which is very bad, and the plague of leprosy came down upon their - flesh. - - 13. A bag of myrrh, &c.—At that time the Lord said to Moses, “Go - down, for the people have corrupted themselves, desist from - speaking to me, and I will destroy them.” Then Moses returned and - asked mercy of the Lord, and the Lord remembered for them the - binding of Isaac, whom his father bound, on Mount Moriah, upon the - altar; and the Lord turned from his fierce anger, and caused his - shechinah to dwell among them as before. - - 14. A bunch of cypress flowers, &c.—So then went Moses down with - the two tables of stone in his hands; and, because of the sins of - Israel, his hands grew heavy, and the tables fell and were broken. - Then went Moses and ground the calf to powder, and scattered the - dust of it upon the brook, and made the children of Israel to drink - it, and slew all that deserved to die, and went up a second time - into heaven, and prayed before the Lord, and made atonement for the - children of Israel; then was the commandment to make a tabernacle - and an ark. Immediately Moses hastened and made the tabernacle, and - all its furniture, and the ark; and he put in the ark the two other - tables, and appointed the sons of Aaron, the priests, to offer the - offerings upon the altar, and to pour the wine upon the offerings; - but from whence had they wine to pour? For in the wilderness they - had no proper place for sowing; neither had they fig-trees, nor - vines, nor pomegranates; but they went to the vineyards of En-gedi, - and took clusters of grapes from thence, and pressed wine out of - them, and poured it upon the altar, the fourth part of a hin to one - lamb. - - 15. Behold thou art beautiful, &c.—When the children of Israel - performed the will of their King, he himself praised them in the - family of the holy angels, and said, “How fair are thy works, my - daughter, my beloved, O congregation of Israel, in the time that - thou doest my will, and studiest in the words of my law; and how - well ordered are thy works and thy affairs, as young doves that are - fit to be offered upon the altar!” - - 16. Behold thou art comely, &c.—The congregation of Israel answered - before the Lord of the world, and thus said, “How fair is the - shechinah of thy holiness, when thou dwellest among us, and - receivest prayers with acceptance; and when thou dwellest in our - beloved bed, and our children are multiplied in the world, and we - increase and multiply like a tree that is planted by a stream of - water, whose leaf is fair, and whose fruit is plenteous!” - - 17. The beams of, &c.—Solomon, the prophet, said, “How beautiful is - the house of the sanctuary of the Lord, which is built by my hands, - of wood of Gulmish; but far more beautiful will be the house of the - sanctuary which shall be built in the days of the King Messiah, the - beams of which will be of the cedars of the garden of Eden, and - whose rafters will be of cypress, pine, and box.” - - -The precedent of the Talmud in taking the beloved as the Lord, and the -loved one as the Congregation of Israel, and in explaining the text in -such a manner as to make it square with her doings, has quite prepared -us for the Chaldee exposition, the author of which most probably was -himself one of the later Talmudists. How could the paraphrast do -otherwise? “Are not the words of the sages more excellent than even the -wine of the Law?” [37] “Is not he who transgresses the words of the -scribes more guilty than he who transgresses the words of the Law?” -[38] Having, therefore, been once settled by the sages that this Song -describes the doings and sufferings of Israel, it only remained for the -expositors to apply their exegetical canons, viz.: of transposing, -changing, or omitting letters; explaining words by others of a similar -sound; making each letter of a word begin another word; reducing an -expression to its numerical value, and explaining the text accordingly, -&c. &c., in order to palm upon this book, in a consecutive order, the -remarkable events in connection with the history of the Jews. - -Thus, the love of God to Israel, which was greater than to all the -seventy other nations mentioned in Ch. i. 2, was obtained by reducing -the word יין to its numerical value, seventy; the two worlds, in -verse 3, which the pious are to inherit, were obtained by changing -עלמות maidens, into עולמות worlds, according to the example of the -Talmud; [39] the twenty-two letters with which the Law is written, in -verse 4, were obtained by reducing the word בך to its numerical -value; the Tabernacle, in verse 5, was obtained from the word ירעות, -and the effected peace by changing the proper name שלמה into שלום -peace; the worship of the sun and moon, in verse 6, was obtained from -the word שמש sun; the ploughing bullock, in verse 10, was obtained by -changing תורים ringlet, and חרוזים necklace, into תור חרז; the -two tables shining as the best gold, verse 11, were obtained by -rendering תורי זהב golden Laws, and the seven times seven, or the -forty different interpretations of the Law, by reducing the word זהב -to its numerical value, ז being seven, and ה and ב seven, and -then multiplying seven by seven; the binding of Isaac, in verse 13, was -obtained by rendering צרור המור by ערור המוריה the binding of -Moriah; the sin of the calf, and the atonement of that, in verse 14, -were obtained by changing עין גדי En-gedi, into עון עגל the sin of -the calf, and by substituting כפר pardon, for כופר cypress-flower, -according to the example of the Talmud. [40] This is the development of -Hagadic exegesis, and this the paraphrase appealed to in support of the -allegorical interpretation, and in the track of which future -allegorists more or less follow. - -892–942. From the Chaldee paraphrase to R. Saadias Gaon, a period of -about 350 years, thick darkness covers the annals of Jewish literature. -With him, however, a new epoch begins to dawn. Saadias was born at -Pithom, in Egypt, about the year 892, and died in the year 942. He was -“Gaon,” or spiritual head of the Jews in Babylon, and is well known by -his translation of the Bible into Arabic, the Pentateuch of which is -inserted in Walton’s Polyglott. [41] Among the many philosophical and -exegetical works this eminent man bequeathed to posterity, is a -commentary on the Song of Songs, which was originally written in -Arabic, and was translated into Hebrew by some unknown individual. This -work is exceedingly rare, and I have happily found a copy of the -original Constantinople edition in the British Museum, of which Dukes -was not aware when he wrote his “Literarische Mittheilungen.” The view -that Saadias takes is that “Solomon relates in it the history of the -Jews, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and extending it beyond -the coming of the Messiah.” Thus far he agrees with the Targum, but his -commentary on the text is entirely at variance with that paraphrase. - -According to Saadias, Ch. i. 2–iii. 5, describes the bondage of Israel -in Egypt, their liberation, the giving of the Law, the battles with -Sihon, Og, and the King of Aroar, the wrath of God at the time of the -spies, &c. Ch. iii. 6–iv. 7, describes the erection of the Tabernacle, -the various journeys in the wilderness, the high position of Moses and -Aaron, &c. Hitherto Israel has been called by the appellation my loved -one, for they had not as yet entered Canaan; henceforth they are called -bride (כלה), because God takes them into the promised land; just as a -bridegroom calls his loved one bride, when he takes her home. Ch. iv. -8–v. 1, describes Israel’s entrance into Canaan, the building of the -first Temple, the separation of Judah and Israel, the Shechinah -departing from Israel and abiding with Judah, and the people coming up -to Jerusalem to the three great festivals. Ch. v. 2–vi. 3, describes -the rebellion of Israel and Ahaz, God sending prophets to warn them to -repent, the destruction of the Temple, the Babylonian captivity, -Israel’s liberation, the building of the second Temple, and the -covenant of God with his repenting people. Ch. vi. 4–ix. describes the -twofold condition of the people that returned from Babylon, some of -whom were godly, while others took strange women, forgot the holy -language, and were therefore called שחר dawn, being neither real -light nor real darkness, neither pious nor wicked. Ch. vi. 10–vii. 9, -refers to the present dispersion, in which the Jews, though being many -days without a king, without a priest, &c., say we still live in the -fear of God, and are His. Ch. vii. 12–viii. 4, refers to the sufferings -of the Messiah ben Joseph, the manifestation of the Messiah ben David, -the obedience of Israel to God in those days, and to the Lord’s -rejoicing over them as a bridegroom over his bride. Ch. viii. 5, to the -end, describes Israel restored, the third Temple built, and all the -people walking according to the will of the Lord. - -The principal persons in this Song are understood in the following -manner: “the beloved” is the Lord; “the loved one,” the Congregation of -Israel; “the companions of the beloved,” (Ch. i. 7,) are Moses, Aaron, -and Miriam; “the daughters of Jerusalem,” the Congregation of Israel; -“the little sister,” the two tribes and a half; “the speaker,” the -Lord; “the inhabitant of the gardens,” is the sages; “the companions,” -in the same verse, are the Israelites wishing to listen to the teaching -of their sages. - -The following is a specimen of R. Saadias’s commentary, the Hebrew of -which is given in the note. [42] - - - 1–3. The Song of Songs, &c.—Know, my brother, that you will find a - great diversity of opinions as regards the interpretation of this - Song of Songs; and it must be confessed that there is reason for - it, since the Song of Songs is like a lock, the key of which hath - been lost. Some maintain that it refers to the kingdom of Israel; - others say that it refers to the days of the Messiah; and others - again affirm that it refers to the time of the dispersion and the - Messiah, and assert that by beloved (דוד) the Messiah is meant, - and by bride (כלה) is meant the law (תורה). But this is a sin, - an error, and a great heresy. The truth is, that by beloved (דוד) - is meant the Lord, for it is written, “I will sing to my beloved a - song of love respecting his vineyard” (Isa. v. 1), which the - prophet Isaiah explains (verse 7), “The vineyard of the Lord of - Hosts is the house of Israel.” Solomon relates in this book the - history of the Jews commencing with their Exodus from Egypt until - after the coming of the Messiah, and compares the position of - Israel to God to that of a bride to a bridegroom, because she - (Israel) is dear to him, and he to her. When he first takes her - from her father’s house he calls her my friend (רעיתי), when he - brings her to his house he calls her my bride (כלה), when she - finds favour in his eyes he calls her my sister (אחותי), and - praises her from head to foot; then he is angry with her, and she - returns and praises him from head to foot; then he praises her a - second time. And, because it is unlawful for a bridegroom and bride - to come together without a marriage-contract and witnesses, - therefore Solomon begins with the words, “Let him give me kisses of - his mouth;” that is, the commandments and the statutes, comprising - both the written and the oral law which the Lord gave to Israel - through the pious Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, so that Israel’s fame - went forth into the world in consequence of their wisdom, as it is - written, “And thy renown went forth among the heathen for thy - beauty,” &c. (Ezek. xvi. 14), so much so that many of the nations - desired to be gathered under the wings of the shechinah and become - Jews; and these are the mixed multitudes, Jethro and others, and - therefore it is said, “Thy perfumes are good in odour,” that is, - the Lord tried them from the departure out of Egypt till their - entrance into Canaan whether they would walk in his ways, as it is - written, “Thou didst follow me in the wilderness,” &c. Jer. ii. 2. - - 4. Draw me, &c.—Having related in this verse how Israel walked in - the fear of the Lord, and received the ten commandments in the 6th - of Sivan, and then made the calf on the 17th of Tamuz, Solomon in - astonishment says in their name, - - 5. I am swarthy, &c.—That is, I am swarthy, but comely; I am - swarthy because of making the calf, but comely because of receiving - the ten commandments; and Israel says that his sin has been - forgiven through the three thousand men, the wicked among Israel, - who served idols, who were killed before the sun to atone for the - great sin, as it is written, “For thou hadst done it in secret, but - I will do it before all Israel, and before the sun” (2 Sam. xii. - 11, 12); and the nations made me keeper of the service of other - gods, for I served strange gods, as it is written, “And they - changed their glory into the likeness of a calf that eateth grass” - (Psal. cv. 25.) - - -The reader will have observed that this early commentator does already -compare the Song of Songs to a lock, the key of which has been lost, -and refers to several modes in which it has been interpreted. - -1000–1040. The allegorical interpretation was nevertheless introduced -into the Jewish liturgical services in the middle ages, when they were -seeking, from traditions, dogmas, biblical events, &c., to construct -sacred hymns and poems to be said or sung at their feasts and fasts. -[43] Being regarded as representing the departure of Israel from Egypt -(יציאת מצרים), and their subsequent history in confirmation of -Jehovah’s covenant with them, the Song of Songs is used in a poetical -paraphrase on the first and second morning services of the Passover -feast, which was designed to celebrate the Exodus from Egypt as the -commencement of the conjugal relation between God and his people. For -the same reason, the book itself is read in the synagogue on the -Sabbath of the middle days of the Passover (חול המועד של פסח). The -poetical paraphrase above alluded to is in an alphabetical form, has -the author’s name in it, and each stanza closes with a quotation from -the book in regular order, which renders the paraphrastic meaning -artificial and obscure. Some idea of it may be gathered from the -following version which we have made of R. Solomon ben Judah Hababli’s -paraphrase, comprising the first five verses of the Song of Songs. - - - 1 The Light and Saviour of the chosen people - Deserving protection, - He shall have from His beloved assembly - “A song of Songs.” - - 2 The Graceful One, the object of all longing desires. - The Reviving Cordial of the fainting heart, - The Bountiful Source of abundant supply, - “He hath kissed me with kisses.” [44] - - 3 The loved one above all nations, - The keeper of the Law Thou hast given, - Her didst Thou perfume with Thy spices, - “The odour of Thy sweet ointments.” [45] - - 4 The chosen of Thy house and nobles, - Lo! we are surrounded with splendour, - We press to the house of Thy glory, - “Oh draw us after thee.” [46] - - 5 Oh Thou all majestic, yet mild, - Thou hast crown’d me with grace above many, - Though now with grief I am marred, - “I am swarthy, but comely.” [47] - - -It must, however, be borne in mind that the synagogal poetry was not -authorized to express the creed of the whole nation; which is evident -from the fact that many learned and pious Jews unscrupulously, and -without censure, rejected some of its opinions. Some of these poems -were composed by prelectors of separate congregations, and for the use -of the particular synagogues in which they officiated. The adoption or -rejection of any such poem entirely depended upon the influence of the -prelector on his congregation, and upon the theme and merit of the -composition. The poetical paraphrase of the allegorical interpretation -of the Song of Songs was sure to be adopted because of the consolation -which it imparts to the dispersed and suffering Israelites, inasmuch as -it assures them that God has not cast them off, that He is still their -beloved, and they are still his loved ones, and that he will speedily -be reunited to them. - -1040–1105. Through R. Solomon ben Isaac, the founder of the -Germano-French Rabbinical literature, this encouraging allegorical -interpretation was introduced into Germany and France, where the -suffering Jews obtained consolation. This distinguished commentator, -commonly called Rashi, and, through the misleading of Buxtorf, -erroneously named Jarchi, was born at Troyes, in Champagne, in 1040, -where he also died, about 1105. [48] - -“My opinion is,” says Rashi, “that Solomon foresaw, by the aid of the -Holy Spirit, that Israel would be carried into sundry captivities, and -undergo sundry dissolutions; that they would lament in their captivity -over their former glory, and recall the former love, which God -manifested for them above all other nations; that they would say, ‘I -will go and return to my first husband, for then was it better with me -than now’ (Hos. ii. 9); that they would acknowledge His kindness and -their own rebellion, and the good things which He promised to give them -in the latter days (i.e., at the coming of Messiah.) - -“This book is written by inspiration, and represents a wife forsaken by -her husband, and shut up, longing after him, recalling to her mind her -love in youth to her beloved, and confessing her guilt; her beloved -sympathising with her affection, and remembering the kindness of her -youth, the charms of her beauty, and her good works, which had tied him -to her with an everlasting love. - -“The design of this book is to show to Israel that God has not -afflicted her (i.e., Israel) willingly; that though He did send her -away, He has not cast her off; that she is still His wife, and He her -husband, and that He will again be united to her.” [49] - -According to Rashi, דוד represents God as a husband, and the “loved -one” the congregation of Israel, as a wife forsaken for a time by him; -the “companions of the beloved” are the heathen kings and princes, -under the figure of wolves; “the daughters of Jerusalem,” are the -heathen nations; the “brothers of the loved one,” are the Egyptians; -the “little sister” is the forsaken wife of the Song, &c. &c. - -The following is a specimen of Rashi’s commentary:— - - - 1. The Song of Songs, &c.—Our Rabbins state, that whenever Solomon - is mentioned in this Song, it signifies the Holy One, the King of - Peace. This is confirmed by the fact that the name of Solomon’s - father is not here given, as in Prov. i. 1 and Eccl. i. 1. This - most excellent Song was addressed to God by his people, the - congregation of Israel. Rabbi Akiba says, that the world was not - worthy of the day in which the Song of Songs was given to Israel; - for all the Scriptures are holy, but the Song of Songs is most - holy. Rabbi Eliezer ben Azariah says, it is like to a king who took - a measure of wheat, and gave it to the baker, saying, Produce from - it so much flour, so much bran, and so much chaff, and make me a - refined and excellent cake of the flour; so all Scriptures are - holy, but this Song is most holy; for the whole of this book - teaches the fear of God and submission to his kingdom. - - 2. Let him kiss me, &c.—This Song Israel utters in her captivity - and widowhood. Oh that King Solomon would give me kisses of His - mouth, as in the time of yore! Some kiss the hand, and others the - shoulders; but I desire that He should behave to me as in former - days, viz., kiss my mouth as a bridegroom kisses his bride; for Thy - caresses are better than all the banquets of wine, and all joys and - pleasures. It is a Hebrew idiom to call every banquet of pleasure - and joy by the name of wine (Comp. Esth. vii. 2; Isaiah xxiv. 9; v. - 12). This is the literal sense; but, according to the allegory, - this refers to the giving of the Law, and God’s speaking with - Israel face to face. These favours still continue to be more - precious to them than any delights; and as they are assured by God - that He will appear again to reveal the secrets and mysteries of - the Law, Israel prays to Him for the fulfilment of His promises. - This is the meaning of “Let him kiss me!” - - 3. Thy perfumes, &c.—A good name is called good oil. The fragrance - of Thy name is so excellent that the ends of the earth have smelt - it when they heard of Thy fame and of Thy great wonders in Egypt. - Thy name is called שמן, i.e., Thou art oil, and art constantly - poured forth, so that Thy sweet odour might be widely diffused. - This is the nature of good oil. As long as it is sealed in a - bottle, it does not emit any smell; but when the bottle is opened, - and the oil poured into a vessel, the smell is diffused. The - maidens love thee. Jethro, hearing of the wonderful doings of God - in Egypt, confessed the God of Israel (Exodus xviii.); so Rahab, - when she heard that the Lord had dried up the waters of the Red - Sea, became a proselyte (Joshua ii. 11). By the maidens are meant - the Gentiles; they are so called because God is represented as a - youth. - - 4. Draw me, &c.—I gathered from Thy messengers that Thou didst wish - to draw me, and I immediately replied, We will run after Thee to be - Thy wife. He has brought me, &c. And up to the present time I still - rejoice, and am glad that I have been united to Thee. We celebrate, - &c. Even now, though a living widow, I celebrate Thy love more than - a banquet of pleasure and mirth. They love thee, &c. I and my - forefathers, in their days, have loved Thee with fervent and - upright love, without deception. This is the literal meaning - according to the context. But, according to the allegory, Israel - reminds God of the kindness of their youth and the love of their - espousals (Jer. ii. 2), of their following Him in the wilderness, a - land of aridity and the shadow of death, whither they took no - provisions, because they believed in Him and in His messenger, and - did not say, How shall we follow Thee in the wilderness, a place - destitute of fertility and food? but went after Him, and “He - brought them into his apartments:” that is, surrounded them with - the protecting clouds. And even now, though in distress and - affliction, they rejoice and are glad in Him and delight in the - Law; and herein celebrate His love more than wine, and manifest - their sincere attachment to Him. - - 5. I am swarthy, &c.—You, my companions, let me not be lightly - esteemed in your eyes, although my Husband forsook me because of my - swarthiness; for I am swarthy because of the tanning sun, yet I am - comely because of the symmetry of my beautiful limbs. If I am - swarthy, like the tents of Kedar, which are discoloured by the - rain, in consequence of their being constantly spread out in the - wilderness, I shall easily be washed, and be as beautiful as the - curtains of Solomon. The allegorical meaning is, the congregation - of Israel speaks this to the Gentiles,—I am swarthy in my own - works, but I am comely in the works of my fathers; and some of my - own works even are good. And though I am tainted with the sin of - the calf, I have, to counterbalance this, the merit of accepting - the Law. Israel calls the Gentiles “daughters of Jerusalem,” - because Jerusalem is to be the metropolis of all nations, as it is - predicted, “And I will give them to thee for daughters” (Ezek. xvi. - 61); and, again, “Ekron and her daughters” (Josh. xv. 44). - - -Rashi also says, that he had seen “a number of other commentaries on -this Song; some containing an exposition of the whole Book, and others -of separate passages, but they are compatible neither with the language -of Scripture, nor with the connexion of the verses.” [50] - -1085–1155. The spread of this consoling allegorical interpretation in -France and Germany was promoted by the commentary [51] of the -distinguished R. Samuel ben Meier, called Rashbam, the grandson of -Rashi, who was born about 1085, and died about 1155. [52] - -Rashbam too affirms that this book “represents captive Israel as a -virgin sighing and mourning for her beloved, who left her and went afar -off, as describing his everlasting love to her, declaring in a Song, -‘Such an ardent love did my beloved manifest when with me,’ and telling -her friends and companions in a colloquial manner, ‘So did my beloved -speak to me, and so did I answer him.’” [53] In the explanations of the -principal persons Rashbam generally agrees with Rashi. - -The following is a specimen of his commentary:— - - - 1. The Song of Songs—That is, a song celebrated above all songs, - like אלהי אלהיﬦ the great and awful God, above all gods, and - ﬡדוני אדניﬦ the great Lord above all lords. Which is Solomon’s. - That is, King Solomon composed it by inspiration. Foreseeing the - Israelites in their captivity sighing after the Holy One who went - away from them, as a bridegroom separates himself from his beloved, - Solomon sings this song in the name of the congregation of Israel, - who is like a bride to Him (God). אשר לשלמה describes Solomon as - the author, compare תפלה למשה, תהלה לדוד. - - 2. Would that, &c.—Would that my Beloved came, and kissed me kisses - of His mouth on my mouth in his great love as in the days of old; - for the expressions of His love are better, pleasanter, and sweeter - than any delicious banquet. Thy caresses. The loved one sometimes - addresses herself to her beloved as if he were present, and at - other times she speaks of him to her companions, as if he were - absent. More than wine, i.e. more than sweet beverages called - יַיִן. According to the allegorical meaning, this refers to the law - delivered to Israel mouth to mouth. - - 3. Thy perfumes, &c.—Because of Thy good ointment of balsam, the - odour of which extended to the end of the earth, and was poured out - from vessel to vessel, therefore is Thy name called ointment. Comp. - Eccl. vii. 1. “A good name is better than precious ointment.” By - the extension of youthful love is meant the wonders which the Holy - One performed for the congregation of Israel in Egypt, on account - of which His name and power became known among the nations, as it - is written, “The priest of Midian heard, &c.” Exod. xviii. 1: and - again, what is said by Rahab the harlot, “For we have heard how the - Lord dried up the water, &c.” Josh. ii. 10. And again, “The people - shall hear and be afraid,” Exod. xv. 14. - - 4. Draw me, &c.—Draw me to Thee, and I and my congregation will run - after Thee, as in the days of old, when the King, my beloved, - brought me into His chambers; and, while running after Thee, we - will rejoice and be glad in Thee, and celebrate Thy love and the - expressions of Thy affection above any banquet of wine and - beverages; for all the world loves Thee with upright love. This - refers to the congregation of Israel, who sighs and makes - supplication before the Holy One, to bring her out from her - captivity, as He had formerly brought her out of Egypt, and led her - into His chambers, i.e., the tabernacle, where they served Him - continually. - - 5. I am swarthy, &c.—Oh, my companions, virgin daughters of - Ishmael, do not disdain and deride me on account of my blackness, - saying, Because I am black, therefore my Beloved left me; for, - although I am black as regards the appearance of my face, like the - tents of Kedar, yet I am comely and graceful in body and stature, - like the curtains of King Solomon, which are becoming and suitable - to royalty. Thus the congregation of Israel, whom the nations - reproach on account of her sins and transgressions which she - committed, answers: True, I have sinned; and woe to me, for I am - wandering in captivity for it; yet I am comely, I am of royal - blood, and have the merits of my fathers; and the Holy One, in the - latter days, will restore me to my former state, and liberate me - from the iron furnace of captivity. The daughters of Jerusalem are - the heathen. Compare “I will give them to thee to be thy - daughters.” Ezek. xvi. 61. The tents of Kedar are black, because - the sons of Kedar sojourn in deserts and dwell in tents, and not in - houses. - - -1093–1168. While Rashi and Rashbam, by means of this allegorical -interpretation, assuaged the sufferings of their brethren in France and -Germany, the celebrated Abraham Ibn-Ezra ben Meier, also called -Ibn-Ezra and Raba, who was born in Toledo in 1093, and died in 1168, -[54] administered consolation through the same medium to his suffering -brethren in Spain, shewing them that this Song recounts the past -wonderful dealings of God with his beloved people from the very call of -Abraham, and the blessings reserved for them at the coming of the -Messiah, who shall gather them from among all nations, and bring them -back to the land flowing with milk and honey. - -Thus Ibn Ezra maintains that “This book is allegorical, and describes -the history of Israel; commencing with the days of our Father, Abraham, -and coming down to the days of the Messiah; just as the Song of Moses -(Deut. xxxii.) begins with the dispersion of the human family, and -finishes with the final ingathering of Israel, after the battle of Gog -and Magog. Do not wonder that the Congregation of Israel is here -compared to a bride, and the Lord to a bridegroom; for this is the -manner of the prophets.” (Comp. Isa. v. 1, lxii. 5, Ezek. xvi. 7, Hos. -iii. 1, Psa. xlv. 10.) - -The allegory, according to this distinguished Rabbi, is developed in -the suppositious attachment contracted between a damsel who kept a -vineyard, and a shepherd. The representation of the love of these -parties “is suppositious, because such an actual manifestation, in so -public a manner as here recorded, would be regarded as highly -improper.” [55] - -“The beloved” represents God; with the exception of viii. 12, where the -Messiah is meant; “the loved one” is the Congregation of Israel; “the -companions of the beloved” are the pious ancestors; “the daughters of -Jerusalem” are the thoughts of the loved one; “the little sister,” in -viii. 8, is the two tribes and a half; “the speaker,” in viii. 13, the -shechinah; “the companions,” in the same verse, are the angels. - -The commentary consists of three different glosses: in the first, the -words are explained; in the second, the suppositious history of the -attachment of the shepherd and shepherdess is developed; and in the -third gloss, the allegory is evolved from that history. The following -is a specimen of the gloss where the allegory is propounded. - - - 2. Let him kiss me.—He (i.e. Solomon) begins with Abraham, for he - is the root of the Jewish nation. By “the kisses of his mouth” are - meant the law and the commandments, as it is written, “Abraham - obeyed my voice and kept my charge, my commandments, my statutes, - and my laws.” (Gen. xxvi. 5.) Do not wonder that the future - (ישקני) is used instead of the past; this is the idiom of the - sacred Scriptures, compare ﬡז ישּיר, then he sang (Exod. xv. 1, - and Psa. cvi. 19); just as we find the contrary, the past used for - the future (Psa. lxxix. 1).—For thy love, &c. i.e., to be loved by - thee; as the Scriptures testify of God’s love to his people. - Compare “the seed of Abraham whom I love” (Isa. xli. 8); for there - is a difference between אוהב, loving, and אהוב, loved. - - 3. Thy perfumes, &c.—Abraham proclaimed the works of God, and - instructed his generation; and wherever he went he called on the - name of the Lord; this is the meaning of “thy name is poured forth - like oil.” Therefore do the damsels love thee.—עלמות are such as - have no husbands, and denote the heathen who had no God, and were - brought by Abraham into union with God; as it is written, “The - souls which they had begotten in Haran” (Gen. xii. 5). - - 4. Draw me.—Abraham was drawn after God, and therefore left his - native place (Gen. xii. 1). The king has brought me, &c.—God has - brought Abraham into the land of Canaan; or it may mean, God has - made him wise in his secrets, and the words, we will praise thy - love, denote the altars and groves which Abraham erected and - planted wherever he came. - - 5. I am swarthy.—This refers to the Egyptian bondage. Although I - (i.e. Israel) am swarthy because of some evil deeds committed - there; yet I am comely because of my adhesion to the covenant and - to the belief in the unity of God. - - -It has generally been overlooked that Ibn Ezra distinctly states in the -second gloss, in which he professes to give the literal meaning of the -narrative, that the lovers are a shepherd and a shepherdess, and that -the king is a separate and distinct person from the beloved shepherd. - -Thus he explains Ch. i. 4, “I rejoice in THEE (the shepherd) more than -if THE KING had brought me into his apartments.” Again, verse 12, the -shepherdess says to the shepherd, “Though my fragrance is so sweet that -THE KING, whilst reclining, desires to smell my nard, yet MY BELOVED -(the shepherd), who is a bundle of myrrh, diffuses a still sweeter -fragrance.” Compare also Ch. iii. 6–11, Ch. vi. 8, Ch. viii. 11, 12. -This is an important step to the right understanding of the Book. - -Ibn Ezra also mentions that “The philosophers explain this book to -refer to the mysterious harmony of the universe, and to the union of -the divine soul with the earthly body; and that others, again, explain -it literally.” [56] In reference to the last mentioned mode of -interpretation, he exclaimed, “Far be it! far be it! to think that the -Song of Songs is an amatory composition.” [57] - -1200–1250. The frequent mention made by the preceding commentators of -the different views entertained respecting this Song, will have -prepared the reader for the philosophical interpretation which has been -adopted and defended by a large and influential portion of the Jewish -community. - -Joseph Ibn Caspe, a learned author, who lived in the beginning of the -thirteenth century, and who wrote expositions on several portions of -the Scriptures, maintains that “this book represents the union between -the ACTIVE INTELLECT (intellectus agens) and the RECEPTIVE MATERIAL -INTELLECT (intellectus materialis),” typified by the beloved and loved -one. - -As Caspe’s commentary is short and exceedingly rare, we give a -translation of it, and subjoin the original in the footnote:— - - - THE COMMENTARY OF IBN CASPE. [58] - - Joseph Caspe saith: Having commented on Ecclesiastes and Proverbs, - which Solomon of blessed memory has in wisdom composed, it behoves - us also to write a few words on the Song of Songs, which is - likewise the composition of Solomon of blessed memory. I need not, - however, explain the words, since they have been explained long - before me. I shall, therefore, confine my remarks to the design of - the book in general, and now and then make some observations in - particular. The general design of this book, however, is not my - discovery; the luminary (Maimonides) that shone upon the earth has - enlightened our eyes also upon this subject when treating upon it, - especially in part iii. c. 51 (of the More Nebochim); and his hint - there is sufficient for us and for such as ourselves. - - I therefore submit that this book undoubtedly belongs to the second - kind of parables which the teacher of blessed memory (Maimonides) - mentions in the beginning of his book, in which all the words used - in the comparison must not be applied to the thing compared, just - as in the case there quoted, which treats on the subject of a - beloved and loved one, like the book before us, with the only - difference that the instance there adduced refers to the union of - matter and mind, and this book represents the union between the - active intellect and the receptive, material intellect, which - latter is divided into four parts, the highest of which is the - imparted intellect. With all the particulars of this book, Solomon - merely designed to hint at the subject in general. It is most - certain that he calls here the highest order of the human intellect - “the fairest of women,” and the active intellect “the graceful - lover;” frequently the whole intellectual mind is meant by the - latter phrase, for this is the meaning demanded in several places - of this Book. - - It is well known that the active intellect (intellectus agens) - stirs up or brings the receptive intellect (intellectus materialis) - from a possibility into activity, as it is known to the - philosophers; and that the receptive intellect requires to seek - after this; as it is written, “If thou wilt seek it, it shall be - found of thee.” - - Having explained the general design, we need not dwell upon the - particulars; the design is indicated in a few passages only, whilst - the whole is treated in accordance with the train of a poetical - composition and logical science; and this Solomon declares in the - beginning of the book by saying “The Song of Songs.” - - It is, moreover, known that Solomon composed three books which we - possess; and as the prophets of blessed memory spoke in three - different kinds of ways; the one, in a plain manner, containing - nothing beyond the obvious and literal sense, which is called all - silver; the second entirely symbolical, having no literal meaning - whatever, but consisting of mere allegories or parables, which is - called all gold; and the third comprising both the figurative and - the literal, which is called apples of gold (under plates of - silver); so Solomon wrote the three books—Ecclesiastes, which - belongs to the first kind; the Song of Songs to the second; and - Proverbs to the third. Remember these distinctions, and observe how - we are in danger at every step to mistake in the Law, Hagiography, - and Prophets, one for the other, and thus change life into death. - And this leads us to commit one of two errors; we either put into - the words a thing which is false, or, to say the least, make the - author say what he did not intend; in such a case, our words can no - more be called a commentary, but form a separate composition or a - book for themselves. I only call that a commentary which thoroughly - comes up to the design of the author of the book. The appearance, - however, of each book of the Bible will indicate to a judicious, - clear-headed, and intellectual man, whether it belongs to the one - or the other of the above-mentioned classes. We cannot here give - rules whereby to test this; it is sufficient to say that truth is - her own witness. - - There is another important remark to be made, viz., that allusions - are made in this book to the writings of Moses, as, indeed, Solomon - has made in his other books. This all the prophets have done, in - order to explain expressions and synonyms which occur in the Law of - Moses, especially when referring to that part of the Law which - treats on the Creation and the Chariot, the chief objects of the - Law. We must study deeply to understand the wonderful works of the - prophets, and after them, the rabbins of blessed memory, in their - respective books; for when they intended to be profound, they did - not mention the same terms employed in the Law, but changed them - for other expressions which are somewhat synonymous with those in - the former, e.g., יין חמר, פרדם, wine, vine, vineyard, &c. From - this arose the great hyperbole in the writings of the Rabbins of - blessed memory, for wisdom was not hid from them. But this is not - necessary here. The above remarks will suffice for this book - according to our design. Praise be to God, and blessed be his name! - Amen. - - -Moses Ibn Tibbon, a celebrated writer of the same age, wrote an -elaborate commentary in which he maintains the same view that “the Song -of Songs represents the union of the RECEPTIVE or MATERIAL INTELLECT -with the ACTIVE INTELLECT.” - -This commentary has not been printed. A defective MS. containing the -Preface, which is very copious, is to be found in the British Museum, -Harleian Collection, No. 5797; and a complete MS. is in the possession -of the Bodleian Library at Oxford. - -1272–1350. The most powerful and ingenious defender of this view is -Immanuel ben Solomon. This most charming Hebrew writer, who is -poetically called אַלוּף הַדַּעַת בְּמַגְדִיאֵל, the Prince of Science in Rome, -was born in Rome, in 1272, where he was the spiritual head of the -Jewish community, and where he died, in the first half of the -fourteenth century. As Immanuel gives an analysis of this mode of -interpretation in his exposition on the first verse, and as this -commentary has not been published, we give a translation of this verse, -which will enable the reader to see how this mode of interpretation is -applied to the whole book. The MS. used for this purpose is in the -possession of the British Museum, Harl. Col., No. 5797. [59] - - - The Song of Songs.—Immanuel ben R. Solomon of blessed memory, - saith, Acknowledging the goodness of the Lord, I agree with the - opinion of our Rabbins, that this book is the most sublime of all - the Books given by inspiration. Expositors, however, differ in its - interpretation, and their opinions are divided, according to the - diversity of their knowledge. There are some—but these are such as - go no further than the material world, and that which their eye - sees, looking forward to the good of this world and its glory, to - the great reward of their labours and a recompense from God, - desiring to be restored to their greatness, and to the land flowing - with milk and honey, and to have their stomachs filled with the - flesh of the Leviathan, and the best of wines preserved in its - grapes—such men interpret this sublime song as having reference to - the history of the Patriarchs, their going down to Egypt, their - Exodus from thence with a mighty hand and outstretched arm, the - giving of the Law, the entry into the land of Canaan, the - settlement of Israel in it, their captivity, restoration, the - building of the second Temple, the present dispersion, and their - final ingathering which is to take place. Such interpreters regard - this book, which is holy of holies, as some common book, or - historical record of any of the kings, which is of very little use, - and the reading of which is only a loss of time. But there are - other sages and divines, who have attained to know the value of - true wisdom; they are separated from the material world, despise - the mere temporal things, heartily desire to know the courts of the - Lord, and have a footing in the Jerusalem which is above, and with - heart and flesh sing to the living God; these have put off the - garments of folly, and clothed themselves in the robes of wisdom, - and while searching after the mysteries of this precious book - through the openings of the figures of silver, glanced at golden - apples of the allegory concealed in it. They, in the vessel of - their understanding, traversed its sea, and brought to light from - the depth, the reality of the book. Thus they have declared that - the book was composed to explain the possibility of a reunion with - the incorporeal mind, which forms the perceptive faculty, and - influences it with abundant goodness. - - The shepherds, accordingly, represent the corporeal intellect which - longs after the influence of the active intellect, and desires to - be like it, as much as possible, to cleave to it, and to come up to - its standing, which is the ultimate end of its purpose. - - These learned divines above mentioned have expounded the design of - the book in general, and explained some of its verses indirectly; - but they did not explain it in regular order from beginning to end, - till the celebrated sage, R. Moses Ibn Tibbon, came and explained - the book according to wisdom, and his exposition is, indeed, full - of wisdom and excellency. As he, however, passed by several - particulars, not noticing their design, our wise contemporaries, - reading the writing of that learned author, and wishing to enter - more fully into all its parts, insisted, with a command of love, - that I should write a complete commentary on the book, keeping the - same path the learned author has pointed out, bringing out all its - particulars, and making discoveries not mentioned in the said book, - also paying attention to its literal meaning, as far as God may - enable me. - - Seeing their entreaties, and regarding it a duty to yield to their - wishes, I gathered strength, and made the commentary on the book, - according to my feeble abilities. I kept the plan of the said - author, mentioned some of his words, and altered others, sometimes - adding to, and at other times diminishing from what he said, as I - was led by the heavenly Father. Thus I begin. It appears necessary - first to mention the design of the book in general, and its - division into sections. - - I submit that all truly wise men who commented upon this book - philosophically, saw clearly that it is divisible into three - principal sections. - - The first section extends from chap. i. 2, to ii. 17. - - The second section extends from chap. iii. 1, to v. 1. - - And the third from chap. v. 2, to the end of the book. - - These three sections, moreover, refer to three different kinds of - men. - - The first section—Chap. i. 2,–ii. 17,—represents man, who either - ideally or actually, was in the garden of Eden before he sinned, - and brought into activity his choice for good and evil; as it is - written, “And the Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden; and - there he put the man whom he had formed. And out of the ground made - the Lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight and - good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, - and the tree of knowledge of good and evil” (Gen. ii. 8, 9). The - Lord permitted, or commanded him to eat of all the fruit of the - garden; but He pointed out to him one tree of which he was not to - eat, lest he should die; as it is said, “But of the tree of the - knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it: for in the - day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die” (Gen. ii. 17). - And if, as man, he had the choice to eat of the tree of life, he - might have eaten and lived for ever, without mortification or - trouble; as it is written, “Behold, I have set before thee life and - good, and death and evil: choose, therefore, of the life, that thou - mayest live” (Deut. xxx. 15). This represents one who endeavours to - learn wisdom in its order, but is afraid lest he should be - terrified when looking up to God, seeing that his fruit is not yet - ripe. This is the meaning of what is said in the section, “Turn, my - beloved, and be thou like a gazelle or a young hind upon the - mountains of separation” (Song of Songs ii. 17); and again, “Catch - us the foxes, the little foxes, that destroy the vineyards; for our - vineyards are in blossom” (ibid. 15). This teaches that the fruit - was not yet ripe. There is no mention in this first section that - the shepherdess did eat of the fruit. Her saying, “I desired to sit - down under its shade, and its fruit is sweet to my taste” (Song of - Songs ii. 3), merely declares her desire, which is evident from the - word חמדתי. The expression פריו is here used in the sense of - words, wisdom, and instruction. The whole, therefore, of the first - section refers to the mind of man when still young, prior to its - developing the end for which its existence was designed, and when - the powers of the body have still the dominion over it, for he has - not pursued his studies farther than mathematics and physics. This - first section is again subdivided into two parts. The first part - begins chap. i. 2, and ends ii. 7, and represents one who fears God - and shuns evil; but his knowledge of God is derived from tradition, - and has no wisdom of his own. And the second part (chap. ii. 8 to - iii. 1) represents one who has studied mathematics and physics. - - The second section (chap. iii. 1, v. 1) represents one who has - found the virtuous woman whose desire is to her husband, and who - seeks her beloved while upon her couch, and in whom her husband may - safely trust; that is, a mind which has brought out its possibility - into reality, and has, as it were, stretched out its hand and taken - of the tree of life, and eaten, and lives for ever. This is meant - by the declaration in this section, “Scarcely had I passed them, - when I found him whom my soul loveth. I seized him, and would not - let him go, till I brought him into the house of my mother, into - the apartment of her that gave me birth” (Song of Songs iii. 4). - The nuptials, too, are mentioned, and the day of the gladness of - his heart (iii. 11), which is the true spiritual nuptial day and - union. It is also stated that he had a couch, as it is said, - “Behold the couch of Solomon” (iii. 7), as well as a palanquin, and - was fit for royalty. He is, moreover, called here King Solomon, - whereas, in the remainder, he is merely called Solomon, or - Shulamite, in the feminine, to denote the effeminate state. The - beloved also declares that he had found his loved one a closed - garden, and that her branches are an orchard of pomegranates with - delicious fruit: (iv. 12, 13), that is, though most of them are - generally sour, here, however, they are sweet, pleasant, and ripe: - he affirms that she is altogether beautiful, and there is no - blemish in her (ver. 7), and calls her bride six times, which he - has not done before; for she is his true wife, dear to him above - all. She therefore asks her beloved to “come to his garden, and eat - of his pleasant fruit” (iv. 16), which befits him. This is the - import of the words, “Thy shoots are an orchard of pomegranates - with most delicious fruit” (iv. 13): whereby, however, it must not - be understood that she will give to her husband, and make him eat - of the fruit, which properly belongs to the woman, who listened to - the words of the serpent, and was beguiled by him. - - The beloved declares that he did come to his garden, and ate and - drank, and also caused his friends to eat and drink, and that they - indulged together in a sumptuous feast; for “when the righteous - have the rule, the city rejoiceth” (Prov. xi. 10). This is the - meaning of the words, “I have come into my garden, my sister, my - spouse: I have gathered my myrrh with my spice; I have eaten my - honeycomb with my honey; I have drunk my wine with my milk: eat, O - ye friends, drink, yea, drink abundantly, O beloved!” (v. 1.) He, - as it were, sent forth and took of the tree of life, and did eat - and lived for ever, without any trouble or hinderance; for he - passed through all the three (degrees) in proper order, he went in - and out in peace: that is, he passed through all the degrees, and - finished their proper course, without doing any mischief or - committing any error; and his carnal powers, which are the watchmen - who walk in the city, and especially his intellectual powers, which - are those that watch the walls, are all profitable, and point out - to the mind the right way, and never mislead, nor hinder, nor delay - its course. She then asks of the watchmen, “Have you seen him whom - my soul loveth?” (iii. 3,) for they (i.e., the watchmen, who - represent the bodily and intellectual powers) are upright, and - their knowledge is perfect, and, as it were, they see and guide; - yet they did not answer her, for it is not in their nature to - teach. But no sooner had she passed them, and was at a distance - from them, than she found her beloved, and was united to him, as it - is said, “Scarcely had I passed them, when I found him whom my soul - loveth. I seized him, and would not let him go till I brought him - into the house of my mother, and into the apartment of her that - gave me birth” (iii. 4); whereupon they made themselves a couch and - a palanquin, rejoicing, and feasting, and banqueting, as we have - already explained. - - This second section is also subdivided into two parts; the first is - from iii. 1 to verse 6, and the second from iii. 6 to v. 2; the - second part is epexegetical of the first. - - The third section (v. 2, viii. 14 inclusive) represents a man who - has a sinful wife that has been beguiled by the carnal appetites, - and has listened to them, and eaten of the tree of knowledge of - good and evil, and given also to her husband with her and he has - eaten. Mark here the expression with her (עמח), for man cannot - eat of it unless with her; for since God has not revealed it to - man, and will not; and man, indeed, has no access to it, except - through the woman; for she finds it and takes it up; and she is the - one who pursues after pleasure, and is drawn after sensual lust. - But she does not seek for her husband when retiring to bed, nor - does she wait for him; but, undressing herself, and washing her - feet, and perfuming her fingers with myrrh, which is temporal - instead of eternal ointment, falls asleep, and is even too lazy to - open when her beloved knocks at the door, saying, “Open to me, my - sister, my spouse, &c.” Her husband, however, influences her, and - she repents, as she was not in a deep sleep, her heart being awake, - and she opens for her husband in spite of her great laziness; but - her beloved withdrew, and went away. She then sought him, and found - him not; she called him, but he answered her not. The guards of the - wall and the patrol of the city found her, and smote her, and - wounded her, and stripped her of her cloak; that is, they - misdirected her, had hindered her from getting to her beloved; for - sin once tasted is hard to forsake. As it is not mentioned in the - case of Adam, after being driven from the garden of Eden, that he - ever touched with his hand, and took of the tree of life, and was - cured, though it was open for him to do so; for it is written, “And - now, lest he put forth his hand, and take also of the tree of life, - and eat, and live for ever” (Gen. iii. 22); by which is meant, - would that he should do so, for the Lord loves righteousness, and - he is not a God desiring condemnation; as it is written, “As I - live, saith the Lord God, I have no pleasure in the death of the - wicked; but that the wicked turn from his way and live.” (Ezek. - xxxiii. 11.) Yet it is not stated in the Scriptures that after the - fall he ever ate of the tree of life. This is, perhaps, a hint that - it is almost impossible for one who once has eaten of the tree of - knowledge of good and evil, that he should afterwards eat of the - tree of life. “For the difficulty of uniting a couple a second time - is as great as dividing the Red Sea,” which was supernatural, - although it is indeed not impossible. Thus Solomon left the thing - unexplained; and though he mentioned how they longed for each other - after their separation, and how they praised one another in the - manner of lovers, yet they are not any more found united, or to - have a nuptial couch, a palanquin, feast and joy, as a husband and - wife; nay, at the conclusion we even find the beloved reproving - her, saying, “Neighbours hear thy voice,” it being improper for a - woman to let her voice be heard by young men, for there is - dishonour in a woman’s voice. He therefore asks her to let her - voice be heard by him only, and not by others. But she boldly - replied, “Haste, my beloved, and be like the gazelle or the young - fawn upon the mountains of aromatics;” as if the neighbours were - her husbands, and her husband a paramour who must conceal himself, - and run away, lest they meet him. - - This section also is subdivided into two parts: the first is from - v. 2 to viii. 5, and the second from viii. 5, to the end of the - book; the second part being epexegetical of the first. The above is - the division of the Book in accordance with the learned, who wrote - expositions on it. - - -This union of the active with the passive intellect is represented by -the sincere and ardent attachment formed between a humble shepherd and -shepherdess, the literal history of which Immanuel beautifully explains -before he attempts to palm upon it his philosophical theory. It is of -importance to notice, that this distinguished poet also takes the hero -and heroine of the plot to be a shepherd and a shepherdess, and regards -Solomon as a separate person, whom the rustic maiden adduces in -illustration of her deep and sincere love to her shepherd, affirming, -that if this great king were to bring her into his court, and offer her -all its grandeur and luxuries, she would still rejoice in her humble -lover. The commentary contains valuable philological remarks, and -excellent explanations of some of the poetical similes. Pity it has -never been published. - -1288–1370. Levi ben Gershon, also called Leon de Banolas and Ralbag, a -learned and influential expositor, who was born in 1288, and died about -1370 [60], defends the same philosophical theory. His commentary, which -is very lengthy, is published in the Amsterdam Rabbinical Bible 1724. - -It will be remembered, that allusion has been made by preceding -commentators, to some who rejected the allegorical interpretation, and -took this book in its literal sense. A manuscript commentary, in the -possession of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, Oppenheim Collection, No. -625, interprets this Song as celebrating the virtuous love contracted -between a humble shepherd and shepherdess; and likewise regards Solomon -as a distinct person, whom the shepherdess adduces in illustration of -her deep and sincere attachment to her beloved, affirming, that if this -great king were to offer her all the splendour and luxury of his court -to transfer her affections, she would spurn all, and remain faithful to -her humble shepherd. - -This commentary has no title-page, which renders it impossible to -ascertain the name of its author or its exact age. From the French -expressions, however, occurring in it, and from its style and -appearance, it is evident that this commentary was written by a French -Jew in at least the twelfth or thirteenth century. The handwriting is -peculiarly bad, and very much effaced; but the valuable remarks it -contains, both on the verbal difficulties and poetical figures of this -book, would amply repay any Hebrew scholar for publishing it, and would -be a boon to Biblical and Hebrew literature. - -1350. So numerous and diverse were the interpretations of this Song in -the middle of the fourteenth century, that R. Isaac Sehula, having been -solicited by his friends to comment upon it, consulted the existing -expositions, but finding himself so confused by their conflicting -theories, as some explained it literally, others referred it to the -union of the body with the soul, others again expounded it according to -the Medrash, and others again affirmed, that it represents the union of -the active with the passive intellect, he felt it necessary to reject -them all, and advanced a new theory, viz., that this book represents -the love of the people of Israel to their God. [61] - -1360–1730. For a space of about four hundred years, the battle-field -was simultaneously occupied by all the parties who strenuously defended -those different views. Thus, the commentary Shear Jashub, which was -printed together with that of Saadias and Caspe, and Meier Arma, who -was born in Saragossa about the year 1475, and whose commentary is -published in the Amsterdam Rabbinical Bible, 1724, maintain the -philosophical interpretation of this Song. Whilst Isaac Arma, the -father of Meier Arma, Obadiah Sforno, a physician, divine, and -commentator, who died in 1550, [62] and whose commentary is published -in the Amsterdam Rabb. Bible, Moses Cordovero, born in 1522, and died -1570, [63] whose commentary has not been published, Abraham Levi, whose -commentary has been printed, together with that of Ibn Shoeb, -Sabionnetta in Italy, 558, [64] Elisha Galicho, who flourished in the -second half of the sixteenth century, [65] and whose commentary was -published 1587, Venice, and his contemporary, Moses Alshech, [66] whose -commentary was published in 1591, Venice, are the combatants for the -other views. - -While this severe struggle was carried on between the conflicting -parties for the maintenance of their respective views, another champion -entered the battle-field, occupying and defending another position. It -was no less a personage than the celebrated Don Isaac Abravanel, who -affirmed that the Bride of the Song represents Wisdom, with whom -Solomon converses. [67] - -His son, Leon Hebræus, defended the same view. [68] - -1729–1786. With Moses Mendelssohn, a new era commenced in Biblical -exegesis, and in Hebrew literature generally. This distinguished -philosopher translated the Song of Songs, which was first published in -Berlin, 1788, with an introduction and commentary by his colleagues -Löwe and Wolfssohn. Though they did not deem their age prepared for the -rejection of the allegorical interpretation, these commentators -distinctly stated, that as so many of the Rabbins have written upon -this book, and defended such various and conflicting views, they -questioned whether any were right, and affirmed that the literal -explanation is paramount, and therefore confined themselves in the -commentary to the literal and philological sense, referring those who -are fond of labyrinths to the writings of Rashi, Rabe, Arma, &c. - -Seeing that this book describes the love of a shepherd and a -shepherdess, and also speaks of a king, of humble rural life, as well -as of courtly splendour, and unable to account for it, Löwe and -Wolfssohn divided it into separate songs, some celebrating the love -between a shepherd and shepherdess, others describing the same between -the king and his princes, and others again not speaking of that passion -at all. - -1798–1821. Löwisohn, born in 1798, and died in 1821, was the first who -recognised and elucidated the true design of this book. This sweet -singer of modern Israel shows that the Song of Songs celebrates the -victory of true and virtuous love in humble life over the temptations -of royalty; that this book records the virtuous attachment of a -shepherdess to a shepherd; that the rustic maiden having been tempted -by the wisest and most celebrated king to transfer her affections, -spurned every allurement, and remained faithful to her humble lover. -[69] - -1832. It is surprising that the profound and learned Zunz, [70] did not -follow up the remarks of Löwisohn; but regarded this Song as an -epithalamium. [71] - -1848. This view, however, has not gained ground among the Jews; and Dr. -Salomon Herxheimer, chief Rabbi of Anhalt-Bernburg, in his translation -of the Old Testament with annotations, follows the opinion of Löwisohn. -[72] His opinion is that “the Song of Songs celebrates ardent and -virtuous love which resists all allurements. The Shulamite, a rustic -maiden warmly attached to a young shepherd, is taken against her will -to the court of King Solomon. The king offers everything to win her -affections, but she does not suffer herself to be dazzled either by the -royal court, or by the sweet flatteries of the king himself, and -remains faithful to her absent lover.” - -1854. Dr. Philippson, Rabbi of Magdeburg, propounded the same view. -[73] The design of the book is to show that true and virtuous love is -invincible, and is not to be bought, but is a flame of God (Ch. viii. -6, 7), exemplified in the conduct of a humble shepherdess, who being -attached to a shepherd, was tempted by King Solomon to transfer her -affection, but who overcame all allurements, and remained faithful to -her lover. - -The two last-mentioned Rabbins, by virtue of their high position and -great learning, may be regarded as representing the view now generally -entertained by the Jews respecting the Song of Songs. [74] - -185–254. We come now to the Christian Expositors of this book, whom we -shall introduce in the same chronological order, and of whose views a -concise explanation will be given. The first of these is Origen, who -has been justly celebrated for his genius and extensive acquirements. -He was born in Alexandria in 185, and died in Tyros in 254. His -commentaries upon Scripture are very extensive, and though containing -much that is valuable, abound with fanciful allegories and inexplicable -mysteries. His attachment to the Platonic philosophy drew him aside -from the simplicity of inspired truth, and his instruction in Hebrew by -R. Hillel, [75] imbued him with Hagadic interpretations of the sacred -text. - -His commentary upon the Song of Songs was very voluminous, of which -fragments only remain, but these are of a very elaborate kind, and -sufficient to reveal his whole design. He admits an historical sense as -an epithalamium on the marriage of Solomon with Pharaoh’s daughter, -[76] but in him we meet with a full exhibition of the allegorical -allusion to the marriage union of Christ and his Church, which has been -adopted by the majority of expositors to the present day. He says, -“Blessed is he who enters the holy place, but more blessed is he who -enters the holy of holies; blessed is he who keeps the Sabbath, but -more blessed is he who keeps the Sabbath of Sabbaths; so blessed is he -who sings holy songs, but more blessed is he who sings the Song of -Songs.” - -He finds in it four distinct parties; a bridegroom and bride with their -separate companions. By “the bridegroom,” we are to understand Christ, -by “the bride,” the Church, by “the companions” of the former, angels -and saints in heaven, and by “the maidens” of the latter, believers on -the earth. - -The following is a specimen of Origen’s method of interpretation:— - - - 2, 3. Let him kiss me, &c. This is the suppliant voice of the - bride, of which the meaning is, “How long will my bridegroom send - kisses by Moses and kisses by the Prophets? I want to touch his - lips. Let him come,” she says to the father of the bridegroom, “and - give me kisses of his mouth.” The father hears and sends his son; - she seeing him near says, “How good are thy breasts above wine, and - the odour of thy perfumery above all sweet spices.” The bridegroom - Christ, sent by the Father, comes anointed to the Spouse, who says - to him, “Thou lovest righteousness and hatest wickedness: therefore - God, thy God, hath anointed thee with the oil of gladness above thy - fellows.” If the odour of that ointment be upon us, we shall become - a sweet savour of Christ. Sin has putrid effluvia, virtue breathes - forth sweet perfume. The one is an emanation of the flesh, the - other of the Spirit. - - Thy name, &c. This is prophetic. Only so far as the name of God - comes into the world is this ointment poured forth. In the Gospel, - a woman having an alabaster box of very precious ointment poured it - upon the head of Christ. One who was a sinner poured it upon his - feet, and one who was not a sinner poured it upon his head. These - are not narratives merely, but mysteries. It is not wonderful that - the house was filled with the odour of the ointment, since the - world will be. It is written in the same place concerning Simon the - leper. I think the leprous Simon to be the prince of this world, - whose house at the coming of Christ was filled with sweet odour. - Therefore do the virgins love thee, because, through the Holy - Spirit, the love of God is shed abroad in our hearts. The maidens - at first are not present, but, upon hearing a chorus from them in - praise of the bridegroom, she says, The virgins love thee. By their - coming up it is said, ‘After thee and the odour of thine ointments - we will run.’ - - 4. Draw me, &c. In a race all run, but one receiveth the prize. - This prize is Christ. The bride, pure and fair, having entered into - the royal apartments, returns to the maidens, and tells them what - she has seen. The king hath brought me into his chambers. He - praises the bride. He says, Justice hath loved thee. Then the bride - says to the maidens, - - 5. Black I am, &c. Do not look upon me because I am blackened, for - the sun hath looked upon me. How black and without whiteness, is - she beautiful? Black with sin, and comely because converted. - Because not yet purged from all sin she is called black, but her - dark colour will not remain. She is made white as she ascends to - greater things, according to ch. viii. 5. “Who is this that cometh - up from the wilderness, leaning upon her beloved?” Tents of Kedar, - say the Hebrews, are dark: skins of Solomon, such as ornamented the - temple, were comely. - - -296–373. Athanasius, Archbishop of Alexandria, was born in that city in -296, and died in 373. He was the principal defender of the Nicene -faith, in opposition to Arius. His zealous advocacy of the Deity of -Christ led him to seek, and to find that doctrine everywhere. He looked -upon the Song of Songs as a Jubilee song of the Church, at the -incarnation of the Son of God, and thus differs from Origen, who refers -it to the experience of the believing soul. The whole book, he says, is -an allegory, and is to be understood enigmatically from the beginning -to the end. Its doctrines are secrets, and those only who are well -versed in allegory ought to study it, as it is sure to be corrupted in -the hands of others. It is called the Song of Songs, because it is the -chief and last song, and the coming of Christ in the flesh, which other -songs regard as future, this celebrates as present. It is an -Epithalamium in celebration of the marriage of Him who is the loved of -God and human flesh. Here are no threatenings and sorrows as in other -books, but as the Bridegroom is present, all is turned into joy. The -book is full of dialogues between the Son of God and the human race; -sometimes between men in general and Christ, sometimes between Him and -his ancient people; sometimes between Him and the Gentile Church, -sometimes between the Gentiles and Jerusalem; and sometimes between -ministering angels and men. - -The following is a specimen of Athanasius’ Commentary:— - - - 2. Let him kiss me, &c. This is the entreaty of his ancient people - to the Word, that he would descend and take flesh; and also (ch. - vii. 13), “The mandrakes give a smell, and at our gates are all - manner of pleasant fruits, new and old, which I have laid up for - thee, O my beloved,” and (ch. viii. 1), “Oh, that thou wert as my - brother that sucked the breasts of my mother,” which refers to - Christ being of the same nature as man, a brother, and yet in - reality having a mother only. In ch. v. 1, Christ speaks of his - having become incarnate, “I am come into my garden, my sister, my - spouse; I have gathered my myrrh with my spices.” The world is his - garden, because it is his creation; and his body breathes forth - fragrance, because it is joined to the Divine word. The Word having - put on flesh, he calls his ancient people to Him, and says (ch. ii. - 10–13), “Rise up, my love, my fair one, and come, for lo, the - winter is past, &c.” His first disciples would recognise in his - teaching what they had long been listening for, “the voice of the - turtle in their land.” - - -In this fanciful manner our author descants upon the whole book. - -331–396. Notwithstanding the authority and influence of the foregoing -fathers, the allegorical interpretation was rejected by many at a very -early age. And Gregory, bishop of Nyssa, in Cappadocia, born about 331, -and died about 396, who wrote an extensive commentary upon this book, -had strenuously to contend for the allegorical or spiritual -interpretation, and severely condemned those who adhered to the literal -meaning. The soul, he considers, as a spouse who enters into spiritual -union with God. The most perfect and blessed way of salvation is here -shown to those who wish to come to the knowledge of the truth. - -The following is a specimen of Gregory’s Commentary:— - - - 2. Let him kiss me, &c., is the language of the soul to God, which - has become worthy to speak to God face to face. Thy breasts are - better than wine, that is, divine breasts are better than human - wine. All human wisdom cannot equal the milk of the divine word. - - 3. Thy name, &c. This signifies that all the virtues are nothing to - the graces received from above. - - -Thus he finds some spiritual meaning in every part, for the -confirmation of which some other part of Scripture is adduced. - -331–420. Jerome, however, (born at Stridon in Dalmatia in 331, and died -in the vicinity of Bethlehem in 420,) who was exceedingly fond of the -Greek philosophers, and, like Origen, was instructed in Hebrew -literature by the Jews, [77] as might have been expected, was not -affected by the objections against the allegorical interpretation, but -introduced it into the Western Churches. According to him, it is a -nuptial and dramatic song on the occasion of the union of Christ with -his Church or the soul of man. The bride and her companions, and the -bridegroom and his companions are the interlocutors in the drama. He -seems to have embraced almost entirely the theory and interpretation of -Origen. - -354–430. Augustin, who was born at Tagesta in Numidia, in 354, and died -in 430, materially aided Jerome in the spread of the allegorical -interpretation in the West. He regards the Song of Songs as describing -“the holy loves of Christ and his Church.” - - - Of ch. i. 7, “Tell me, O thou whom my soul loveth, where thou - feedest thy flock, where,” &c., he says it is one testimony in - behalf of the church in Africa, which lies in the meridian of the - world. The church asks Christ to tell her where the one true church - is, where it feeds and reclines. The bridegroom answers, In the - meridian, I feed in the meridian, I recline in the meridian. The - church is in other parts, but in Africa is its meridian. This is - the language of believers out of Africa, who also say, “For why - should I be as one roaming among the flocks of thy companions?” - that is, why remain concealed and unknown? Other churches are not - thy flock, but the flocks of thy companions. Upon the adjuration, - “I adjure you,” &c. vii. 7, he observes, The church in these words - addresses her own daughters. She is a field of God, fruitful in - graces, to which by loving Christ the martyrs come, whom he wishes - to lay down their lives as lovingly as he laid down his life for - them. Ch. ii. 15. “Take us the foxes,” &c., that is, withstand, - confute, subdue, heretics that injure the ecclesiastical vines. - Bind them by Scripture testimony, as Samson bound the foxes - together, and put fire to their tails, by warning them of the - condemnation they have deserved. In ch. iv. 16, “Awake, O north, - and come, thou south wind,” &c., he says, the north wind is from - the cold icy regions of the devil and his angels, and the south - wind is the spirit of grace blowing at noon from warm and shining - regions, that cause the spices to flow out, as the apostle says, - “We are unto God a sweet savour of Christ in them that are saved, - and in them that perish.” - - -360–429. Theodore, bishop of Mopsuestia, who wrote a commentary on this -book, also rejected the allegorical meaning, and adhered to its literal -and obvious sense. Pity that his commentary is lost, and that the only -account of it is from his enemies. - -386–457. So general was the dissatisfaction with the allegorical -interpretation of the Song of Songs, and so different were the theories -respecting it at the time of Theodoret or Theodorit, bishop of Cyrus in -Syria, who was born at Antioch about 386, and died 457, that he was -obliged to mention and refute them. - -There are some, says this prelate, who do not admit that the Song of -Songs has a spiritual sense, and make of it such a texture of fables, -which is unbecoming even to the insane. Some maintain that Solomon is -here celebrating himself and the daughter of Pharaoh; others take the -Shulamite, not as Pharaoh’s daughter, but as Abishag; and others, -again, considering the thing with a little more reverence, call this -book a Royal address, and take “the bride,” to be the people of Israel, -and “the bridegroom” the king. I have, therefore, found it necessary, -before proceeding with the interpretation, first, to refute this false -and pernicious interpretation, and then to fix the obvious design of -this book. - -1. These people, he submits, ought to remember that those holy fathers -were much wiser, and had more spiritual minds than they had, that this -book was incorporated in the sacred writings, and that the Church -revered it for its spiritual meaning, &c. - -2. Through Manasseh and the destruction of Jerusalem, the writings of -the Old Testament were lost, but the Holy Spirit restored them to Ezra -by inspiration. Now the Holy Spirit could not have inspired any other -than a divine book. - -3. Because the holy fathers saw this, they have either written -devotional commentaries on the entire book, or filled their writings -with its thoughts, as for instance, Eusebius and others, who were near -the apostolic age. Now, are we not to believe these holy fathers? not -believe the Holy Ghost? not obey the voice of God rather than our own -opinions? We must so deal with the sacred Scriptures as not to regard -letters merely, but draw out the hidden spirit from obscurity. - -“The bridegroom” is Christ, “the bride” his church; “the daughters of -Jerusalem” are pious, but still unfinished souls (young in a Christian -sense), which have not as yet attained the perfection of the bride, but -imitate her example; “the companions of the bridegroom” are either the -angels or the prophets. - -The following is a specimen of his commentary:— - - - 1. The Song of Songs, &c. This book is called The Song of Songs, - because all other songs in the writings of Moses, the Prophets, and - Psalms are made for this song, which is not amatory, but a song - about the marriage of the Divine Bridegroom with the Church. - - 2. Let him kiss me, &c. This is the language of the spouse offering - a petition to the Father of the Bridegroom; for she has known both - the promises made to Abraham and the prophecies of Jacob; as well - as the prophecies of Moses, respecting her beloved, and the - description of his beauty and power as given in the Psalms; “Thou - art more beautiful than the sons of men,” &c.; she has learned that - her beloved, who is adorned with beauty and grace, is both God and - the eternal Son; “For thy throne, Oh God, is for ever and ever,” - &c. Having recognised the beauty, strength, riches, dominion, and - power of the bridegroom which he displays above all things, world - without end, she draws nigh to him to embrace him and to kiss him - in Spirit. Let none whose spirit is low, and who only tastes that - which is earthly, be misled by the expression “kisses.” Let him - remember that we ourselves embrace and kiss the limbs of the - beloved at the mysterious time (the Lord’s Supper), and that which - we see with our eyes, store up in our hearts, and, as it were, feel - ourselves in conjugal embraces; so that it is with us as if we were - with him, embracing and kissing him, after, as the Scriptures say, - “love has driven away fear.” Therefore it is that the Bride wishes - to be kissed by the Bridegroom himself. - - -390–444. Cyril of Alexandria, who was born towards the close of the -fourth century, and died in 444, went so far as to explain “the -palanquin,” to mean the cross; its “silver legs,” the thirty pieces of -silver which brought Christ to the cross; the “purple cushion,” the -purple garment in which the Saviour was mocked; “the nuptial crown,” -the crown of thorns put on Christ’s head, &c. &c. - -650. The influence of the Chaldee mode of interpretation seems now to -become more apparent in the Christian Church. Aponius, who is quoted by -the venerable Bede, and must therefore have lived in the seventh -century, regards the Song of Songs as describing what the Logos has -done for the Church from the beginning of the world, and what he will -do to the end of it; thus, like the Chaldee, he takes the book as a -historico-prophetical description of the dealings of God with his -people, only that the Chaldee takes the Jews as the object of the -description, but Aponius substitutes the Gentile Church. - -673–735. Bede, called the venerable, who was born at Wearmouth, in -Durham, in 673, and died in 735, wrote seven books on the Song of -Songs, one being merely a copy from Gregory the Great, in which he -defends the doctrine of grace against the Pelagians. - -1091–1153. To the scholastics of the middle ages the Song of Songs -seemed an unfathomable abyss of mysticism, into whose depths they could -dive as deeply as their speculative minds and fertile imaginations -prompted them. St. Bernard, who was born at Fountains, in the vicinity -of Dijon, in Burgundy, and died in 1153, delivered eighty-six sermons -upon this book, and this prodigious number comprises the first two -chapters only. In the first sermon he says, “The unction and experience -can alone teach the understanding of such a Song. It is not to be heard -outside, for its notes give no sound in the street; but she who sings -it, she hears it and he to whom it is sung, that is the bridegroom and -the bride.” He divides the Song into three parts; in the first part the -bridegroom leads the bride into the garden, and in the second he -conducts her into the cellar, and in the third he takes her home into -his apartments. Upon the words Let him kiss me, &c. (Chap. i. 2), which -he explains as referring to the incarnation of Christ, he remarks, “O -happy kiss, marvellous because of amazing condescension; not that mouth -is pressed upon mouth, but God is united with man.” [78] - -Gilbert Porretanus, the disciple of St. Bernard, continued these -sermons, but only lived to deliver forty-eight, which extend to Chap. -v. 10; so that the one hundred and thirty-four sermons only comprise -four chapters and a half. - -1270–1340. In the Commentary of the celebrated Nicolas De Lyra, a -converted Jew, and a native of Lire, in Normandy, we meet more fully -the Chaldee mode of interpretation as adopted by Aponius. Like the -Chaldee, De Lyra takes the Song of Songs to be a historico-prophetical -book, with this difference, however, that he regards Chap. ii.–vii. as -describing the history of the Israelites from their Exodus from Egypt -to the birth of Christ, and from Chapter vii. to the end, the origin of -the Christian Church, her progress, and the peace which she attained in -the days of Constantine. Upon the words, “We have a little sister,” he -remarks, “This is the Church humble and abject among the worldly -enemies, for so she was till the time of Constantine.” [79] - -1538. The great reformer, Luther, could not reconcile his mind to -believe that the Song of Songs describes the conjugal union of Christ, -the bridegroom, with the bride, i.e. the Church as a whole, or with the -soul of every individual believer. He therefore rejected the -allegorical interpretation of the Fathers, and advanced a new theory, -viz., “that the bride is the happy and peaceful State under the -dominion of Solomon, and that the Song is a hymn of praise, in which -Solomon thanks God for the obedience rendered unto him as a divine -gift: for, where the Lord does not direct and rule there is neither -obedience nor happy dominion, but where there is obedience or a happy -dominion there the Lord lives and kisses and embraces his bride with -his word, and that is the kisses of his mouth.” [80] - -1542. John Brentius, the Suabian reformer, adopted the same theory. He -calls the Song of Songs, “Carmen encomiasticum, quod de laude regni et -politiae suae Solomon conscripsit.” [81] - -1544. Castellio, seeing that Luther had rejected the allegorical -interpretation of the Fathers, and propounded a theory of his own -equally untenable, maintained that the book has no allegorical meaning -whatever, but is merely a “colloquium Salomonis cum amica quadam -Sulamitha,” and as such deemed it unworthy of a place in the sacred -canon. [82] - -1585. Thomas Wilcocks adhered to the opinion that this book celebrates -the marriage between Christ and his Church, and especially “the great -love of the bridegroom to his spouse, which is never removed, but -always abideth constant, how oft soever she fall away, and seem, as a -man would say, to forsake her husband.” [83] This commentary, which is -rare, contains many useful remarks. - -1600. Thomas Brightman, however, adopted the view of Aponius and De -Lyra, that this book describes historico-prophetically, the condition -of the Church, and “agrees well-nigh in all things with the Revelation -of St. John.” Solomon, in this Song, and John, in the Apocalypse, -“foresaw the same events in like times, and either of them directed his -course to the same mark.” [84] He divides the book into two parts; the -first, chap. i.–iv. 6, describes the condition of the Legal Church from -the time of David to the death of Christ; and the second, chap. iv. -7–viii. 14, the state of the Evangelical Church, from A.D. 34 to the -second coming of Christ. We give the following analysis of this curious -commentary. - - - -A. The Legal Church. - -Chap. i.–ii. 2, describes the condition of the Church before the -captivity; 1, 2, under David; 3, under Solomon; 4–8, under Rehoboam; -9–11, under Abijah and Asa; 12, under Jehoshaphat; 13, under Jehoram, -Ahaziah, Joash, Amaziah, Uzziah, Jotham, and Ahaz; 14, under Hezekiah; -15, 16, under Manasseh and Josiah; chap. ii. 1, 2, under the other -Kings to the last Zedekiah. - -Chap. ii. 3–14, describes the condition of the Church during the -captivity; 3, the comforts of the few left in their own country; 4–7, -the preservation of the whole in the captivity; 8, 9, the foretold -deliverance; 10–13, its approach; 14, and the deliverance from it. - -Chap. ii. 15–iv. 6, describes the condition of the Church from the -deliverance to the death of Christ; 15, 16, the troublesome time from -the restoration of the Church by Cyrus to Alexander the Great; 17, the -partial rest under Alexander; chap. iii. 1–3, the desolation in the -Church caused by Antiochus Epiphanes, and its effects in driving away -the beloved; 4, 5, the finding of the beloved; 6–11, the condition of -the Church during Christ’s sojourn upon this earth; chap. iv. 1–6, -Christ’s description of her then beautiful aspect. - - - -B. The Evangelical Church. - -Chap. iv. 7–11, describes the obedience and perfection of the Church -from A.D. 34 to 334; 7, Christ’s return to his disciples after his -resurrection, and remaining with them forty days; 8, the preaching of -the Gospel by Peter and Philip to the Grecians, Samaritans, and in -Gaza; 9, the effects upon Antioch from the preaching of Paul and -Barnabas; 10, 11, the marvellous constancy of the martyrs who died -under Nero, Domitian, Trajan, &c.; the spread of the Gospel through the -faithfulness of these sufferers; the beautiful orations of Dionysius -the Areopagite, Quadratus, Aristides the Athenian, Dionysius of -Corinth, Melito, Apollinarius, Polycarp, &c., and through the setting -forth of the sweetness of the garments by Justin, Tertullian, and -Cyprian. - -Chap. iv. 12–v. 16, describes the decayed state of the Church from -334–1510; 12, the declension of the Church after the death of -Dioclesian, when many embraced Arianism; 13, 14, her rising again under -Constantine; 15, the convocation of the Council of Nice; 16, Europe and -Africa defending the truth against Arian heresy; 17, the decayed state -of the Church after the demise of Constantine. Chap. v. 1, Christ -knocking by persecution (A.D. 368), in the time of Constance, Julian, -and Valens; 2, the attempt of the Church to obtain justification by -good works; 3, the withdrawal of Christ in consequence of the Chalcedon -Council refusing to root out heresy according to the exhortation of the -Emperor Marcian; 4, the rising of the Church in the time of Leo -Isaurus, Constantine his son (755), and Charles the Great, in Frankfort -(795), who endeavoured to exterminate image-worship; 5, the failure of -this endeavour; 6, the Church smitten and wounded through the -excommunication of Leo Isaurus, and the conduct of the Council of Nice -under Constantine (788); verse 8 describes how, in 1100, a Florentine -bishop, Arnold, a Roman, Hildegarde the prophetess, and Bernard, began -to seek the bridegroom; 8, multitudes flocked to Peter Waldo, in 1160, -to inquire after the beloved; 9, 10, Christ appearing again in 1200, at -the battle of the Albigenses with the anti-christian bands of Innocent -the Third; 11, the kingdom almost restored to Christ after the battle; -12, the faithful teaching of Michael Cesenas, Peter de Corboria, and -John de Poliaco, who were condemned in 1277 by Pope John; 13, the -preaching in 1290 by Robert Trench; 14, the first resurrection, as -described in Rev. i. 20, which took place in 1300, when Dante the -Florentine, Marsilius Patavinus, William Ockham, and John of Gaunt, -boldly declared the truth, when Philip, king of France, and Edward of -England despised the authority of the Pope, and when John Wickliff -(1370) taught openly; 15–17, the days of John Huss, Jerome of Prague -(1415), and the shaking off of the Romish yoke by the Bohemians. - -Chap. vi.–viii., describes the Church restored, from 1517 to the second -coming of Christ; 1, the teaching of pure doctrine (1517), by Luther; -2, the Church, in the mouth of Melancthon, claims her beloved before -Prince Frederick; 3, the unpleasant state of the Church from 1429, when -the Argentinenses joined battle with the Helvetians, till the death of -Charles the Fifth (1548); and her beauty, when, in the following year, -the Reformation spread in Scotland, Geneva, in the Helvetian and German -churches, in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden; 4, the declaration of -justification by faith by Luther; 5, the newly-called preachers of the -Gospel in 1550, such as Luther, Melancthon, Bucer, Zwinglius, &c.; 6, -the ecclesiastical and civil government of the Church as restored again -in Geneva; 7, the splitting of the Church in 1563, by John Brentius and -James Andrewes; 8, the excellency of the faithful; 9–12, the conversion -of the Jews, who are called princes. Chap. vii., their conversion a -blessing to the Church. Chap. viii. 1–4, their zeal; 5–7, the calling -in of the Assyrians and Egyptians, and all the nations bordering on the -eastern regions, and their glorious condition after their conversion; -11, 12, the care which the bridegroom will exercise over the whole -Church; 13, what he requires of her; 14, her longing desire to be -carried with him into everlasting mansions. - -As Brightman’s Commentary may be regarded as the fullest development of -the Chaldee interpretation Christianized, we shall give a few specimens -of his mode of exposition. - - - I sleep, but my heart, &c. chap. v. 1.—The negligence of the Church - lying thus is declared first by her drowsiness, then by his - enticing call, and lastly by the slight causes of her excuse. Sleep - caused her outward senses to be benumbed, that she neither regarded - nor considered how superstitions arose, as it happened to the - householder in Matt. xiii. 25. Neither could it be otherwise (when - the bridegroom left the garden and his friends or fellows drunken - with prosperity, wholly gaping after riches and honours, all common - good despised), but sleep would overcome the spouse, wherein - outwardly she should not differ from a dead woman, however the - heart should move and live, the seed of faith not altogether - quenched. This drowsiness crept in, in the time of Constantine, - when a gaping heaviness, with a continued desire of sleeping, so - oppressed the spouse, that the sharpest-sighted pastors could not - use their outward senses: not perceiving how ambition crept in - among the bishops, and not only that, but how they began to - consecrate temples to saints, earnestly to seek their reliques, to - worship them with prayers, and to believe that prayers made in the - honour of saints at their sepulchres did profit much. Who could now - tell whether the Church were sleeping or waking? who neither - loathed nor perceived such things. When Constantine was dead, - Christ found the Church asleep, and sought by all means to stir her - up both by knocking and calling. He knocked by persecutions in the - times of Constance, Julian and Valens, of whom though Julian were a - professed enemy, (A.D. 368,) yet the other two exceeded him in - cruelty. After their tyrannous reign God stirred up Valentinian in - the west parts, by whom Christ lovingly called his spouse, that, - returning unto her former integrity, she should open and let him - in. Then taking away Valens, he called more earnestly at both doors - (as it were) as well in the west as in the east, by Gratian and - Theodosius the elder; after by Arcadius and Honorius, then by - Theodosius the younger, and Valentinian the third. And lastly, - (that there might be four pair as it were answerable to the four - voices, my sister, my love, my dove, my undefiled one,) by Marcion - alone in the east. These emperors studied and laboured very - religiously to defend and enlarge true religion; but the Church was - in all the fault, who having these helps prepared, would not use - them to recover her former brightness. To this readiness of the - emperors was added the voice of the most excellent bishops, and - best learned men of that time; as Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, - Ambrose, Hierome, Chrysostome, Augustine and others, the lights of - that time. But seeing his profession of love could nothing move - her, he tried what his shutting out of the doors at night would do. - - My head is filled with dew, &c.—The locks of hair signified, before - the congregation of the faithful, among whom true religion was now - so much deranged by new and foolish ceremonies, borrowed partly of - the Jews and Gentiles, and partly invented of their own idle - brains, that the grass is scarce more covered with drops of dew in - the night, than the Church was at that time with superstitions. - - 14. His hands are as gold rings, &c.—Hitherto hath the bridegroom - been set forth to the world in some special members, from Frederick - the second to Robertus Gallus by almost 100 years. The hands are - the instruments of action, and in scripture they figuratively - signify works. The gems included in the rings seem to signify the - ministers of the word, which elsewhere Christ carried as stars in - his right hand (Rev. i. 20). But these times yielded not such - splendour. These things show a change and alteration of that which - Christ would bring to pass by the labour of his ministers, as it - happened about the year 1300, which was called the first - resurrection of the dead. For now the thousand years were ended - wherein Satan was bound, and the dead raised from their graves. - Very many began now more boldly to set forth the truth, as Dante - the Florentine, Marsilius Patavinus, William Ockham, John of Gaunt, - and many others. Philip the French king despised Pope Boniface, - Lewis of Bavaria strove long time with these most humble servants - of servants for the rights of the empire. Edward of England made - show unto many how little he esteemed the pope’s authority. - - His belly is as bright ivory, &c.—By the belly or bowels, bright as - ivory overlaid with sapphires, may be understood the two - Sacraments. For the word of God is open to the view of every one, - as the mouth and countenance, neither is it wont to be hid from - strangers; but the Sacraments serve only for the household, as the - bowels, which are appointed only to that body whose members they - are, but serve to no use for strangers. These things therefore as - it were, with the finger, point to those times of John Wickliff - (1370), who taught openly, that the substance of the material bread - and wine remains in the sacrament of the altar; the accidents of - bread remain not without the subject in the same Sacrament; Christ - is not really in the Sacrament, in proper presence corporally. - Berengarius spoke against this wicked error 200 years before, but - the time was not yet come wherein the hands of the bridegroom - should be seen full of rings, whence his empire wanted success. - - -How different to this is the opinion of Henry Ainsworth, the celebrated -Nonconformist divine, who regards this “book as treating of man’s -reconciliation unto God, and peace by Jesus Christ, with joy in the -Holy Spirit!” “In Solomon’s days,” says Ainsworth, “the Church before -Christ’s coming had the greatest glory, having the temple builded, -living under that most wise, rich, and peaceable King; the Israelites -being as the sand which is by the sea in multitude, eating, and -drinking, and making merry, and dwelling safely, every man under his -vine and under his fig-tree.” (1 Kings iv. 10, 25.) Notwithstanding -Solomon, being a prophet, foresaw the ruin of his house and kingdom, -and in his book of Ecclesiastes proclaimed all things under the sun to -be vanity, and in this Song prophesieth of the Church and Kingdom of -Christ. And as he, with many other prophets, and kings, and righteous -men, desired to see Christ, and to hear his words, but did not (Luke x. -24; Matt. xiii. 7), so here he manifesteth the desire of himself and of -all the faithful to enjoy the blessings and graces of Christ, saying, -‘Let him kiss me.’ Whereby the Church desireth to have Christ -manifested in the flesh, and to have the loving and comfortable -doctrines of his Gospel applied unto her conscience, that she might not -be always under the schoolmaster of the law, which worketh wrath (Rom. -iv. 15), but might be prevented with the grace of Christ, and have the -feeling of his love towards her. [85] - -The difference of opinion respecting the interpretation of this book, -which obtained after the Reformation had laid open the Scriptures to -all Protestants, and had established the right of private judgment, did -not, however, as yet affect the Romish Church. Her followers not only -adhered to the allegorical interpretation, but, unlike their -predecessors of the middle ages, took the bride of the Song to be the -Virgin Mary. Thus Michael Ghislerius and Cornelius à Lapide. The latter -is especially to be noticed, since he was the first who endeavoured to -show that this Song is a drama in five acts. - -1583–1645. The fact, that the allegorical interpretation could with -equal facility be made to describe the history of the Jewish nation and -that of the Virgin Mary, awakened the suspicion of Hugo Grotius, the -celebrated statesman, philosopher, and divine. He, therefore, adhered -to the literal sense of the book, which, according to him, celebrates -the marriage of Solomon with Pharaoh’s daughter, but at the same time -also admitted that the ARCANA NUPTIARUM spiritually represent, first, -the love of God to the Israelites, and then the love of Christ to the -Church. [86] It will be remembered that Origen was already of opinion -that this Song primarily celebrates the marriage of Solomon with -Pharaoh’s daughter, though with him the literal meaning was of no -importance, and that Theodoret mentions some who viewed the Song in no -other light than this. - -1603–1699. It was to be expected that John Cocceius, the founder of the -theological school bearing his name, whose doctrine was, that the whole -history of the Old Testament is a mirror, accurately reflecting the -transactions and events that were to happen under the New Testament -dispensation to the end of the world, would find in this Song something -in accordance with his views. Enlarging upon Aponius’ and De Lyra’s -mode of interpretation, and, like Brightman, still more approaching the -Chaldee, in a manner peculiar to himself Cocceius regards this book as -a prophetical narrative of the transactions and events that are to -happen in the Church, and divides the whole into seven distinct -periods, similar to the seven trumpets and seven seals in the -Revelation of St. John. - - - Chapter. - 1. The period of the preaching of the Gospel to - Jews and Gentiles i.–ii. - 2. The period of the increase of the Church, and - persecution from without iii.–iv. - 3. The period of peace from without and danger - within v.–vi. 8. - 4. The period of the Reformation vi. 9–vii. 10. - 5. The period of unsettlement after the - Reformation vii. 11–viii. 3. - 6. The period of the persecution viii. 4–6. - 7. The period of rest after the sufferings and - longing for the spread of the Gospel viii. 7–14. [87] - - -1648. Strange as this mode of interpretation may appear, yet, as we -have seen, it is not confined to a single individual or country. John -Cotton also affirms that Solomon in this book “describes the estate of -the Church towards Christ, and his respect towards her from his (i.e. -Solomon’s) own time to the last judgment.” [88] - - - Chap. i. describes the estate of the Church from the days of - Solomon to the repair of the temple by Josiah. - Chap. ii. describes the estate of the Church from the repair of the - temple to the days of the Maccabees. - Chap. iii. describes the estate of the Church from the days of the - Maccabees to the time of Christ’s sojourning here on earth. - Chap. iv. describes the estate of the Church—first, in Christ’s - time, under his ministry, ver. 1–6; secondly, after his ascension, - under the Apostles, ver. 7–11; thirdly, after their departure, - during the first ten persecutions, ver. 12–16. - Chap. v. describes the estate of the Church from the time that - Constantine entered it to the time of restoring the Gospel and - reforming of the Church by the ministry of Luther and other late - divines. - Chap. vi. describes the state of the Church reformed by the - ministry of Luther and other late divines, and the calling in of - the Jews. - Chap. vii.–viii. 4, describes the estate of the Jewish Church when - they shall come to be converted unto the Lord. - Chap. viii. 5–14, describes the solicitude which the Church of - Judea and Assyria cherished for the growth and establishment of the - good people in Egypt, the destruction of the Turks, the union of - all Christians, the coming of the Lord, &c. - - - -1650. John Trapp, however, adhered to the more general view, and -regarded this Song as “a treasury of the most sacred and highest -mysteries of Holy Scriptures, streaming out all along, under the -parable of a marriage, that full torrent of spiritual love that is -betwixt Christ and the Church.” ... “The form of it is dramatical and -dialogistical; the chief speakers are, not Solomon and the Shulamite, -as Castellio makes it, but Christ and his Church. Christ also hath -associates (those friends of the bridegroom), viz., the prophets, -apostles, pastors, and teachers, who put in a word sometimes; as -likewise do the fellow-friends of the bride, viz. whole churches or -particular Christians.” [89] - -1688. Hennischius not only adopted the view of Brightman and Cocceius, -but even exceeded it, and called his commentary upon this book, [90] -“The Apocalypse in the Canticles.” He found in the Song of Songs seven -periods of the Church described, answerable to the states of the seven -Asiatic Churches in the Revelation of St. John. - - - Rev. Cant. A.D. - - 1. The Church at Ephesus ii. 1–7 i. 5–17 33–370 - 2. ,, ,, ,, Smyrna 8–11 ii. 1–17 371–707 - 3. ,, ,, ,, Pergamos 12–17 iii. 1–11 708–104 - 4. ,, ,, ,, Thyatira 18–29 iv. 1–v. 1 1046–138 - 5. ,, ,, ,, Sardis iii. 1–6 v. 2–vi. 2 1384–1721 - 6. ,, ,, ,, Philadelphia 7–13 vi. 9–vii. 14 1722–2059 - 7. ,, ,, ,, Laodicea 14–22 viii. 1–14 2060 and - onwards. - - -1693. The profound scholarship and exquisite taste of Bossuet, though a -Roman Catholic Bishop, would not allow him to follow these extravagant -theories. Presuming that the marriage of Solomon with the daughter of -Pharaoh is the primary object of this Song, and that the nuptial feast -among the Jews was hebdomadal, Bossuet divides the poem into seven -parts, corresponding to the seven days of the supposed duration of the -wedding. [91] The following is his division:— - - - Chapter. - - 1st day i.–ii. 6. - 2nd day ii. 7–17. - 3rd day iii.–v. 1. - 4th day v. 2–vi. 9. - 5th day vi. 10–vii. 11. - 6th day vii. 12–viii. 3. - 7th day viii. 4–14. - - -1700. Bishop Patrick, however, would not admit any literal meaning, but -found, almost in every word, some delightful mystery. Even the words, -“Thy navel is like a round goblet which wanteth not liquor; thy belly -is like a heap of wheat set about with lilies,” (chap. vii. 2,) at -which so much umbrage has been taken, this pious prelate says, may mean -“the two Sacraments which the Church administers to her children; the -Font in Baptism being represented by the former, and the Sacrament of -the Lord’s Supper by the other part of the figure.” [92] - -1710. Shortly after the publication of this commentary appeared the -Exposition of Matthew Henry. And though Henry confessed, “on the one -hand, that if he who barely reads this book be asked, as the eunuch -was, Understandest thou what thou readest? he will have more reason -than he had to say, How can I, except some man shall guide me? that the -books of Scripture history and prophecy are very much like one another, -but that this Song of Solomon is very much unlike the Songs of his -father David; here is not the name of God in it; it is never quoted in -the New Testament; we find not in it any expressions of natural -religion or pious devotion; no, nor is it introduced by vision, or any -of the marks of immediate revelation; thus it seems as hard as any part -of Scripture to be made a savour of life unto life.” Yet he affirms, -“on the other hand, that with the help of the many faithful guides we -have for the understanding of this book, it appears to be a very bright -and powerful ray of heavenly light, admirably fitted to excite pious -and devout affections in holy souls, to draw out their desires towards -God, to increase their delight in him, and improve their acquaintance -and communion with him.” [93] - -1723. Durham tells us the import of the Song of Songs much more -positively and dogmatically than either Patrick or Henry. “The great -scope of this Song is to set out that mutual love and carriage that is -between Christ and the Church in five distinct branches. It holdeth out -the Church’s case, and Christ’s care of her, in all her several -conditions, and under all dispensations; such as, I. Her sinful -infirmities, and failings in duties, chap. i. 6; v. 2, 3, and also -under liveliness in duties, chap. i. 2, 3, 4, and v. 5, and almost -throughout. II. Under crosses, chap. i. 6, as being ‘a lily among -thorns,’ and hated of the world, ii. 2, and also in prosperity, wherein -she is commended as terrible, vi. 10. III. As deserted and sick of -love, chap. iii. 1, 2, and v. 4, 5, and again as enjoying her beloved, -i. 4; iii. 4, 5. IV. As under faithful shepherds and lively ordinances, -chap. i. 4; iii. 4, 5, and also as under carnal watchmen, v. 7. And in -all these, her various conditions, in all ages, are painted forth, -before Christ’s incarnation, as well as now, without respect to any -particular time or age; for ceremonial things are not here meddled -with, but what was spiritual; besides the Church then and now is one, -as in the next consideration will be cleared. V. As in private dealing -with Christ, and longing after him and praying for him, chap. iv. 16; -viii. 1, and almost throughout, and also what she was in public duties, -going to the watchmen, chap. v. 7, and iii. 3, and what she was in -fellowship with others, v. 8, 9; vi. 1, 2. VI. It sets out believers as -more strong, and it furnishes a greater measure of grace and knowledge; -and also, as more weak in gifts and grace. VII. And lastly, it holds -forth the same believers as more and less lively in their conditions. - -“This book, in its matter, is a comprehensive sum of all those -particulars formed in a song, put together, and drawn as on a board, -for the believers’ edification, to show, 1. What should be, and will be -their carriage, when it is right with them as to their frame. 2. What -are their infirmities, and what they use often to fall into, even they -who are believers, that they may be the more watchful. 3. To shew what -they meet with, that they may make for sufferings, and not stumble at -them when they come. 4. That the care and love of Christ to them, in -reference to all these, may appear, that they may know upon what -grounds to comfort themselves in every condition, and may have this -Song as a little magazine, for direction and consolation in every -condition.” [94] - -Upon the words “Take us the foxes, the little foxes, that spoil the -vines,” &c. (Chap. ii. 15), Durham remarks: - - - “This fifteenth verse contains the last part of Christ’s Sermon; - wherein, as he had formerly given directions in reference to her - particular walk, so here he evidenceth his care of her external - peace. That Christ speaks these words, the continuation and series - of them with the former, the scope (which is to make full proof of - his case), and the manner how the duty here mentioned is laid on, - to wit, by way of authority, makes it clear. There are three things - in them, 1. On external evil incident to the Church, and that is, - to be spoiled by ‘foxes.’ 2. A care given in a direction, ‘Take - them,’ &c. 3. He gives reasons to deter all from cruel pity in - sparing of them, ‘For,’ &c.” - - -Having descanted at large upon the first and second heads, Durham -remarks on the third: - - - “Thirdly. There is a motive to press, implied, while he (i.e. - Christ) saith this; ‘Take us,’ which words insinuate that it is - service both to him and her, and that ministers are his servants, - and the Church’s for Christ’s sake. It shows also his sympathy in - putting himself, as it were, in hazard with her (at least - mystically considered), and his love in comforting her, that he - thinks himself concerned in the restraint of these foxes as well as - she is. - - “Fourthly. The direction is amplified, to remove an objection (say - some) ‘All heresies, or all heretics are not equal; some - comparatively are little to be regarded, and it is cruelty to - meddle with these, that seem to profess fair.’ ‘No (saith he), take - them all, even THE LITTLE FOXES; for though they be but little, yet - they are foxes; though they be not of the grossest kind (as all - scandals in fact are not alike, yet none is to be dispensed with), - so they are (saith he) foxes, and corrupt others; for a little - leaven will leaven the whole lump (often small-like schisms, or - heresies, such as the Novations and Donatists, &c., have been - exceedingly defacing to the beauty of the Church), therefore, saith - he, hunt and take them up.’ How small a friend is our Lord to - toleration! and how displeased is he with many errors, that the - world thinks little of! Magistrates, ministers and people may learn - here, what distance ought to be kept with the spreaders of the - least errors; and how every one ought to concur, in their stations, - for preventing the hurt that comes by them.” [95] - - -1723. Whether this commentary, with its affirmation that “this Song is -a little magazine, for direction and consolation in every condition,” -and whether the doctrine of intolerance palmed upon Chap. ii. 15 of the -Song were published in time to be seen by Whiston, who was neither -convinced by Durham’s arguments nor daunted by his appeal to the -magistrates, ministers, and people; or whether they appeared too late -to be seen by him, I cannot tell. But, in the same year that Durham’s -commentary was published Whiston’s Essay appeared, in which he declares -that he finds in the Song of Solomon, “from the beginning to the end -marks of folly, vanity, and looseness,” and assures us that “it was -written by Solomon when he was wicked and foolish, and lascivious and -idolatrous,” [96] and that the sooner this immoral book is rejected -from the sacred canon the better. - -1728. About five years afterwards appeared the bulky Exposition of Dr. -Gill on Solomon’s Song, consisting of one hundred and twenty-two -sermons, which the Doctor delivered to his congregation. In this -confused mass of accumulated learning Gill warmly refutes both Whiston -and others who had written against this book. He acknowledges “the -profit and advantage” which he had received from “the sweet -observations of the excellent Durham,” and affirms that this divine -poem is wholly allegorical; “and sets forth in a most striking manner -the mutual love, union and communion, which are between Christ and his -Church; also expresses the several different frames, cases, and -circumstances which attend believers in this life, so that they can -come into no state or condition, but there is something in this Song -suited to their experience; which serves much to recommend it to -believers, and discovers the excellency of it.” [97] In vain do we look -even here for an exposition based upon the sound rules of grammar and -philology. - -1753. It was reserved for Bishop Lowth to commence in this country a -new era in the interpretation of this book. Two of his admirable -“Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews” are devoted to the -investigation of the import and interpretation of this Song, and the -conclusion he arrived at is almost the same as that of Grotius and -Bossuet. “The subject of the Canticles,” says this learned Prelate, -“appears to be the marriage-feast of Solomon, (who was, both in name -and reality, the Prince of Peace); his bride is called Shulamite.... -Who this wife of Solomon was, is not clearly ascertained; but some of -the learned have conjectured, with an appearance of probability, that -she was the daughter of Pharaoh, to whom Solomon was known to be -particularly attached. May we not, therefore, with some shadow of -reason, suspect that, under the allegory of Solomon choosing a wife -from the Egyptians, might be darkly typified that other Prince of -Peace, who was to espouse a church chosen from among the Gentiles?” - -As to the explanation of the allegory, this learned prelate properly -advises, “that we ought to be cautious of carrying the figurative -application too far, and of entering into a precise explication of -every particular; as these minute investigations are seldom conducted -with sufficient prudence not to offend the serious part of mankind, -learned as well as unlearned.” [98] - -Bishop Lowth also takes this poem to be of a dramatic form, and adopts -the division of Bossuet into seven parts. - -1764. The excellent and judicious remarks of Lowth were followed by an -elegant version of Solomon’s Song, with a brief Commentary and -Annotations, by Thomas Percy, D.D., Bishop of Dromore. The author -vindicates the theory of Grotius, Lowth, &c., that this poem literally -describes the nuptials of Solomon; and, like Bossuet and Lowth, divides -it into seven parts, answering to the seven days of the supposed -duration of the nuptials, which are distinguished from each other by -different solemnities. In terms, even more severe than those of Bishop -Lowth, Percy censures those commentators, “who have been so busily -employed in opening and unfolding the allegorical meaning of this book -as wholly to neglect that literal sense which ought to be the basis of -their discoveries. If a sacred allegory may be defined a figurative -discourse, which, under a lower and more obvious meaning, delivers the -most sublime and important truths; then it is the first duty of an -expositor to ascertain the lower and more obvious meaning. For till -this is done, it is impossible to discover what truths are couched -under it. Without this all is vague and idle conjecture. It is erecting -an edifice without a foundation, which, however fair and goodly to the -view, will be blown down by the slightest breath of true criticism.” -[99] - -1765. Wesley, however, opposed this theory. He maintained that “the -description of this bridegroom and bride is such as could not with -decency be used or meant concerning Solomon and Pharaoh’s daughter; -that many expressions and descriptions, if applied to them, would be -absurd and monstrous; and that it therefore follows that this book is -to be understood allegorically, concerning that spiritual love and -marriage which is between Christ and his Church.” [100] - -1768. Harmer advanced a new theory. Whilst advocating with Grotius, -Bossuet, Lowth, Percy, &c., that this Song in its literal and primary -sense celebrates the nuptials of Solomon with the daughter of Pharaoh, -he maintained that the heroes of the plot are not two, as generally -believed, but three—viz., Solomon, the Shulamite, who is the principal -wife and a Jewish queen, and the daughter of Pharaoh, whom Solomon -afterwards married, with which the Jewish queen was exceedingly -displeased, and looked with jealousy upon the Gentile wife as an -intruder. “This event of Solomon’s marrying a Gentile princess, and -making her equal in honour and privilege with his former Jewish queen, -and of her being frequently mentioned afterwards in history, while the -other is passed over in total silence, resembles the conduct of the -Messiah towards the Gentile and Jewish Churches.” ... “Nothing more, -according to that,” says Harmer, “is to be sought for of the mystic -kind, than the making out the general resemblance between Solomon’s -behaviour with respect to his two queens, and the situation of affairs -between the Messiah and the two Churches; of those that observed the -laws of Moses and those that did not.” [101] - -The following analysis is gathered from Harmer’s singularly confused -work. Chapter I. describes Solomon and his attendants meeting the -Egyptian bride and her companions; ii. 1–iii. 5, describes the -complaining language of the Jewish queen; iii. 6–v. 1, resumes the -account of Solomon’s journey with the Egyptian bride up to Jerusalem, -and describes the consummation of the marriage; v. 2–vi. 3, relates -Solomon’s conversation with his Jewish wife; vi. 4–9, Solomon’s -conversation with the Egyptian wife in the garden; vi. 10–viii. 7, -begins with Solomon’s astonishment at his being surprised by his Jewish -wife whilst in the garden with the Egyptian wife, and the ensuing -conversation between them; viii. 8, describes the imaginative hope of -the Jewish wife that Solomon’s marriage with the Egyptian would not be -consummated, and that she would, therefore, not be treated as a wife; -viii. 9, gives Solomon’s reply, that the Egyptian princess should be -treated with the highest honours; viii. 10–12, contains a smart reply -of the Egyptian princess to the Jewish queen, in which she at the same -time also notices the addition her marriage had made to the King’s -possessions; viii. 13, states Solomon’s appeal to the Jewish queen in -the presence of all to give her final thoughts respecting her future -conduct; viii. 14, gives her resolution to keep her distance; but at -the same time there appears no thought of renouncing her relation to -Solomon on her part, as “there was not on his.” “Such actually,” -concludes Harmer, “is the state of things with respect to the Messiah, -and the two churches of Jews and Gentiles. The Jewish Church persists -in not receiving the Gentiles as fellow-heirs, but they renounce not -their relation to the Messiah, nor has he utterly excluded them from -hope. The state of distance has long continued, but as they still -remain a distinct body of people, waiting for great events that are to -happen, so the New Testament leads us to expect their reconciliation.” - -1770. Different to these strange outlines of Harmer were the effects -which Lowth’s remarks upon this Song produced in Germany. Michaelis, -the celebrated professor at the Göttingen University, in his edition of -the Praelectiones, took a more advanced and decided step in the -interpretation of this book. He not only rejected the allegorical -interpretation, as unsupported by internal evidence, but denied the -theory, defended by Lowth, &c., that this poem celebrates the nuptials -of Solomon, because there is no direct mention made in any part of this -long poem of the marriage ceremony, nor of any circumstance attending -it; no time appearing appropriated to the nuptial banquet itself, the -bride and the bridegroom being separated from and in quest of each -other, wishing and enjoying solitude, always showing themselves in the -street or field when conversing together, or with the virgins, and -never found with the guests or at the banquet; because it cannot be -possibly imagined that a bridegroom would be so necessitated to labour -as not to be able to devote the few days of his nuptial week to the -celebration of his marriage; that he would be compelled immediately to -quit his spouse and his friends for whole days in order to attend his -cattle in the pastures; and especially because we could not imagine -that the bridegroom would at this time of the festival leave his bride, -to whom he professes to be so deeply attached, alone and unhappy, and -not return at night. The learned professor, therefore, concludes that -this Song describes the chaste passion of conjugal and domestic love; -the attachment of two delicate persons who have been long united in the -sacred bond; and then asks, Can we suppose such happiness unworthy of -being recommended as a pattern to mankind, and of being celebrated as a -subject of gratitude to the great Author of happiness? [102] - -1771. The honour, however, of first elucidating the true design of this -book is due to J. T. Jacobi; notwithstanding the imperfections of his -attempt. He showed that the importance of this Song is not to describe -the chaste passion of conjugal love, but to celebrate fidelity. The -pattern of this conjugal fidelity is the Shulamite, the heroine of the -book. This humble woman was married to a shepherd. Solomon, being -struck with her beauty, tempted her with the luxuries and splendour of -his court to forsake her husband and enter the royal harem; but the -Shulamite spurned all the allurements, and remained faithful to her -humble husband. [103] However strange the manner in which Jacobi -divides this book, and the interpretation of separate passages, it must -be acknowledged that he was the first in Germany who showed that -Solomon was not the object of the Shulamite’s affections, and that the -beloved was a humble shepherd from whom the King endeavoured to -separate her. It will be remembered that Ibn Ezra, Immanuel, and the -Anonymous Commentary, [104] have already taken the lovers to be a -shepherd and shepherdess, and regarded Solomon as a separate person, -whom the rustic maiden adduces in illustration of her sincere -attachment to her shepherd, affirming that if this great King were to -bring her into his court, and offer her all its grandeur and luxuries, -she would still rejoice in her humble lover. - -1772. It seems unaccountable that though the increased attention paid -in this country to the sound exegesis of the Scriptures compelled -expositors to propound the literal meaning of this book, that Durell -[105] could still overlook the two distinct persons referred to in this -poem, viz. the King and the Shepherd, and maintain that the Song of -Songs is an epithalamium on Solomon’s marriage with Pharaoh’s daughter. - -1776. It was not to be expected that the opposition of sound critics, -and much less the newly propounded view of Jacobi, would at once -subvert the old allegorical theories, or check fertile imaginations -from inventing new speculations. The Song of Songs was too darling an -object of those whose minds were addicted to allegories and mysticisms -to be so easily surrendered to the simple meaning of the text. So far -from being surprised, we rather expect that every one who rejects the -obvious sense of the Song will find in it some new view which his -predecessors had overlooked. And Herr von Puffendorf’s new theory, -therefore, only realises our expectations. He explained this Song -hieroglyphically, and by a process of reasoning as sound as that of the -other allegorisers, found his interpretation corroborated by analogy. -The sacred picture language constituted the wisdom of Solomon’s days, -and was therefore used among all nations to express everything divine. -As Solomon was more versed in the Egyptian mysteries than any of his -contemporaries, he would necessarily write the divine mysteries -contained in this book in hieroglyphics, in accordance with the custom -of those days. According to the deciphering of these hieroglyphics by -Puffendorf, “this much disputed Song treats almost exclusively of the -sepulchre of the Saviour, and his death, and the communion of -believers, especially of Old Testament saints; but it also describes -their longing for his Advent, whereby, however, the condition of the -New Testament community, and even the resurrection from the dead, are -represented in prophetical types.” [106] On the clause, - - - “The virgins love thee.” Puffendorf remarks, “These are the pure - and chaste souls which are locked up in the dark sepulchre, and - wait for the light;” and in a note says, “the root עָלַﬦ, whence - עֲלָמוֹת, virgins, is derived, signifies to be concealed, as those - souls were. The Egyptian Neitha, or Minerva, was the tutelar deity - of pious souls, and was covered with a veil, which none were - allowed to uncover. The virgins, concealed in the same manner, have - to expect that through marriage they will emerge into light. Thus - the souls are here represented, which in the dominion of darkness - wait for salvation and light.” - - -The curious reader must consult the Commentary itself to see how this -extraordinary mode of exposition is carried through the book. - -1778. About two years after the publication of the deciphered -hieroglyphics of this Song, the allegorical interpretation sustained -some most severe blows from the eminently pious and celebrated poet -Herder. He denounced the allegorisers as violating common sense, and -the established laws of language, and maintained that this Song -celebrated true and chaste love in its various stages. - -Upon the question, whether there may not be another sense concealed -under the obvious and literal meaning, Herder remarks—“When I read the -book itself I do not find the slightest intimation, or even the -faintest trace that such a sense was the design of the author. Were I -to admit it, I should also expect to find it in the Song of Ibrahim, in -the odes of Hafiz, and in all the oriental erotic poems which in form -entirely resemble this Song. In the life of Solomon I discover still -less reason for this concealed sense, be it historical, mystical, -metaphysical, or political. For Solomon’s wisdom did not consist in -mysticism, much less in metaphysics, or scholastic church history. His -wisdom was displayed in his common sense, as seen in his view of the -things of this life, in his acute penetration and extensive knowledge -of nature. Subsequent Arabian tradition has indeed attributed to him -also the art of sorcery, and of driving out evil spirits, but never did -even this tradition ascribe to him the downcast look of a mystic, or -represent him as indulging in airy speculations, or as writing a -compendium of Christian Church History.” [107] - -Herder admits that this book describes the love of a shepherd and -shepherdess, as well as that of a king; but finding great difficulty to -account for this, he divides the book into separate songs, or amorets, -while at the same time he acknowledges that there is a marked unity -throughout, and that love is described from its first germs to its full -maturity, its ripened fruit, and its first regermination. - -1780. This beautiful commentary was followed by an elaborate work of -Kleuker on this Song. [108] He too, with an overwhelming force of -argument, opposes the allegorical interpretation, and maintains that -the book consists of detached songs. - -1781. Ann Francis, a lady of much poetical taste, who, assisted by the -learned Parkhurst, published a poetical version of the Song, [109] was -the first who adopted and defended the theory of Harmer, that this book -speaks of two wives, one a Jewish lady, who had been married to Solomon -long before, and the daughter of Pharaoh, whom the king had recently -espoused. - -1786. Hodgson, however, was not influenced by the theory of Harmer, -but, with Bossuet, Lowth, Percy, &c., regarded this poem as “an -epithalamium written by Solomon, on his marriage, as some have -supposed, with the daughter of Pharaoh.” [110] - -1789. The theory maintained by Abrabanel and Leon Hebraeus, [111] seems -at this time to have found its way into the Christian Church. An -unknown author, mentioned by Magnus, [112] defended the view that the -bride of the Song represents wisdom, with whom Solomon converses. - -1790. It is indeed cheering to meet again with some glimpses of light -amidst the dense darkness which gathered around this book. Ammon not -only vindicated its unity against some of his contemporaries, but -showed that it celebrates the victory of true and chaste love in humble -life over the allurements of courtly grandeur. [113] - -1801. In this country those who paid more regard to the established -laws of language, and were therefore constrained to admit a literal -sense, mostly adhered to the opinion that this poem is a nuptial song. -Thus Williams maintained that it celebrates the marriage of Solomon -with Pharaoh’s daughter. [114] - -1803. Mason Good could not acquiesce in this opinion, because the -matrimonial connexion of the Hebrew monarch with the Egyptian princess -was of an exclusively political character, without any preceding -personal intimacy or interchange of affection; whereas, the connexion -celebrated in this Song, “proceeded from reciprocal affection, from the -gentleness, modesty, and delicacy of mind, which are uniformly and -perpetually attributed to this beautiful and accomplished fair one.” -[115] He, therefore, regards this book as celebrating in distinct -amorets, the reciprocal attachment of Solomon and a female, who was a -native of Sharon, which was a canton of Palestine; conveying also a -spiritual allegory. - -1813. Hug, [116] rejecting the literal interpretation, exercised, like -the rest of the allegorisers, the right of introducing a new theory. -According to him, “the bride” means the ten tribes, and “the -bridegroom” is King Hezekiah, and the book describes -allegorico-politically the longing of Israel after the destruction of -Samaria to be re-united with Judah, and the opposition of the citizens -of Judah, represented under the image of the brothers (chap. viii. 8, -9) to this re-union. - -1820. The feeble arm raised by Jacobi, Ammon, &c. in the defence of the -true design of this book against the mighty host of allegorisers, was -greatly supported by the learned Umbreit. In the introduction to his -exposition of this Song, Umbreit maintains that the design of the poem -is to celebrate the conquest of virtue in humble life over the -allurements of royalty. A virtuous country-maiden, who was attached to -a shepherd, was brought into Solomon’s harem, and there tempted by the -king with flatteries and promises to transfer her affections; but she, -armed by the power of virtue, resisted all his allurements, and -remained faithful to her shepherd, to whom she was afterwards -re-united. [117] - -Though it cannot be said that either Clarke or Boothroyd in any way -elucidated the design of this book, yet they have done great service by -their rejection of the allegorical interpretation. - -1825. We must, however, not suppose that the allegorisers, though -considerably diminished in number, had exhausted their inventive -faculties. Kaiser maintains that “the bride” is a new colony near the -Jordan, and the bridegroom represents Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah; -and that the Song celebrates their restoration of the Jewish -constitution in the province of Judah. [118] - -1826. The little band, who struggled hard for the defence of the true -design of this book, could now rejoice at the accession of a mighty -leader to their ranks. The celebrated Ewald showed in a masterly manner -that “this poem celebrates chaste, virtuous, and sincere love, which no -splendour is able to dazzle, nor flattery to seduce.” [119] - -1829. Döpke, in his elaborate philologico-critical commentary, though -not espousing this view, materially aided the combatants for the -literal interpretation. [120] - -1830. It is surprising that the sharp-sighted Rosenmüller, who could -not follow the allegorical interpretation of the church, instead of -adhering to the obvious sense of the poem, adopted the view of -Abrabanel, Leon Hebraeus, &c., that “the bride” represents wisdom, with -whom Solomon is described as conversing. [121] - -Whilst the battle between the allegorisers and literalists was being -waged on the continent, the few champions who came forward in England -to defend the literal interpretation received an important addition to -their number in the person of Dr. Pye Smith, who denounced this method -of treating Scripture as contrary to all laws of language, and -dangerous to real religion. He regards this Song as “a pastoral -eclogue, or a succession of eclogues, representing, in the vivid colour -of Asiatic rural scenery, with a splendour of artificial decoration, -the honourable loves of a newly married bride and bridegroom, with some -other interlocutors.” [122] - -1839. The controversy between Drs. Pye Smith and Bennett [123] about -the Song of Songs produced a salutary effect, inasmuch as it added -considerably to the number of those who in this country defended the -literal interpretation. A version of Chap. ii. 8–17 appeared in the -Congregational Magazine, [124] in which the translator boldly affirms -that “it celebrates the beautiful scenery of the spring, the attachment -of two individuals to each other, and their meeting in that season of -nature’s gaiety and loveliness.” He, moreover, declares that he can -“see no more reason for the spiritual interpretation which Mr. -Williams, Mr. Fry, and others give it, than for its application to the -revival of letters, the termination of feudalism, or any other -gratifying circumstance in civil or political life.” - -1840. Whilst the ranks of the literalists grew stronger in England, the -band that defended the true design of this poem in Germany, also under -the able leadership of Ewald, became stronger, and Hirzel now contended -for the view that the Song of Songs celebrates the victory of virtuous -love in humble life over the allurements of royalty. [125] - -1842. The learned but “lynx-eyed” Magnus, however, could see in this -book nothing else than a collection of various erotic pieces, some -perfect, others imperfect, some amended, others interpolated, all the -work of different authors, and written in various ages. [126] Yet his -commentary is full of learning, and well deserves to be mentioned in -this historical sketch. - -1845. Entirely different is the opinion of Professor Stuart, the great -Biblical scholar of America, who says, “It seems better and firmer -ground, to regard the Canticles as expressing the warm and earnest -desire of the soul after God, in language borrowed from that which -characterises chaste affection between the Jews.” [127] - -1846. It must not be supposed that all the American Professors were of -the same opinion. Dr. Noyes, Professor of Hebrew, &c. in Harvard -University, published a translation of the Canticles with notes, -shortly after the appearance of Stuart’s work, in which he maintains -that it is a collection of erotic songs, without any moral or religious -design, [128] and most powerfully opposes the allegorical -interpretation. - -1847. Another Professor, Dr. Stowe, affirmed that “the general idea of -the book, which has just been pronounced ‘as injurious to morals and -religion,’ if interpreted allegorically, [129] is descriptive of the -mutual love of God and his people; the vicissitudes, the trials, the -backslidings, the repentings, and finally the perfect and eternal union -of the church with its Lord and Saviour.” [130] - -1849. Though not entirely defeated, yet the ranks of the allegorisers -were materially thinned, and they were driven to adopt a different -course. They no longer sought for some Christian mysteries and doctrine -in every chapter, verse, and word of the Song, but satisfied themselves -with a general allegorical idea, which may be seen both from the above -article of Dr. Stowe, and Keil’s “Introduction to the Song of Songs.” -Dr. Keil submits that it allegorically describes the mutual love -subsisting between God and his chosen people, and how this communion -was in various ways interrupted through the unfaithfulness of Israel, -and how, through their return to the true covenant-God, and through his -unchanging love, it was again restored. [131] - -1851. Not even this mild view of the allegory, however, could -conciliate Delitzsch. This learned author, after having interpreted the -book as representing “the mutual love subsisting between Solomon and -Wisdom,” was at last constrained to reject every allegorical -interpretation as untenable. Though adopting the view that the book -poetically describes a love-relationship formed by Solomon, and that -“the idea of marriage is the idea of the Song,” and may figuratively -represent the union of God with his people, he frankly confesses, that -amongst other views, that which regards the poem as celebrating the -victory of virtuous love in humble life over the allurements of -royalty, is to be preferred. [132] - -1852. Immediately after the publication of this commentary, containing -some of the most cogent arguments against the allegorical -interpretation, a new translation appeared with an allegorical -exposition by Hahn. Denying that Solomon represents the Messiah, -because at that early period the notion of a personal Messiah was not -yet developed in the minds of the people, this commentator advances a -new theory, that “the bridegroom” represents the kingdom of Israel, and -“the bride” Japhetic heathenism, and that the poem describes, -allegorically, “the kingdom of Israel as destined, in God’s service, -eventually to overcome heathenism with the weapons of justice and love, -and to bring the Heathen into a state of fellowship and love with -itself, and consequently with God.” [133] He takes the Song to be a -dramatico-didactic poem, divisible into six sections. - -The first section, Chap. i. 2–ii. 7, describes the longing of the -maiden, who represents Japhetic heathenism, for the pleasurable love of -the king of Israel; her humble supplication to be received into his -fellowship, and the ultimate realization of her desire in that union. - -The second section, Chap. ii. 8–iii. 5, supplementing the first, -describes the friendly invitation which the king of Israel gives to -this maiden (the Japhetic heathen) to catch with him the foxes, which -represent the kingdom of Satan upon earth, the Hametic heathen, and to -unite herself with him in the land of Canaan, which is the kingdom of -God, and her acceptance of this invitation. - -The third section, Chap. iii. 6–v. 1, supplementing the first and -second, represents this maiden, after being conquered by the power of -the king’s love, and from sincere reciprocal attachment, devoting -herself as an acceptable offering to the service of God, as introduced -into the land of Canaan, which is the type of the kingdom of God, and -describes the completion of her never-ending union with the king of -Israel. - -The fourth section, Chap. v. 2–vi. 9, a supplementary explanation of -the first, describes the early love of the king of Israel when he -visited the maiden in the dark night as she lay in a deep sleep, void -of all love to him, entreating to be admitted; her refusal; her -repentance after having become acquainted with his glory; her long -search after him; his accepting her after her repentance had been -tried, &c. &c. - -The fifth section, Chap. vi. 10–viii. 4, which explains the second, and -supplements the fourth, describes how the king of Israel revealed -himself ultimately to the maiden; the king, after being long and -painfully sought by the maiden, who, despairing of success, and in a -dejected state, had returned home, was again incited, by some new -charms of hers, followed her, attended by his martial hosts, once more -offered her his love, met with a hearty response, and then she offered -herself to him with all she had, as his property. - -The sixth section, Chap. viii. 5–14, which is a supplementary -exposition of the third, and a completion of the fifth, describes how -the maiden, after long and painfully searching, and longing for the -king of Israel, yielded herself up to him in her home, whither he had -followed her, and how she entreated for the favourable reception of her -younger sister, that is, the Hametic heathen, and how the king promised -the maiden that her sister shall eventually be received. - -1853. Though this allegorist has repudiated the idea that Solomon -represents the Messiah, at the same time, another allegorist, and that -a no less writer than Hengstenberg, assures us that Solomon can be -regarded only as the Messiah, and that the bride is not Japhetic -heathenism, but the people of God. According to him, the poem -celebrates the Prince of Peace and all the mercies which through him -flow to the people of God, and is divisible into two parts. - -The first part, Chap. i.–v. 1, describes the advent of Messiah, the -heavenly Solomon, to save his people; the tribulations and sorrows -which will precede his coming, and especially the bondage of the people -of God to worldly power, as the merited punishment of their -unfaithfulness. These sufferings are represented under the figure of -swarthiness, i. 6; winter and rain, ii. 11; dark nights and a -wilderness, iii. 6. Connected with the coming of Messiah is the -admission of the heathen into the kingdom of Christ, iii. 9–11, -effected through the mediation of the Old Testament people, as -indicated by the name “daughters of Jerusalem.” - -The second part, Chap. v. 2–viii. 14, describes the sinning of the -daughter of Zion against the heavenly Solomon, her punishment, -repentance, and the re-union effected through the mediation of the -daughters of Jerusalem (the heathen), whose salvation she had first -assisted to accomplish; the complete restoration of the former mutual -love, in consequence of which the daughter of Zion becomes again the -centre of the kingdom of God; and the immutability of the new covenant -of love in contrast with the mutability of the old. [134] - -1853. Simultaneous with this commentary of Hengstenberg, an allegorical -exposition appeared in America, by Professor Burrowes. He differs again -from the preceding in regarding this Song as illustrating by imagery -drawn from the court of Solomon, the mutual love of Christ and the -Church, as exercised in the case of individual believers. He divides it -into three parts. - -The first part, Chap. i.–ii. 7, describes the way in which the soul, -longing after the manifestation of the love of Christ, is conducted in -the gratification of that desire, from one degree of pious enjoyment to -another, till, by the vicissitudes of fortune, and by the diversities -in its progress towards heaven, and the enjoyment of Christ’s love as -manifested in private communion in “his chamber;” 7–11, in the way of -duty and self-denial; 12–14, in social communion with him; 15–17, in -delightful repose with him, amid enlarged prospects of spiritual -beauty; chap. ii. 1–3, in the protection and delight here set forth; -4–7, it possesses the greatest possible pleasure on the earth. - -The second part, Chap. ii. 8–vii. 9, describes the motives by which the -Lord Jesus would allure such souls away from the present world to be -with him in glory; chap. ii. 8–17, as by the beauty of heaven; chap. -iii. 1–11, by the splendour of the reception awaiting them there, as -well as by the grandeur of the conveyance thither; chap. v. 1–vii. 9, -and by his love for them, which remains constant even amidst their -greatest neglect. - -The third section, Chap. vii. 10–viii. 14, describes the effects which -these manifestations of love produce on the heart of saints; chap. vii. -10, assurance of hope; 11, desire to be much alone in communion with -Christ; 12, their engagement in labours of love; 13, consecration to -him of all their gifts; chap. viii. 1, 2, a desire that everything -interposing between Christ and them may be removed; 3, 4, their -avoidance of everything that would cause the withdrawal of Christ’s -love; 5, the pleasing consciousness of leaning on Jesus, and of being -upheld by his everlasting arm; 6, their desire to be constantly near -him, and sustained by his power, and willingness to make every -sacrifice for him; 7, their conviction of the insufficiency of -everything the world could offer to tempt them from Christ; 8–10, their -interest for the salvation of the impenitent; 12, the sense of their -accountability as stewards of God; 13, the privilege of continual -access to the throne of grace; 14, desire for the completion of their -redemption, and for the perfecting of their love to Christ, and of his -to them, by the prospect of his second coming. [135] - -From the analysis of the three latest commentaries upon this book, it -will be perceived that allegorical interpreters, even to this day, -differ in their views of its application and design. - -1854. After quitting the bewildering maze of allegorism, it is cheering -to come to the commentary of Meier, in which the view that this poem -celebrates the victory of virtuous love in humble life over the -allurements of royalty is defended. [136] - -1855. This is also the view propounded by Friedrich [137] and Hitzig, -[138] though the latter embraces a similar theory to Harmer, that there -are two women as chief speakers in the poem. - -1856. In this opinion of the superiority of virtuous love to all the -temptations of royalty, the Jew and the Christian, the Englishman and -the German, are beginning to unite. The reviewer in the Jewish Monthly -Journal of History and Science, declares himself in favour of regarding -the Shulamite as resisting all the offers of Solomon and remaining -faithful to her shepherd. [139] Meier, the author of a commentary -mentioned above, in his History of the poetical National Literature of -the Hebrews, recently published, maintains the same opinion. [140] This -poem, says Dr. Davidson, “warns against impure love, encourages -chastity, fidelity, and virtue, by depicting the successful issue of -sincere affection amid powerful temptations. The innocent and virtuous -maiden, true to her shepherd lover, resists the flatteries of a -monarch, and is allowed to return to her home.” [141] Umbreit, in an -article upon this book, just published, states that he still adheres to -the view propounded in his commentary of 1828, [142] noticed above, -that it is a celebration of virtuous love over the allurements of -royalty. - -How mournful is the thought which irresistibly forces itself upon the -mind, in reviewing this imperfect sketch of what has befallen this -poem! This book, we have seen, is made to describe the most -contradictory things. It contains the wanderings of the Jews, how they -will ultimately “fill their stomachs with the flesh of the Leviathan -and the best of wines preserved in grapes,” and is the sanctum -sanctorum of all Christian mysteries. It is denounced as a love song, -and extolled as declaring the incarnation of Christ; it speaks of the -meridian church in Africa, and of the betrayal of the Saviour; it -contains a treatise upon the doctrine of free grace against -Pelagianism, and an Aristotelian disquisition upon the functions of the -active and passive mind; it is an apocalyptic vision, a duplicate of -the Revelations of St. John, and records the scholastic mysticisms of -the middle ages; it denounces Arianism, and describes the glories of -the Virgin Mary; it “treats of man’s reconciliation unto God and peace -by Jesus Christ, with joy in the Holy Ghost,” and teaches lewdness, and -corrupts the morals; it records the conversation of Solomon and Wisdom, -and describes the tomb of Christ in Egyptian hieroglyphics; it -celebrates the nuptials of Solomon, and gives us a compendium of -ecclesiastical history to the second advent of Christ; it records the -restoration of a Jewish constitution by Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah, -and the mysteries of marriage; it advocates monogamy and encourages -polygamy; it assists devotion and excites carnal passions. What a -solemn lesson we have here never to depart from the simple meaning of -the word of God! - - - - - -SECTION VI.—THE DIFFERENT VIEWS CLASSIFIED AND EXAMINED. - -The various opinions, enumerated in the preceding section, respecting -the design of this book, may be divided into three classes, the -literal, the allegorical, and the typical. The first considers the -description as real, that the words should be taken as representing an -historical fact; the second considers that the description has no -historical truth for its basis, but contains some latent meaning; -whilst the third admits the literal meaning, but regards it as typical -of spiritual truth. The literal view adopted by us having been given in -sections iii. and iv., we have to examine here only the claims of the -allegorical and typical. - - - -THE ALLEGORICAL VIEW. - -The allegorical view principally maintained is, that this poem, in -language borrowed from that which characterises chaste affections -between the sexes, expresses the mutual love subsisting between the -Lord and his Church. - - - -REASONS FOR THE ALLEGORICAL VIEW EXAMINED. - -1. The existence of this book in the sacred canon has been adduced as -an argument for its allegorical interpretation. - -“In what part of the Hebrew Bible can we find any composition of an -analogous nature? All—every Psalm, every piece of history, every part -of prophecy—has a religious aspect, and (the book of Esther perhaps -excepted) is filled with theocratic views of things. How came there -here to be such a solitary exception, so contrary to the genius and -nature of the whole Bible? It is passing strange, if real amatory Idyls -are mingled with so much, all of which is of a serious and religious -nature. If the author viewed his composition as being of an amatory -nature, would he have sought a place for it among the sacred books? And -subsequent redactors or editors—would they have ranked it here, in case -they had regarded it in the same light? I can scarcely deem it -credible. So different was the reverence of the Jews for their -Scriptures from any mere approbation of an amatory poem as such, that I -must believe that the insertion of Canticles among the canonical books, -was the result of a full persuasion of its spiritual import. Had the -case stood otherwise, why did they not introduce other secular books, -as well as this, into the canon?” [143] - -Granting that the design of the book was simply to describe love, we -deny that it would have been deemed unworthy of a place in the sacred -canon. Why should the pleasures of chaste love be considered less -worthy of record in the sacred books, than the sorrow for bereaved -friendship, in 2 Sam. i. 17, &c.? “To those,” says Dr. Mason Good, a -defender of the allegorical interpretation, “who disbelieve the -existence of such an allegory they (the amorets) still afford a happy -example of the pleasures of holy and virtuous love; they inculcate, -beyond the power of didactic poetry, the tenderness which the husband -should manifest for his wife, and the deference, modesty, and fidelity -with which his affection should be returned; and, considered even in -this sense alone, they are fully entitled to the honour of constituting -a part of the sacred Scriptures.” [144] “Why should a passion,” remarks -another allegorical interpreter, “so strong, so universal, so essential -to happiness—to the very existence of the human race, be denied a place -in a Revelation from God to man? As a matter of fact, has it not a -place in every part of the Bible, from Genesis to Revelation? God is -the author of the human constitution as well as of the Bible; and he -has in all respects adapted his revelation to the nature of the beings -for whom it was designed. It would be strange indeed, if one of the -most important and never absent phenomena in the moral and physical -creation of men should never be noticed in a revelation to him from his -Creator. If the viciousness and licentiousness of men have loaded this -subject with vile and filthy associations in vile and filthy minds, -this is not the fault of God or of his revelation. The vine will not be -destroyed, nor the grapes annihilated, because wicked men make -themselves beasts with wine.” [145] - -The design of the book, in our view, however, is not to celebrate love, -but to record an example of virtue, which is still more worthy of a -place in the sacred canon. - -2. It has been urged, that the language put by the sacred writer into -the mouth of the bride, shows that the poem is to be allegorically -interpreted, because in its literal sense such language would be -contrary to nature and to the modesty of women. - -“That this is not a song of human loves,” says Dr. Bennett, [146] “is -clear from the beginning to the end. It opens with the language of a -female: ‘Let him kiss me;’ it is full of her solicitous seeking after -him; it abounds with praises of his person, and her dispraises of -herself, of her person and her conduct; it invites other females to -love him, and it speaks of him as her brother, and of her as his -sister. Let any one examine the Song, and then muse over these facts, -recollecting that Solomon is, in the opening of the poem itself, said -to be the writer. Was ever such a human love-song composed by mortal, -since man either loved or wrote verses? What writer, with the feelings, -or the reason, of a man, would begin a poem on his fair one by -describing her as courting him? Let it not be said, ‘We must not -transfer our modern and northern ideas to the ancient Orientals, who -had not our delicate notions of the female character;’ for this would -only make my case stronger. It would be more abhorrent from the -secluded, submissive character of Eastern brides to ask the gentlemen -to come and kiss them, than it would be from the dignified confidence -of British women. It is not a question of climate or age, but of -nature. The bridegroom, who is supposed to love this fairest of women, -himself puts into her lips this speech: ‘Let him kiss me!’ Never would -human love speak thus. Though men like to court, they do not like to be -courted; and while they think it cruel to be rejected when they court, -they without mercy reject her that courts them; as the forward female -has usually found, from the days of Sappho to this hour. Women were -endowed with the form and the qualities intended to attract courtship, -and they feel it; and when they do not feel it, men despise them. No -man, therefore, in his senses, would think to compliment his fair one -by writing of her, to her, as if she had lost her retiring modesty, her -female dignity, and degraded herself by doing that for which every man -would despise her. The very first word of this Song, then, stands a -witness against the notion of its being a human love-song; for it would -better suit Solomon’s strange woman, that with an impudent face caught -and kissed the young simpleton, than Solomon’s princess-bride, or Dr. -Smith’s supposed chaste monogamist. Till fishes mount to sing with -larks on the shady boughs, and nightingales dive to ocean’s depths to -court the whales, no man, of any age, of any clime, of any rank, can be -supposed to write ordinary love-songs in such a style. We are told, by -the first word, that a greater than Solomon is here, one who must be -courted, and that loves more than human are the theme. This is the -Bridegroom of whom the Psalmist says, ‘He is thy Lord, and worship thou -him:’ ‘Kiss the Son, lest he be angry, and ye perish from the way.’ -Such a spouse may exhibit his Bride as asking for his love; every other -must present himself as asking for hers, and begging the acceptance of -his.” - -It is allowed by scholars of taste, that, regarded as a mere human -production, this poem is inimitable. “Every part of this Song,” says -the learned Bishop Bossuet, [147] “abounds in poetical beauties; the -objects which present themselves on every side are the choicest plants, -the most beautiful flowers, the most delicious fruits, the bloom and -vigour of spring, the sweet verdure of the fields, flourishing and -well-watered gardens, pleasant streams, and perennial fountains. The -other senses are represented as regaled with the most precious odours, -natural and artificial; with the sweet singing of birds, and the soft -voice of the turtle; with milk and honey, and the choicest of wine. To -these enchantments are added all that is beautiful and graceful in the -human form, the endearments, the caresses, the delicacy of love. If any -object be introduced which seems not to harmonize with this delightful -scene, such as the awful prospect of tremendous precipices, the -wildness of the mountains, or the haunts of lions, its effect is only -to heighten, by the contrast, the beauty of the other objects, and to -add the charms of variety to those of grace and elegance.” Bishop -Lowth, after having descanted upon some passages, remarks, “Nothing can -be imagined more truly elegant and poetical than all these, nothing -more apt or expressive than these comparisons.” [148] If the poet is so -charming in his style, so exquisite and true in his picture of nature, -surely it is but reasonable to give him credit for understanding his -art, that he was acquainted with the manners and habits of the women of -his age, and that he would be as true to nature in the description of -the bride as he is in depicting nature herself. If it be true that -language of such exquisite taste would outrage female decency and -modesty when addressed to a human love, it will surely be more -outrageous when put into the mouth of the humble, penitent, and -submissive Church in addresses to the Lord of lords. Where in the Old -or New Testament do we find any address from the saints to God or -Christ resembling the opening of this poem? The addresses of Abraham, -(Gen. xviii. 23–33,) Jacob, (Gen. xxxii. 10–13,) and of Solomon -himself, (1 Kings viii. 23–53,) and the language in which Christ has -taught us to appeal to God, are characterized by the greatest reverence -and humility. How, then, can it be affirmed, that language which would -violate female modesty and decency in the mouth of a woman to a lover -whom she prizes above all things, is becoming in the mouth of the -Church when addressing the Holy One of Israel? - -Dr. Bennett, however, misunderstood the design of the book. The Song, -in its literal meaning, does not begin with representing a woman -courting a man, but describes how a humble and virtuous rustic maiden -was taken away from her beloved into the court of Solomon, and tempted -to transfer her affections, by the splendour and luxuries of royalty; -but even there, amidst all the grandeur, and in spite of all alluring -promises, the maiden was faithful to her espousals, and desired that he -whom she prized above all things would come and rescue her. - -3. It is urged that the same language and imagery employed in the Song, -and the bridegroom and the bride here introduced, are elsewhere -spiritually applied to the Lord and his people. - -“This sort of imagery,” says Professor Stuart, “is frequent in the Old -Testament, and in the New. Frequently are the Jews charged with ‘going -a whoring after other gods,’ Exod. xxxiv. 15, 16; Lev. xx. 5, 6; Numb. -xv. 39; Deut. xxxi. 16; 2 Chron. xxi. 13; Ps. lxxiii. 27; Ezek. vi. 9. -Here the idea is, that they were affianced to the true God, and could -not seek after idols without incurring the guilt of adultery. So God -calls himself the husband of the Jews, Isa. liv. 5. The nation of -Israel is his bride, Isa. lxii. 4, 5. In Isa. l. 1, Jehovah asks, -‘Where is the bill of divorcement’ on his part, that Israel has -departed from Him? Jeremiah speaks of the espousals of Israel, when -young, in the wilderness. - -“In Jer. iii. 1–11, the prophet speaks of Israel as playing the harlot, -and committing adultery, in forsaking Jehovah. In Ezekiel, two long -chapters (xvi., xxiii.) are occupied with carrying through the imagery -drawn from such a connexion. Hosea (i.–iii.) recognises the same -principle, and carries out the imagery into much detail. These are -merely specimens. Ps. xlv. presents the Mediator, the King of Zion, in -the attitude of a husband to the Church, and celebrates the union -between the former and the latter. So in the New Testament this imagery -is very familiar: see Matt. ix. 25; John iii. 29; Rev. xix. 7; xxi. 2. -Especially consult 2 Cor. xi. 2, and Eph. v. 22–32, where the Apostle -has gone into much particularity as to the duties of the marriage -relation, and then avows that he ‘speaks concerning Christ and the -Church.’ - -“Such is the custom of the Hebrew writers and of the Apostles. If, now, -this imagery is so often employed in all parts of the Bible, what -forbids the idea, that there may be one short book in which it occupies -an exclusive place, and is designed to symbolize the love that existed -between God and his ancient people, or the Church; or rather, which -ought to have existed on their part between God and his spiritually -regenerated people, who have become one (in a spiritual sense) with -him, and are for ever united to him? It cannot be shown, à priori, that -it is even improbable.” - -First. What does this argument prove? Surely not what the -representation of this poem IS; it only shows what it might have been. -It shows that if we had indubitable proof, as in the passages cited, -that a whole book in the sacred canon is entirely devoted to symbolize, -under the figure of husband and wife, the covenant-relationship -subsisting between God and his people, we ought not to be surprised at -it, since it would be in harmony with those alleged passages. But -surely it does not follow, that, because we are distinctly told in some -passages of Scripture that the terms, husband and wife, are employed to -symbolize the relationship between God and his people, that they should -have this signification as often as they are employed. - -Second. We utterly deny that the covenant-relation which subsisted -between the Lord and Israel was represented by the terms, husband and -wife, before the days of Solomon. The phrase, זנה אחרי אלהים אחרים, -to go whoring after other gods, to which reference has been made, does -not mean that Israel, by worshipping idols, committed spiritual -adultery against the true God to whom they were affianced,—thus -presupposing God to be their husband, and Israel his wife,—but -describes a literal fact, the libidinous orgies and prostitutions -identified with heathen worship which the Jews indulged in when -worshipping idols. Numb. xxv. 1; Hos. iv. 13, &c. This is evident from -Exod. xxxiv. 15, 17, where this phrase first occurs, and is applied to -heathen women worshipping their own gods. And though these women stood -in no such covenant-relation to the God of Israel, and therefore could -not incur the guilt of spiritual adultery, yet they are described as -“whoring after THEIR gods.” From these licentious rites, therefore, -originated this phrase, afterwards used to describe the worship of -idols. But even admitting that it does suggest a marriage relationship -between God and his people, the distance between a suggestive phrase of -this kind and an entire book of marital descriptions is so great, that -the one cannot be reasonably supposed to have suggested the other. - -Third. We deny that even the language used by the prophets after the -days of Solomon, in the passages cited, is at all analogous to that of -this poem. Let us examine some of the passages themselves. Isa. l. 1:— - - - “Where is the bill of your mother’s divorce - With which I dismissed her?” - - -Isa. liv. 4–6:— - - - “Fear not, for thou shalt not be ashamed, - And be not abashed, for thou shalt not blush; - For thou shalt forget the shame of thy youth, - And the reproach of thy widowhood thou shalt remember no more. - For he weddeth thee who made thee. - Jehovah of hosts is his name, - And the Holy One of Israel redeemeth thee. - He is called the God of the whole earth. - For Jehovah calleth thee, as a forsaken wife, when spirit-broken, - And as a wife of youth when melting in repentance, saith thy Lord.” - - -Isa. lxii. 4, 5:— - - - “No more shall it be said to thee, Thou forsaken! - And no more shall it be said to thy land, Thou desolate! - But thou shalt be called, The object of my delight, - And thy land, The married woman; - For Jehovah delighteth in thee, - And thy land shall be married; - For the young man shall marry the virgin; - Thy children shall marry thee; - And with the joy of a bridegroom over his bride - Shall thy God rejoice over thee.” - - -Jer. iii. 20:— - - - “As a wife faithlessly departeth from her husband, - So have ye acted faithlessly towards me, - O house of Israel! saith Jehovah.” - - -These, and several more of a similar kind, are the passages referred -to, to prove that the bridegroom and bride in this Song mean the Lord -and his people! How totally different is the strain of thought and -expression in those passages to that in the Song! - -In the former, the wedded-relation forms the comparison; in the latter, -ante-nuptial love is the theme. In the former, the general idea of the -figure is briefly used, without any particulars of the accompaniments; -in the latter, particulars of the persons, dresses, scenery, are -largely described. In the former, God is represented as the High and -Holy One inhabiting eternity, and, in his infinite condescension and -compassion, loving, with the tenderness of a husband, Israel, who is -represented as an unlovely, ungrateful, and unfaithful wife; in the -latter, the bridegroom and the bride are placed upon an equality, nay, -the bridegroom declares that his heart has been ravished by the charms -and faithfulness of the bride. In the former we are distinctly told -that the husband means the Lord, and the wife the people of Israel, so -that the most superficial reader is compelled to perceive it; in the -latter we have no intimation whatever that the lovers are intended to -represent God and his people, and no reader would ever gather it from -the poem. This will appear all the more forcible when we remember that, -supposing this poem to be a description of the covenant-relation -subsisting between God and his people, it contains the completest -representation of this kind. We should, therefore, naturally expect -that subsequent writers, employing the same figure, would borrow -something of the imagery and colouring from it. But, so far from this -being the case, there is not the slightest analogy between the strain -of thought and expression of this poem and that of subsequent writers. - -Fourth. The 45th Psalm, which is supposed to celebrate, allegorically, -the union of the Messiah and the Church, has been adduced as analogous -to the Song of Songs, and therefore an evidence in behalf of the -allegorical interpretation. - -“If we admit,” says Hengstenberg, “the allegorical interpretation of -this Psalm, we shall also be obliged to drop the literal meaning of the -Song of Songs.” - -Is it certain, however, that this Psalm is all allegory? The Psalm -itself gives not the slightest intimation that it is to be understood -in any other than its literal sense. Let us examine it:— - - - “My heart boils with good matter; - When I think my work is for the king, - My tongue becomes as a style of a quick writer. - Thou art beautiful, beautiful above the sons of men: - Charm is poured upon thy lips, - Therefore God has blessed thee for ever. - Gird thy sword on thy thigh, O hero! - Thy splendour and thy glory, yea, thy glory, - Ride on victoriously for truth and mildness and right. - Great things shall thy right hand teach thee! - Thy arrows are sharp—people fall under thee— - They dart into the heart of the king’s enemies! - Thy throne, O God, stands for ever and ever; - A sceptre of justice is the sceptre of thy kingdom; - Thou lovest right, and hatest wrong; - Therefore God, thy God, anointed thee - With gladdening oil above thy companions! - Myrrh, aloes, and cassia are all thy garments, - Out of ivory palaces stringed instruments joyfully greet thee; - Kings’ daughters are among thy dear ones— - Upon thy right hand stands the queen in gold of Ophir. - - Hear, O daughter, and see, and incline thine ear; - Forget thy people and thy father’s house, - That the king may desire thy beauty, - For he is thy Lord, and honour thou him. - O daughter of Tyre, now with presents - The rich of the people salute thy face. - - The king’s daughter stands in the palace in all the splendour, - Her clothing is of fabricated gold, - She is led to the king in wrought raiment; - Behind her are the virgins, her companions, brought for thee; - They are conducted with joy and rejoicing, - They enter the palace of the king. - - Instead of thy fathers shall be thy sons; - Thou wilt set them as princes over the whole land. - I wilt celebrate thy name from generation to generation; - Therefore shall nations praise thee for ever and ever.” - - -This Psalm is evidently a congratulatory nuptial-song, composed for the -occasion of a king’s marriage with a princess of Tyre. The sacred -writer begins by stating that such is the greatness of the subject, -that it awakens thoughts too big for utterance; but recollecting that -his work is for the king, at once his tongue is loosed, and glides as -rapidly as the stylus of a quick writer (2). He then celebrates the -king’s beauty and eloquence, recognising in it God’s blessing (3), his -valour, symbolized by the conquering sword, the prosperous chariot, the -terrible arm, the well-directed arrow (4–6), his divine throne, and -love of justice (7), his great happiness, resulting from his love for -justice (8), which consists in the splendour around him (9), in his -magnificent harem, and especially in the new princess-bride at his -right hand (10). Having gradually arrived at the subject which is the -occasion of the poem, the sacred writer now addresses the bride, and, -in accordance with Eastern custom, which represents brides as unwilling -to leave their parents on the day of espousals (Comp. Deut. xxi. 13), -telling her to forget her father’s house, as she will have such glory -as is just described (11, 12). The bride is then presented with gifts, -according to Oriental manners, from the first ladies of the kingdom -(13); she appears in all the splendour in the first palace (14), and -thence conducted in grand procession to the king’s palace (15, 16). The -marital procession now being over, the inspired writer congratulates -the king, wishing him a happy issue (17), and concludes by saying that -his renown will rapidly spread (18). - -What is there in this Psalm compelling us to understand it -allegorically? The quotation of the sixth verse in Hebrews i. 8, 9, -only proves that this verse refers in a higher sense to the Messiah, -but not that the whole Psalm is descriptive of him. Who would think of -allegorizing the eighth chapter of Isaiah, because verses 17 and 18 are -quoted in Hebrews ii. 13? The throne of David is declared to be an -everlasting throne, 2 Sam. vii. 13, 16; a throne of God, i.e. a divine -throne, since the Messiah was to be the last and ever reigning king. -Hence it is said, וַיֵּשֶׁב שְׁלֹמֹה עַל כִּסֵּא יְהֹוָה לְמֶלֶכְ תַּחַת דָּוִיד אָבִיו, “and -Solomon sat upon the throne of Jehovah as king instead of his father -David.”—1 Chron. xxix. 23. Every king, therefore, of that lineage, -occupying the throne, was regarded as the representative of God; as the -predecessor and type of Him who was to be born of the seed of David to -occupy the throne in the highest sense. So that, whether we translate -כִּסְּאֲךָ אֱלֹהִים thy throne, O God, taking אֱלֹהִים as a vocative, or thy -God-throne, i.e. the throne committed to thee by God, or, thou art -seated upon a throne of God, or regard the phrase as an ellipsis for -כִּסְּאֲךָ כִּסֵּי אֱלֹהִים, thy throne is a throne of God, comes substantially to -the same thing. It is, therefore, a groundless assertion, that the -whole Psalm is an allegory, and the reference to it in proof of the -allegorical interpretation of the poem before us is nugatory. - -But, even admitting that the 45th Psalm is an allegory, this would by -no means prove that the Song of Songs is also an allegory, for the two -cases differ essentially. In the former the bridegroom is addressed in -verse 8 as God, and this verse is quoted in the New Testament, whereas -in the latter there is nothing of the kind. - -4. The custom of oriental nations to express their religious and -devotional sentiments under the disguise of amatory and drinking songs -has been adduced as an argument in favour of the allegorical -interpretation of the Song of Songs. - -“The durweesh,” [149] says Lane, “pointed out the following poem as one -of those most common at Zikrs, and as one which was sung at the Zikr -which I have begun to describe. I translated it verse for verse, and -imitate the measure and system of the original, with this difference -only, that the first, third, and fifth lines of each stanza rhyme with -each other in the original, but not in my translation. - - - ‘With love my heart is troubled, - And mine eyelid hindereth sleep: - My vitals are dissever’d, - While with streaming tears I weep. - - My union seems far distant, - Will my love e’er meet mine eye? - Alas! did not estrangement - Draw my tears, I would not sigh. - - ‘By dreary nights I’m wasted, - Absence makes my hopes expire; - My tears, like pearls, are dropping, - And my heart is wrapt in fire. - Whose is like my condition? - Scarcely know I remedy. - Alas! did not estrangement - Draw my tears, I would not sigh. - - ‘O turtle dove! acquaint me - Wherefore thus dost thou lament? - Art thou so stung by absence? - Of thy wings deprived, and pent? - He saith, ‘Our griefs are equal; - Worn away with love, I lie.’ - Alas! did not estrangement - Draw my tears, I would not sigh. - - ‘O First and Everlasting! - Show thy favour yet to me. - Thy slave, Ahh’mad El-Bek’ree, [150] - Hath no Lord excepting Thee. - By Tá-Há, [151] the great prophet, - Do thou not his wish deny. - Alas! did not estrangement - Draw my tears, I would not sigh.’ - - -“I must translate a few more lines, to show more strongly the -similarity of these songs to that of Solomon; and lest it should be -thought that I have varied the expressions, I shall not attempt to -translate into verse. In the same collection of poems sung at Zikrs is -one which begins with these lines:— - - - ‘O gazelle from among the gazelles of El-Yem’en! - I am thy slave without cost; - O thou small of age, and fresh of skin! - O thou who art scarce past the time of drinking milk!’ - - -“In the first of these verses we have a comparison exactly agreeing -with that in the concluding verse of Solomon’s Song; for the word -which, in our Bible, is translated a ‘roe,’ is used in Arabic as -synonymous with ghaza’l (or a gazelle); and the mountains of El-Yem’en -are ‘the mountains of spices.’ This poem ends with the following -lines:— - - - ‘The phantom of thy form visited me in my slumber. - I said, “O phantom of slumber! who sent thee?” - He said, “He sent me whom thou knowest; - He whose love occupies thee!” - The beloved of my heart visited me in the darkness of night; - I stood, to show him honour, until he sat down. - I said, “O thou my petition, and all my desire, - Hast thou come at midnight, and not feared the watchmen?” - He said to me, “I feared, but, however, love - Had taken from me my soul and my breath.”’ - - -“Compare the above with the second and five following verses of the -fifth chapter of Solomon’s Song. Finding that songs of this description -are extremely numerous, and almost the only poems sung at Zikrs; that -they are composed for this purpose, and intended only to have a -spiritual sense (though certainly not understood in such a sense by the -generality of the vulgar); I cannot entertain any doubt as to the -design of Solomon’s Song.” - -To this we cannot do better than quote the able reply of Dr. -Noyes:—“Now, as to the first of these religious love-songs of the -Mahometan dervishes, whatever slight resemblance it may have to any -part of the Canticles, it differs essentially from any of them in the -circumstance, that the Supreme Being is expressly introduced as the -object of worship. Without this essential circumstance, no one could -tell whether it were originally composed for a love-song, or a -religious hymn expressing a longing for a union of the soul with God, -according to the Sufi philosophy and religion. - -“In the second poem, quoted by Mr. Lane, it is to be regretted that he -did not quote the whole of it; for I can by no means admit the -circumstance, that it was sung by the dervishes in their morning -devotions, to be conclusive in regard to the original design of the -hymn. Mr. Lane expressly tells us, in a note, that he found the last -six lines inserted, with some slight alterations, as a common -love-song, in a portion of the ‘Thousand and One Nights,’ printed at -Calcutta, vol. i. p. 225; Lane’s translation, ii. p. 349. Whether the -whole was originally composed as a love-song or a devotional hymn, does -not appear from the parts of it which Mr. Lane gives us. If in the -parts omitted there is any clear reference to the Deity, it is unlike -any of the Canticles. If there is no such reference, the meaning of the -hymn is too doubtful to allow any inference to be drawn from it. For we -might as well allow the singing of Dr. Watts’s version of the Canticles -to be an argument for their original design, as to admit the singing of -the mystic dervishes to be an evidence of the original design of the -hymns. - -“Before making some general remarks on this whole subject of attempting -to show the character of the Canticles by reference to the pantheistic -poetry of the Mahometan Sufis, it may be well to mention that reference -has been made even to the poets of Hindostan for the same purpose; -especially to the Gitagovinda, the production of a celebrated Hindoo -poet, named Jayadeva. This appears to be a mystical poem, designed to -celebrate the loves of Crishna and Radha, or the reciprocal attraction -between the divine goodness and the human soul. Now, whatever may be -the resemblance between the Gitagovinda and Canticles in some of their -imagery, there is this essential difference, that, in the former, -Crishna was the chief incarnate god of the Hindoos, [152] and that -there are references to other gods, and to various superstitions of the -Hindoo mythology; whilst in the Canticles there is no reference to any -but human characters. Besides, the author of the Gitagovinda clearly -intimates its religious character in the conclusion of the poem. - -“We have seen, then, that there are material differences between the -Canticles and the religious love-songs to which reference has been -made. But supposing the resemblance to be much greater than it is, -those mystical songs do not in any essential respect resemble the -Canticles more than they do the odes of Anacreon, or some of the -eclogues of Virgil, and the idyls of Theocritus. And it is not easy to -see why the resemblance does not prove the religious character of the -odes of Anacreon as much as that of the Canticles. - -“But, after all, the great objection remains to any conclusion drawn -from the pantheistic mystic poets, whether of Persia or India, whether -Mahometans or Hindoos, namely, that their productions are founded on a -religion and philosophy entirely different from the Jewish. The -Canticles are productions of a different country, and separated from -any of the songs of the Sufi poets by an interval of nearly two -thousand years. The Jewish religion has nothing in common with the -pantheistic mysticism on which those songs are founded. There is -nothing in the Old Testament of a similar character. If any production -similar to those mystical love-songs had existed in the religious -literature of the Hebrews, undoubtedly we should have found some in the -Book of Psalms, which comprises compositions from the age preceding -that of David to a period long after the return of the Jews from the -captivity at Babylon. But in the most fervent Psalms, the forty-second, -for instance, nothing of the kind is found. Neither is anything similar -to those mystic songs ascribed to the Jewish sect, as described by -Josephus and Philo. Nothing of the kind is laid to the charge of the -Essenes. It is needless to say, that nothing approaching to the like -character is found in the New Testament. Nothing similar is discovered -even in the allegorical paraphrase of the Targumist on the Canticles. -All those religious love-songs are founded on the Sufi religion, or -rather religious philosophy, which, whether it was borrowed from India, -as Von Hammer supposes, or arose independently among the Mahometans, -according to the opinion of Tholuck, has no connexion with, or -resemblance to, the Jewish. It is as different from the latter as -darkness from light. The argument, therefore, which is drawn from the -mystical songs of the Mahometan devotees for ascribing a mystical -character to the Canticles, is without foundation.” [153] - - - -REASONS AGAINST THE ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION. - -1. In every allegory, or parable, employed in the Scripture, or in any -good human composition, something is wrought into its texture to -indicate most unmistakably its allegorical design; that, under the garb -of an immediate representation, is conveyed one more remote. Thus, in -the 80th Psalm, 9–17, where Israel is represented under the allegory of -a vine which came out of Egypt, the design is distinctly wrought into -the texture of the allegory. The expression, heathen (גוֹיִם), at the -very beginning of the allegory, and especially the words, “the Son whom -thou hast chosen for thyself,” (עַל בֵּן אִמַּצְתָּה לָךְ) in the second clause -of verse 15, which, when compared with “the Son of man, whom thou hast -chosen for thyself,” (עַל בֵּן אָדָם אִמַּצְתָ לָךְ) in verse 17, are evidently -explanatory of the words, “and protect what thy right hand hath -planted,” (וְכַנָּה אֲשֶׁר נָטְעָה יְמִינֶיךָ) in the first clause, clearly to show -the more remote concealed under the immediate representation. Thus, -also, in the allegory of the vineyard, and by the prophet Isaiah (chap. -v.), we are distinctly told, in verse 7, that “the vineyard of Jehovah -of hosts is the house of Israel, and the men of Judah are his pleasant -plantation.” Compare also Judges ix. 7–20; 2 Kings xiv. 9, 10; Ezek. -xvi., xxxvii. 1–14; the parables of our Saviour, Acts x. 10–17; Gal. -iv. 22–31. Now, if the author of this poem had intended it to be -understood allegorically, he would have given some indication to that -effect; especially since the allegories occasionally used in some parts -of this very book, chap. iv. 12, v. 1, vii. 7, 8, are rendered plain -and obvious. As there is, however, not the slightest intimation in the -whole of this lengthy poem that it is designed to be allegorical, we -are unwarranted to assume it. To take one portion of the Scriptures -allegorically, without even an obscure hint of it in the writing -itself, is to violate the established laws of language, and to expose -all other portions of the sacred volume to a similar treatment. If one -chooses to allegorize one part without any sanction, another may choose -to allegorize another. But we have no right to depart from the literal -and obvious meaning, without some authority for it from the inspired -writer. This argument is applicable to every allegorical -interpretation, whether historical or hieroglyphical, whether political -or metaphysical. - -2. The total silence of our Lord and his apostles respecting this book -is against its allegorical interpretation. If this Song, according to -the first and last allegorisers, “celebrates the glories of the -Messiah, and all the mercies which through him flow to the people of -God,” it is more spiritual and more evangelical than any other portion -of the Old Testament; surpassing even the writings of Isaiah, who is -called the fifth Evangelist, and is, in fact, what Origen called it, -“The Holy of Holies.” Is it possible, then, that our Saviour, and his -apostles, who, in their disputations with the Jews, so frequently -quoted the prophecies of Isaiah and other passages of the Old -Testament, far less evangelical and Messianic, would never have -referred to this book? Is it possible that the apostle Paul, who so -frequently describes the relation of Christ to the Church by the union -subsisting between husband and wife (2 Cor. xi. 2, Rom. vii. 4, Eph. v. -23–32), would be silent about a book which, more than any other in the -Old Testament, sets forth that union? The fact, therefore, that our -Saviour and his apostles never once refer to this book is against the -allegorical interpretation. - -3. Is Solomon the man from whom a production of such preeminent -spirituality and evangelical truth could have been reasonably expected? -Is there anything in his private history, his habits of thought, his -moral inclinations, or in the general tone and tendency of his -religious emotions, at any period of his life, as far as they can be -gathered from his history and writings, that would lead us to -anticipate such evangelical piety as this interpretation presupposes? -The same agreement which exists between ordinary writers and their -productions is perceptible in the inspired records. Inspiration, like -Providence, selected the fittest instruments for its work. Thus, -between the history of Moses and his writings, of David and his -writings, of Paul and his writings, of John and his writings, a natural -uniformity exists; and so of other sacred authors. Accordingly, we have -not only to suppose Solomon to have been more spiritually-minded than -any under the Jewish economy, but to have stood upon a level with the -most enlightened and Christ-loving under the present dispensation, in -order to write in such a strain. Where is any such qualification in -Solomon, even remotely intimated in any part of Scripture? The wisdom -which he asked, which he received, and for which he gained celebrity, -was that displayed in his civil government, in social and moral -teaching, of which the first-fruit was given in the decision upon the -litigation of the two mothers. The poetry which he wrote, consisting of -one thousand and five songs, upon natural history, not having been -deemed worthy of a place in the sacred canon, shows that his muse did -not indulge in a devotional strain. The Book of Ecclesiastes, which is -attributed to him by tradition, is the experience of a thorough-going -worldling and libertine, and a confession to men rather than God. The -extensive harem which he had, displays his inordinate desire for revels -and foreign women, which in old age inveigled him into the practice of -idolatry. “His wives,” as the Scriptures teach us, “turned away his -heart after other gods.” And the last we hear of him is, that “his -heart was not perfect with the Lord his God, as was the heart of his -father David.” Is this, then, the man whose love-song is to be regarded -as pre-eminently spiritual, and to be exalted as more evangelically -rapturous than any other portion of Holy Writ? To what period of his -life is this pre-eminent piety to be assigned? If to the latter, that -is the period of his greatest degeneracy; if to the former, how are we -to reconcile his apostasy with so high a degree of spirituality? It is -difficult to conceive of such a mind as that of Solomon brought at any -time into sympathy with the prevailing allegorical exposition of this -Song. Who can conceive that he who caused an irreparable breach in his -kingdom should represent himself as the Prince of Peace, or that he who -was the embodiment of the carnal propensities should describe, under -the figure of chaste love, the union of Christ and his Church? It is -inconceivable. As David was not qualified to build the temple, because -he had been a man of war, and had shed blood, so Solomon was not -qualified to write in such a spiritual strain concerning Christ and his -Church as the prevailing allegorical exposition of this Song, because -he had been a man of lust, and had turned aside to idolatry. - -4. For the same reason we cannot conceive that any other writer would -represent the Messiah as symbolized by Solomon. Is it conceivable that -he of whom the whole congregation of Israel complained to Rehoboam, -“Thy father made our yoke grievous—now, therefore, make thou the -grievous service of thy father, and his heavy yoke which he put upon -us, light,” would be chosen to represent the Saviour of the world, -“whose yoke is easy, and his burden light?” We can understand why the -painter of the Judgment Scene, among the celebrated frescoes in the -cloisters of the Campo Santo at Pisa, in Italy, in which the righteous -and the wicked are gathered in their respective positions, placed -Solomon midway between them, as an intimation of his inability to -determine to which he belonged; but we cannot understand how an -inspired writer could choose Solomon, whose lusts were displayed in the -revels of an Eastern harem, and who was seduced to practise idolatry, -to represent Him who was “holy, harmless, undefiled, and separate from -sinners,” together with the pure and holy union subsisting between him -and the Church. - -5. In the allegorical interpretation language is attributed to Christ -inconsistent with his dignity and purity. It is almost blasphemous to -suppose Christ thus to address his Church:— - - - “The circuits of thy thighs are like ornaments, - The work of a master’s hand. - Thy navel is a round goblet, - Let not spiced wine be wanted in it! - Thy growth is like a palm tree, - And thy bosom like its clusters: - I long to climb this palm tree, - I long to clasp its branches. - May thy bosom be unto me - As the cluster of the vine, - And the odour of thy breath - As that of apples.”—Chap. vii. verses 2, 3, 7, 8. - - -This is the language of seduction, but it is blasphemous when put into -the mouth of Him who spake as never man spake. - -6. The fact that three individuals are the principal persons -represented in this Song, and not two, is subversive of the allegorical -theory. That the poem speaks of three individuals, a shepherd, a -shepherdess, and a king, and that the shepherd, and not the king, is -the object of the maiden’s affections, will be evident to every -unbiassed reader of the book, and has been recognised by some of the -Rabbins of the middle ages. For the sake of avoiding repetition, we -refer the reader to the commentary, where the passages pointing out the -distinctions of persons are dwelt upon at large. - - - -THE TYPICAL INTERPRETATION. - -The defenders of this view maintain that this book records an -historical fact; that it celebrates the nuptials of Solomon with the -daughter of Pharaoh, or some other heathen princess; and that this -marriage typically represents the union of Christ with the Gentiles. - - - -REASONS AGAINST THIS NUPTIAL THEORY. - -As we concur with those who seek “nothing more than a general -resemblance” between the history recorded in this poem and the -experience of the people of God, we have merely to state here our -reasons for rejecting their view of the narrative. - -No direct mention is made in any part of this long poem of the marriage -ceremony, nor of any circumstance connected with it. The bride is -described as a shepherdess and keeper of the vineyards (chap. i. 6; ii. -15; viii. 12, &c.); as walking in the streets in the night to seek her -beloved, and as being beaten by the watchmen (iii. 1–4; v. 6, &c.); -which are incompatible with the notion that she was Pharaoh’s daughter, -or any other princess. Besides, the bridegroom is not a king, but a -shepherd; Compare chap. i. 7, ii. 8, and v. 2–4. These, and other -considerations which might have been mentioned, are entirely subversive -of this nuptial theory. - - - - - -SECTION VII.—AUTHOR, DATE, AND FORM OF THE BOOK. - -The title of this poem designates Solomon as the author, but internal -evidence is against it. The writer mentions David in such a manner as -if he were not his father (iv. 4). The words, “Solomon had a vineyard,” -(כֶּרֶם הָיָה לִשְלֹמֹה) in viii. 11, show that the author was not a -contemporary of Solomon. The subject, especially of the poem, is -decisive against Solomon’s authorship. It is impossible that he should -describe himself as having attempted to gain the espoused affections of -a country maiden, and being defeated by her virtue. The title is -evidently the addition of some other person; for the author of the book -never uses the pronoun אֲשֶׁר, but invariably employs the form שׁ; nor -would he announce his own production as “the finest or most celebrated -Song.” - -The exact date of this poem has been much disputed. The powerful and -fluent style in which it is written, the originality of the figures, -the freshness of the landscapes, the life-like descriptions of local -circumstances, the imagery drawn from the royal court of Solomon, the -horses of Pharaoh, the tower of David, the tower of Solomon, the pools -of Heshbon, show that the poem must have been written in the most -flourishing age of the Hebrew language, and about the time of Solomon. -The Aramaisms, which used formerly to be adduced in order to transfer -the book to an age after the captivity, are now rightly rejected by -modern critics as inconclusive, since almost every poetical composition -of the earliest age contains such Aramaisms. The word פַּרְדֵס (iv. 13), -to which a Persian etymology has been assigned, and which has -especially been used to show the late period of this poem, is of a -Shemitic origin. See Comment, in loco. The form, שׁ for אֲשֵׁר, is also -used in Judges v. 7, vi. 17, vii. 12, viii. 26, and דָוִיד with god in -Amos vi. 5, ix. 11, Hos. iii. 5. - -The form of the book has also been a matter of great dispute. From its -earliest age it has been regarded as one continued poem in a dramatic -form. Since the time of Richard Simon, however, who pronounced this -book, “summam confusionem, in quo vix ac ne vix quidem personas -discernere queas,” [154] it has been split by many into fragments, and -in turn been regarded as consisting of a number of eclogues, or -armorets, as an epithalamium, or nuptial song, and as a regular drama. -Having traced the unity of the poem in Section III., we need not again -show the unsoundness of the fragmentary theory, which originated from a -misunderstanding of the design of the book. It seems to approach -nearest in form to a drama. Yet we cannot think, with Ewald and others, -that it is a regular drama. The genius, character, and manners of the -Shemitic nations, their deficiency in plastic art, and their aversion -to females appearing on a public stage, seem to militate against it. - - - - - -SECTION VIII.—EXEGETICAL HELPS. - - -ANCIENT VERSIONS. - -1. The Septuagint, being the oldest version, occupies the first place; -its deviations from the Hebrew have generally been noticed in the -Commentary. - -2. The Vulgate, which chiefly follows the Septuagint. - -3. The Syriac, which is far superior to the Vulgate. - - - -JEWISH COMMENTATORS. - -4. Rashi, found in Buxtorf’s Rabbinical Bible. - -5. Rashbam, recently printed for the first time. - -6. Ibn Ezra; found in Rabbinical Bible. - -7. Immanuel, MS. in the British Museum. - -8. An Anonymous MS. Commentary in the Bodleian. - -9. Philippson, an excellent modern commentator. - - - -CHRISTIAN COMMENTATORS. - -10. Wilcock, an old writer. - -11. Bishop Lowth, Praelect. xxx., xxxi. - -12. Bishop Percy, Commentary and Annotations. - -13. Michaelis, Notes to Bishop Lowth’s Praelect. - -14. Jacobi, Das Gerettete Hohelied. - -15. Durell, Critical Remarks on Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and -Canticles. - -16. Williams, The Song of Songs. - -17. Good, The Song of Songs. - -18. Umbreit, Lied der Liebe. - -19. Ewald, Das Hohe Lied Salomonis, &c. - -20. Döpke, Philologisch-critischer Comment. - -21. Rosenmüller, Scholia in Vet. Test. - -22. Hirzel, Das Lied der Lieder. - -23. Magnus, Kritische Bearbeitung und Erklärung des Hohen Liedes. - -24. Noyes, A New Translation of the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the -Canticles. - -25. Heligstedt’s Continuation of Maurer’s Commentary, which, by an -oversight, is omitted in the Historical Sketch, deserves special -mention: Leipzig, 1847. - -26. Delitzsch, Das Hohe Lied untersucht und ausgelegt. - -27. Hengstenberg, Das Hohe Lied Salomonis. - -28. Meier, Das Hohe Lied in deutscher Uebersetzung. - -29. Friedrich, Cantici Canticorum. - -30. Hitzig, 16th Lief. des Kurzg. Exeg. Handb. - - -For a further description of the dates and places of these -commentaries, see the Historical Sketch. - - - - - - - - -THE SONG OF SONGS, -WHICH IS SOLOMON’S. - - -SECTION I. - -CHAPTERS I.–II. 7. - -The scene of this division is in the royal tent of Solomon. The -Shulamite, separated from her beloved shepherd, longs to be reunited -with him whom she prizes above all things (2, 3). She implores him to -come and rescue her; for, though brought by the king into his royal -tent, her love continues the same (4). She repels the scornful -reflection of the court ladies when they hear her soliloquy (5, 6). She -implores her lover to tell her where she may find him (7). The court -ladies ironically answer this request (8). Meanwhile the king comes in, -and tries to win her affections by flatteries and promises (9–11). This -attempt fails, and she opposes to the king’s love her unabated -attachment to her beloved shepherd (12–ii. 6). In an ecstasy she -adjures the court ladies not to attempt to persuade her to love any one -else (7). - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - Oh for a kiss of the kisses of his mouth! - For sweet are thy caresses above wine. - Sweet is the odour of thy perfumes, - Which perfume thou art, by thy name diffused abroad, - Therefore do the damsels love thee. - Oh draw me after thee! Oh let us flee together! - The king has brought me into his apartments, - But we exult and rejoice in thee, - We praise thy love more than wine, - The upright love thee. - I am swarthy, O ye daughters of Jerusalem, - As the tents of Kedar, - But comely as the pavilions of Solomon. - Disdain me not because I am dark, - For the sun hath browned me. - My mother’s sons were severe with me, - They made me keeper of their vineyards, - Though my own vineyard I never kept.— - Tell me, O thou whom my soul loveth, - Where thou feedest thy flock, - Where thou causest it to lie down at noon, - Lest I should be roaming - Among the flocks of thy companions. - - - DAUGHTERS OF JERUSALEM. - - If thou knowest not, O fairest among women, - Go in the footsteps of the flocks, - And feed thy kids - By the tents of the shepherds. - - - SOLOMON. - - To my steed in the chariot of Pharaoh - Do I compare thee, O my love. - Beautiful is thy countenance in the circlet, - Thy neck in the necklace! - A golden circlet will we make thee, - With studs of silver. - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - While the king is at his table - My nard shall diffuse its fragrance. - A bag of myrrh resting in my bosom - Is my beloved unto me. - A bunch of cypress-flowers from the garden of En-gedi - Is my beloved unto me. - - - THE SHEPHERD. - - Behold, thou art beautiful, my love; - Behold, thou art beautiful, - Thine eyes are doves. - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - Behold, thou art comely, my beloved, - Yea thou art lovely; - Yea, verdant is our couch; - Our bower is of cedar arches, - Our retreat of cypress roof: - Chap. II. I am a mere flower of the plain, - A lily of the valley. - - - THE SHEPHERD. - - As a lily among the thorns, - So is my loved one among the damsels. - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - As an apple-tree among the wild trees, - So is my beloved among the youths. - I delight to sit beneath its shade, - For delicious is its fruit to my taste. - He led me into that bower of delight, - And overshaded me with love. - Oh, strengthen me with grape-cakes, - Refresh me with apples, - For I am sick with love! - Let his left hand be under my head, - And his right hand support me! - I adjure you, O ye daughters of Jerusalem, - By the gazelles, or the hinds of the field, - Neither to excite nor to incite my affection - Till it wishes another love. - - - - - -SECTION II. - -CHAPTER II. 8–III. 5. - - -Here we have a second scene, which is also in the royal tent. The -speakers are the Shulamite and the court ladies. The Shulamite, to -account for the cause of the severity of her brothers, mentioned in ii. -6, relates that her beloved shepherd came one charming morning in the -spring to invite her to the fields (8–14); that her brothers, in order -to prevent her from going, gave her employment in the gardens (15); -that she consoled herself with the assurance that her beloved, though -separated from her at that time, would come again in the evening (16, -17); that seeing he did not come, she, under difficult circumstances, -ventured to seek him, and found him (ch. iii. 1–4). Having narrated -these events, and reiterated her ardent affection for her beloved, she -concludes as before, by adjuring the court ladies not to persuade her -to change her love. - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - Hark! my beloved! - Lo, he came - Leaping over the mountains, - Bounding over the hills. - My beloved was like a gazelle, - Or the young one of a hind. - Lo! there he stood behind our wall, - He looked through the window, - He glanced through the lattice. - My beloved spake, he spake to me, - “Arise, my love, my fair one, and come! - For lo, the winter is past, - The rain is over, is gone. - The flowers appear upon the fields, - The time of singing is come, - The cooing of the turtle-dove is heard in our land. - The fig-tree sweetens her green figs, - The vines blossom, - They diffuse fragrance; - Arise, my love, my fair one, and come! - My dove in the clefts of the rock, - In the hiding-place of the cliff, - Let me see thy countenance, - Let me hear thy voice, - For sweet is thy voice, - And thy countenance lovely.” - - - THE BROTHERS OF THE SHULAMITE. - - Catch us the foxes, the little foxes - Which destroy the vineyards, - For our vineyards are in bloom. - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - My beloved is mine, and I am his, - His who feeds his flock among the lilies. - When the day cools, - And the shadows flee away, - Return, haste, O my beloved, - Like the gazelle or the young one of the hind, - Over the mountains of separation. - Chap. III. When on my nightly couch, - I still sought him whom my soul loveth; - I sought him, but found him not. - I must arise now and go about the city, - In the streets and in the squares; - I must seek him whom my soul loveth: - I sought him, but found him not. - The watchmen who patrol the city found me: - “Have you seen him whom my soul loveth?” - Scarcely had I passed them, - When I found him whom my soul loveth; - I seized him and would not let him go - Till I brought him to the house of my mother, - Into the apartment of her who gave me birth. - I adjure you, O ye daughters of Jerusalem, - By the gazelles or the hinds of the field, - Neither to excite nor to incite my affection - Till it wishes another love. - - - - - -SECTION III. - -CHAPTERS III. 6.–V. 1. - - -The royal tent in the country is broken up, and the royal train comes -up to Jerusalem. Some of the inhabitants of the capital, as they behold -it at a distance, hold a dialogue respecting it (6–11). The shepherd, -coming up to rescue his loved one, obtains an interview with her, and -expresses his delight in her charms (ch. iv. 1–5). The Shulamite moved, -modestly interrupts his description, and tells him that she is ready to -escape with him that very evening (6). He immediately proffers his -assistance, declaring that her charms had inspired him with courage -sufficient for the occasion (7–9); he describes her charms (10, 11) and -her faithfulness (12–16). The Shulamite declares that all she possesses -shall be his (16). Some of the court ladies sympathize with them (ch. -v. 1). - - - ONE OF THE INHABITANTS OF JERUSALEM. - - What is that coming up from the country, - As in columns of smoke, - Perfumed with myrrh, with frankincense, - And all sorts of aromatics from the merchants? - - - ANOTHER. - - Lo! it is the palanquin of Solomon, - Around it are threescore valiant men - From the valiant of Israel: - All skilled in the sword, expert in war, - Each with his sword girded on his thigh - Against the nightly marauders. - - - A THIRD. - - A palanquin hath king Solomon made for himself, - Of the wood of Lebanon. - Its pillars he hath made of silver, - Its support of gold, its seat of purple, - Its interior tesselated most lovely - By the daughters of Jerusalem. - - - A FOURTH. - - Come out, ye daughters of Zion, - And behold King Solomon; - The crown with which his mother crowned him - On the day of his espousals, - On the day of his gladness of heart. - - - THE SHEPHERD, ADVANCING TO THE SHULAMITE. - - Chap. IV. Behold, thou art beautiful, my loved one, - Behold, thou art beautiful! - Thine eyes are doves behind thy veil; - Thy hair is like a flock of goats, - Springing down Mount Gilead. - Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep - Which come up from the washing-pool, - All of which are paired, - And not one among them is bereaved. - Like a braid of scarlet are thy lips, - And thy mouth is lovely: - Like a part of the pomegranate - Are thy cheeks behind thy veil; - Thy neck is like the tower of David, - Reared for the builder’s model: - A thousand shields are hung upon it, - All sorts of bucklers of the mighty. - Thy bosom like two young fawns, - Twins of a gazelle, feeding among lilies. - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - When the day cools - And the shadows flee away, - I will go to the mount of myrrh, - To the hill of frankincense. - - - THE SHEPHERD. - - Thou art all beautiful, my loved one, - And there is no blemish in thee. - With me, with me, my betrothed, - Thou shalt go from Lebanon; - Thou shalt go from the heights of Amana, - From the summit of Shenir and Hermon, - From the habitations of lions, - From the mountains of panthers. - Thou hast emboldened me, - My sister, my betrothed, - Thou hast emboldened me, - With one of thine eyes, - With one of the chains of thy neck. - How sweet is thy love, O my sister, my betrothed! - How sweet is thy love above wine! - And the fragrance of thy perfumes above all the spices! - Thy lips, O my betrothed, distil honey: - Honey and milk are under thy tongue, - And the odour of thy garments is as the smell of Lebanon. - A closed garden art thou, my sister, my betrothed, - A closed garden, a sealed fountain. - Thy shoots like a garden of pomegranates, - With precious fruits, - Cypresses and nards, - Nard and crocus, - Calamus and cinnamon, - With all sorts of frankincense trees, - Myrrh and aloes; - With all kinds of excellent aromatics, - With a garden-fountain, - A well of living waters, - And streams flowing from Lebanon. - Arise, O north wind! and come, thou south! - Blow upon my garden, - That its perfumes may flow out! - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - Let my beloved come into his garden - And eat its delicious fruits! - - - THE SHEPHERD. - - Chap. V. I am coming into my garden, my sister, my betrothed: - I am gathering my myrrh with my spices, - I am eating my honeycomb with my honey, - I am drinking my wine with my milk. - - - SOME OF THE DAUGHTERS OF JERUSALEM. - - Eat, O friends! - Drink, and drink abundantly, O beloved! - - - - - -SECTION IV. - -CHAPTER V. 2–VIII. 4. - - -The Shulamite relates to the court ladies a dream which she has had, in -which she manifests great attachment for her beloved (2–8). The court -ladies, surprised at this extraordinary enthusiasm, ask what there is -particular in his person to cause such an attachment (9). The Shulamite -then gives a description of him (10–16). Whereupon the court ladies -inquire where he is, and offer to seek him (ch. vi. 1). The Shulamite, -suspecting their intention, gives an evasive answer to their inquiry -(2, 3). The king, having heard the Shulamite’s beloved mentioned, -immediately comes forward and seeks to win her affections (4–9); in -exalting her beauty, he repeats how the court ladies had praised her -when they first saw her (10). The Shulamite, having explained how she -came to be seen by the court ladies, withdraws (11, 12.) The king calls -her back (ch. vii. 1); and, as she returns, describes her charms, and -wishes to enjoy the love of one so beautiful (2–10). The Shulamite -refuses the king’s desire, stating that her affections were espoused -(11); then addressing herself to her beloved, she asks him to go home -with her, and descants upon their rural pleasures (12–14). Remembering, -however, that circumstances even at home prevented the full -manifestation of her love, she longs for those obstacles to be removed -(ch. viii. 1, 2). Overcome by her feelings, she wishes that none but -her beloved may support her (3), and with the little strength she has -left, adjures the court ladies not to persuade her to change her love -(4). - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - I was sleeping, but my heart kept awake, - Hark! my beloved! he is knocking! - Open to me, my sister, my love! - My dove, my perfect beauty! - For my head is filled with dew, - My locks with the drops of the night. - I have put off my tunic, - How shall I put it on? - I have washed my feet, - How shall I soil them? - My beloved withdrew his hand from the door hole, - And my heart was disquieted within me. - I immediately arose to open to my beloved, - And my hands dropped with myrrh, - And my fingers with liquid myrrh, - Upon the handles of the bolt. - I opened to my beloved, - But my beloved had withdrawn, was gone! - My soul departed when he spoke of it! - I sought him, and found him not; - I called him, and he answered me not. - The watchmen who patrol the city found me: - They beat me, they wounded me; - The keepers of the walls stripped me of my veiling garment. - I adjure you, O ye daughters of Jerusalem, - If ye shall find my beloved, - What will ye tell him? - Tell him that I am sick of love. - - - DAUGHTERS OF JERUSALEM. - - What is thy beloved more than another beloved, - O thou fairest among women? - What is thy beloved, more than another beloved, - That thou thus adjurest us? - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - My beloved is white and ruddy, - Distinguished above thousands; - His head is as the finest gold, - His flowing locks are black as the raven. - His eyes, like doves in water streams, - Are bathing in milk, sitting on fulness; - His cheeks are like beds of balsam, - Elevations of aromatic plants; - His lips are like lilies distilling liquid myrrh. - His hands like golden cylinders, inlaid with chrysolite, - His body is like polished ivory, covered with sapphires. - His legs are like pillars of marble - Based upon pedestals of gold. - His aspect is like that of Lebanon. - He is distinguished as the cedars. - His voice is exquisitely sweet; - Yea, his whole person is exceedingly lovely. - Such is my beloved, such my friend, - O daughters of Jerusalem. - - - DAUGHTERS OF JERUSALEM. - - Chap. VI. Whither is thy beloved gone, - O thou fairest among women? - Whither is thy beloved turned away? - Say, that we may seek him with thee. - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - My beloved is gone down into his garden, - To the beds of aromatics, - To feed in the gardens, and to gather lilies. - I am my beloved’s, and my beloved is mine; - He who feeds his flock among the lilies. - - - SOLOMON. - - Graceful art thou, O my love, as Tirzah, - Beautiful as Jerusalem, - Awe-inspiring as bannered hosts! - Turn away thine eyes from me, - For they inspire me with awe! - Thy hair is like a flock of goats - Springing down Mount Gilead; - Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep, - Which come up from the washing-pool; - All of which are paired, - And not one among them is bereaved. - Like a part of the pomegranate - Are thy cheeks behind thy veil. - I have threescore queens, - And fourscore concubines, - And maidens without number; - But she is my only one, my dove, my perfect beauty, - She, the delight of her mother, - She, the darling of her parent! - The damsels saw her and praised her; - The queens also, and the concubines, and extolled her thus: - “Who is she that looks forth as the morn, - Beautiful as the moon, bright as the sun, - Awe-inspiring as bannered hosts?” - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - I went down into the nut-garden, - To look among the green plants by the river, - To see whether the vine was budding, - Whether the pomegranates were in bloom. - Unwittingly had my longing soul brought me - To the chariots of the companions of the prince. - - (She goes away). - - - SOLOMON. - - Chap. VII. Return, return, O Shulamite, - Return, return, that we may look at thee. - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - What will you behold in the Shulamite? - - - SOLOMON. - - Like a dance to double choirs. - How beautiful are thy feet in sandals, O noble maiden! - The circuits of thy thighs like ornaments, - The work of a master’s hands. - Thy navel is like a round goblet, - Let not spiced wine be wanted in it; - Thy body is like a heap of wheat, - Hedged round with lilies. - Thy bosom is like two young fawns, - Twins of a gazelle. - Thy neck is like an ivory tower; - Thine eyes are as the pools in Heshbon, - By the populous gate; - Thy nose is as the tower of Lebanon, - Looking towards Damascus. - Thy head upon thee as purple, - And the tresses of thy head as crimson. - The king is captivated by the ringlets: - How beautiful and how charming, - O love, in thy fascinations! - This thy growth is like a palm-tree, - And thy bosom like its clusters. - I long to climb this palm-tree, - I long to clasp its branches. - May thy bosom be unto me - As the clusters of the vine, - And the odour of thy breath - As that of apples; - And thy speech as delicious wine, - Which to my friend flows down with mellowed sweetness, - And causes slumbering lips to speak. - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - I belong to my beloved, - And it is for me to desire him. - Come, my beloved, let us go into the country, - Let us abide in the villages. - We will go early to the vineyards, - We will see whether the vine flourishes; - Whether the buds open; - Whether the pomegranates blossom; - There will I give thee my love. - The mandrakes diffuse fragrance, - And at our door are all sorts of delicious fruit, - Both new and old; - I have reserved them, O my beloved, for thee! - Chap. VIII. Oh that thou wert as my brother, - As one who had been nourished in the bosom of my mother! - If I found thee in the street I would kiss thee, - And should no more be reproached. - I would lead thee thence, - I would bring thee into the house of my mother; - Thou shouldst be my teacher, - I would cause thee to drink - Of the aromatic wine, - Of my pomegranate juice. - Let his left hand be under my head, - And his right hand support me! - I adjure you, O daughters of Jerusalem, - Neither to incite nor to excite my affection - Till it desires another love. - - - - - -SECTION V. - -CHAPTER VIII. 5–14. - - -The Shulamite, released from the palace, returns to her native place -with her beloved (5). On their way home they visit the spot where they -had been first pledged to each other; and there they renew their vows -(6, 7). On their arrival at the Shulamite’s home, her brothers are -reminded of the promise they had made to reward their sister’s virtue -(9, 10). The Shulamite mentions the greatness of her temptations, and -her victory over them (11, 12). The shepherds visit her, to whom she -declares, according to request, her unabated attachment to her beloved -shepherd (13, 14). - - - THE COMPANIONS OF THE SHEPHERD. - - Who is it that comes up from the plain, - Leaning upon her beloved? - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - Under this apple-tree I won thy heart, - Here thy mother travailed, - Here labouring she gave thee birth. - Oh, place me as a seal upon thy heart, - As a seal upon thine hand! - For love is strong as death, - Affection as inexorable as Hades. - Its flames are flames of fire, - The flames of the Eternal. - Floods cannot quench love; - Streams cannot sweep it away. - If one should offer all his wealth for love, - He would be utterly despised. - - - ONE OF THE BROTHERS OF THE SHULAMITE. - - Our sister is still young, - And is not yet marriageable. - What shall we do for our sister, - When she shall be demanded in marriage? - - - ANOTHER BROTHER. - - If she be like a wall, - We will build upon her a silver turret. - But if she be like a door, - We will enclose her with boards of cedar. - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - I am like a wall, - And my bosom is as towers! - Then I was in his eyes - As one that findeth favour. - Solomon had a vineyard in Baal-hammon; - He let out the vineyard to tenants; - Each of whom yielded for the fruit of it - A thousand shekels of silver. - I will keep my own vineyard: - Be the thousands thine, O Solomon, - And the two hundreds to the keepers of its fruit! - - - THE SHEPHERD. - - O thou that dwellest in the gardens, - My companions are listening to thy voice, - Let me hear thy voice! - - - THE SHULAMITE. - - Haste, O my beloved, - And be like the gazelle, as the young one of the hind, - Over the mountains of spices. - - - - - - - - -NOTES - - -2. Oh for a kiss, &c. That the speaker is a Shulamite shepherdess who -had been separated by king Solomon from her beloved, and that she -desires to be reunited with him, is evident from verses 4, 7, 8; vii. -1, &c. Excited by the pain of separation, the damsel wishes that her -beloved were present, that he could kiss her, for his caresses would -cheer her fainting heart more than the best of wines. Wine, either pure -or mixed (see infra, vii. 3), is often spoken of by the sacred and -profane poets as delighting the hearts of both gods and men, and -reviving their drooping spirits. (Judges ix. 13; Ps. civ. 15; Prov. -xxxi. 6; Eccl. x. 19.) Hence Helen gave a bowl of mixed wine to her -guests oppressed with grief, to raise their spirits. (Hom. Odyss. iv. -220.) Yet the Shulamite declares that she preferred the caresses of her -beloved to this highly prized cordial. - -The imperfect form יִשַּׁקֵנִי is used optatively or voluntatively, “Oh -that he would kiss me!” (Gesen. § 127, 3 b; Ewald, § 224 a); i.e. a -kiss: the subject, either in the singular (Gen. xxviii. 11, compare v. -18; Exod. vi. 25; Ps. cxxxvii. 3), or plural (Gen. xxx. 14; Exod. xvii. -5; 2 Sam. xi. 17), is to be supplied from the plural noun מִנְּשִׁיקוֹת, as -indicated by the partitive מִן. (Compare Gesen. § 154, 3 c; Ewald, § -217, b, i. b.) The singular, however, is preferable, for the Shulamite -does not wish so much for a number of kisses as for the presence of her -beloved; one would be sufficient if he could only come. We thus obtain -a phrase נָשָׁק נְשִׁיקָה, to kiss a kiss, i.e. to give a kiss; -corresponding to יָעַץ עֵצָה, to counsel a counsel, i.e. to give counsel, -2 Sam. xvi. 23; חָלָה חֳלִי, 2 Kings xiii. 14. This construction is of -frequent occurrence in Hebrew, and is also found in Greek and Latin; -(Compare νοσεῖν νόσον, pugnam pugnare; Gesen. § 138 i., Rem. 1; Ewald, -§ 281 a.) The rendering, therefore, of מִן by with (Luther, English -Version, Good, Williams, &c.) is incorrect. Ewald’s and Herxheimer’s -translation, Let one of the kisses kiss me, is both incongruous and -ungrammatical; for in the first place, it is not the kiss that kisses, -but the individual; and secondly, נְשִׁיקָה is feminine, which would -require תִּשַּׁקֵנִי, the third fem. דוֹדִים, prop. love, the abstract, -which, as in Greek and Latin, is in Hebrew frequently expressed by the -plural, (comp. חַיִּים, life, מַמְתַּקִים, sweetness, מַחִמַדִים, beauty; -vide infra, v. 16; Gesen. § 108, 2 a; Ewald, § 179 a), here -metonomically for the expressions of it—love-tokens, caresses. So Lee, -Magnus, Noyes, Fürst, Philippson, &c. This rendering is demanded by the -context, for this clause gives the cause of the statement in the -preceding one. The change from the third person יִשַּׁקֵנִי, to the second -דֹדָיךָ, or from the second to the third person, is an enallage of -frequent occurrence in sacred poetry. (Deut. xxxii. 15; Isa. i. 29; -Jer. xxii. 24; Gesen. § 137, 3, Rem. 3.) The Sept. and Vulg. have -דַּדֶּיךָ, thy breasts, instead of דֹדֶיךָ, thy caresses. That this is a -gross error is evident from the fact that a man and not a woman is here -addressed. To appeal to the catachresis in Isa. lx. 16, would be -preposterous. - -3. Sweet is the odour, &c. Ointments, like wines, were used by the -ancients as cordials (Prov. xxvii. 9), and as restoratives in -consequence of their supposed sanative properties. Hence the anointing -of the sick. (Isa. i. 6, &c.; Jer. viii. 22.) The fainting Shulamite, -therefore, mentions this second cordial. The ל in לְרֵיחַ signifies -in, as regards, quoad, and is frequently used for the sake of giving -prominence to an idea. Thus “Solomon was greater than all the kings of -the earth לְעֹשֵׁר וּלְחָכְמָה, in or as regards riches and wisdom.” (1 Kings -x. 23.) Compare also Exod. xx. 5, 6; Ewald, § 217 a. Fürst, Lexicon, -ל 5, f. The Sept. has ו instead of ל; or it may be, favours the -view of Döpke, Heiligstedt, Meier, &c., that the ל introduces the -nominative; but this requires another anomaly, viz., to refer טוֹבִים, -to the nomen rectum, instead of regens, and does not at all improve the -sense. The Syriac, Ibn Ezra, Authorized Version, Percy, Williams, -Noyes, &c., take the ל in the sense of לְמַעַן, because, and connect -it with עַל כֵּן, therefore, of the last clause; but these words are -never used together for cause and effect. Besides, this explanation, -like the former, interrupts the sense; for the fainting damsel -evidently refers here to the second restorative. Luther strangely -renders this clause, dass man deine gute Salbe rieche. Kleuker, -Rosenmüller, Ewald, Delitzsch, Philippson, &c., translate לְרֵיחַ to the -smell; but this is contrary to the usus loquendi, as רֵיחַ is never -used for the organ which inhales, but invariably means something -exhaled or emitted. Hodgson renders לְרֵיחַ, like the scent; but ל -never signifies like. The instance in Deut. xi. 18, adduced in support -of his assertion, is gratuitous, for the ל in לְטוֹטָפֹת has not that -meaning. - -Which perfume thou art, by thy name, &c. This clause is explanatory of -the preceding one, “Sweet is the odour of thy perfumes, because thou -art that perfume.” The comparison of an agreeable person to perfumes -arose from the great requisition of aromatics in the East. In warm -climates perspiration is profuse, and much care is needful to prevent -its offensiveness. Hence the use of perfumes particularly at weddings, -feasts, on visits to persons of rank (2 Sam. xii. 20; Ps. xlv. 8; Prov. -vii. 17; Amos vi. 6), and most of the occasions which bring people -together with the intention of being agreeable to one another. Hence -the pleasant odours diffused by perfumes soon became a metaphor to -express the attractions which an agreeable person throws around him -(Eccl. vii. 1), just as an offensive smell is used to express the -contrary idea. (Gen. xxxiv. 30; Exod. v. 21.) The word תּוּרַק, being -taken as the third person fem., has greatly perplexed interpreters. For -neither שֶׁמֶן, to which the Sept., Ibn Ezra, Rashbam, Immanuel, &c., -refer it, nor שֵׁם, to which it is referred by Ewald, Gesenius, &c., -ever occurs as feminine. Others, to overcome this difficulty, have -either taken תּוּרַק as a proper name (Syria. R. Tobiah) or as an -appellative (Bochart, Hieron. ii. 4, 26.) The true solution seems to be -that the word in question is not the third person feminine but the -second person masculine. So Rashi, Michaelis, Hengstenberg, &c. The -words literally translated would be, like oil art thou poured forth, -with regard to thy name. שִׁמְךָ, is the second accusative, comp. Ps. -lxxxiii. 19; Ewald, § 281, 3 c. The words שֶׁמֶן and שֵׁם form a -paranomasia. This figure, which consists of words ranged together of -similar sound, but differing in sense, is frequently used in the Old -Testament; and also occurs in the New. (Compare λιμοὶ καὶ λοιμοὶ, Luke -xxi. 11, and Acts xvii. 25.) - -Therefore do the damsels love thee. How natural for a woman, greatly -admiring, and dotingly attached to her beloved, to think that every -damsel must be enamoured of him! The most probable derivation of the -much-disputed עַלְמָה, is from עָלָה = עוּל, to come up, to grow up; -hence the Poel עוֹלֵל, a growth, a child, עֶלֶם, one growing up; with -the termination –ֶם, (Compare Alma, in Latin, from alo, ἄλδω, and -Fürst, Lexicon, מ 2 c,) and the feminine עַלְמָה, a growing damsel, -without any reference to the idea of virginity, for which בְּתוּלָה is -invariably used; Joel i. 8, not excepted. בַּעַל is here used, not to -indicate that the marriage was consummated, but because the Jews -regarded parties consecrated to each other from the very moment they -were betrothed. Hence Mary is called the wife of Joseph, and he her -husband. (Compare Matt. i. 19, 20, &c.) Other derivations assigned to -עַלְמָה, such as עָלַם = חָלַם, to be fat, full, ripe, marriageable -(Gesenius, &c.), or being excited, hence youth as being peculiarly -subject to it (Lee); or עָלַם, to hide, be concealed, unrevealed, -unknown; hence עֶלֶם and עַלְמָה, persons of a youthful age who were -destitute of the knowledge which springs from sexual intercourse -(Henderson) are exceedingly forced. Jerome’s assertion, as also -Wordsworth’s, on Matt. i. 23, that עַלְמָה, is the designation of a -virgin, because it signifies kept secret, as a virgin is under the care -of her parents, is gratuitous, for עַלְמָה, is formed from עֶלֶם, a -young man, of whom this cannot be said. - -4. Oh draw me, &c. The Shulamite wishes that her beloved should not -only come and cheer her fainting heart with the tokens of his love, but -take her away altogether. אַחֲרֶיךָ belongs to מָשְׁכֵנִי. (Compare Job xxi. -33.) So the Chaldee, Immanuel, Luther, Mendelssohn, Kleuker, Percy, -Hodgson, Ewald, Meier, Hitzig, Philippson, &c. The Septuagint renders -מָשְׁכֵנִי, by εἵλκυσάν σε, mistaking it for מְשָׁכוּךָ, and adds לְרֵיחַ -שְׁמָנֶידָ after אַחֲרֶיךָ, evidently an interpolation from the first clause -of the third verse, which the Vulgate, Percy, &c., follow. - -The king has brought me, &c. It was the king, she tells us, who brought -her into his apartments, and thus separated her from her beloved, in -whom, however, she still delights. That this is the import of this -clause is obvious from the words and connexion. The Shulamite began -with invoking her absent beloved in the third person; but no sooner had -she expressed her desire to be with him, than he is, as it were, -present to her mind, and she forthwith, dropping the third person, -addresses him in the second, and so continues to speak to him -throughout the third verse. She begins the fourth verse in the same -way, imploring her beloved, in the second person, to take her away, -telling him that “the king, ‘HE,’ has brought her into his apartments” -(mark the change from the second to the third person); and then -continues and finishes her address to her beloved in the second person. -Now we ask, do not the words הֱבִיאַנִי הַמֶּלֶךְ חֲדָרָיו, the king, “HE,” has -brought me into his apartments, placed between מָשְׁכֵנִי אַחֲרֶיךָ, do “THOU” -draw me after thee, and נָגִילָה וְנִשְׂמְחָה בָּךְ וגו׳, we exult and rejoice in -“THEE,” &c., clearly show that the king here referred to is a separate -person from the beloved to whom the maiden is addressing herself? We -venture to affirm that few readers of the original Hebrew, whose minds -are not biassed by a preconceived theory, can carefully peruse these -three verses without observing that TWO persons are here -introduced—viz. the beloved to whom, and the king of whom, the damsel -speaks. Ibn Ezra, Immanuel, the Anonymous MS. Commentary, &c., could -not help seeing this, and explained the passage, “Were even the king to -bring me into his apartments, I should rejoice and be glad in thee” -(the shepherd). The Septuagint, which is followed by the Vulgate, has -again דַּדֶּיךָ, thy breast, instead of דֹדֶיךָ, thy love; but see supra, -ver. 2. - -The upright love thee. The word מֵישָׁרִים, is explained by Rashi, -Rashbam, Döpke, De Wette, Rosenmüller, Gesenius, &c., by sincerely, -uprightly; Ibn Ezra, who is followed by Houbigant, takes it as an -adjective for wine, i.e. יַיִן הֹלֵך לְמַישָׁרִים, wine that glides down -smoothly; and Ewald, Boothroyd, Magnus, Hitzig, &c., render it -deservedly, justly. As for אֲהֵבוּךָ, it is either referred to עֲלָמוֹת, -the damsels love thee more than wine (Ibn Ezra); or is taken -impersonally, i.e. thou art sincerely or deservedly beloved. (Ewald, -Magnus, &c.) But this is against the structure of these verses. For the -second and third verses, consisting of five members, form one stanza, -finishing with the words עֲלָמוֹת אֲהֵבוּךָ; and it is evident that the -fourth verse, also consisting of five members, is of the same -structure, and that the concluding words מֵישָׁרִים אֲהֵבוּךָ, are intended -to correspond to those at the end of the first stanza. מֵישָׁרִים, -therefore, must be taken as a parallelism with עֲלָמוֹת, and means the -upright. So the Septuagint (εὐθύτης ἠγάπησέ σε, the abstract for -concrete), Symmachus, (οἱ εὐθεῖς οἱ αγαπῶντές σε,) the Vulgate (recti -diligant te), the Chaldee (צַדִּיקָיָא רְחִימוּ), English Version (margin), -Mendelssohn, Philippson, &c. מֵישָׁרִים, the upright, is designedly -chosen in preference to עֲלָמוֹת, damsels, in order to give an indirect -and gentle blow to him who had separated her from her beloved. “Thee, -the upright, and not the seduced love.” - -5. I am swarthy, &c. The court ladies, indignant at this statement, -looked with affected disdain upon the discoloured rustic girl. The -Shulamite repels these disdainful looks, for she knows that, though -swarthy, she is comely, else the king would not have noticed her. A -similar idea occurs in Theocritus (Idyl. x. 26–29), where Bambyce, -though sun-burnt, is called beautiful. - - - Βομβύκα χαρίεσσα, Σύραν καλέοντι τὸ πάντες, - Ἰσχνὰν, ἁλιόκαυστον· ἐγὼ δὲ μόνος μελίχλωρον. - Καὶ τὸ ἴον μέλαν ἐντὶ, καὶ ἁ γραπτὰ ὑάκινθος. - Ἀλλ’ ἔμπας ἐν τοῖς στεφάνοις τὰ πρᾶτα λέγονται. - - “Charming Bambyce, though some call you thin, - And blame the tawny colour of your skin; - Yet I the lustre of your beauty own, - And deem you like Hyblaean honey-brown. - The letter’d hyacinth’s of darksome hue, - And the sweet violet a sable blue; - Yet these in crowns ambrosial odours shed, - And grace fair garlands that adorn the head.” - - -Compare also Virgil, Eclog. x. 38. The comparison between the dark -complexion and the tents of the Kedareens, and between the comeliness -and the pavilions of Solomon, arose from the custom of nomades and -travellers in the East of carrying with them moveable tents, which were -temporarily pitched for the purpose of the pernoctation or protection -against meridian sun. The tents of the Kedareens, a nomadic tribe of -North Arabia (Gen. xxv. 13; Isa. xxi. 17), were and still are to this -day made of coarse cloth, obtained from the shaggy hair of their black -goats (Rosenmüller, Orient. iv. 939; Saalschütz, Archäologie der -Hebräer, Erster Theil, p. 63). Whereas, the curtains of which Solomon’s -pavilion was constructed were, most probably, very fine and beautiful. -From this passage, confirmed by chap. iii. 6, and vi. 12, we see that -this scene took place in the royal tent of Solomon, pitched in the open -air of some favourite spot to which the king resorted in the summer. It -is still the custom of Oriental potentates to go once a-year to some -attractive neighbourhood, where they erect their magnificent tents, -which serve as their temporary abodes. (Morier, Zweite Reise in -Persien, p. 223; Jaubert, Voyage, p. 334). שְׁחוֹרָה, swarthy, refers to -ﬡָהֳלֵי קֵדָר, the tents of Kedar, and נָאוָה, comely, to יְרִעוֹת שְׁלֹמֹה the -pavilion of Solomon. נָﬡוָה, a contraction of נָﬡֲוָה, from the root -נָﬡָה, is formed from the Pilel. The third radical, which this -conjugation requires to be doubled, appears in this and in two other -words, under the form וה. Compare שָׁחַה, to bow, Pilel, שָׁחֲוָה, hence -the reflexive הִשְׁתַּחֲוָה, to bow, or prostrate oneself; מְטַחֲוִים, -archers, Gen. xxi. 16; Gesen. § 75, Rem. 18; Ewald, § 121 c. יְרִעָה, -prop. a vail, a curtain of a tent, Exod. xxvi. 12, and metonomically -for the tent itself, 2 Sam. vii. 2; 1 Chron. xvii. 1, and like here, in -parallelism with אֹהֶל, Jer. iv. 20; x. 20; xi. 29. The Septuagint, -followed by the Vulgate, erroneously renders כִּירִיעוֹת שְׁלֹמֹה, ὥς δέῤῥεις -Σολομὼν, as the skins of Solomon, and Bishop Foliot refers it to the -beautiful skin of Solomon’s body, with which the Church compares -herself to set forth her comeliness. Hodgson, misunderstanding the -figure, absurdly renders כְּאָהֳלֵי קֵדָר, like the spices of Kedar, and -makes the Shulamite compare herself to the odoriferous trees and -beautiful figures in the (יְרִיעוֹת), fine tapestry. - -6. Disdain me not. In repelling these disdainful looks the Shulamite -states first that her dark complexion is adventitious, being merely -sun-burnt, and as Rashi remarks, נוח להתלבן כשיעמוד בצל, will be -white again under the protection of the shade: and secondly, how she -came to be so much exposed to the sun, and this she ascribes to the -anger of her brothers. This anger, however, as it appears from ii. -8–17, was merely a fraternal solicitude for her reputation, which -induced them to give her employment in the vineyards, in order to -prevent her meeting her beloved in the field. אַל תִּרְאוּנִי (i.q. אַל -תִּרְאֲֽינָה אֹתִי, Ewald, § 248), is well explained by the Chald., Rashi, Ibn -Ezra, Rashbam, Immanuel, &c., אלֹ תבזוני, do not disdain me. רָאָה, to -see, is also used for looking down upon any one, Job. xli. 26. Instead -of תִּרְאֻנִי, four of Kennicott’s MSS., two of De Rossi’s, and two more, -originally read תיראוני, fear me not, which is adopted by Döderlein; -but the reading of the received text is both more supported, and suits -the connexion better; for it can hardly be possible that the damsel was -actually so black as to inspire terror; or that the court ladies were -so highly nervous as to be so easily frightened. Hodgson’s rendering, -mind me not, is incorrect. The ש in שֶׁאֲנִי, stands for אֲשֶׁר, the א -being rejected by aphaeresis, and the ר assimilated; Gesen. § 36. -שְׁחַרְחֹר, blackish; adjectives denoting colour have frequently the last -two stem letters repeated to render them diminutives; as אֲדַמְדָּם, -reddish, Lev. xiii. 19; יְרַקְרַק, greenish, Lev. xiii. 49. So Rashi, Ibn -Ezra, Rashbam, Immanuel, Gesen. § 84. 23; Ewald, § 157 c. שָׁזָף, i.q. -שָׁדַף, to scorch, to burn, Gen. xxiii. 17; xli. 6. So the Syriac, -Aquila, Theodotion, Ewald, Gesenius, Meier, Hitzig, &c. The ז and ד -frequently interchange, compare גָזַע and גָדַע, to cut down; and are -even found to do so by the same inspired writer; compare נִדְעֲכוּ, Job. -vi. 17, with נִזְעֲכוּ, xvii. 1. בְּנֵי אִמִּי, not step-brothers, -(Houbigant, Ewald, Good,) who would not have such power over their -sister, but poetically used for אַחַי, my brothers. Comp. Gen. xxvii. -20; Ps. l. 20; lxix. 9. נִחָרוּ is the Niphal of חָרַר, to burn, (comp. -Ps. cii. 4; Gesen. § 6, 7, 8, Rem. 5; Ewald, § 140 a. § 193 c.), and -not from חָרָה (Kimchi, Ibn Ezra, Immanuel, &c.) which would be נֶחֱרוּ, -Is. xli. 11. - -Though my own vineyard, &c. The word כַּרְמִי, is either taken to denote -the Shulamite’s personal appearance, or to mean her beloved: and the -phrase is explained, “Through the constant watch which my brothers made -me keep over their vineyard, I could not take care of (כַּרְמִי) my -complexion; or could not attend to (כַּרְמִי) my beloved.” But it is a -hazardous mode of interpretation to take an expression in the same -verse in an ordinary and in an extraordinary sense, which ought never -to be done unless required by absolute necessity, which is not the case -here. Dr. Good indeed escapes this inconsistency by assigning a -spiritual meaning to כֶּרֶם, (viz. personal estate, one’s own person) in -both clauses; and he submits that “the bride asserts that she had been -compelled to neglect her own person, through the perpetual attention -which was demanded of her by her brothers or sisters in decorating -themselves, or in assisting in their concerns.” But apart from the -unnecessary and unjustifiable deviation from the literal meaning, this -interpretation is entirely at variance with the context. For in the -words, “They have made me keeper of their vineyards,” the Shulamite -evidently means to explain how she came to be exposed to the tanning -sun. Whereas, the supposition of her perpetual attention to the -adornment of her brothers, fails to account for the brown complexion. -If however, with Ibn Ezra, we take these words to explain the severity -of her brothers, everything will be plain and unforced. The damsel -says, “My brothers were so angry—so severe with me that, resolved to -carry out their purpose, they made me keep their vineyards, ובתחילה -קורם זה אפילו כרמי שלי לא נטרתי, a thing which I had never done -before, even to my own vineyard. It is utterly inconceivable how those -who maintain that this Song celebrates the marriage of Solomon with the -daughter of Pharaoh can reconcile it with the facts that the damsel’s -dark complexion is here described as adventitious; whereas the -Egyptians, even of the highest and most secluded classes, are naturally -dark, and that she has been made keeper of the vineyards, which would -ill agree with any prince’s daughter. כֶּרֶם is most probably derived -from כָּרָה = כּוּר, to dig, hence a garden cultivated by means of axes -and spades in contradistinction to fields worked with ploughs and -harrows. (Compare Saalschütz, Archäologie der Hebräer, vol. i. p. 119.) -For the term. –ֶם vide supra, p. 131. שֶׁלִי, i.q. אֲשֶׁר לִי is used -emphatically after כַּרִמִי, to mark the contrast, and not, as Houbigant -erroneously supposes, in the sense of בשלי, tranquillè, mine own -vineyard I kept not quietly. - -7. Tell me, O thou, &c. Having repelled the disdainful looks of the -court ladies, the Shulamite now resumes her address to her beloved; so -that this verse is intimately connected with the fourth; and verses -five and six are, as it were, parenthetical. Is it not surprising that -some can read this verse, and yet believe that the king was the object -of the damsel’s attachment, when this shows so clearly that it was a -shepherd? The violent heat of noonday compels people in the East to -desist from labour, and recline in some cool part of the house (2 Sam. -iv. 5). Shepherds especially, being more exposed to the burning rays of -the sun, lead their flocks under some shady tree near wells and -streams. (Gen. xxix. 7; Ps. xxiii.; Isa. xix. 10.) We have beautiful -descriptions of the same custom by Greeks and Romans. Thus Virgil, -Georg. iii. 331— - - - Aestibus at mediis umbrosam exquirere vallem, - Sicubi magna Jovis antiquo robore quercus - Ingentis tendat ramos, aut sicubi nigrum - Ilicibus crebris sacra nemus adcubet umbra. - - “When noon-tide flames, down cool sequester’d glades, - Lead where some giant oak the dell o’ershades, - Or where the gloom of many an ilex throws - The sacred darkness that invites repose.” - - -Compare also Theocritus, i. 14, 15: vi. 1, 16, 38, 39. אֵיכָה prop. -how, but also of place, where, 2 Kings xvi. 13. Twenty-eight MSS. of -Kenn. and De Rossi, read וְאֵיכָה, but this weakens the sentence. We -must supply צֹאנְךָ after תִּרְעֶה, and –ם after תַּרְבִּיץ, see Ezek. -xxxiv. 15. Immanuel accounts for the dual, צָהֳרַיִם, because שזה השם -נופל לא על חצות היום בלבד אלא גם על חלק מהיום קרוב לחצות וחלק מהיום מעט -אחר חצות, it speaks of that part of the day immediately preceding noon -as well as of that part which immediately follows noon. שֶׁלָמָה, i.q. -אֲשֶׁר לָמָה, Dan. i. 10, ut ne, well rendered by the Sept. μήποτε, Vulg. -ne. אֲשֶׁר is used as a conjunction, the ל to express design, or -purpose, and מָה for negation, Ewald, § 337, 6. כְּעֹטְיָה has caused -much perplexity to interpreters. It is explained to mean like one -veiled (ὡς περιβαλλομένη, Sept.), as a sign of mourning (Rashi, compare -2 Sam. xv. 30; xix. 5); of harlotry (Rosenmüller, comp. xxviii. 5); of -shame (Umbreit, Hengstenberg, comp. Jer. xiv. 3; Mal. iii. 7); and of -wandering or roaming (Philippson, comp. Jer. xliii. 12). But wherever -covering is used to signify mourning or shame, the part of the body -usually covered, in order to indicate the existence of the emotion, is -invariably stated. Equally untenable is the rendering of harlot; for -Tamar covered her face, not as a sign that she was a prostitute, but to -disguise herself, so that she might not be recognised, and Judah took -her to be a harlot because she sat by the way side, Comp. Jer. iii. 2. -Ewald renders it like one unknown; but this, to say the least, is -remote from the context; Gesenius, like one fainting; but this incurs -the same objection. The explanation of Philippson would have been the -most plausible, if Rashbam and the anonymous MS. had not shown that -עָטַה itself means to roam, to wander, by referring to Isa. xxii. 17, -where, according to its parallel, טוּל, to cast down, it must signify -to roll about. This meaning bests suits the context here, and is -confirmed by Symach., Vulg., Syriac, Chald. - -8. If thou knowest not. The court ladies, hearing the rustic girl say -that she wished to be with her shepherd, tell her ironically to go, and -be employed in the low and toilsome occupation of a shepherdess, rather -than enjoy the exalted and easy life of a royal favourite. Some have -put this answer into the mouth of the beloved; but it is evident from -v. 9, and vi. 1, the only two places where the appellation “fairest of -women” occurs, that it is the reply of the court ladies, which even -Döpke, Good and Noyes, the defenders of the fragmentary theory, admit. -Nothing can be more plain and incontrovertible than the statement in -this verse, that the damsel is a shepherdess, and the beloved a -shepherd, whom, she is told, she would find among his fellow-shepherds. -It is for those who maintain the theory that this Song celebrates the -marriage of Solomon with the daughter of Pharaoh, or some other -prince’s daughter, to get over this fact. לֹא יָדָע is unnecessarily and -incorrectly rendered by Ewald, Meier, Hitzig, &c., unwise. The Sept., -which is followed by Luther, mistaking the usage of לָדְ, translates -this clause ἐὰν μὴ γνῷν σεαυτήν, as if the original were אִם לֹא תֵדְעִי אֶת -נִפְשֶׁךָ. The prepo. בּ in בַּנָּשִׁים gives to הַיָּפָה the force of the -superlative. Besides the several modes of expressing the superlative -adduced by Gesenius, § 119, 2, this degree is sometimes also expressed -by the positive and the prepo. ב prefixed to the noun designating the -class to which the person or thing compared belongs: thus אַלְפִי הַדַּל -בִּמְנַשֶׁה, my family is the weakest in Manasseh, Judg. xvi. 5; Prov. xxx. -30, comp. also εὐλογημένη συ ἐν γυναιξίν, thou art the most blessed of -women, Luke i. 28, Ewald, § 313 c. - -9. To my steed, &c. The court-ladies having turned from her and told -her to go back to her menial employment, her severest trial begins. The -king, having watched his opportunity, enters at that moment, and thus -begins his flattering address. He first praises her beauty and -gracefulness by comparing her to his stately and noble chariot steed. -The anonymous MS. commentary rightly remarks, מוסב למעל שאמרה שחורה -אנו והוא אמר לה דמיתיך לסוסתי ברכבי פרעה שהם שחורים וסוס השחור יפה הוא -יותר משאר סוסים, that this simile was suggested by the reference which -the damsel has made in the preceding verse to her dark complexion. The -king, therefore, compares her to his noble steed, whose dark colour -renders it more beautiful than the other horses. Such a comparison must -have been very striking and flattering in the East, where this animal -was so much celebrated for its preeminent beauty. “A young chestnut -mare,” says Layard, Nineveh, i. 91, “belonging to the sheik, was one of -the most beautiful creatures I ever beheld. As she struggled to free -herself from the spear to which she was tied, she showed the lightness -and elegance of the gazelle. Her limbs were in perfect symmetry; her -ears long, slender, and transparent; her nostrils high, dilated and -deep red, her neck gracefully arched; and her mane and texture of -silk.... No one can look at the horses of the early Assyrian sculptures -without being convinced that they were drawn from the finest models.” -Compare also the exquisite and inimitable description of this noble -animal in Job xxxix. 19, &c. and Rosenmüller, Orient. iv. 941. The same -comparison is used by the Greek and Roman poets. Thus Theocritus, Idyl. -xviii. 30, 31:— - - - ἢ κάπῳ κυπάρισσος ἢ ἅρματι Θεσσαλὸς ἵππος, - ὧδε καὶ ἁ ῥοδόχρως Ἑλένα Λακεδαίμονι κόσμος. - - “As towers the cypress mid the garden’s bloom, - As in the chariot proud Thessalian steed, - Thus graceful rose-complexion’d Helen moves.” - - -Compare also Horace, Ode iii. 11. This shows the futility both of those -who affirm that the strangeness of the simile is against the literal -meaning of this Song, and of those who accuse the writer of -uncouthness. Besides, is this comparison more strange or uncouth than -that of a man with a bony ass? (Gen. xlix. 14.) Mark also the other -comparison used in the same chapter, such as of an ox, serpent, &c. -סוּסָה is not equitatus, (Vulg. Rashi, Rashbam, English Version,) but -as Ibn Ezra and Immanuel rightly remark, נקבת סוס, mare, the regular -feminine of סוּס. The –ִי in לְסוּסָתִי is the suffix of the first -person, as the ancient versions have it; and refers to a well-known and -celebrated mare which Solomon possessed and highly prized, and which he -always put into one of Pharaoh’s chariots. בְּרִכְבֵי פַרְעֹה, one of -Pharaoh’s chariots, like בְּעָרֵי גִלְעָד, one of the cities of Gilead. -Judg. xii. 7. - -10, 11. Beautiful is thy countenance, &c. The flattering praises are -followed by enticing promises. “Thou art indeed beautiful,” says the -tempting king, “even in humble ornaments, but thou shalt have more -costly adornments, which will show off thy beauty to greater -advantage.” The mention of the noble steed which was adorned with -costly trappings, contributing so much to its stately and elegant -appearance, naturally suggested the reference here made to the damsel’s -ornaments. The reader will not fail to observe that it is not the -shepherd, but the king who is speaking in verses 9–11. The poor -shepherd had no prancing steed, no Egyptian chariots; he could not -promise the shepherdess such costly ornaments as are here described. -תּוֹרים (from תּוּר, to go round, hence תּוֹר, something round, a -circle, Esth. ii. 12, 15,) small rings or beads strung upon threads, -worn as a head-dress. It is customary in the East for women to wear -strings of beads hanging down from the temples over the cheeks. -Rosenmüller, Orient. iv. 942. Niebuhr, Reise nach Arab. i. 163. -לְחָיַיִם, cheeks (dual of לְחִי), by a synecdoche for the whole face. -חֲרוּזִים (from חָרַז, to pierce, to perforate), little perforated -balls, or beads strung upon a thread and worn around the neck; i.q. a -necklace. תּוֹרִים and חֲרוּזִים are plurals, because the circlet and -necklace consisted of many composite parts. Whether the circlet was of -gold or brass, or whether the necklace consisted of real pearls, -corals, or steel, the etymology of the words does not at all intimate. -The context alone must decide this. The fact that the Shulamite was a -humble rustic girl, and that Solomon promises to present to her a -golden circlet with silver studs, proves that they were of a common -description. This is another proof that the bride was not a prince’s -daughter; since her ornaments were not even of gold or silver, -notwithstanding the impassionate desire of Eastern ladies for costly -adornments. The Sept. and Vulg. have ὡς τρυγόνες, i.e. “thy neck is as -beautiful as doves, כַּתּוֹרִים; they have also כַּחֲרוּזִים, like a -necklace; but they have evidently mistaken the ב for כ, as well as -the meaning of תּוֹר. - -12. While the king is at his table. Here we see how signally the first -attempt of Solomon failed to win the affections of the Shulamite. For -no sooner did he go to his repast than the damsel indulges in sweet -expressions of love with her beloved shepherd. Two distinct persons are -here spoken of; the king at the table, and a beloved shepherd, called -“nard.” That by the expression נִרְדִי, my nard, the Shulamite means her -beloved is evident from the following verse, where, led on by the -figure of this odorous plant, she continues to call him by the fragrant -names, “bag of myrrh,” “bunch of cypress flowers,” &c. עַד שֶׁ, as long -as, while, Sept. ἕως, Vulg. dum. מֵסַב (from סָבַב to sit round a -table, to recline. 1 Sam. xvi. 11, comp. Sept., Chald., Syriac, Arabic, -Vulg. in loco,) seats set round, couches set in a circle, for reclining -at the repast, according to the Oriental custom, (see Rosenmüller, -Orient. iii. 631;) so the Sept. ἀνάκλισις. Vulg. accubitus, Rashbam, -בהסיבות אכילות המשתה, in the couch at the partaking of the repast; -and comp. Ps. cxxviii. 3. The reading of במסכו, in aulaeo, tentorio, -instead of במסבו, proposed by Houbigant, is both needless and -unauthorized. נֵרְדְּ, spikenard or nard, νάρδος, is the Valeriana -Jatamansi, a plant peculiar to Hither India. It was obtained from India -by way of Arabia and Southern Asia. The perfume extracted from it was -highly prized. Thus we are told (Mark xiv. 31), when the Saviour sat at -meat in Bethany, “there came a woman having an alabaster box of -ointment of spikenard very precious, and she broke the box, and poured -it upon his head,” (comp. also John xii. 31,) which Judas, the -betrayer, estimated at three hundred pence, about eight pounds ten -shillings. The Romans considered this perfume so precious that Horace -promises Virgil a whole cadus, about nine gallons, of wine for a small -onyx-box full of spikenard. See Pliny, Hist. Nat. xiii. 2; Sir W. -Jones, Asiatic Researches, vol. ii. p. 416; Rosenmüller, Mineralogy and -Botany of the Bible, p. 166; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit.; Winer, Bib. -Dict. s.v. - -13. A bag of myrrh, &c. This appellation is a continuation of the -figurative expression “nard,” under which the Shulamite described her -beloved in the preceding verse. The Hebrew women were in the habit of -wearing little bags or bottles filled with perfumes, especially with -myrrh, suspended from the neck, and hanging down between their breasts, -under the dress. Comp. Mishna, Sabbath vi. 3; Schroeder de Vestit. -Mulier. p. 155; Hartmann, Hebr. ii. 235. The Shulamite says that her -beloved is to her what this delightful perfume is to others; having him -she did not require any other fragrance. צְרֹר (from צָרַר, to tie up, -to close), is a leather smelling-bag or bottle, i.q. בֵּית נֶפֶשׁ, tied -up, or closed at the top. מֹר, σμύρνα, μύῤῥα, Balsamodendron myrrha, -(from מָרַר, to flow,) myrrh, so called from its flowing down, is a -perfume obtained from a shrub growing in Arabia, and much more -profusely in Abyssinia. It formed an article of earliest commerce, was -highly prized by the ancients, and is still much esteemed both in the -East and in Europe. This aromatic liquid either exudes spontaneously -from cracks in the bark, and is called מוֹר עֹבֵר, מוֹר דְרוֹר, -stilicidious or profluent myrrh (vide infra, v. 5; Exod. xxx. 23), and -on that account is esteemed superior; or is elicited artificially by -bruises or incisions made with stones, and is therefore regarded as -inferior. It was used for incense (Exod. xxx. 23), for perfuming -dresses (Ps. xlv. 9), and couches (Prov. vii. 17), for the purification -of women (Esth. ii. 12), for embalming dead bodies (John xix. 39), and -was worn by women in the bosom. See Pliny, lib. xii. cap. 35; -Rosenmüller, Altherth. iv. 1, 159; Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. -Bib. Lit. s.v. בֵּן שָׁדַי יָלִין is a relative clause, with אֲשֶׁר implied -(See Gesen. § 123, 3; Ewald, § 332), and refers to צְרֹר הַמֹּר. This is -evident from בְּכַרְמֵי עֵין נֶּדִי, which refers to אֶשְׁכֹּל הַכֹּפֶר; comp. also -iv. 4. The verb לוּן is not here, “lie all night,” but to abide, to -rest, like Job xix. 4, אִתִּי תָלִין מְשׁוּגָתִי, where even the Authorized -Version has “mine error remaineth with myself.” Ps. xlix. 13. - -14. A bunch of cypress flowers, &c. כֹּפֶר is unanimously regarded by -the ancient versions and the Rabbins to denote the plant called κύπρος -by the Greek, and Al-henna by the Arabs. This plant, which grows in -many places, both in Palestine and Egypt, (Plin. Hist. Nat. xii. 24,) -is a tall shrub, growing from the height of eight to ten feet; it is -exceedingly beautiful and odoriferous. “The dark colour of its bark, -the light green of its foliage, the softened mixture of white and -yellow, with which the flowers, collected into long clusters like the -lilac, are coloured, the red tint of the ramifications which support -them,—form a combination the effect of which is highly agreeable. The -flowers, whose shades are so delicate, diffuse around the most grateful -odours, and embalm with their strong fragrance the gardens in which -they grow, and the apartments which they beautify.... The women take -pleasure in adorning their persons and apartments with those delightful -blossoms.” See Pliny, lib. xii. c. 14; Rosenmüller, Bib. Miner. and -Bot.; Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v. The flowers grow -in dense clusters, whence אֶשְׁכֹּל הַכֹּפֶר, cluster of cypress flowers. -En-gedi, more anciently called Hazezon-Tamar, which modern explorers -identify with the present Ain-Jidy, abounded with the best of those -delightful shrubs, (Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v.; -Robinson, Palest, ii. 209–216.) Hence this beautiful appellation, “a -bunch of cypress flowers,” than which nothing could be more expressive -of sweetness and beauty to an Oriental. The word אֶשְׁכֹּל is most -probably derived from אָשַׁךְ, to bind, to twine together; hence אֶשֶׁךְ, a -bundle, a string, with the addition of –ֹל like גִבְעֹל, חַרְגֹּל, Gesen. -§ 30, 3; Ewald, § 163 f. This is confirmed by the Talm. אַשְׁכּוֹלֶת, -disciples, (Sota 47, a), i.e. a combination of youths; comp. חֶבֶר, and -Fürst, Lexicon, s.v. כֶּרֶם here is a field cultivated as a garden; -comp. כֶּרֶם זָיִת, an olive-yard. Judg. xv. 5; Job xxiv. 18, and supra, -ver. 6. - -15. Behold, thou art beautiful. That is, “It is not I who possess such -attraction, it is thou who art beautiful, yea superlatively beautiful!” -The repetition of הִנָךְ יָפָה enhances the idea. “Thine eyes are doves,” -i.e. “Thine eyes, in which ‘the rapt soul is sitting,’ beams forth the -purity and constancy of the dove.” As the eye is the inlet of ideas to -the mind, so it is also the outlet of inward feelings. Thus it -expresses many of the passions, such as pity, mildness, humility, -anger, envy, pride, &c.; hence the phrases עַין טוֹב (which we also -have), to look with an eye of compassion, Prov. xxii. 9; עַיִן רַע, -ὀφθαλμὸς πονηρὸς, an evil eye, Deut. xv. 9, Mark vii. 22. The dove is -the emblem of purity and constancy. Ps. lvi. 1; Matt. x. 16. עֵינַיִךְ -יוֹנִים are taken by the Syriac, Vulg., Ibn Ezra, Rashbam, Immanuel, -Luther, Authorized Version, Kleuker, Percy, Gesenius, Döpke, -Rosenmüller, Meier, &c. as an ellipsis for עֵינֶיךָ עֵינֵי יוֹנִים, thine -eyes are doves’ eyes. Gesen. § 144, Rem. Ewald, § 296, b. But such an -ellipsis can be tolerated only in extreme emergencies, whereas here the -natural construction yields an excellent sense. Besides, v. 2 proves -that the doves themselves, and not the eyes, are the point of -comparison, just as the hair and the teeth are (iv. 1, 2) compared to -the goats and sheep themselves, and not merely to their hair and teeth. -And עֵינַיִךְ בְרֵכוֹת (vii. 4), which does not mean, thou hast fish-ponds -eyes, but, thine eyes are like the fish-ponds themselves. Hence the -Sept., Chald., Rashi, Mendelssohn, Hodgson, Ewald, Umbreit, Magnus, -Williams, Hengstenberg, Philippson, Hitzig, rightly reject this -elliptical construction. - -16. Behold, thou art comely. The Shulamite, refusing to receive all the -praise, responds: “It is thou who art lovely and attractive;” and -referring to their meeting-spot, she adds, “Lovely is our flowery -couch; the arches of our bowers are formed of the spreading and -interweaving branches of the majestic and odoriferous cedars and -cypresses.” נָעִים is to be mentally supplied before עַרְשֵׂנוּ רַעֲנָנָה; -comp. Prov. iii. 11, i.e. Yea, lovely is our verdant couch. The adj. -רַעֲנָנָה is formed from the Pilel of the verb רָעַן. This conjugation, -which is formed by doubling the third radical (see supra, 5), is used -to describe permanent states or conditions, or some striking property; -comp. Job xii. 5; Gesen. § 55, 2; Ewald, § 120 a. קוֹרָה, beam, roof -(Gen. xix. 8), here arch, vault. רָהִיט, i.q. רָחִיט in the כְּתִיך (the -ה is sometimes pronounced harshly like the ח, comp. רָהִיט, Exod. -ii. 16, where the Samaritan has רָחִיט, and Gesen. § 7, 4), is rendered -by the Sept., Vulg., Ewald, Gesenius, &c. fretted ceilings; by Kimchi -galleries; and the anonymous manuscript explains it bolt, and adds, -והנה נקרא רהיט לפי שרץ הנה והנה, “it is called bolt because it runs -backward and forward.” But this is not in keeping with the structure of -the verse. רָהִיטֵנוּ stands evidently in parallelism with בָּתֵּינוּ, and -accordingly is of a similar import. Rashbam has therefore rightly -rendered it אחד מבניני הבית, one of the apartments of the house. As -however the house here described is a bower, רָהִיט would be an arbour. -The etymology of the word is in keeping with this sense. רָהָט, i.q. -רְהַט = רוּץ, to run, to flow, hence רַהַט, 1. a gutter, from the -water running down, Gen. xxx. 38; 2. a curl, from its flowing down -(vide infra, vii. 6), and 3. רָהִיט, a place upon which one runs, a -charming spot much frequented; just like שׁוּק, a place where people -run, a street, from שׁוּק, to run. It is now pretty generally agreed -that בְּרוֹת, the Aram. for בְּרוֹשׁ, is not the fir, but the cypress. It -is quite natural that this lofty tree, which grows to a height of from -fifty to sixty feet, of so hard and durable a nature, and so highly -esteemed among the ancients, (Virg. Georg. ii. 443,) should be placed -together with the majestic cedar. Comp. Sirach, xxiv. 13; Virg. Georg. -ii. 44; Winer, Bib. Dict.; Rosenmüller, Bib. Miner. and Bot. p. 260; -Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v. - -1. I am a mere flower of the plain. “As for me,” the Shulamite modestly -insinuates, “my beauty is not peculiar, but is of an ordinary -character, like these flowers which are found in great profusion in the -plain and in the valley. The word חֲבַצֶלֶת, which occurs only once more -(Isa. xxxv. 1), is variously explained. The ancient versions vary in -their rendering of it. Thus the Sept. and Vulg. have here ἄνθος, flos, -flower; the Chald., נַרְקוֹם, narcissus; so Saadias: whereas in Isa. the -Sept., Vulg., Chald., render it lily. Modern critics are no less -divided. Kimchi, Ibn Ezra, &c., explain it rose; Michaelis, Ewald, -Gesenius, Döpke, Henderson, Meier, &c., take it to be autumn crocus, -colchicum autumnale; De Wette, Rosenmüller, Royle, Winer, &c., -narcissus; Professor Lee, lily. The etymology of the word is likewise -disputed. Some derive it from בָּצַל, a bulb, with ח prefixed, as ח -like א is sometimes put before triliterals, in order to form a -quadriliteral, (Gesenius, Lehrg. p. 863, Rosenmüller, Henderson, -Hengstenberg, &c.,) and others take it as a compound of חָבַץ and -בָּצַל, acrid bulb. (Ewald, Heiligstedt, &c.) The most probable -derivation, however, seems to be חָבַץ = חָמַץ, to be bright, to shine; -hence חֲבַצֶל (with the termination –ֶל like כַּרְמֶל, עֲרָפֶל), a flower; -as most verbs which signify shining are used also to denote verdure and -bloom. Compare נִצָן, a flower, from נָצַץ, to shine; and Simonis -Arcanum Formarum, p. 352. The word שָׁרוֹן (for יְשָרֹוֹן, like סוֹר for -יְסוֹר, from יָשַׁר, to be straight, plain, with the termination –וֹן, -comp. Gesen. § 84, 15), is here best translated a plain, or field; so -the Sept., Vulg., Percy, &c. render חֲבַצֶלֶת הַשָּׁרוֹן, a flower of the -field; and this admirably suits the שׁוֹשַׁנַּת הָעֲמָקִים, lily of the -valley—a flower common in the valley. - -2. As a lily among the thorns. Beautifully and ingeniously does the -shepherd take up this humble figure of the Shulamite, and, by a happy -turn, make it symbolical of her surpassing beauty. “It is true, that -thou art a lily, but as a lily surrounded by a multitude of brambles; -so thou appearest among all the damsels.” The expressions בֵּן and בַּת -are not merely used for son and daughter, but also, idiomatically, -denote lad and lass, youth and damsel. Gen. xxx. 13; Judg. xii. 9; -Prov. vii. 7. - -3. As an apple-tree, &c. The Shulamite returns the compliment: “As the -charming apple-tree, covered with beautifully tinged and sweetly -smelling fruit, appears amidst the wild and barren trees, so doest -thou, my beloved, look among the youths. I delight,” continues the -Shulamite, “to repose beneath the shady tree, because of its charming -fruit.” The comparison between the delight which she had in the company -of her beloved, and the agreeable enjoyment which a shady tree affords, -will especially be appreciated by those who have travelled in the East, -and had the opportunity of exchanging, in the heat of the day, their -close tents for an airy and fragrant bower. Comp. Gen. xviii. 4, 8; 1 -Sam. xxii. 6; Rosenm. Morgenl. i. 49; iii. 528. תַּפוּחַ is taken by the -Chald. for אָתְרוּנָא, citron; by Rosenmüller and others, for quince. The -expression occurs only six times in the Scriptures; four times in this -book (besides the present instance, see also ii. 5; vii. 9; viii. 5); -once in Prov. xxv. 11; and once in Joel i. 12. It is used in three -passages out of the six for the tree itself, and in the other three for -its fruit. But in all these places the common apple-tree or apple is -quite in keeping with the context, and the etymology of the word, viz., -נָפַח, to breathe, to breathe sweetly; hence תַּפּוּחַ, from its fragrant -breath, is an appropriate description of the common apple in Syria -(Ovid. Met. viii. 675), and, indeed, in all other countries. It is -evident from proper names (Josh. xii. 17; xvi. 8), that this tree was -much cultivated in Palestine at a very early period. In the Talmud we -frequently meet תַּפוּחַ, used to denote the common apple. It is worthy -of notice that the shepherd calls his beloved שׁוֹשָׁנָה, fem., whilst she -calls him תַּפּוּחַ, mas. The second verb וְיָשַׁבְתִּי is subordinated to the -חִמַּדְתִּי, by means of the ו and the two words are well rendered by the -Chald. רְגִינַת לְמֵיתַב, I delight to sit; comp. אֵיכָכָה אוּכָל וְרָאִיתִי, how -shall I endure and witness, for how shall I endure to witness, Esth. -viii. 6. This subordination also occurs without the ו; comp. infra, -vii. 8; viii. 2; Job x. 16; xix. 3; Gesen. § 142, 3 a, b; Ewald, § 285. - -4. He led me, &c. Having represented her beloved, in the preceding -verse, as a tree, forming with its widely-spread branches and rich -foliage a shady bower, in which she delighted to repose and enjoy its -delicious fruit, the Shulamite here narrates, in the same metaphorical -language, how he took her into that bower of delight, that arbour of -love. The words בֵּית הַיָּיִן mean bower of delight, wine being frequently -used in this book for delight; and are but a designation of the -manifestations of love denoted in the preceding verse by תַּפוּחַ, -delicious apple-tree. So also the word דֶגֶל, from דָּגַל, to cover, -retaining here its primary meaning, cover, shade, corresponds to צֵל, -shade, in the last verse. The Sept., Sym., Syriac, Arab., which are -followed by many moderns, read הֲבִיאֻנִי, and דִגְלוּ, bring me, and -cover me, imper., arising most likely from a wish to produce uniformity -in this and the following verses. - -5. Oh, strengthen me, &c. The rehearsal of their past union and -enjoyment kindled the Shulamite’s affections, and made her wish again -for that delicious fruit, i.e. the tokens of his love. The cakes here -mentioned were held in high estimation in the East; here, however, both -the cakes and the apples are to be taken figuratively as expressions of -love. This is obvious from the preceding verse, and from the words, -“for I am sick with love,” for no real cake or apple could cure a heart -suffering from this complaint. אֲשִׁישָׁה (from אָשָׁשׁ, to burn, to fire; -hence אֵשׁ, fire, like אֵם, mother, from אָמַם, to join, to unite), -something made by fire, a sort of sweet cake prepared with fire, and is -most probably the same which in Hos. iii. 1 is written more fully -אֲשִׁישֵׁי עֲנַבִים, grape-cakes. The meaning, cake, is retained in the Sept. -in all the passages (except Isa. xvi. 7, where the Sept. reads אֲנְשֵׁי, -instead of אֲשִׁישֵׁי, see the parallel place, Jer. xlviii. 31), where -this word occurs. Thus λάγανον ἀπὸ τηγάνου, a cake from the frying-pan, -2 Sam. vi. 19; and in the parallel passage, 1 Chron. xvi. 3, ἀμορίτης, -a sweet cake; in Hos. iii. 1, πέμμα, a baked cake; and ἀμόραις, sweet -cakes, in the passage before us. This meaning is supported by the -Chald. on Exod. xvi. 31, where אֲשִׁישְׁיָן is used for the Hebrew -צַפִּיחִית, and Mishna Nedarim, vi. 10. Gesenius, Hitzig, Henderson, -Fürst, &c., derive it from אָשַׁשׁ, to press, to compress, whence, they -say, אֲשִׁישָׁה, a cake made of dried grapes pressed together, and אֲשִׁישׁ, -a foundation (Isa. xvi. 7), which is pressed down by treading on it. -But as the transition from cake to foundation is not so easily -conceived, and especially as the meaning to press, attached to אָשׁשׁ, -is nowhere to be found in Hebrew (the word in Isa. xvi. 7 is to be -translated cake, see Hengstenberg, Christ. i. p. 315), it is far better -to derive this word as above from אָשַׁשׁ, to burn. The Rabbinical -explanation, נִרְבָא דְחַמְרָא, flagons of wine, which the Authorized -Version follows, is not borne out by the etymology, nor does it suit -the passages in which this word occurs, and is therefore rightly -abandoned by modern lexicographers. The rendering of Hodgson, “Support -me with cups, around me strew apples;” and that of Michaelis, “Support -me with verdant herbs, spread fragrant fruits under me,” are contrary -to the meaning of the words. - -6. Let his right hand, &c. The pressure of the attempts to alienate her -affections from him whom her soul loveth, and the burning desire to be -re-united with him, though well sustained by her noble mind, yet -overcame her body; and whilst momentarily sinking beneath the weight, -the Shulamite desires that no other hand should raise her drooping -head, no other arm support her exhausted frame than that of her -beloved. This verse is to be taken in the optative mood. Comp. Ps. vii. -9; xlv. 2; Ewald, § 329 a. - -7. I adjure you, &c. Having evinced her warm and undiminished -attachment to her beloved shepherd, the Shulamite adjures the court -ladies, who, as we have seen, tried to gain her affections for the -king, by everything dear and lovely, not to excite her love for anyone -else till her own (אהבה) affections wish (דוד אחר) for another -object. The gazelle, צְבִי, so called from the beauty of its form, is -an animal of the antelope kind, of very graceful and elegant figure, -has very slender limbs, large and soft eyes. The great admiration in -which this animal was held in the East, made the Hebrews use it as an -emblem of everything beautiful (Prov. v. 19); and from its being -charming and lovely, it also became an object by which to swear. Such -adjurations are frequently used in the East. Comp. Reland, de Religio -Mah. ii. p. 164: Rosenmüller, Orient. i. 146; v. 22. Dio, in the Æneid, -lib. iv. 314; Bochart, Hieroz. i. p. 899. אֶתְכֶם, mas., for אֶתְכֶן, -fem. Both masculine pronouns and verbs are sometimes used in reference -to objects which are feminine. See Gesenius, § 121, Rem. i. § 137, 1; -Ewald, § 184 c. אִם, after formulæ of swearing, has the effect of a -negative particle (Isa. xxii. 14; Prov. xxvii. 14). This is owing to a -part of the oath being omitted. Comp. 2 Sam. iii. 35; Gesen. § 155, 2 -f.; Ewald, § 356 a. עוּר, here, is not to arouse, to wake from sleep -(Gesen.), but to rouse, to excite the passions, affections; thus הֵעִיר -קַנְאָה, he will arouse his zeal, Isa. xlii. 13; Prov. x. 12. The -repetition of the same verb in the Hiphil and Piel expresses intensity, -Isa. xxix. 9; Zeph. ii. 1. אַהֲבָה is the abstract, love, affection, -iii. 10; vii. 7. After שֶׁתֶּחְפָּץ supply דוֹד אֲחַר. Similarly, Rashbam. -The Sept. strangely renders בִּצְבָאוֹת אוֹ בְּאַילוֹת הַשָּׂדֶה, ἐν δυνάμεσι καὶ -ἰσχύσεσι τοῦ ἀγροῦ, by the powers and virtues of the field. Thus in -this scene, the first attempts, both on the part of the king and the -court ladies, to win the Shulamite’s affections, signally failed. The -same formula re-occurs iii. 5, and viii. 4, to mark, at the end of the -trials, her successful resistance. - -8. Hark! my beloved! Having alluded in the preceding Section (i. 6) to -the ill-treatment which she had received from her brothers, the -Shulamite now relates the cause of that treatment. Thus whilst this -narrative forms the connecting link between this and the preceding -Section, it also gradually acquaints us with her history. The -description given of the arrival and conduct of her beloved is very -graphic and beautiful. She first sees him at a distance, bounding over -the hills with the speed of the swift-footed gazelle, and presently he -is found behind the wall, peeping through the window, and imploring her -in the sweetest language imaginable to go with him into the fields and -enjoy the beauties and charms of nature. קוֹל is not קוֹל רַגְלָיו, the -sound of his feet (Ibn Ezra, Hitzig), which could not be heard at such -a distance from the mountains; nor the voice of his song (Döpke, -Philippson), for he could not very well sing when running at such a -speed as here described; but simply means hark! (Ewald, Magnus, Meier), -and is used in animated descriptions to arrest attention, Ewald, § 286 -f. - -9 My beloved is like, &c. To describe the speed of his approach the -Shulamite compares him to the swift-footed gazelle, and nimble fawn. -This comparison is also used in other parts of Scripture. Thus Asahel -is called light-footed as a gazelle. 2 Sam. ii. 18; Prov. vi. 5; Hab. -iii. 19. “The Eastern buildings generally surround a square inner -court; the beloved is described as gradually making his approach, first -to the wall, then looking through the window.” Here is another -incontestable proof that the object of the damsel’s affection, whom she -describes as coming to her, is not the king, but a shepherd, for the -king could not consistently be represented as bounding over the hills. -Though אַיָּל has a feminine, אַיָּלָה, which is used in ver. 7, yet -instead of its being here לְעֹפֶר אֲיָלוֹת, we have הָאַיָּלִים: see also Ps. -xlii. 2. This is owing to the neglect on the part of the writer to -avail himself of the forms established by usage, Gesen. § 107, 1. Or it -may be that such names were still of a common gender, and the feminines -were only in the process of formation, but not as yet fixedly -established, Ewald, § 175 b. כֹּתֶל occurs only here, but it is evident -from Dan. v. 5, and the Targum, Josh. ii. 15, where it stands for the -Hebrew קִיר, that it means a wall forming a part of the house. The -Sept. has here עַל הָרֵי בָתָר, from ii. 17. - -10, 11. Arise, my love, &c. The Shulamite introduces here her beloved -as speaking. He urges her to go, since the rain is over, and everything -without is charming. עָנָה is idiomatically used in reference even to -the person speaking first, without any antecedent interrogation. (Deut. -xxvi. 5; Isa. xiv. 10; xxi. 9.) The meaning of the word seems to be -simply to impart information, either asked for or not. In the former -case עָנָה obtains the additional idea of a reply, whereas in the -latter it merely means to inform, to tell, like ἀποκρίνομαι in the New -Testament. Comp. ἀποκριθεῖς εἶπε, Matt. xvii. 4; Mark ix. 5. On the use -of the dative לָךְ, see Gesen. § 154, 3 e. Ewald, § 315 a. The ἅπα. -λέγ.ἅπαξ λεγόμενον סְתָו properly denotes the winter = the rainy -season, at the end of which, viz. February or March, the spring -advances with surpassing quickness; it excludes the autumn, and thus -differs from חֹרֶף. The form סְתָו (from סָתָה, to winter), is, -according to the analogy of חֲגָו, מְדָו, קְצָו, see Fürst, Lexicon, -under חֲגָו. The Sept. has mistaken the dative לָךְ for the imp. לְכִי, -and adds יוֹנָתִי, my dove, after יָפָתִי, my beauty. - -12. The flowers appear, &c. The gradual development is exceedingly -beautiful; the description unfolds with the season. After the graphic -delineation of the meadows strewed with a profusion of variegated -flowers; of the men in the fields, and the birds hovering over them, -joining to pour forth a volume of various sounds; of the delicious -odour of the embalmed fig, and fragrant vine, the beloved exclaims: -“Nature has prepared a rich banquet; come, let us go and enjoy it!” The -Sept., Aquila, Sym., Vulg., Chald., Rashbam, render עֵת הַוָּמִיר, by the -season for the pruning of vines: Gesenius defends this rendering, but -against the usage of the word זָמִיר, and the connexion. Wherever -זָמִיר occurs, either in the singular (Isa. xxv. 5), or plural (2 Sam. -xxiii. 1; Isa. xxiv. 16), it invariably means song or singing. -Moreover, the parallelism, and the whole of the description, demand -that it should be rendered so here. All the pleasures and charms here -depicted are gratifications for the senses, and are adduced by the -beloved as the invitation of nature to enjoy her banquet; whereas the -pruning of the vines would be a summons to engage in toil. Besides, the -vine is mentioned afterwards in its rotation (v. 13), and it would mar -the gradual progression of this minute description to suppose that it -has been uselessly repeated. Hence it has been rightly rendered singing -by Rashi, Kimchi, Ibn Ezra, Anonymous Oxford Manuscript, Mendelssohn, -Kleuker, Ewald, Döpke, Rosenmüller, De Wette, Magnus, Hengstenberg, -Philippson, Fürst, Meier, Hitzig, &c. The objection that זָמִיר, -singing, means the song of men, is obviated by referring it here to the -season when both man and bird begin to sing. זָמִיר, like other words -of the form קָטִיל, expresses the time of the action; comp. אָסִיף, -harvest; properly the time when the fruit is gathered. חָרִישׁ, the time -of ploughing. Gesen. § 84, 5; Ewald, § 149 e. - -The cooing of the turtle, &c. The turtle-dove is a migratory bird (Jer. -viii. 7; Arist. Hist. Anim. viii. 3, 12, 16; Pliny, Hist. Nat. x. 36; -Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v.); it resides in the -winter farther south than Palestine, and returns in the spring, when -its cooing voice in the woods announces the return of that season. - -13. The fig-tree sweetens her green figs. The word חָנַט is now -rendered by many commentators, according to the example of Ibn Ezra, to -sweeten, to embalm, to spice; i.e. the fig-tree sweetens her fruit by -filling it with aromatic juice. This rendering is confirmed by the use -of חָנַט, to embalm (Gen. l. 2, 26), which was done with spices and -aromatic plants (2 Chron. xvi. 14; John xix. 40). The Sept., Aquila., -and Vulg. render חָנַט, puts forth, but this signification cannot be -deduced from the root. Ewald, Magnus, Hitzig, have “the fig-tree -reddens,” &c., but the verb is not used in this sense in Hebrew. פָּג -(from פָּגַג immature), an unripe fig, Sept. ὄλυνθος, Vulg. grossus; so -in the Talmud and Ibn Ezra, פרי טרם שיתבשל, the fruit before it is -ripe. - -The vines blossom, &c. It is well known that the blossoming vine smells -sweetly; comp. Pliny, Hist. Nat. xiv. 2. וְהַנְּפָנִים סְמָדַר, lit. the vines -are in blossom, i.e. the vines blossom; so Sym. οἰνάνθη, Vulg. -florentes. Substantives are frequently used in Hebrew instead of -adjectives to express properties; thus וְהַפִּשְׁתָּה גִבְעֹל, the flax was -bolled. Exod. ix. 31; Ezra. x. 13. This peculiarity is to be accounted -for by supposing either that the adjectives were not as yet formed, or -if formed were still not currently used. Gesen. § 106, 1; Ewald, § 296 -b. לָכְי stands for לָךְ; comp. ver. 10; the י has been occasioned by -the preceding form קוּמִי, and succeeding words רַעֳיתִי יָפָהִי, which -terminate in י. This is not unfrequently the case, see Job xix. 29; -Eccl. viii. 17; Prov. viii. 35; Mich. i. 8. The Sept. has here again -לְכִי for לָךָ, and יֹונָתִי after יָפָיָתִי. - -14. My dove in the clefts, &c. Having described the charming aspect of -nature, he repeated his invitation to her to go with him into the -fields. Impatient at her apparent delay, the beloved, whilst calling -her by the endearing epithet “dove,” delicately ascribed to her the -timorous character of that bird. Doves in the East make their nests in -the clefts of elevated rocks and cliffs (Jer. xxviii. 28), which they -are exceedingly afraid to leave when once frightened. Thus Homer, -Iliad, xxi. 493: - - - Δακρυόεσσα δ’ ὕπαιθα θεὰ φύγεν, ὥστε πέλεια, - Ἣ ῥά θ’ ὑπ’ ἴρηκος κοίλην εἰσέπτατο πέτρην, - Χηραμὸν, οὐ δ’ ἄρα τῇ γε ἁλώμεναι αἴσιμον ἦεν. - - “As when the falcon wings her way above, - To the cleft cavern speeds the frighten’d dove, - Straight to her shelter thus the goddess flew.” - - -See also Virg. Æn. v. 213. חֲגְוֵי is the plural construct. of חֲגָוְ -(from the root חָגָה, to make incisions in, to split or perforate -rocks); according to the analogy of קַצְוֵי, plural const. of קְצָו and -מַדְוֵי from מְדָו, vide sup. ii. 11. מַדְרֵגָה, (from דָּרָג, cognate with -דָּרַךְ, to ascend,) a place reached by climbing or ascending, a steep, a -precipice. The Mazora marks the י in מַרְאֵיךְ as superfluous, -evidently to avoid the apparent incongruity between the adjective -נָאֲוָה, which is in the singular, and the noun מַרְאֵיךְ, apparently -plural. But the י here may be retained, and the word may still be -singular. For many nouns from roots ל״ה preserve in the singular -before a suffix the original י of the root, and thus have the -appearance of the plural: e.g. מִקְנֶיךָ, thy castle (Isa. xxx. 23), from -מִקְנֶה, מַרְאָיו, the same expression, Job xli. 1; Gesen. § 93, 9; -Ewald, § 256 b. - -15. Catch us the foxes, &c. The Shulamite here quotes the words of her -brothers, who had overheard the invitation. To prevent the meeting of -the lovers, the brothers gave the damsel employment in the vineyard, to -catch and keep out the foxes. To this she refers in i. 6, when, -repelling the disdainful looks of the court ladies, and accounting for -her brown complexion, she mentions the severe treatment of her -brothers. שׁוּעָלִים, foxes, as well as jackals, were very numerous in -Palestine (Judg. xv. 4; Lam. v. 18; Ps. lxiii. 11; Neh. iv. 3). There -was a district actually called אֶרֶץ שׁוּעָל, from the abundance of these -creatures, 1 Sam. xiii. 17. These animals are gregarious, found in -packs of two or three hundred (Boch. Hieroz. lib. iii. 12), and are -described, both by sacred and profane writers, as destructive to -vineyards, Sam. i. 17, 18; and Theocritus, Idyl. v. 112: - - - Μισέω τὰς δασυκέρκος ἀλώπεκας, αἳ τὰ Μίκωνος - Αἰεὶ φοιτῶσαι τὰ ποθέσπερα ῥαγίζοντι. - - “I hate those brush-tail’d foxes, that each night - Spoil Micon’s vineyards with their deadly bite:” - - -also Idyl. i. 47–50. The young foxes are especially injurious to the -vineyards, because they burrow in holes in the ground, Neh. iv. 3. The -brothers, in the last clause, assign a reason for their proposal; the -ו in וּכְרָמֵינוּ is therefore to be rendered for, Gesen. § 155, 1 c. -The Sept. inadvertently omits the word שׁוּעָלִים. - -16. My beloved is mine, &c. The Shulamite tells the court ladies how -she had consoled herself under these circumstances of separation: -“Though my brothers succeeded in separating us bodily by assigning to -me this post of keeping the vineyards, yet our affections are -inseparable; and though still separated from me, my beloved is mine and -I am his; his who tends his flock in the meadows abounding with -flowers.” It seems as if the words, “he who feeds his flock among the -lilies,” were designedly added, whenever the damsel speaks of her -beloved, to show unmistakably that he was a shepherd. How such passages -can be reconciled with the supposition that the king is the object of -the maiden’s attachment, or, according to others, that the maiden is -the daughter of Pharaoh, is difficult to divine. - -17. When the day cools, &c. She also relates how she had comforted her -beloved, telling him that this state of separation would not last long; -that he must come in the evening, when unobserved, with the same -swift-footed speed as he came in the morning. עַד שָׁיָפוּחַ הַיּוֹם, i.q. עַד -שֶׁיָפוּחַ רוּחַ הַיּוֹם, when the day breeze blows, i.e. in the evening, -shortly before sunset, when a gentle and cooling breeze blows in the -East (see Pliny, Hist. Nat. ii. 47); hence רוּחַ הַיּוֹם, Gen. iii. 8, -opposed to חוֹם הַיּוֹם, xviii. 1. That this is the sense of שֶׁיָפוּחַ -הַיּוֹם, and not day-break (English Ver.), or morning-breath (Good), is -evident from the immediately following וְנָסוּ הַצְלָלִים, which expresses -the same idea in other words, i.q. evening; comp. Job xiv. 2. The -shadows are said to flee away when at sunset they become elongated and -stretched out; thus as it were run away from us, further and further, -till they eventually vanish in the dark of night. Hence David, speaking -of the approaching sunset of his life, says, יָמַֹי כְּצֵל נָטוּי, My days -are like an elongated shadow, Ps. cii. 12; cix. 23. Comp. also Virg. -Eclog. i. 84, and ii. 66. So Herder, Kleuker, Ewald, Gesen., Döpke, -Rosenmüller, Magnus, Heiligstedt, Fürst, Philippson, Meier, -Hengstenberg, Hitzig. The rendering of Hodgson, Good, &c., “till the -day-breath,” and their reference to the passage of Milton, “Sweet is -the breath of morn” (Par. Lost, iv. 641), is gratuitous. The words הֶרֵי -בָתֶר are rendered by the Sept. ὄρη τῶν κοιλωμάτων, mountains of -cavities, i.e. decussated mountains, from בָּתַר, to divide, to cut, -which Gesenius and Heiligstedt explain, a region divided by mountains -and valleys, but very unsatisfactorily. The Syriac and Theodo. have -θυμιαμάτων, taking בָּתֶר for בְּשָׂמִים, which is adopted by Meier; but -this emendation is unsupported by MSS., and has evidently arisen from -viii. 14. The Vulg. and Rashbam take בָּתֶר as a proper name, montes -Bether; but neither place nor mountain is known by such name. The -Chald., Ibn Ezra, Rashi explain הָרֵי בָתֶר by mountains of separation, -i.e. mountains which separate thee from me: this is followed by Luther, -Ewald, De Wette, Hengstenberg, Philippson, Hitzig, and is most -consonant with the context. We have seen (ver. 9), that there were -mountains separating the houses of the lovers, which the shepherd had -to cross to reach the Shulamite; and as she told him to go back and -return in the evening, it was evident that he had to cross again those -separating mountains. - -1. When on my nightly couch, &c. Through some means or other her -beloved did not come in the evening according to request, and, unable -to wait any longer, she retired. Her thoughts, however, kept her awake, -and her confidence in him made her look for him even when on her couch. -The words עַל מִשְׁכָּבִי וְגו״ do not mean, “I sought him in my bed,” at -which unnecessary umbrage has been taken, but “Even when I reclined -upon my nocturnal couch, I could not give him up; I still sought to -find him.” מִשְׁכָּבִי בַּלֵילוֹת means my couch used at nights, i.q. מִשְׁכַּב -הַלֵּילוֹת, in contradistinction to מִשְׁכַּב הַצָהֳרַיִם, a couch used at -noonday, 2 Sam. iv. 5. This is evident from the plural בַּלֵילוֹת, in the -nights, and from ver. 8, where the same plural is used to describe -nocturnal marauders. The affirmation of Harmer, therefore, that no -reasonable doubt can be made that these are the words of one to whose -bed the beloved was no stranger, falls to the ground. The Sept. adds, -ἐκάλεσα αὐτὸν καὶ οὐχ ὑπηκούσεν ἐμὲ, from chap. v. 6. - -2. I must arise now, &c. Seeing, however, that her beloved did not -come, and apprehending that some disaster might have befallen him on -his way, the Shulamite determined to go and find him. The –ָה in -אֲקוּמָה is expressive of self-summons and determination: “I said to -myself, Come! I must arise now!” Comp. Ps. ii. 3; lv. 3; Gesen. § 128, -1; Ewald, § 228 a. - -3. The watchmen, &c., found her whilst engaged in seeking her beloved, -and she at once inquired of them whether they had seen him. The -interrogative particle is here omitted. This is sometimes the case when -the whole sentence, as here, is interrogative, in which case it is -distinguished by the prominence given to the word upon which the force -or weight of the interrogation more especially falls; as by the tone in -which it is uttered, e.g. זֶה חַסְדְּךָ אֶת־רֵעֶךָ, “This thy kindness to thy -friend!” 2 Sam. xvi. 17; xviii. 29; Gesen. § 153, 1; Ewald, § 324 a. - -4. Scarcely had I passed them, &c. The abruptness of the description -here is very characteristic. She informs us that she had put a question -to the watchmen, but, in her hurry to find her beloved, does not tell -us the answer which she received. The construction כִּמְעַט שֶׁ—עַד, -scarcely when, is nowhere else to be found in the Old Testament; it may -be resolved to זמן אשר עברתי מהם כמעט, the time that I passed them -amounted to a little while. - -5. I adjure you, &c. Having expressed her deep attachment to her -beloved shepherd, she again adjures the court ladies not to persuade -her to love any one else. Comp. ii. 7. The Sept. has again צְבָאוֹת, -powers, and אֵילוֹת, virtues; vide supra, ii. 7. - -6. What is that, &c. The situation changes. The state tents have been -broken up in the neighbourhood of the Shulamite’s home, and the royal -train travels towards Jerusalem. Some of the inhabitants, as they see -at a distance the procession almost enveloped in the fragrant cloud of -smoke arising from the incense profusely burned, exclaim, “What is that -coming up from the country?” “The burning of perfumes in the East, in -the preceding part of processions, is both very ancient and very -general. Deities (images) were probably the first honoured with this -ceremony, and afterwards their supposed vicegerents, human divinities. -We have a relic of the same custom still existing among ourselves, in -the flowers strewed or borne in public processions, at coronations, -&c., and before our great officers of state: as the Lord Chancellor, -the Speaker of the House of Commons; and in some corporations, the -mace, as an ensign of office, has the same origin, though now reduced -to a gilded ornament only.” See Calmet, Dictionary, and Rosenmüller, -Orient. iv. 948. מִי is properly used of persons, but also of things, -especially when the notion of person or persons is in them, e.g. מִי לְךָ -כָּל הַמַּחְנֶה הַזֶּה, “What is all this company with thee?” Gen. xxxiii. 8; -Mich. i. 5. That this is here the meaning of מִי, is evident from the -answer, הִנֵּה מִטָּתוֹ, Behold, it is the palanquin. מִדְבָּר (from דָבַר, to -range in order, to guide, to drive flocks), here is not desert, but, as -frequently, an uninhabited plain or country, where flocks are tended, -in contradistinction to town, where people dwell. Comp. Isa. xlii. 11; -Jer. xxiii. 10; Joel ii. 22. תִּימְרוֹת, the plur. of תִּמָרָה, like -צִדְקוֹת, from צְדָקָה, columns or clouds, only occurs once more, Joel -iii. 3, and is most probably derived from תָּמַר, to ascend, to rise up -like a column or cloud. The י has merely been inserted to help the -pronunciation (comp. Exod. xxv. 31; Ps. xix. 4.), and, indeed, nineteen -MSS. and originally another omit the י, which is undoubtedly the -correct reading. The כּ in כְּתִּימְרוֹת signifies as in. Comp. Isa. v. -17; xxix. 7; Gesen. Gram. § 118, 3, Rem. כֹּל is used for a plurality -comprising, or consisting of, divers single things or objects, and is -to be rendered all kinds. Comp. Lev. xix. 23; Neh. xiii. 16; Fürst, -Lexicon, under כֹּל 5; Gesen. § 108, 4, § 111, 1. לְבֹנָה (λίβανος, -λιβανωτὸς, arbor thuris, thus), frankincense, so called from its white -colour, was early known and extensively used by the Jews (Exod. xxx. -34; Lev. ii. 1, 2; Isa. lxiii. 23) and other nations (Tibull. Lib. -Eleg. ii.; Ovid. Trist. Lib. V. Eleg. v. 11) in sacrifices for -fumigation. It is represented as a shrub, growing on mountains, and -thorny, both in Arabia (Isa. lx. 6; Jer. vi. 20) and in Palestine, -according to the passage here; reaches a height of about five feet, and -resembles in its leaves and fruit the myrtle. The frankincense is -obtained by incisions which are made twice a year; the first in the -beginning of autumn, which is white and pure (לְבֹנָה זָכָּה, Exod. xxx. -34), and is regarded as superior; and the second incision is made in -the winter, when the resin thus obtained is reddish, and considered -much inferior. Comp. Winer, Bibl. Dict. p. 681, et seq.; Pliny, Hist. -Nat. xxxii. 14. - -7, 8. Lo! it is the palanquin, &c. Another bystander, recognizing it at -a distance, exclaims that it is the cortége of Solomon, consisting of -his palanquin and guard. מִטָּתוֹ שֶׁלִשְׁלמֹהֹ, i.q. מִטַּת שְׁלֹמֹה; comp. Gesen. § -121, 5, note; Ewald, § 309 c. This construction, however, has no real -analogy in the Scriptures; it frequently occurs in latter Hebrew -writings. Comp. תהתיתו של ההר, the bottom of the mountain, in Rashbam -on the Song of Songs, iv. 1. The גִבּרִֹים here mentioned, were a -separate class of the body-guard formed by David; and, as -co-religionists (גִבֹּרֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל), seem to have been chosen to protect the -monarch on his excursion against any attack of nocturnal marauders, so -frequent and so much dreaded in the East. Comp. Job i. 15, with Gen. -xvi. 12. The מ in מִגִּבֹּרֵי is used partitively, vide supra, i. 2. -אֲחוּזֵי חֶרֶב, skilled in the sword. אָחַז, to take hold, also to handle -artfully, like תָּפַשׂ, to take hold, to handle skilfully. The participle -אָחוּז, though of a passive form, has an active signification; this is -not unfrequently the case, especially when it belongs to an -intransitive verb. Comp. בּטוּחַ בַּיהוָֹה, he trusted in Jehovah, Ps. cxii. -7; Gesen. § 50, 3, Rem. 2; Ewald, § 149 d. This removes the apparent -contradiction caused by the Authorized Version, “They all hold swords;” -when in the next clause, as Hodgson and Good remarked, we are told that -each had his sword on his thigh. אִישׁ, a man is used as a distributive -for each, every. Comp. Gen. xv. 18; xlii. 25; Gesen. § 124, 2, Rem. 1; -Ewald, § 278, b. We must supply חָגוּר after אִישׁ. Comp. Exod. xxii. -27; Ps. xlv. 4. פָּחַד, fear, metonymically for the object of fear (Gen. -xxxi. 42, 53), here marauders. This is evident from Ps. xci. 5; Prov. -iii. 24. בַּלֵילוֹת, in or during the nights, i.e. nocturnal marauders. -Vide supra, iii. 1. - -9. A palanquin, &c. As the train draws nearer, a third person -recognizes it as the newly-made palanquin, of which he gives a -circumstantial description. Palanquins were and are still used in the -East by great personages. They are like a couch, sufficiently long for -the rider to recline, covered with a canopy resting on pillars at the -four corners, hung round with curtains to exclude the sun; they have a -door, sometimes of lattice-work, on each side. They are borne by four -or more men, by means of strong poles, like those of our sedan-chairs; -and in travelling great distances, there are always several sets of men -to relieve each other. The materials of which these palanquins are -made, and the style of their construction, depend upon the rank and -wealth of the owners. The word אַפִּרְיֹון is most probably derived from -פָּרָה, to run, to be borne quickly. Comp. τρόχος, from τρέχειν, -φορεῖον, from φέρω, currus from currendo, ferculum from fero. The form -אַפִּרְיּוֹן is, according to the analogy of דִּמְיוֹן, likeness (Ps. xvii. -12), and פִּדְיֹון, ransom (Exod. xxi. 30); comp. Gesen. § 84, 15; Ewald, -§ 163 c. with a prosthetic א (Gesen. § 19, 4; Ewald, § 162 c,) -followed by a Dagesh forte like אַפֶּדֶן, a palace, Dan. xi. 45; see -Fürst, Lexicon. Ewald, however, derives it from פרה = ברה, to work -out, to build, to form, hence אֲפִּרְיוֹן, ein Prachtstück. Kimchi derives -it from פָּרָה, to be fruitful, and says it is called אַפִּרְיוֹן, because -שפרין ורבין עליה, people increase and multiply therein. But this is -contrary to the description here given of the procession. Besides, a -bridal bed has no (מֶרְכָּבָה) seat. עָשַׂה, to make, means also to have -made, to order to be made. A person is frequently described in -Scripture idiom as doing that which he orders to be done. 2 Sam. xv. 1; -Gal. ii. 5, 6. The מִן in מַעַצַי denotes the material of which the -frame-work was made. Ps. xlv. 4. The wood of Lebanon, i.e. cedars and -cypresses, Zech. xi. 1, 2; 1 Chron. ii. 8. - -10. Its pillars he hath made, &c. The description here given of the -costly construction of this magnificent palanquin is by no means a mere -poetic embellishment. A similar litter was presented by the British -government in 1766 to the Nabob of the Carnatic, of which the following -account is given by Williams in loco, from the public prints of the -time: “The beams are solid gold, the inside beautifully decorated with -silver lining and fringe throughout; the panels are painted in the -highest style of finishing, and represent various groups and heads of -animals, after the manner of Asia, beaded with gold richly raised above -the surface, and engraved. The stays and different other ornaments are -of embossed silver.” Curtius (viii. 9, 23) gives us a description of -the procession of an Indian potentate, which strikingly resembles the -one here depicted. “When the king shows himself in public, his servants -go before him with silver censers, which fill the air, throughout the -way along which he is borne in the palanquin, with delicious odour. He -himself is reclining upon a golden couch, covered with pearls and -veiled with purple curtains, embroidered with gold; the life-guard -bring up the rear.” רְפִידָה (from רָפַד, to support, ii. 5), that which -supports the back when sitting; so the Sept. ἀνάκλινον; Vulg. -reclinatorium; Döpke, Rosenmüller, Hitzig, &c. מֶרְכָּב, a seat, comp. -Lev. xv. 9. The words תּוֹכוֹ רָצוּף אַהֲבָה מִבְּנוֹת יְרוּשָּׁלַיִם, are either to be -translated: its centre is tesselated most lovely, by the daughters of -Jerusalem;—the noun אַהֲבָה may be used adverbially for lovely, -charmingly, comp. אֹהֲבֵם נְדָבָה, “I will love them freely,” Hos. xiv. 4; -Ewald, § 279 c, § 204; so Luther, Kleuker, Herder, De Wette, -Rosenmüller, Philippson, &c.; and the מִּן in מִבְּנוֹת may denote the -author or instrument, see Isa. xxii. 3; xxviii. 7; Eccl. xii. 11; -Gesen. Gram. § 143, 2;—or they may be rendered, the middle thereof is -wrought, as expressive of their love, by the daughters of Jerusalem; -taking אַהֲבָה, love, for the effect, or proof of it; comp. דוֹדִים, i. -2, and ἀγάπη in Greek; so Le Clerc, Bp. Percy, Drs. Good and Clark. The -interior of these couches is generally painted with baskets of flowers -and nosegays, intermixed with short sentences or mottoes, expressing -the power of love. - -11. Come out, O ye daughters, &c. As the royal train begins to enter -the city, a fourth bystander calls the daughters of Zion to come out -and see the monarch in his joyful attire. Thus the inspired writer -beautifully puts into the mouth of several spectators the description -he desires to give. The crown here mentioned is not the symbol of -royalty, but the emblem of happiness (Job xix. 9). Crowns or chaplets -of flowers were worn in ancient times on occasions of festivity and -rejoicing; comp. Apocryp. Wisdom, ii. 7, 8. Conjugal life being -regarded as the most happy, it became a custom among the Jews, as well -as among other nations, to put crowns on the heads of the newly-married -people. Rosenmüller, Orient. iv. 196. “In the Greek Church in Egypt,” -says Maillet, “the parties are placed before a reading-desk on which is -the book of the Gospels, having two crowns upon it of flowers, cloth, -or tinsel. The priest, after benedictions and prayers, places one on -the bridegroom’s, the other on the bride’s head, covering both with a -veil.” (See also Talmud, Sotha, ix. 14; Selden, Uxor. Hebr. II. xv. -139; I. F. Hirt, de Coronis apud Hebraeos nuptialibus sposi sposaeque). -The Jews still call the bridegroom מֶלֶךְ, and the bride מַלְכָּה. The -design of Solomon in putting on this crown is evidently to dazzle the -rustic girl. The arrival and entrance of the royal train in the -capital, recorded in verses 6–11, evidently show that the circumstances -narrated in the preceding sections took place out of Jerusalem, and -that the apartments into which the king brought the damsel, as stated -in ch. i. 4, were not in the capital, but, as we see from ch. vi. 11, -12, in the neighbourhood of the Shulamite’s home. The abnormal צְאֶינָה -is here intentionally used instead of the normal צֵאנָה, to correspond -in form with רְאֶינָה; just as מוֹבָא, entrance (Ezek. xliii. 11), is -employed instead of מָבוֹא, to correspond with מוֹצָא, see also Jer. l. -20; Ezek. xvi. 50; infra, viii. 5; Gesen. § 59, Rem. 3; Ewald, § 118 d. -The female inhabitants of the town are designedly called בְּנוֹת צִיוֹן, -to distinguish them from the בְּנוֹת יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, which is the appellation -of the court ladies. - -1. Behold, thou art, &c. The shepherd, who had followed afar off the -royal train in which his beloved was conveyed to the capital, obtains -an interview with her, and is now addressing her. Thine eyes are doves; -see supra, i. 15. Thy hair is like a flock of goats, i.e. the tresses, -dangling from the crown of her head, are as beautiful as Mount Gilead -covered with the shaggy herd. The hair of Oriental goats is exceedingly -delicate, soft (Gen. xxvii. 16), long, and black (1 Sam. xix. 13); and -when the sun shines upon it, reflects such a glare that the eye can -hardly bear the lustre (see Boch. Hieroz. i. 2, 51. Rosenmüller, -Orient. i. 85). הַר גִּלְעָד is the name of a chain of limestone mountains -beyond Jordan, intersected by numerous valleys (Gen. xxxi. 21; Jer. l. -19). This ridge extends over the regions inhabited by the tribes of -Reuben, Gad, and the northern part of Manasseh (Numb. xxxii. 40; Deut. -iii. 13; Josh. xvii. 1–6). It was famous for its luxuriant verdure, -aromatic simples, and rich pastures; and hence attracted the flocks -(Numb. xxxii. 1); and animals from this region were regarded as of a -superior quality, like gold from Ophir. Nothing, therefore, could more -beautifully express the curly hair of a woman, dangling down from the -crown of her head, than the sight, at a distance, of a flock of goats -running down from the summit of this verdant hill on a beautiful day. -צַמָּה (from צָמַם, i.q. Chald. צַמְצַם, צָמַם, to bind, to twine, to -veil), is well explained by Rashbam, ענין עילוף ומעטה היא, a kind of -cover, or veil; so Sym., Sept., Isa. xlvii. 2, Michaelis, Döpke, -Gesenius, De Wette, Lee, Percy, Williams, Hitzig, &c. The rendering of -the Sept. here, ἐκτὸς τῆς σιωπήσεώς σου, behind thy silence, which is -followed by the Syriac and Arabic, is both contrary to the etymology of -the word, and meaningless. The other translations, viz. locks (Auth. -Vers., Ewald), a plait of hair (Hengstenberg), cannot be substantiated. -The word גָּלַשׁ, which occurs only here and vi. 5, is of difficult -interpretation, and has produced a variety of renderings. The Sept. has -here ἀπεκαλύφθησαν, and vi. 5, ἀνεφάνησαν, the Syriac ܣܠܰܩ, the Vulg. -here ascenderunt, and vi. 5, apparuerunt. The Rabbins also differ in -their interpretations. Rashi explains it שנקרחו, that make bare, i.e. -quit or descend the mountain. Ibn Ezra, שנשקפו, which look down; -Rashbam, שנראו, which are seen, i.e. while coming down from the -mount. Modern commentators are not less at variance. Luther translates -it shorn; Houbigant, which hang down; Kleuker, Ewald, which shows -itself; Döpke, Gesenius, Hitzig, Philippson, which lie down; Magnus, -which climb up; Percy, Hengstenberg, which come up, i.e. from -Jerusalem. Amidst these conflicting opinions, it appears best to take -גָּלַשׁ, like its kindred פָּלַשׁ, in the sense of rolling down, running -down; see Fürst. Lexicon, s.v. This meaning accords best with the -comparison here used, and leaves to the preposition מִן its natural -signification. The omission of הַר in the Sept., Arabic, and a few -MSS., is evidently owing to the carelessness of a transcriber. - -2. Thy teeth, &c. The compliment passed upon the black hair is followed -by another on the white teeth: “Thy teeth resemble in whiteness woolly -sheep just washed.” This comparison will appear more striking when we -remember that the wool of Scripture is proverbial for its whiteness, -and is placed in juxtaposition with the colour of snow, Isa. i. 18; -Dan. vii. 9; Rev. i. 14; Book of Enoch xlvi. 1. The Sept., which is -followed by many modern commentators, takes the comparison to be -between the shorn skin of the sheep and the teeth; but this is -untenable. For, 1. The skin of shorn sheep can never have the whiteness -which the context here demands; 2. Shorn sheep would yield a very -incongruous figure, if teeth were compared with them; 3. Sheep, as now, -were generally washed before and not after they were shorn; 4. The -passage in vi. 6, shows that קְצוּבוֹת is merely a poetical epithet for -רְחֵלִים, not because they were then shorn, but because they are -periodically shorn. The explanation of קְצוּבוֹת by well numbered -(Rashi), or by יש להן מדה אחת כאילו נחצבת כל אחת כמו חברתה, same size -(Kimchi, Ibn Ezra), are against vi. 6. - -All of which are paired. That is, each upper tooth has its -corresponding lower one; thus they, as it were, appear in pairs, like -this flock of white sheep, each of which keeps to its mate, as they -come up from the washing-pool. And no one of them is deprived of its -fellow, i.e. no tooth is deprived of its corresponding one, just as -none of the sheep is bereaved of its companion. The Hiphil of תָּאַם, to -be double, to be pairs (Exod. xxvi. 24; xxxvi. 29), is to make double, -to make pairs, to appear paired. שַׁכֻּלָּה is deprived, bereaved, Jer. -xviii. 21. On the masculine suffixes in כֻּלָּם and בָּהֶם, referring to -קְצוּבוֹת, fem., see supra, ii. 7. The words שֶׁכֻּלָּם and שַׁכֻּלָּה form a -paranomasia; see i. 2. The rendering of מַתְאִימוֹת by כלם יולדות -תאומים, all bearing twins (Kimchi, &c.), which some try to justify by -submitting that sheep as well as goats in the East frequently bear -twins (Arist. Hist. Anim. i. 6, 19; Theocret. i. 25; iii. 34), is -incompatible with the figure. The teeth surely, which are here compared -to the flock, cannot be said to bear twins like the sheep. Those who -attempt to get over this difficulty by referring it to the rows of the -teeth, are, to say the least, guilty of introducing a new subject. - -3. Thy mouth is lovely. מִדְבָּר is translated by the Sept., Syriac, -Vulg., Rashi, Ibn Ezra, Rashbam, speech, language; but this is -incompatible with the description here given, which depicts the members -of the body, and not their actions. It is therefore more consonant with -the context to take מִדְבָּר as a poetical expression for the instrument -of speech; not the tongue (Schultens, Kleuker, Döpke), which is kept -within the mouth, and not when put out (נָאֲוָה) beautiful; but the -mouth itself, (Ewald, Gesenius, De Wette, Umbreit, Rosenmüller, Meier, -Philippson, &c.) The objection of Magnus (who translates it voice), and -of Hitzig (who translates it palate), that the rendering of mouth would -produce tautology, inasmuch as the mouth consists of the lips, and -these have already been described, is gratuitous: for an individual may -have lips like scarlet, and yet not have a lovely mouth. The מ in -מִדְבָּר, added to the root דָבַר, to speak, in order to form the noun, -denotes the instrument with which one speaks: compare מַזְלֵג, an -instrument with which to draw out = a fork, from זָלַג, to draw out; -מַפְתֵּחַ, an instrument for opening = a key, from פָּתַח, to open, Gesen. -§ 84, 14; Ewald, § 160, 6. This corroborates the rendering we defended. - -Like a part of, &c. That is, the rosy cheeks visible beneath the veil -resemble the vermilioned part of the pomegranate. Eastern poets -frequently compare the colour of the cheeks with pomegranates and -apples. Thus in a Persian ode quoted by Sir William Jones: “The -pomegranate brings to my mind the blushes of my beloved, when her -cheeks are covered with a modest resentment:” and Ibn Challecan, as -adduced by Magnus in loco: “Believest thou that the apple can divert my -looks from thee, when I behold thy cheeks?” Ibn Ezra, who is followed -by some modern commentators, explains פֶּלַח by ציץ הרמון האדום, the -red flower of the pomegranate; but this is contrary to 2 Kings iv. 39, -where the root פלח is used for dissecting fruit, and 1 Sam. xxx. 12. -Others again take the simile to be between the interior of the -pomegranate, when cut or burst open, and the cheeks; but this being -flat would by no means represent the round form of the coloured cheek -here referred to. The comparison appears natural, striking, and -beautiful, according to Rashi’s explanation of פֶּלַח, viz. חצי רמון -שבחוץ שהוא אדום, that external half of the pomegranate which is red, -one half of the pomegranate being brown, and the other beautifully -vermilioned, intermixed with yellow and white; and it is to the latter -part to which reference is here made. So the Sept. λέπυρον, the peel, -or the external. Rashbam, Döpke, Hitzig. - -4. Thy neck is like, &c. That is, “The erect and bold carriage of thy -neck, decked with ornaments, resembles that high, commanding tower, -adorned with trophies.” Though the text supplies us with no clue for -finding out what tower this was, yet the comparison implies that it -must have been one well known and celebrated for its imposing aspect -and symmetrical proportions. Sandys (iii. 137), who is followed by -others, identifies this tower with some ruins still found in the -uttermost angle of Mount Zion, which bears that name. תַּלְפִּיּוֹת is -rendered by the Sept. Θαλφιώθ, as a proper name; but there is no place -known by such a name. Aquila has εἰς ἐπάλξεις: so Vulg. cum -propugnaculis, battlements, Sym. ὕψη, heights; but it is difficult to -divine how these renderings are to be made out from the form and -meaning of the word. The Talmud Jerushalmi, Berachoth, section 4, and -Saadias explain it תל שהכול פונים לו, an elevation towards which all -look, i.e. by which they are guided. Ibn Ezra seems to favour the view -that לְתַלְפִּיּוֹת is a compound of לְתַלוֹת פִּיוֹת, for the suspension of -arms. But the Talmudic explanation rests upon the favourite whim of -making a word of every letter. Ibn Ezra’s explanation incurs the -objection that פִּיוֹת, by itself, never means swords or arms. Besides, -it is evident that this interpretation owes its origin to the -immediately following clause, אֶלֶף הַמָּגֵן תָּלוּי עָלָיו. Gesenius derives it -from the Arabic תָּלַף, to destroy; hence תַּלְפִּי, destructive, deadly; -poetically, for arms. But, apart from the difficulty of making -תַּלְפִּיּוֹת, even according to this derivation, to mean weapons, according -to this rendering there is no connexion between this clause and the -figure. It is therefore better, with Rashi and Rashbam, to take -תַּלְפִּיּוֹת as a contraction for תְּאַלְפִּיּוֹת from the root אָלַף, to teach. -The radical א in the feeble verbs פ״א, does not unfrequently fall -away: thus וַתַּזְרֵנִי, 2 Sam. xxii. 40, for וַתְּאַזְּרֵנִי, and in the same -verb, מַלְּפֵנוּ for מְאַלְּפֵנוּ, Job xxxv. 11; Gesen. § 68, 2; Ewald, § 54. -תַּלְפִּיּוֹת (plur. of תלפית, according to the analogy of תַּבְנִיוֹת, from -תַּבְנִית, תַּרְמִיוֹת, from תַּרְמִית), would therefore signify instruction; -the plural being here used for the abstract, see supra, i. 2. This -derivation is confirmed by the Chald., which periphrases תַּלְפִּיּוֹת by -אוּלְפַן דְּאֹורַיְתָא, instruction of the law, and bears out the figure, and -yields a beautiful sense. The Shulamite’s neck is not compared to some -common turret, but to that splendid tower which was built for a model, -that, as Rashbam rightly remarks, כל אומנין בנאים מתלמדים ממנו, all -architects might learn their designs from it. - -A thousand shields, &c. It was customary to adorn the walls of towers -and castles with all sorts of splendid arms, Ezek. xxvii. 11. The -castles of the maritime people, whose conquest is recorded by the -Kouyunjik bas-reliefs, and distinguished by the shields hung round the -walls. Layard’s Nineveh, ii. 296. אֶלֶף, thousand stands for a round, -large member, Isa. xxx. 17; lx. 22; Ps. cv. 8; Eccl. vi. 6. כֹּל, all -kinds, all sorts, see supra, iii. 6. - -5. Thy bosom, &c. The point of comparison is the lovely sight which -these objects present. The gazelles, as we have seen (ii. 7), are the -symbol of beauty. To add however to their native charms, they are -represented here as browzing in pasture-ground abounding with lilies. -To this lovely spectacle, than which nothing could be more beautiful to -an Oriental, her breasts are compared. The explanation which Bochart, -Patrick, Henley, Percy, Good, give of this comparison, viz. “The two -paps rise upon the breast like lilies from the ground; among which, if -we conceive two red kids feeding, that were twins and perfectly alike, -they appeared like the nipples or teats upon the paps, to those that -behold them afar off,” is extravagant. - -6. When the day cools, &c. Transported with joy at the sight of her -beloved shepherd, the Shulamite interrupts the praises of her personal -charms, which, on seeing her again, he began to pour forth, by -exclaiming: When the day cools, that is, “this very evening, as soon as -it gets dark, I will quit the royal abode, and go to our beautiful and -open country, to the flowery meads, where are found aromatic plants -growing in abundance.” For an explanation of the first part of this -verse, see ii. 17, also spoken by the Shulamite. That such mountains of -myrrh and hills of frankincense actually existed, is evident from -Florus, Epitome Rerum Rom., lib. iii. c. 6., where Pompey the Great is -said to have passed over Lebanon, and by Damascus, “per nemora illa -odorata, per thuris et balsami sylvas.” - -7, 8. Thou art all beautiful, &c. Gladdened with her declaration, the -shepherd, crowning and closing his description in the words, “Thou art -a perfect beauty,” responds, “Thou shalt go with me, I will help thee -to quit these lofty heights, the abode of lions and panthers—the royal -residence; and safely conduct thee to the place whither thou wouldst -go.” Lebanon is the name of a long range of mountains on the north of -Palestine (Deut. ii. 24; Josh. i. 4), consisting of two parallel -chains, which run from south-west to north-east. Though the Scriptures -have only one name, viz. Lebanon, for both these chains, yet the -present inhabitants of that country, as well as modern Travellers, have -found it convenient to call the westermost chain, facing the -Mediterranean,—Lebanon; and the eastern one, facing the plain of -Damascus,—Anti-Libanus, from its being at Tyre, parallel with and -opposite to the Syrian Lebanon. Amana, אֲמָנָה, is the name of the -southern part of Anti-Libanus, at the root of which, it is supposed, -issues the river of the same name; see 2 Kings v. 12. Hermon, חֶרְמֹון, -is the name of the highest summit of a chain at the northernmost -boundary of Palestine, and belongs also to Anti-Libanus (Josh. xi. 17; -xiii. 5), and is now identified with Jebel-el-Sheikh. It consists of -several mountains, viz. Sirion, שִׁרְיוֹן, Shenir, שְׁנִיר, and Sion, -שִׂיאֹן; whence its plural name חֶרְבוֹנִים, see Fürst, Lexicon, s.v. -Lebanon, Amana, Shenir and Hermon are here not intended to denote -various parts of the range of mountains, but are merely different names -of the royal residence. The word תַּשׁוּרִי is well rendered by the Sept., -Syriac, &c., thou shalt go; comp. Isa. lvii. 9. The Common Version look -is incompatible with the context and parallelism. Surely no one would -invite his beloved to go with him to dangerous mountain-tops, to take a -view of the country! Persons are generally anxious to avoid perilous -places. The lions and panthers denote the king and his courtiers, Ezek. -xix. 7; xxii. 25; Nahum ii. 12. כָּלָה, rendered spouse in the -Authorized Version, is taken by some to denote a newly-married woman. -The word however only means betrothed = a female under an engagement to -marry. This is the sense in which the Jews still use the expression. -The Sept., which is followed by the Vulg. and Luther, translates אִתִּי, -δεῦρο, mistaking it for אֲתִי, the imp. of אָתָּה, to come. The Vulg. -rendering of תָּשׁוּרִי by coronaberis, evidently savours of allegorism. -For the Septuagint’s rendering of אֲמָנָה, by πίστις, see Introduction, -p. 21. - -9. Thou hast put heart into me, &c. This extraordinary amount of -strength and courage which he feels, to enable him to rescue her from -the abode of the lion, and to lead her safely home, has been infused -into his heart, he says, by the sight of his beloved one. So the -Anonymous Oxford Manuscript, שבשביל אהבתך נתגברתי ונבוא לי לב חדש שיש -לי כח ללחם עם האריות והנמרים. As the Piel has sometimes an intensive, -and sometimes a privative meaning (see Gesen. § 52, 2; Ewald, § 120), a -difference of opinion exists as to the signification of לִבֵּב here. The -Sept. has ἐκκαρδίωσας ἡμᾶς, thou hast unhearted us; the Vulg. -Vulnerasti cor meum; Ibn Ezra, לקחת לבי, thou hast taken away my -heart; Gesenius, De Wette, &c. adopt this rendering. Against this -however it is urged, that it is incompatible with the context. The -beloved here accounts for his extraordinary strength and courage, which -would enable him to rescue his beloved one from her critical position; -and to say, “Thou hast deprived me of all heart,” would be a positive -contradiction. To be in such an unusually courageous frame, the -individual must have been full of heart, and not disheartened. Hence -Herder, Ewald, Döpke, Lee, Meier, &c., translate לִבַּבְתִּנִי, thou hast -put heart into me; thou hast made me bold. This is confirmed by Sym., -Syriac, Arabic, and Chald. אַחוֹתִי, my sister, does not imply that the -betrothed was related to her beloved, but is used as an expression of -endearment, Prov. vii. 14; Tobit vii. 12; the Apoc. Esth. xv. 8, and -soror in Latin. Good’s rendering of אַחֹתִי כַלָּה by my sister-spouse, and -his remark that the pronoun “my” between the two substantives, being a -useless interpretation of the versions, are gratuitous. כָּלָּה has no -suffix here, not because it is to be joined with אֲחֹתי, but because -this word, like אָב in Chald., never takes the suffix 1 pers.; and -versions therefore made in languages whose idioms allow of the suffix -are right in so expressing it. - -With one of thine eyes, &c. It is customary with Eastern women to -unveil one of their eyes in conversation, in which case a part of their -neck ornaments becomes also visible. Niebuhr, Travels in Arabia, i. -262; see Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. Art. Veil, figure 536, and infra, -viii. 9. The Anonymous MS., however, explains בְּאֶחַד מֵעֵינַיִךְ by בהבטה -אחת שאת מבטת בי באחד מעיניך, one look of thine eyes. The rendering at -once (Hodgson, Good) is incongruous. The attempt of the Masorites to -substitute בַּאַחַת, fem., for בְּאֶחַד, mas., having evidently arisen from -their anxiety to avoid the apparent incongruity of coupling a masculine -numeral with a feminine noun, is unnecessary. The true solution lies in -the fact, that members of the human body, although usually feminine, -are most of them employed occasionally as masculine. Job xxi. 20; Zech. -iv. 10; and infra, vi. 5; Gesen. § 107, 4 b; Ewald, § 174 d. עֲנָקָ is -not look (Vulg.), nor turn (Percy, Good), nor stone (Ewald, Magnus), -but chain. This is evident from Judg. viii. 26, and Prov. i. 9, the -only two passages where this word occurs again (except as a proper -name), and is translated by the Sept. (Judg. and Prov.) κλοιός, -necklace, Aquila, περιτραχήλιος, πλόκαμος, neckband, neck-work; Sym. -κλοιός, ὁρμίσκος, necklace; Vulg. (Judg. and Prov.) torques. So Ibn -Ezra, מני חלי קשוריﬦ על הצואר, a kind of ornamental band, tied round -the neck, Rashi, Rashbam, Gesenius, De Wette, Döpke, Lee, Philippson, -Meier, Hengstenberg, &c. The objection urged by Hitzig, that an -inanimate ornament could not effect such great things, is obviated by a -reference to the Book of Judith, xvi. 9, where we are informed that the -fair one succeeded in captivating even the savage Holofernes with her -sandals: τὸ σανδάλιον αὐτῆς ἥρπασεν ὀφθαλμὸν αὐτοῦ. Besides, the -meaning here is, that the slightest view of her is sufficient to -inspire him with vigour and courage. The termination –וֹן in צַּוָּרוֹן, -like וּן, in Syriac, forms the diminutive; and, like diminutives in -other languages, is expressive of affection; Gesen. § 86, 2, 4; Ewald, -5, 167 a. The plur. termination –ָיִךְ in מִצֲוְּרֹנָיִךְ, is to be accounted -for on the score that the Hebrews sometimes use plural forms for -certain members of the body. Comp. פָּנִיﬦ, face, Gesen. § 108, 2 a; -Ewald, § 178 a. - -10. How sweet is thy love, &c. Here the lover tells his loved one why -the sight of her is so animating and emboldening. For the comparison of -love with wine, see i. 2, 3. The Sept., which is followed by the -Syriac, Vulg., Arabic, and Luther, has here again דַדֶּיךָ, thy breasts; -but see i. 2. The Sept. has also ὀσμὴ ἱματίων σου, וְרֵיחַ שִׂמְלֹתַיִךְ, for -וְרֵיחַ שְׁמָנַיִךְ, evidently taken from the following verse. - -11. Thy lips, O my betrothed, &c. Every word which falls from her lips -is like a drop from the honeycomb. This comparison is used in other -parts of Scripture, and by the Greeks and Romans. Thus Prov. v. 3:— - - - “The harlot’s lips distil honey, - And her palate is smoother than oil.” - - -Theocrit. Idyl. xx. 26:— - - - τὸ στόμα καὶ πακτᾶς γλυκερώτερον· ἐκ στομάτων δὲ - ἔῤῥεέ μοι φωνὰ γλυκερωτέρα ἢ μέλι κήρω. - - “More sweet my lips than milk in luscious rills, - Lips, whence pure honey, as I speak, distils.” - - -Also Idyl. i. 146, 8, 82; Homer, Iliad, i. 249; Hor. Epist. i. 19, 44. -That we are to understand by distilling honey, “lovely words,” and not -saliva oris osculantis, is evident from Prov. xvi. 24, where pleasant -words are compared to a honeycomb, and the passage already quoted, just -as slanderous words are represented as poisons, Ps. cxl. 3. - -And the odour of thy garments, &c. The Orientals were in the habit of -perfuming their clothes with aromatics. Thus we are told that the -garments of Jacob emitted a pleasant smell, Gen. xxviii. 27; Ps. xlv. -9; Rosenmüller, Orient. i. 122. In consequence of the odoriferous trees -which abounded on it, Lebanon became proverbial for fragrance. Hence -the prophet Hosea (xiv. 7), describing the prosperous state of -repenting Israel, says וְרֵיחַ לוֹ כַּלְבַנוֹן, and his odour shall be as that -of Lebanon. This passage is sufficient to show the error of the Vulg. -in rendering כְּרֵיחַ לְבָנוֹן by sicut odor thuris, as if it were כְּרֵיחַ -לְבוֹנָה. The perfumed attire which the Shulamite had on, and which the -shepherd here praises, is evidently not the humble clothes which she -had brought with her, but some splendid apparel recently given to her -by the king. - -12. A closed garden, &c. The trees of Lebanon, referred to at the end -of the last verse, suggested this beautiful metaphor of a garden, under -which the shepherd describes the unsullied purity and chastity of the -Shulamite. Gardens in the East were generally hedged or walled in, to -prevent the intrusion of strangers (Isa. v. 5; Joseph. De Bell. Jud. -vii.). From this arose the epithet, “closed garden,” for a virtuous -woman, shut up against every attempt to alienate her affections. The -contrary figure is used in viii. 9; there accessibility is described as -“a door,” i.e. open to seduction. - -A sealed fountain, &c. Another metaphor to express the same idea. The -scarcity of water in arid countries renders fountains very valuable. To -secure them against the encroachment of strangers, the proprietors -formerly fastened their fountains with some ligament, and the -impression of a seal upon clay, which would quickly harden in the sun, -that would soon dissolve wax. This mode of rendering pits safe is found -in Dan. vi. 18; Matt. xxvii. 66. A fountain sealed in this manner -indicated that it was private property. Hence its metaphorical use, to -represent chastity as an inaccessible fountain. It is better, with the -Sept., Syriac, Arabic, Chald., Vulg., upwards of fifty of Kennicott’s -MSS., and many modern commentators, to read גַּן, instead of גַּל. This -is confirmed by the intensive phraseology of the shepherd, used in his -addresses, which is produced by a repetition of the same words. Comp. -supra, vv. 8, 9. - -13. Thy shoots, &c. Having compared his loved one to a garden, the -shepherd is anxious to show that the one she resembled is not of an -ordinary character. It is an orchard full of the most costly trees, and -producing the most delicious fruit. שְׁלָחַיִךְ, well rendered by the Sept. -ἀποστολαί σου: and Kimchi, התפשטות, thy shoots, branches (Gen. xlix. -21; Ps. lxxx. 12) is figuratively used for the members of the body, and -not for “the children who shall spring from her,” as Hodgson supposes. -פַּרְדֵּס, found elsewhere only Eccl. ii. 5; Neh. ii. 8, has been derived -by some from the Persian, and by others from the Sanscrit. There is no -necessity, however, for seeking its etymology in other languages. The -Hebrews, who had gardens at so early a period, would surely not borrow -names for them from other nations. פַּרְדֵּס, according to the analogy of -the quadriliteral פַּרְשֵׁז, is a compound of פָּרַד, to divide, and פָּרַס, -to separate, to enclose; hence a protected, an enclosed place, a -garden. This is corroborated by the fact that גַּן, a garden, is also -derived from a root (גָּנַן), which means to separate, to enclose. -Compare also the German and English, Gärten, garden, and Saalschütz, -Archäologie der Hebräer, vol. i. p. 117. And like many other Hebrew -expressions, this word was adopted in other languages. רִמּוֹנִים, -pomegranate-trees: the Hebrews frequently use the same expression to -denote the tree and its fruit, see supra, ii. 3. פְּרִי מְגָדִים, i.q. -פִּרְיֵיְ מֶגָד, precious fruits: when a compound idea is to be expressed in -the plural, the governed noun only is often put in the plural form; -e.g. בֵּית אָבוֹת, ancestral houses, Numb. i. 2; Gesen. § 108, 3. The -precious fruits are those of the pomegranate-tree. The words כְּפָרִים עִם -נְרָדִים, are still genitives to פַּרְדֵּס. For כֹּפֶר, and נֵרְדְּ, see supra, -i. 12, 13. - -14. Nard and crocus, &c. Both the ancient versions and modern -commentators generally agree that by the word כַּרְכֹּﬦ, which occurs only -here, the well-known saffron plant is meant. Calamus (קָנֶה, reed, also -written קְנֵה בשֵֹׁם and קָנֶה הַטּוֹב, sweet calamus, Exod. xxx. 23; Jer. -vi. 20, κάλαμος ἀρωματικός, Calamus odoratus), was well known and -highly prized among the ancients, and was imported to Palestine from -India (Jer. vi. 20; xxvii. 19); it was, however, also found in the -valley of Mount Lebanon, (Polyb. v. 46; Strabo, xvi. 4). It has a -reed-like stem, of a tawny colour, much jointed, breaking into -splinters, and its hollow reed filled with pitch, like the web of a -spider. The best, which, according to Pliny (Hist. Nat. xii. 12 or 48), -grows in Arabia, diffuses around a very agreeable odour, and is soft to -the touch (see Rosenmüller, Bib. Bot.; Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, -Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v.) Cinnamon (קִנָּמוֹן, κίναμον, Laurus cinnamomum), -indigenous to Ceylon in the East Indies, and is called by the natives -Karonda-gouhah; it is now, however, also cultivated on the Malabar -coast, in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo, in China and Cochin-China. -The cinnamon-tree, which grows on the coast, is generally about twenty -or thirty feet high, and reaches a still greater height in groves: it -is adorned with numerous boughs, bearing oval and laurel-like leaves, -of a scarlet colour when young, but changing to bright green, and -growing to the length of from four to six inches when matured, and -putting forth whitish blossoms, which ripen into fruit, resembling -those of the juniper-tree in June: the fruit, though possessing neither -the smell nor the taste of the cinnamon, when boiled secretes an oil, -which, after cooling, becomes hard, white, and fragrant. The wood -itself, which is white, inodorous, and soft as fir, is used for a -variety of purposes. It is the rind which, when peeled off and dried in -the sun, yields the much-valued cinnamon. (See Rosenmüller, Bibl. Bot.; -Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v.) Aloe (אָהָל, Ἀλοή. -John xix. 39. ἀγάλλοχον, ξυλαλοή, arbor alois), a tree which grows in -India and the Moluccas, the wood of which is highly aromatic. The stem -of this tree is as thick as a man’s thigh; the top is adorned with a -bunch of thick and indented leaves, broad below, and narrowing -gradually towards the point, and are about four feet long: its -blossoms—which are red, intermixed with yellow, and double like a -pink—yield the pod, producing a red and white fruit, about the size of -a pea. This tree, in consequence of its singularly beautiful appearance -and odoriferous wood, which is used as a perfume, is very gratifying -both to the sight and smell, and is held by the Indians in sacred -veneration. (See Rosenmüller, Bib. Bot.; Winer, Bib. Dict. s.v.) רֹאשׁ, -head metaph., chief, most excellent. Exod. xxx. 23; Ps. cxxxvii. 6; -Ezek. xxvii. 22. - -15. With a garden-fountain, &c. To finish the picture of this charming -garden, the shepherd introduces into it fountains, streams, rills, and -cooling breezes, to rouse and waft the balmy fragrance through its -delightful retreats. The fact that the Shulamite has been called a -sealed fountain proves that this verse is not descriptive of her. For -it would be contradictory to call her in one verse a sealed fountain, -and in the other a stream flowing from Lebanon, i.e. an open stream. -מַעְיַן גַּנִּים a fountain of gardens, i.e. a fountain belonging to -gardens, usually found in gardens to irrigate them. נֹזְליִם, a part. -noun plur., denoting flowing streams. The מִן indicates the place -whence these streams issue. מַיִם חַיִּים living water, i.e. perennial; -waters, gushing forth from fountains, or moving along, appear as if -they were living; whilst those in a stagnant condition seem dead. Gen. -xxvi. 19; Jer. ii. 13; Zech. xiv. 8; see also ὕδωρ ζῶν, Rev. vii. 17, -and flumen vivum, Virg. Æn. ii. 719. - -16. Arise, O north wind! These are still the words of the shepherd, -who, to complete the picture, invokes the gentle breezes to perflate -this paradise. Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, Williams, Good, Ewald, Delitzsch, -Philippson, &c., take this clause to begin her reply; but this is -incompatible with the figure. She herself, and not anything separate, -has been described as this charming garden. She could, therefore, not -say “blow through MY garden” (גַנִּי), which would imply that this -garden of hers was something apart from her person. Moreover, the -expression גַנּוֹ, his garden, which she uses, shows that גַנִּי, my -garden, is spoken by him. So Rashi, Döpke, Magnus, Hitzig, &c. That the -south and north winds are merely poetical designations for a gale -generally, without any particular reference to the peculiarities of the -wind when blowing from these respective regions is evident from a -comparison of Numb. xi. 31 with Ps. lxxviii. 26. This does away with -the conflicting conjectures which have been hazarded, to account for -the invocation of the wind from these opposite quarters of the earth. -צָפוֹן and תֵּימָן, prop. the north and southern quarters, are -poetically used, רוּחַ צָפוֹן, and רוּחַ תֵּימָן, the north and south wind. -Ps. lxviii. 26. בְּשָׂמִים, spices, here their odours. - -Let my beloved come, &c. The Shulamite, continuing this beautiful -apostrophe, responds: “If my person really resembles such a paradise, -this garden is yours; yours are all its productions.” פְּרִי מְגָדָיו, -literally the fruit of his deliciousness, i.e. his delicious fruit. -When a compound idea is expressed by one noun followed by another in -the genitive, a suffix which refers to this whole idea is sometimes -appended to the second of the two nouns. Comp. אֱלִילֵי כַּסְפּוֹ, his silver -idols, Isa. ii. 20; Gesen. § 129, b; Ewald, § 291, b; גַן being of a -common gender, the suffix in מְגָדָיו may either refer to garden, or to -beloved; it is more in keeping with the construction to refer it to the -beloved, just as the suffix in גַּנְּוֹ refers to him. The fruit is the -beloved’s because the garden is his, and therefore he may enjoy it. - -1. I am coming into my garden, &c. The shepherd, as he embraces his -beloved, expresses his unbounded delight in her charms. The perfect -forms, בָּאתִי שָׁתִיתִי, אָכַלְתִּי, אָרִתִי, are used for the present, Gesen. -§ 126. - -Eat, O friends, &c. Some sympathizing court ladies, at a distance, -seeing the mutual happiness of the lovers, urge them to take their fill -of delight. The explanation of Rashbam and others, that this address is -to the companions of the beloved to partake of a friendly meal; or, as -others will have it, that it is an invitation to the marriage feast, is -against the context. The expression אִכְלוּ, eat ye, must be taken in -the same sense as אָכַלְתִי, I eat; and it would be most incongruous to -suppose that the beloved, who enjoys the charms of his loved one, would -call on his friends to do the same. Dr. Geddes, who is followed by Dr. -Good, alters the text into אכל רעי שת ושכיר דודי, Eat, O my friend! -drink, yea, drink abundantly, O my beloved! and puts it into the mouth -of the Shulamite; thus making it an answer to what the beloved said in -the preceding clause. But such conjectural emendations ought to be -repudiated. It is most in accordance with the context to take these -words as an epiphonema of some sympathizing court ladies. The -parallelism and the accents require us to take דוֹדִים as a concrete, -synonymous with רֵעִים, friends; so the Sept., Vulg., Syr., Rashbam, -Ibn Ezra, Rashi, Mendelssohn, &c. - -2. I was sleeping, &c. The sympathies manifested by some of the court -ladies for the Shulamite, at the close of the last section, encourage -her to relate to them a dream which she recently had. The purpose of -this narration is the description of the shepherd to which it leads, -and which is necessary to the completion of the whole drama. יְשֵׁנָה, -like the participle form generally, may be used to express all the -relations of time. Comp. כִּי כֻלָּם יְשֵׁנִים, for all were sleeping, 1 Sam. -xxvi. 12; 1 Kings iii. 20. Gesen. § 134, 1; Ewald, § 306 d. לֵב, -heart, here the seat of thought. The Hebrews regarded the heart, not -only as the seat of the passions, but also of the intellectual -faculties of the mind. The whole clause is merely another way of saying -בַּחֲלֹמִי, Gen. xli. 17. The circumlocution is chosen in preference to -בַּחֲלמִי, to indicate that the powers under which the exhausted frame -succumbed, could not keep her mind from dwelling upon the object of her -affections. קֹל, hark; vide supra, ii. 8. דֹפֵק is best taken with the -Sept., Syriac, Vulg., and many modern commentators, as a separate -clause, he is knocking. The Sept. adds ἐπὶ τὴν θύραν, at the door, -after דֹפֵק, he is knocking. - -Open to me, &c. She introduces him speaking. To make his request the -more urgent, he pleads that he had been drenched with dew. The dew -falls so copiously in the East, during certain months, that it -saturates the clothes like rain. See Judges vi. 38; Rosenmüller, -Orient. i. 122; Winer, Bib. Dict. s.v. A similar passage occurs in -Anacreon, iii. 10, where love is represented as standing at night -behind the door, begging for admittance, and pleading the same excuses. - - - Ἄνοιγε, φησί - Βρέφος εἰμί, μὴ φόβησαι - Βρέχομαι δέ, κἀσέληνον - Κατὰ νύκτα πεπλάνημαι. - - “‘Fear not,’ said he, with piteous din, - ‘Pray ope the door and let me in: - A poor unshelter’d boy am I, - For help who knows not where to fly: - Lost in the dark, and with the dews, - All cold and wet, that midnight brews.’” - - -Comp. also Propert. i. 16, 23; Ovid Amor. ii. 19, 21. תַמָּתִי, my -perfect one, is well explained by Rosenmüller by מוּם אֵין בָּךְ, there is -no fault in thee, iv. 7; 2 Sam. xiv. 25. - -3. I have put off my tunic; was the answer she gave in her dream. -כֻּתֹּנֶת, χιτών, tunic, is an inner garment, commonly of linen, -descending to the ankles, which is taken off when one retires. On the -costume of the Hebrews, see Rosenmüller, Orient. ii. 19; Winer, Bib. -Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v.; Saalschütz, Archäologie der -Hebräer, vol. i. c. 2. - -I have washed my feet, &c. In the East, where people wear sandals, -which protect the soles only, or go barefoot, as in the passage before -us, the feet soon get dirty and parched; it is therefore essential and -refreshing to wash the feet after much walking (Gen. xviii. 4; xix. 2), -or before retiring to rest: remembering this, we can appreciate the -hospitality shown to travellers in providing for the washing of their -feet, Judges xix. 21. On the masculine suffix in אֲטַנְּפַם, referring to -the feminine רַגְלַי, see iv. 9. - -4. My beloved withdrew his hand, &c. Hearing her excuses for not -getting up, he at last grew weary and ceased knocking, which -immediately caused her uneasiness. The words שָׁלַח יָדוֹ מִן הַחוֹר are -better translated, he sent away his hand from the hole = withdrew; so -the Sept. and Rashbam, ההזירה לעצמו מן החור בדלת, he took his hand -back from the hole in the door. The expression מֵעִים, like רַחֲמִים, -has not the modern sense of bowels, which is restricted to the lower -viscera, but denotes, like τὰ σπλάγχνα in Greek, the upper viscera, -comprising the heart, lungs, liver, &c. Hence it is used for the heart -alone as the seat of passion, Isa. lxiii. 15; Jer. xxxi. 20; and for -נֶפֶשׁ, soul, Job xxx. 27; Ps. xl. 9. הָמָה, to hum, to make a noise, -which is frequently used for the roaring produced by the waves of the -troubled sea (Isa. li. 15; Ps. xlvi. 4; Jer. v. 22), is employed to -denote the motion of an agitated heart. With upwards of fifty MSS. and -several editions we read עָלַי, in me, instead of עָלָיו, to him; the -phrase thus exactly corresponds to תֶּהֱמִי נַפְשִׁי עָלָי, Ps. xlii. 6, 12. - -5. My hands dropped with myrrh, &c. Alarmed at his ceasing to knock, -she flew at once to open the door, and in trying to unfasten it, her -hands came in contact with the liquid myrrh which her beloved had -poured upon the bolts, and which dropped from her fingers. So Immanuel, -כי שרצתי לפתח לדודי ונגעתי בידי במקום אשר נגע בו דודי כששלח ידו מן -החור נתבשמו ידי וקבלו מן הריח שהיה בידי דודי עד שעבור Lovers, in -ancient times, whilst suing for admission, used to ornament the door -with wreaths, and perfume it with aromatics. Thus Lucretius, iv. 1171, - - - At lacrimans exclusus amator limina sæpe - Floribus, et sertis operit, posteisque superbos - Unguit amaracino, et foribus miser oscula figit. - - “Then, too, the wretched lover oft abroad - Bars she, who at her gate loud weeping stands, - Kissing the walls that clasp her; with perfumes - Bathing the splendid portals, and around - Scattering rich wreaths and odoriferous flowers.” - - -Comp. also Tibul. i. 2, 14. So Herder, Kleuker, Ewald, Döpke, -Rosenmüller, Philippson, &c.; Rashbam however is of opinion that the -liquid myrrh which distilled from the Shulamite’s hand, was the perfume -with which she had anointed herself after washing. Whilst Percy -supposes that “she got up in such haste, that she spilt upon her hand -the vessel of liquid myrrh, which she had brought to anoint and refresh -his head, after having been exposed to the inclemencies of the night.” -מוֹר עֹבֵר, liquid myrrh, see i. 2; and not, as Le Clerc erroneously -supposes, current myrrh, that kind of myrrh which is most passable in -traffic. The Vulg. has, Et digiti mei pleni myrrha probatissima, -evidently mistaking the prep. עַל for מָלְאוּ, and takes the words -כַּפּוֹת הַמַּנְעוּל over to the following verse, Pessulum ostii mei aperui -dilecto meo. - -6. My beloved had withdrawn, &c. To her great grief she found, when -opening, that her beloved had gone. The asyndeton חָמַק עָבַר is very -expressive, and the use of the two synonymous terms strengthens the -sense. This figure, which is effected by the omission of the -conjunctive particle, is used in animated descriptions, both by sacred -and profane writers. Comp. Σιώπα, πεφίμωσο, Mark iv, 39. Winer, New -Testament Gram. § 66, 4. The phrase יָצָא נֶפֶשׁ, properly denoting the -departure of the soul from the body, (Gesen. xxxv. 18; Ps. cxlvi. 4,) -like יָצָא לֵב, is used to express the momentary loss of the senses, -i.e. to faint. בְּדַבְּרוֹ, in his speaking, i.e. when he had spoken of it, -(Judg. viii. 3; 1 Sam. xvii. 28), i.e. of his going away: so Rashi, -שאמר לא אבא אל ביתך כי מתחילה לא אבית לפתוח, “Because he said I will -not now enter thy house, for thou didst at first refuse to open me,” -and Immanuel, נפשי יצאה בדברו אלי הנני הולך לדרכי אחרי שלא תפתחתי -הדלת. “My soul departed when he told me, Now I am going away, because -thou wouldst not open me the door.” We must employ a finite verb with a -conjunction to express in English the Hebrew construction of the -infinitive with a preposition, and the relation of time must be -gathered from the connection, Gesen. § 132, 2, 3. - -7. The watchmen who patrol the city, &c. That the seeking and calling -mentioned in the last verse were not confined to the door, is evident -from this verse. פְצָעוּנִי, הִכּוּנִי are again an asyndeton. רָדִיד, -which occurs only once more, Is. iii. 23, is a kind of veil-garment, -which Oriental ladies still wear, and denotes more properly an out-door -cloak. See Schroeder, Vestit. Mul. p. 368; Gesen. on Isa. iii. 23; -Winer, Bib. Dict. s.v.; Saalschütz, Archäologie der Hebräer, vol. i. p. -28. - -8. I adjure you, &c. Having mentioned the indifference with which she -had treated her beloved, the Shulamite is anxious to impress upon the -court-ladies that this was in a dream, and that in reality, so far from -her affections being abated, she was as dotingly attached to him as -ever; and begs of them, if they should see him, to tell him so. For the -masculine termination in תִּמְצְאוּ אֶתְכֶם and תַּגִּידוּ, see ii. 7. We must -supply הַגִּידוּ לוֹ, tell him, after מַה תַּגִּיודוּ לוֹ, what will you tell -him? The omission is designedly made, to give animation to the request. -The emendation proposed by Houbigant, to read הגידנו, instead of -חגידו, is gratuitous, like all his emendations. The Sept. adds ἐν -ταῖς δυνάμεσιν καὶ ἐν ταῖς ἰσχύσεσιν τοῦ ἀγροῦ, “by the powers, and by -the virtues of the field,” the false rendering of בִּצְבָאוֹת אוֹ בְּאַיְלוֹת -הַשָּׂדֶה, from the preceding formula of adjuration. - -9. What is thy beloved, &c. The great solicitude manifested by the -Shulamite for her beloved, induces the court ladies to ask what -peculiar attractions there were in him more than in an ordinary lover, -to cause such an unusual manifestation of feeling, and thus an -opportunity is afforded her to give a description of him. It is evident -from this question of the court ladies that Solomon is not the beloved -of whom the Shulamite has been speaking in the preceding verses. For -surely these court ladies knew the aspect and character of Solomon -better than the Shulamite. This is, moreover, established beyond doubt -from ch. vi. 2, 3, where the damsel, at the end of the description, -designedly states that the object of her delineation and attachment, is -the shepherd. The particle מִן, prefixed to דוֹד, with which the -comparison is made, expresses the comparative, Gesen. § 191, 1. For -הַיָּפָה בַּנָּשִׁים, see i. 8, and for the form הִשְׁבַּעְתָּנוּ, Ewald, § 249, d. - -10. My beloved is white, &c. The Shulamite answers this question by -giving a very graphic description of her beloved. The colour of his -countenance and body is such a beautiful mingling of white and red as -is seldom seen, and by which he is distinguished above thousands. A -similar description is found in Virg. Æn. xii. 65, seq. - - - Flagrantes perfusa genas: cui plurimus ignem - Subjecit rubor, et calefacta per ora cucurrit. - Indum sanguineo veluti violaverit ostro, - Si quis ebur, aut mixta rubent ubi lilia multâ - Alba rosâ; tales virgo dabat ore colores. - - “At this a flood of tears Lavinia shed; - A crimson blush her beauteous face o’erspread. - Varying her cheeks by turns with white and red. - The driving colours, never at a stay, - Run here and there, and flush and fade away. - Delightful change! thus Indian ivory shows, - Which, with the bordering paint of purple glows; - Or lilies damask by the neighbouring rose.” - - -Comp. also Ovid. Am. ii.; Eleg. v. 39; Hor. Od. i. 13, v. 2; iv. 10; v. -4; Tibul. Eleg. III, 4; vv. 29, 30. צַח, bright, white; compare Lam. -iv. 7, where it stands in parallelism with זַךְ, clear; from the same -passage we also see that the predicates צַח, white, and אָדַם, red, -are not restricted to the countenance, but refer to all the parts of -the body which the Oriental costume left exposed, to the carnation as -it were of the picture. דָּגוּל denom. from דָּגֶל, banner; prop. to be -furnished with a banner, i.e. his singular beauty renders him as -distinguished above multitudes, just as a standard-bearer is marked -above all other soldiers. מִן, more, above, vide supra, ver. 9, רְבָבָה -indefinitely for a large number, see Gesen. xxiv. 60. - -11. His head is as pure gold. That is of consummate excellency. Having -characterized his whole person as charming, the Shulamite describes the -beauty of the individual parts of his body, and begins with his head. -Gold is frequently used, both in Scripture and in profane writers, to -denote consummate excellency and beauty. Thus the illustrious -personages are called gold and fine gold in Lam. iv. 1; and Theocritus -(Idyl. iii. 28.) calls the beautiful Helen golden. The words כֶּתֶם פָּז -are variously rendered. The Sept. has χρυσίου καιφάζ, gold of Cephaz, -Aquila and Sym. λίθεα τοῦ χρυσίου, so the Syriac ܒܐܦܷܐ ܕܕܰܗܒܳܐ, a -precious stone of gold. The Chald. has דְהַב טָב; so the Vulg. aurum -optimum. The Rabbins too vary in their explanations of these words. Ibn -Ezra takes כֶּתֶם to be a diadem, and פָּז, precious stones. Rashi -indefinitely סגולת מלכים, choice things, which kings treasure up. -Rashbam explains כָּתֶם by a heap of gold, and פָּז by זהב מופז, and -says it is called פָּז, “because its colour is like pearl.” The -majority of modern commentators, after the Sept., Vulg., Chald., take -כֶּתֶם as a poetical expression for gold, and derive it from כָּתַם, to -hide, to conceal; like סְגוֹר, gold (Job. xxviii. 15), from סָגַר, to -shut up, to conceal, because precious metals are generally kept shut up -or concealed. This meaning and derivation of the word are supported by -the fact that treasures and precious things are generally expressed in -Hebrew by words whose roots signify to conceal; comp. אוֹצָר, a -treasure (1 Kings vii. 51; xiv. 26), from אָצַר, to shut up; מַטְמוֹן, a -treasure, gold (Isa. liv. 2; Prov. ii. 4), from טָמַן, to hide; צָפוּן, -riches (Job xx. 26), from צָפַן, to conceal. As for פָּז, it is -translated by some purified, pure, from פָּזַז, to separate, to purify -(Gesenius, &c.); and by others solid, massy, from פָּזַז, to be strong, -solid (Rosenmüller, &c.). But פָּז never occurs as an adjective to -כֶּתֶם, or to זָהָב (זָהָב מוּפָז, 1 Kings x. 18, is a contraction of זָהָב -מְאוּפָז, comp. Jer. x. 9); the word itself invariably means gold (see -Job xxvii. 17; Ps. xix. 11; xxi. 4; cxix. 27; Prov. viii. 19; Cant. v. -15; Isa. xiii. 12; Lam. iv. 2.); and accordingly ought to be rendered -so here: “thy head is as gold, gold.” As this, however, would produce -tautology, it is therefore best to take פָּז as a contraction of אוּפָז -(a variation of אוֹפּיר; see Gesenius, s.v.; Henderson on Jer. x. 9, -and Stuart on Dan. x. 5), with which this word goes together, 1 Kings -x. 18; Jer. x. 9; Dan. x. 5. As אוּפָן = כֶּתֶם אוֹפִיר, is regarded as -the best gold; hence the rendering of the Vulg. aurum optimum, and -Chald. דְהַב טָב. - -Black as the raven, i.e. of the purest and most jet black, so highly -esteemed by the Orientals as well as by the classical writers. Thus -Hafiz, as quoted by Dr. Good:— - - - “Thy face is brighter than the cheek of day. - Blacker thy locks than midnight’s deepest sway.” - - -And Ossian, Fingal, 2: “Her hair was the wing of the raven.” Comp. also -Anac. xxix.; Ovid. Am. El. xiv. 9. תַּלְהַּלִּים, is rendered by the Sept. -ἐλαταί, the young leaves of the palm; so the Vulg. sicut elatæ -palmarum; similarly Gesenius, De Wette, &c., pendulous branches of the -palm; but this signification does not lie in the root תָּלַל, which -simply means waving, hanging, or flowing down; hence תַּלְתַּלִּים -(according to the analogy of זַלְזַלִּים and סַלְסַלִּים, comp. Ewald, § 158, -b) flowing curls, locks. - -12. His eyes, like doves, &c. The vivid and black pupils of his eyes, -sparkling forth from the encircling lactean white, in which they are, -as it were, bathing and sitting on the fountain of tears, resemble -doves bathing gaily in pellucid streams. The doves themselves, and not -their eyes, are the point of comparison (vide supra, i. 15, and iv. 1.) -Doves are very fond of bathing, and hence choose for their abode -regions abounding with streams (Boch. Hieroz. ii. 1, c. 2.) The deep -blue or grey dove, reflecting the lustrous dark hue about its neck when -bathing in the limpid brook, suggested this beautiful simile. A similar -figure occurs in the Gitagovinda: “The glances of her eyes played like -a pair of water-birds of azure plumage, that sport near a full-blown -lotos in a pool in the season of dew.” The words רֹחֲצוֹת בֶּחָלָב, bathing -in milk, referring to the eyes, are descriptive of the milky white in -which the black pupils of the eyes are, as it were, bathing. עַל מִלֵּאת, -on the fulness, also referring to the eyes, correspond to the עַל אֲפִיקֵי -מַיִם, by the brooks of water, which are predicated of the doves. -Hodgson’s rendering of יֹשְׁבוֹת עַל מִלֵּאת, by “and dwell among the ripe -corn,” is absurd. - -13. His cheeks are like beds of balsam, &c. His round cheeks with the -pullulating beard, resemble beds growing aromatic plants. The Sept., -Arabic, Æth., Chald., read מְגַדִּלוֹת, the part. Piel, instead of -מִגְדְּלוֹת, which many modern commentators follow, but without MS. -authority. The lily here referred to is most probably the crown -imperial, of a deep red colour, whose leaves contain an aqueous -humidity, which gathers itself in the form of pearls, especially at -noon, and distils clear and pellucid drops; see Rosenmüller, Alther, -iv. 138; Winer, Bib. Dict. s.v. There is, however, no necessity for -referring the words “distilling liquid myrrh,” to the lilies. Indeed, -it seems to be more consonant with the context, to take them as -predicated of the lips, expressing the sweetness of his conversation. -Comp. iv. 11. - -14. His hands are like, &c. His rounded arms and fingers tipped with -well-shaped nails, as if inlaid with precious stones, resemble golden -cylinders: and his white and smooth body, covered with a delicate blue -vest, resembles polished ivory. גָּלִיל (from גָּלַל, to roll), a roller, -a cylinder. Kleuker, Gesenius, Döpke, &c., translate יָדָיו גְּלִילֵי זָהָב -χρυσός, gold, and λίθος, a stone), is of a yellow or gold colour, and -pellucid. Being of a glass lustre, the chrysolite is beautifully chosen -to represent the nails. The words מְמֻלָּאִים בַּתַּרְשִׁישׁ refer to יָדָיו. The -expression מֵעִים, prop. the internal parts of the human frame (v. 4), -is here used for the external = the body; so Dan. ii. 32. עֶשֶׁת is -taken by most modern commentators to denote something fabricated, or -wrought; an artificial work; thus deducing this sense from the -secondary meaning of עָשַׁת, which the Syriac (ܥܰܒܕܳܐ, work,) seems to -favour; but this is incompatible with the description here given of the -beloved. The Shulamite, throughout the whole of this delineation, -depicts the splendour and colour of the body as they dazzle the eye, -but makes no reference to the wondrous construction of the frame, which -could have been discerned only by the exercise of the intellect. It is -therefore better, with Ibn Ezra, Kimchi, Rashi, Rashbam, Luther, Auth. -Version, Mendelssohn, Kleuker, Williams, Good, Hengstenberg, &c. to -take עֶשֶׁת, from עָשַׁת, in its primary meaning, to shine, to be bright, -in the sense of brightness, polish; comp. Jer. v. 28. - -Covered with sapphires. These words refer to his body, and describe the -purple tunic covering the snowy white skin. Good, Meier, &c. take it to -describe the blue veins which were seen through his clear snowy skin, -like a sapphire stone through a thin transparent plate of ivory. But -this is against the meaning of מְעֻלֶּפֶת, which signifies covered, and -not inlaid; the external covering, and not the internal seen through -the outer cover. Commentators are not agreed whether that which we call -the genuine sapphire, a transparent stone of a beautiful sky-blue -colour, in hardness and value next to the diamond, is meant by סַפִּיר; -or the sapphire of the ancients, which, according to Pliny, (Hist. Nat. -xxxvii. 39; Theophrast. De Lapid. 231,) is a stone of a pure blue -colour, and has frequently pebble spots of a golden yellow hue, which -were formerly thought to be really gold, and is evidently our lapis -lazuli, lazure-stone. As the latter does neither suit Job xxviii. 6, -for the lazure-stone is not very precious; nor Exod. xxviii. 18, since -it is too soft to bear engraving, it is more probable that the real -sapphire is meant by סַפִּיר in the Scriptures. This stone is often -found in collections of ancient gems; see Rosenmüller, Bib. Bot. and -Miner.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v. The Syriac, which translates -מְעֻלֶּפֶת סַפִּירִים by ܥܰܠ ܡܰܦܚܳܐ ܣܦܻܝܐܳܐ, upon the sapphire breathing, must -have had another reading. - -15. His legs are like pillars of marble, &c. His white legs, standing -upon beautiful feet, resemble the purest marble columns based upon -golden pedestals. שׁוֹק, as Kimchi well explains it, מה שהוא על הרגל -חליל ויגיע עד הברכים, is that part of the limb from the knee to the -foot. That אַדְנֵי פָז refers to his feet (Ibn Ezra, Rashbam, Kleuker, -Meier, Hitzig, &c.), and not to his sandals (Good, Williams, &c.), is -evident from ver. 11 and 14, where the head and the hands, the visible -parts of the body, are described as golden; and it is but natural that -the feet, the only remaining exposed parts, should also be described as -golden. - -His aspect is like that of Lebanon. Having depicted the single parts of -his body, the Shulamite now joins them together, and presents them in -one whole, the appearance of which impresses the mind with a sense of -beauty and majesty, like that of Lebanon. “That goodly mountain, even -Lebanon” (Deut. iii. 25), being so luxuriant in its vegetation and rich -in scenery, appeared very beautiful and majestic at a distance. -“Lebanon is a noble range of mountains, well worthy of the fame it has -so long maintained. It is cultivated in a wonderful manner, by the help -of terraces, and is still very fertile. We saw on some of its -eminences, more than 2,000 feet high, villages and luxuriant -vegetation; and on some of its peaks, 6,000 feet high, we could discern -tall pines against the clear sky beyond. At first the clouds were on -the lofty summit of the range, but they cleared away, and we saw -Tannin, which is generally regarded as the highest peak of Lebanon. -There is a deep ravine that seems to run up the whole way, and Tannin -rises to the height of 10,000 feet. The rays of the setting sun gave a -splendid tint to the lofty brow of the mountain.”—Mission of Inquiry to -the Jews, p. 240, &c.; comp. also Isa. xxxv. 2; Rosenmüller, Alterth. -i. 2. p. 239; Volney, Travels, i. 293. - -He is distinguished as the cedars, i.e., in his stature. The lofty -cedar, towering above all other trees, is easily distinguished from the -rest (Ezek. xxxi. 3–16; Amos ii. 9). A similar comparison occurs in -Theocritus, xviii. 30, as quoted above, i. 9. The Chald., Ewald, -Magnus, Philippson, &c., take בַּחוּר for young man, youth; comp. Ruth -iii. 10; Isa. lxii. 5, “A young man like the cedars;” but the point of -comparison is lost in this case. Besides, we should then expect the -sing. אֶרֶז, and not the plur. אֲרָזִים. Moreover, 2 Kings xix. 23, and -Jer. xxii. 7, where the same phrase מִבְחַר אֲרָזִים is used, is against -it. - -16. His voice is exquisitely sweet, &c. The members, after being -analysed separately, have been viewed as a whole; but the beautiful -person thus described is inanimate, like the splendid marble columns or -the lofty cedars, to which she had compared him. In this verse the -Shulamite represents the charms of his speech; and thus affirms his -whole person, bodily and mentally, as most lovely. “Such,” she -triumphantly exclaims, “is my friend; and now, ye daughters of -Jerusalem, judge for yourselves wherein my beloved is more than another -beloved.” חֵךְ, prop. palate, is used for the organ of speech, and -speech itself, Job vi. 30; xxxi. 10; Prov. v. 3. That חֵךְ here does -not mean any part of the body, is evident from the context; for it -would be preposterous to recur to the palate or mouth after the whole -person had been described. מַמְתַּקִּים and מַחֲמַדִּים are abstracts (see i. -2), adjectively used (Gesen. § 106, 1, Rem. 1), to give intensity to -the idea; comp. Gen. i. 2. כֻּלּוֹ, his whole person, bodily and -mentally. - -1. Whither is thy beloved gone, &c.? The court ladies, moved by this -charming description, inquire of the Shulamite what direction he took, -and offer to seek him. The word הַגִּדִי is omitted after דֹודֵךְ, for the -sake of brevity and pathos. For the superlative force of הַיָפָה בַּנָּשִׁים, -vide supra, i. 8. - -2, 3. My beloved is gone down into his garden, &c. The Shulamite, -knowing that the court ladies are anxious to induce her to transfer her -affections to the king, replies in a vague manner, that he is gone to -his garden, he is not lost, nor has her affection to him abated, though -they are now separated, nor does she fear that his love for her is -diminished. This incontestably proves that the object of the damsel’s -affection, of whom she gave a description in the preceding, is not the -king, but, as she herself tells us here most unequivocally, a shepherd. -For ver. 3, comp. chap. ii. 16. - -4. Graceful art thou, O my love, &c. Just as before (i. 9), Solomon -made his appearance as soon as the Shulamite inquired after her -beloved, so here he comes forward again when she speaks of her absent -lover; thus endeavouring to show his own attachment to her. He -addresses her, as before, in the most flattering terms: “Thou art as -graceful as the delectable Tirzah, as charming as the delightful -Jerusalem, as striking and conquering as an imposing army in full -battle array.” Tirzah was the royal residence of the kings of Israel -after the revolt of Rehoboam, and retained that distinction till the -time of Omri, who built Samaria (1 Kings x. 15–21; xvi. 14; 2 Kings xv. -4). It was a city of fascinating appearance, as its name, תִּרְצָה, -delightful, indicates; and hence yielded a very flattering comparison. -The Sept. takes תִּרְצָה as an appellative, ὡς εὐδοκία; so Aquila, κατ’ -εὐδοκίαν, Sym. εὐδοκήτη, Syriac, ܐܝܰܟ ܨܶܒܝܳܢܳܐ The Chald. paraphrases it -בִּזְמַן דצְבוּתֵךְ, in the time of thy willingness, and Rashi inclines to -it; the Vulg. has suavis et decora. But there can be no doubt, as Ibn -Ezra, Rashbam, and all modern commentators take it, that it is a proper -name, Tirzah, the capital of Jeroboam’s kingdom. It may be that the -ancient versions resorted to the expediency of taking תִּרְצָה as an -appellative, because they wished to avoid the contrast of the two -capitals, since this would speak against Solomon being the author of -this book. Jerusalem, “the perfection of beauty” (Lam. ii. 15), -afforded another excellent figure. - -Awe-inspiring as bannered hosts! The fascinating power of a woman is -frequently compared to the prowess of an armed host. Comp. Prov. vii. -26. אָיוֹם, which occurs once more in connexion with נוֹרָא, Hab. i. 7, -means awful, awe-inspiring, imposing. נִדְגָּלוֹת, Niph. part. prop. -bannered, people furnished, or arrayed with banners, hence armies, -hosts. The feminine is here used to express a collective idea; comp. -אֹרְחוֹת, caravans, Isa. xxi. 13; Gesen. § 107, 3 d; Ewald, § 179 c. - -5. Turn away thine eyes from me, &c. These awe-inspiring hosts are -described as concentrated in her eyes, which Solomon implores the -Shulamite to remove from him. “The artillery of the eyes,” says Dr. -Good, in loco, “is an idea common to poets of every nation.” Thus -Anacreon, xvi. - - - Σὺ μὲν λέγεις τὰ Θήβης, - Ὁ δ’ αὖ Φρυγῶν ἀϋτάς· - Ἐγὼ δ’ ἐμὰς ἁλώσεις. - Οὐχ ἵππος ὤλεσέν με, - Οὐ πεζὸς, οὐχὶ νῆες· - Στρατὸς δὲ καινὸς ἄλλος, - Ἀπ’ ὀμμάτων με βάλων. - - “Sing thou of Thebes—let others tell - How Troy’s foundations rose and fell; - My numbers shall alone repeat - My own rencounters and defeat. - Me fleets and armies ne’er appal— - ’Tis to a different host I fall: - A host within thine eyes, my fair, - That lurk and ply their arrows there.” - - -Comp. also Ode ii. רָהַב, in Kal, to tremble (Isa. lx. 5), and Hiphil, -to cause to tremble or fear, to frighten, to awe. Similarly the Sept. -ἀνεπτέρωσάν με. Vulg. me avolare fecerunt, “they make me flee for -fear;” and the Syriac ܐܰܪܗܶܒ, they make me fear. The explanation of Ibn -Ezra, חזקו ממני, which is followed by the Authorized Version, cannot -be deduced from the root; nor does it suit the context. Equally -untenable is the explanation הגיסו לבי, Rashi and Rashbam. For הֵם, -mas, with עֵינַיִךְ, fem. see supra, iv. 9. - -6, 7. Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep, &c. For the interpretation -of the second half of ver. 5 and vers. 6, 7, see iv. 1–3, where the -same description is given, with the exception that there קְצוּבוֹת is -used for sheep, and here רְחֵלִים, and that the first half of ver. 3 is -here omitted in the Hebrew, which is here given by the Sept. We cannot -refrain from quoting the beautiful explanation of these figures from -the manuscript commentary of Immanuel: תלתלי שערך ושורותיו נופלים זה -על זה לדמיון עדר העזים שהם נתלים זה על זה בהרים ושניך הﬦ לבניﬦ ושויﬦ -לדמיון עדר הרחליﬦ, שצמדם לבן והם עולים מן הרחצה שכלם מתאימות שב אל שניה -שהם שוות, ושכולה אין בהם שאין שן משניה נגרע ונחסר או הם תואר הרחלים שהם -שוות ואין בהם שכילה וכן שניה דומות אליהם. The Septuagint adds after -וְשַׁכֻּלָּה אֵין בָּהֶם, and not one among them is bereaved, in ver. 6; ὡς -σπαρτίον τὸ κόκκινον χείλη σου, καὶ λαλιά σου ὠραία, like a braid of -scarlet are thy lips, and thy mouth is lovely, from chap iv. 3. - -8, 9. I have threescore queens, &c. The flattery and praise here exceed -all that have been previously offered. Solomon protests that, though he -is surrounded by a numerous retinue of women of all ranks, the -Shulamite is the sole possessor of his heart: she who is the best -beloved of her mother, and whose consummate beauty has elicited the -highest praises from the queens, concubines and maidens. The -discrepancy between the number of Solomon’s wives and concubines here -stated, and that described in 1 Kings xi. 3, maybe reconciled by taking -שִׁשִׁים, שְׁמֹנִים and אֵין מִסְפָּר for indefinite and large numbers: many, -very many, without number: so Kleuker, Rosenmüller, Magnus, &c. “We -must supply לִי, to me, after הֵמָּה, there. For הֵמָּה, mas, instead of -הֵנָּה, fem., see ii. 7. The pronoun הִיא, she, is the subject in all -the three clauses, and אַחַת in the first and second clause, and בַּרָה -in the third are predicates. We must supply לִי after אַחַת הִיא, she -is my only one; just as אַחַת הִיא לְאִמָּה. The word אֶחָד is used for the -only one of its kind (Job xxiii. 13; Ezek. ii. 64; vii. 5), favourite; -comp. גּוֹי אֶחָד בָּאָרֶץ, 2 Sam. vii. 23. - -10. Who is she that looks forth, &c. That Solomon quotes here the -eulogy mentioned in the preceding verse, which the court ladies -pronounced upon the superlative beauty of the Shulamite when they first -beheld her, has long been recognised by the Rabbins, and is now -admitted by most interpreters. This is, moreover, confirmed by Prov. -xxxi. 28, where the same words, אִשֵּׁר and הַלֵּל, are used, and the -following verse contains the eulogy which the husband utters. The -rising morning, with its red light looking down from heaven over the -mountains (Joel ii. 2); the beautiful and placid complexion of the -moon, and the refulgent and resplendent appearance of the sun, have -often afforded, both to the Oriental and to the Greek and Latin -writers, exquisite similes for beauty and grandeur. Thus Sirach (l. 5, -6), describing the High Priest, says:— - - - “How splendid he was in his interview with the people. - In his coming out from the house of the veil! - As the morning star amid the clouds, - As the moon when full in her days, - As the sun when beaming upon the temple of the Most High.” - - -Comp. also Rev. i. 16; Theocritus’ description of Helen, xviii. 26–28; -Lane’s Arabian Nights, i. 29. חַמָּה and לְבָנָח are poetical epithets -for the sun and moon, Isa. xxiv. 23. - -11, 12. I went down into the nut-garden, &c. As Solomon had referred, -in uttering his encomium, to her first coming within sight of the court -ladies, the Shulamite here instantly interrupts the king, in order to -explain how that came to pass. “I did not go to meet the king, to -exhibit myself and be admired by him or his royal retinue; I merely -went into the garden with the intention of seeing whether there were -any herbs to take home for use, and whether the fruit promised well; -and this (נַפְשִׁי) intention of mine brought me unawares near the -monarch and his cortége.” Though אֱגוֹז, nut-tree, (so Sept., Vulg., -Chald.,) nut occurs nowhere else in the Old Testament, yet its meaning -is established from the cognate languages, and its frequent usage in -the Talmud and latter Hebrew writers, רָאָה ב, to look among (Gen. -xxxiv.), with the intention of choosing that which pleases, Gen. vi. 2. -אִבֵּי הַנָּחַל, the green or vegetables growing by the river side; so the -Sept. γενήματι τοῦ χειμάῤῥου, and Rashbam, על שפת הנחל. The Sept. has -here שָׁם אֶתֵּן אֶת דּוֹדַי לָךְ, from chap. vii. 14, which the Arabic, -Æthiopic, and several modern commentators wrongly follow, as it has no -MS. authority, and has evidently arisen from a misunderstanding of this -passage. - -12. Unwittingly, &c. This verse has caused much perplexity to -interpreters. The ancient versions, finding the sense obscure, have -altered almost every word, and hence increased the difficulty. Thus the -Sept. has οὐκ ἔγνω ἡ ψυχή μου· ἔθετό με ἅρματα Ἀμιναδάβ, which Luther -follows: “Meine Seele wusste es nicht, dass er mich zum Wagen Aminadib -gezetzt hatte:” They take נֶפֶשׁ as the subject, alter לֹא יָדַעְתִּי, the -first person com., into לֹא יָדְעָה, the third fem., to agree with נֶפֶשׁ, -a fem. noun, שָׂמַתְנִי, the third fem., into שַׂמְנִי, the third masc. -referring it to Solomon, and regard עַמִּי נָדִיב as a proper name. The -Vulg. has Nescivi, anima mea conturbavit me propter quadrigas Aminadab; -altering שָׂמַתְנִי, the Kal of שׂוּם, to put, to place, into the Hiphil -of שָׂמֵם, to be astonished, מַרְכְּבוֹת into מֵרִכְבוֹת, the plural of -רֶכֶב, with the preposition מ, and taking עַמִּי נָדִיב as a proper -name. Passing over these textual alterations, and the emendations -proposed by modern commentators, as unauthorized, we shall first -examine the words as they are in the text, and then the most plausible -interpretations deducible therefrom. לֹא יָדַעְתִּי are rightly taken by -most, though differing in their opinion as to the rendering of the -remainder of the verse, as adverbial, in the sense of suddenly, -unwittingly, and as subordinate to נַפְשִׁי שָׂמַתְנִי, my soul has -unwittingly put me, or placed me; comp. Job v. 9; Isa. xlvii. 11; Jer. -l. 24. The verb שׂוּם, to put, to place, may be construed with two -accusatives, one of the person, and the other of the thing; and -מַרְכְּבוֹת may be taken as the second accusative (comp. Ps. xxxix. 9; 1 -Sam. viii. 1; Mich. i. 7), or מַרְכְּבוֹת may be taken as a designation of -place after שׂוּם, a verb of motion; comp. Isa. xl. 26. מֶרְכָּבָה, a -chariot, used for warlike purposes, or for state or pleasure, Gen. -xlvi. 29; Exod. xv. 4; 2 Sam. xv. 1. The expression עַמִּי may either -mean populares mei—(the Hebrews having no separate word for -“countryman,” use this expression to denote one of their own people -(Gesen. xxiii. 11; Lam. ii. 11), and נָדִיב may be an adjective for -הַנַּדִיב, as the article is sometimes omitted through following a noun -with suffix)—or עַמִּי may here be used, like עִישׁ, for companions, -attendants, followers, (Eccl. iv. 16,) the י in עַמִּי not being a -suffix, but paragogic, and a mark of the const. state (Deut. xxxiii. -16; Lam. i. 1), and נָדִיב, a noun in the genitive of the king or -prince. As to how much stress there is to be laid on the Sept., which -takes עַמִּי נָדִיב as a proper name, and is followed by the Arabic, -Æthiop., Vulg., and which also produced some variations in the -orthography of these words, we need only refer to vii. 2, where the -same version renders בַּת נָדִיב by θυγάτηρ Ἀμιναδὰβ. The verse, -therefore, may either be translated: “My soul has unwittingly made me -the chariots of my noble countrymen,” or, “My soul has unwittingly -placed at, or brought me to the chariots of my noble people, or to the -chariots of the companions of the prince.” Now against the first -rendering we urge, in the first place, that if the chariots be taken in -the accusative, and hence in a figurative sense, we are unavoidably led -into a bewildering maze of conjectural and fanciful opinions. The -following may serve as a specimen. Rashi takes the chariots to be a -sign of ignominy. נפשי שמתני להיות מרכבות להרכיב עלי נדיבות שאר -אומות, “My soul has made me to be chariots for foreign princes to ride -upon”; i.e. I have willingly brought upon me a foreign yoke. Ibn Ezra -takes the chariots as a figure for swiftness, לא ידעתי שהייתי הולכת -במרוצה אליך כמו מרכבות עמי נדיב הגדול שיש בעמי, “I did not know that I -was hurrying on to thee with the rapidity of the chariots of the great -prince who is among my people;” which the Syriac, ܐܳܐ ܝܶܕܥܰܬ ܢܰܦܫܝ ܣܳܡܬܰܥܝ -ܒܡܳܪܒܳܒܬܐ, though sharing somewhat in the errors of the Sept. and Vulg., -seems to favour. Herder takes the chariots as a symbol of martial -power, guard, and protection (Ps. xx. 8; 2 Kings ii. 11, 12). -Hengstenberg affirms that the chariots signify champion, guard, -defence. And secondly, this translation interrupts the connexion of -this verse with the preceding one. Now the second rendering avoids all -this. Solomon has repeated in verse 10 the praise which the court -ladies had pronounced on the Shulamite when they first saw her; the -Shulamite (in ver. 11, 12), in reply, explains how she came to the -carriages of the court ladies. - -1. Return, return, &c. Here we see how little all the persuasions, -promises, and eulogies of the king and courtiers affected the sincere -and deeply rooted affections of the Shulamite for her beloved shepherd. -No sooner had she explained (as she incidentally informs us) how she -came to be noticed and taken up by the king, than she actually started -off. But the king entreated her to return, that he might look at her -once more. The Shulamite, pausing a little, turns round and modestly -asks: - -What will you behold in the Shulamite? That is, what can ye see in a -humble rustic girl? הַשּׁוּלַמּית, as is evident from the article, is a -gentile noun, according to the analogy of הַשּׁוּנַמִּית, (1 Kings i. 3; 2 -Kings iv. 12, 25.) Ewald, § 156 c: and a female inhabitant of Shulem, -i.q. Shunem. Shulem still exists as a village, now called Sôlam, about -three miles and a half north of Zerîn, (Jezreel), and lies on the -declivity, at the western end of the mountain of Duhy, the so-called -Little Hermon. “There is little room for doubt that it is the ancient -Shunem of the tribe of Issachar, where the Philistines encamped before -Saul’s last battle, (Josh. xix. 18; 1 Sam. xxviii. 4.) From the same -place, apparently, Abishag the Shunammite was brought to the aged -David; and here it was probably that Elisha often lodged in the house -of the Shunammite woman, and afterwards raised her son from the dead (1 -Kings i. 3; 2 Kings iv. 8–37; viii. 1–6). Eusebius and Jerome describe -it in their day as a village lying five Roman miles from Mount Tabor, -towards the southern quarter, and they write the name already Sulem.” -Robinson, Palestine, iii. 169, &c. The transition of ל into נ is of -frequent occurrence; comp. לָחַץ and נָחַץ, to burn. (Gesen. Lexicon, -ל a; Ewald, § 156, c.) שׁוּלַמִּית is not the feminine of the name -שְׁלֹמֹה, which would be שְׁלֹמִית; comp. Lev. xxiv. 11; 1 Chron. iii. 19; -Ewald, § 274, f. - -Like a dance to double choirs, replies the king, i.e. “to see thee is -like gazing at the charming view of a festive choir expressing their -merriment in a sacred dance. The Hebrews, in common with other nations -(Strabo, 10), used sacred dancing, accompanied by vocal and -instrumental music, as expressive of joy and rejoicing (Exod. xv. 20; 2 -Sam. vi. 15; Ps. cxlix. 3). A sight of such an assemblage of various -beauties, all swelling their voices into one song of joy, and blending -their several forms in one choral dance of joy, must have afforded a -delightful picture. No wonder that such a scene is described by Homer -(Iliad, xviii. 590,) as portrayed on the famous shield of Achilles, and -that - - - “On either side spectators numerous stood, - Delighted.” - - -To this charming scene, therefore, does the captivated monarch compare -the view of the Shulamite. מְחוֹלָה, from חוּל, to turn round, a dance, -the joyous dancing on a festive occasion. ַחְנֶה, prop. a camp, also a -multitude, a band of people, Gen. l. 9. מַחֲנַיִם is the regular dual, -and not the plural (Sept., Vulg., Gesenius, Döpke, &c.), and is here -used because this dance consisted of a band arranged in a double line, -something like our country dance. On the different kinds of Oriental -dances, see Rosenmüller, Orient. ii. 19–22; Wilkinson, Manners, &c., -ii. 328–340. Saalschütz, Archäologie der Hebräer, vol. i. 302. The -words כִּמְחֹלַת הַמַּחֲנַיִם have elicited a variety of interpretations. Some -take מַחֲנַיִם as a proper name, and say that reference is here made to -some particular mode of worship practised in that place in consequence -of Jacob’s sojourn there; but this is purely imaginary. Others again -suppose that an allusion is made to Gen. xxxii. 2, 3, and hence render -מַחֲנַיִם by מַחֲנֵי אֱלֹהִים or צְבָאוֹת; but this is unfounded, since we -have not the slightest intimation in that passage that the angels were -engaged in dancing. - -2. How beautiful are thy feet in sandals! The Shulamite, in obedience -to the king’s request, returns, and as she advances, Solomon is -arrested by her beautiful feet, with which he begins his last highly -flattering delineation of her beauty, and his last attempt to win her -affections. נְעָלִים, Chald. סַנְדְלִין, sandals, formed an important part -of an Oriental costume (Ezek. xvi. 10; Judith xvi. 9). The ladies -bestowed great pains upon, and evinced much taste in ornamenting this -article of dress, which attracted the notice of the opposite sex. בַּת -נָדִיב does not mean a descendant of a titled family, but, according to -a common Hebrew idiom, which applies בַּת בֵּן, and other terms of human -kindred to relations of every kind, expresses that she herself was of a -noble character. Comp. 1 Sam. i. 16; Gesen. § 106, 2 a; Ewald, § 287 f. - -The circuits of thy thighs like ornaments, &c. To describe the -beautiful appearance of an object, the Orientals frequently compared it -to some precious metal or gem; see supra, v. 11; Prov. xxv. 12. The -simple metal or gem, however, seems not to suffice here to express the -exquisite symmetry of these parts of the body; they are, therefore, -compared with some beautifully-wrought and highly-finished ornaments, -formed of such materials. The rendering of פְּעָמִים by steps (Sept., -Vulg., Ewald, Döpke, Hengstenberg, &c.), and חַמוּקֵי by Schwingungen, -movements (Hengstenberg), is contrary to the scope of the description, -which obviously depicts the several members of the body (beginning with -the feet and gradually ascending to the head), and not their actions. -חֲלָאִים is not the dual (Luther), but the plural; according to the -analogy of צְבִי, צְבָאִים; פְּתִי, פְּתָאִים. The א in the plural is -preferred to the י in consequence of the preceding A sound. Gesen. § -93, 66; Ewald, § 186 e. - -3. Thy navel is like a round goblet, &c. The reference and the import -of the figure are obvious. מֶזֶג, i.q. מֶסֶךְ, mixture, mixed wine. The -ancients were in the habit of mixing wine with spices, to make it more -stimulating and exciting. Wine thus mixed was called יַיִן הַרֶקַח, viii. -2, the vinum aromatites of the Greeks and Romans. (Comp. Ps. lxxv. 9; -Prov. ix. 5; Isa. v. 22; Mishna, Maaser sheni, ii. 1; Baba Mez. v. 2; -Pliny, Hist. Nat. xiv. 15; Gesen. Thesaurus, p. 808; Winer, Bib. Dict. -s.v.) שָׁרְרֵךְ is one of the few instances in which עע״ are resolved -before suffixes, owing to the broadness of the vowels when preceding -ל, or ר. Comp. גַּל with suffix גַּלְלוֹ: צִלְלוֹ צַל: הַרֲרָם הַר, -Ewald, § 265; Fürst, Lexicon, s.v. –גַל. The particle אַל expresses a -subjective wish, Gesen. Lexicon, אַל, ii. 6, Ewald, § 320. - -Thy body is like a heap of wheat, &c. The point of analogy seems to -subsist between the appearance of the body and that of a quantity of -corn heaped up, עֲרַמָה, which Ibn Ezra well explains עבה מלמטה ודקה -מלמעלה; so also Rashbam. Remembering that corpulency was deemed -essential to an Eastern beauty, this comparison will appear obvious. -Selden, who is followed by others, takes this passage as a prediction -of the bride’s fertility: as:—“Wheat and barley were among the ancient -Hebrews emblems of fertility; and it was usual for standers-by to -scatter these grains upon the married couple, with a wish that they -might increase and multiply.” Uxor Hebraica, lib. ii. cap. 15. “A -custom,” adds Williams, “which might probably originate from this -passage, or vice versâ.” - -But though it is true that it was a common practice among the Jews at -marriages to distribute among the company dried seeds (Talm. -Chethuboth, ii. 1), probably to indicate a wish that the newly-married -couple might be fruitful, it does not follow that it was the practice -at so early an age, or that it is the meaning here. Were this the sense -here, we should expect that the Jewish commentators, who well knew and -practised the manners and customs of their own people, would have -recognised it. Whereas, Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, &c., explain this -figure as referring to the appearance. - -Hedged round with, &c. The threshing-floors in ancient times were in -the open air; and when the wheat had been threshed out, fanned and -heaped up, each heap was stuck round with thorns, in order to keep off -the cattle. (Hos. ii. 5, 6.) To render the figure more beautiful, and -the compliment more flattering, the enamoured king changes the hedge of -thorns into a fence of lilies. Others, however, refer these words to a -robe embroidered with lilies, covering her body; and others, again, to -some ancient custom of surrounding or covering the newly-threshed heap -of wheat with a sort of garland of flowers, indicating the joy of the -husbandman at the return of the harvest. - -4, 5. Thy bosom is like, &c. These verses, with a little variation -arising from the fact that a different person is the speaker here, -contain the same figures as iv. 4, 5. The comparison between the -beautiful symmetry, erect bearing, and ivory colour of the neck, and -between the elegant structure, lofty altitude, and white colour of a -tower, appears more striking and apposite from the description given by -Josephus of the towers of Jerusalem: “They were so very tall, they -appeared much taller by the place on which they stood; for that very -old wall, wherein they were, was built on a high hill, and was itself a -kind of elevation that was still thirty cubits taller, over which were -the towers situated, and thereby were made much higher to appearance. -The largeness also of the stones was wonderful; for they were not made -of common small stones, nor of such large ones only as men could carry, -but they were of white marble, cut out of the rocks: each stone was -twenty cubits in length, and ten cubits in breadth, and five in depth. -They were so exactly united to one another, that each tower looked like -one entire block of stone, so growing naturally, and afterwards cut by -the hand of the artificer into the present shape and corners; so -little, or not at all, did their joints or connexion appear.” (Jewish -War, book v. chap. iv. 4.—Whiston’s translation.) The comparison of the -neck with ivory is also used by Anacreon (Ode xxix. 28, 29), in his -description of Bathyllus:— - - - Τὸν Ἀδώνιδος παρελθὼν - ἐλεφάντινος τράχηλος. - - “But never can thy pencil trace - His ivory neck of Paphian grace.” - - -Thine eyes, &c. That is, are as bright and serene as the celebrated -translucent pools of this city. Heshbon, a town in the southern parts -of the Hebrew territory, about twenty miles east of the point where the -Jordan enters the Dead Sea, originally belonged to the Moabites (Numb. -xxi. 25), and afterwards came into possession of the Amorite king Sihon -(ibid.; Deut. ii. 24; Josh. iii. 10). It was conquered by Moses shortly -before his death (Numb. xxi. 25), and was first assigned to the tribe -of Reuben (Numb. xxxii. 37; Josh. xiii. 17), and afterwards to the -tribe of Gad, and became a Levitical city (Josh. xxi. 39; 1 Chron. vi. -81). It was retaken by the Moabites when the ten tribes were carried -into exile (Isa. xv. 4; xvi. 9; Jer. xlviii. 2), but the Jews conquered -it again afterwards (Joseph. Antiq. lib. xiii.) The ruins of Heshbon, -the name by which the place is still known, have been visited and -described by modern travellers. (Burckhardt, Travels, p. 365; Biblical -Repos. for 1833, p. 650; Robinson, Palestine, ii. 278.) Heshbon was the -pride of Moab, was famous for its fertility, verdure of plantation, and -beautiful reservoirs. Hence the simile here. A similar comparison is -used by Ovid, De Arte Ama. ii. 722:— - - - “Adspicies oculos tremulo fulgare meiantes, - Ut sol a liquida saepe refulget aqua.” - - -בַּת רַבִּים is well explained by Rashbam, the populous, שרוב בני העיר -יוצאין ונכנסין בה, “because, through it a multitude of the inhabitants -of the town walk in and out;” שהרבים באים להסתכל שם, “because it is -the chief place of concourse.” בַּת, daughter, like בֶּן, son, is -idiomatically used in Hebrew to express quality. Compare בֶּן־שֶׁמֶן, a -son of fatness, i.e. fat; Isa. v. 1, and supra, vii. 2. The Septuagint, -which is followed by the Vulgate, not understanding this idiom, renders -it literally ἐν πύλαις θυγατρὸς πολλῶν, by the gates of the daughter of -many. - -Thy nose, &c. This tower must have contained a projection or an -overhanging part, celebrated for its great symmetry and elegance. Hence -the comparison between the beautifully projecting tower and the -well-proportioned nose. - -6. Thy head upon thee, &c. כַּרְמֶל stands here for כַּרְמִיל, purpura; so -Ibn Gamach, Ibn Ezra, Fürst, &c. This shell-fish is of a spiral form, -and “the exquisite juice which is so greatly sought after for the -purpose of dyeing cloth is situate in the middle of the throat. This -secretion consists of a tiny drop contained in a white vein, from which -the precious liquid used for dyeing is distilled, being of the tint of -a rose, somewhat inclined to black.” Pliny, Hist. Nat. ix. 60, 61; -Arist. Hist. Anim. lib. v. c. 14. The simile here subsists between the -spiral form of this shell-fish and the pyramidal shape in which the -hair was anciently tied up on the top of the head. The Chinese and -other Eastern women still wear their hair rolled up into a knot or -bunch at the top of the head; and even in this country ladies used to -dress their hair in a somewhat similar manner. The rendering of the -ancient versions of כַּרְמָל, by Mount Carmel, which the majority of -modern interpreters follow: they take the simile to be between the -beautiful appearance of the bride’s head and the charming, luxuriant, -and picturesque summit of this celebrated mountain; but this is against -the parallelism and 2 Chron. ii. 16, 13; iii. 14. כַּרְמֶל = כַּרְמִיל is -derived from כָּרַם, to be shiningly red, with –ִיל appended, according -to the analogy of פְּתִיגִיל; vide Fürst, Lexicon in voce; or it may be -that this shell-fish was so called because it was found on the shore -near Carmel. At all events, there is no need to look for the etymology -of this word out of the Shemitic family. - -And the tresses, &c. Fine hair is frequently compared by the Greeks and -Romans with purple. Thus Anacreon, xxviii. 11, 13. - - - γράφε δ’ ἐξ ὅλης παρειῆς - ὑπὸ πορφύραισι χαίσταις - ἐλεφάντινον μέτωπον. - - Then paint, from her full cheeks, - Beneath her purple hair, - Her ivory forehead. - - -Compare also Virgil, Georg. i. 405; Tibul. i. 4, 63. The purple here -referred to is that kind which Pliny describes as “nigrans adspectu -idemque suspectu refulgens.” אַרְגָּמָן, the costly colour extracted from -the shell-fish, is from רָגַם, kind. רָקַם, to colour, with the -prostetic א and termination –ָן; vide supra, chap. iii. 9. - -The king is captivated, &c. The ringlets, like the lashes of the -eyelids, are frequently represented as the net of love. Prov. vi. 25; -Sirach ix. 3, 4. Thus Jami, in his Joseph and Zuleikha, chap. i., as -quoted by Dr. Good, says:— - - - “When Love in graceful ringlets plants his toils, - The fool he catches, and the wise man foils; - But, thence released, the sage his snare discerns, - And Reason’s lamp with wonted lustre burns.” - - -מֶלֶךְ stands for הַמֶּלֶךְ; the article is not unfrequently omitted in -poetry; comp. Ps. ii. 2; xxi. 2; Gesen. § 109; Ewald, § 277, b. רָהִיט, -a ringlet, so called from its flowing down over the shoulders; vide -supra, chap. i. 16. The construction of מֶלֶךְ with אַרְגָּמָן, i.e. royal -purple (one of the Greek translators in the Hexapla, Vulgate, Syriac, -Luther, Houbigant, &c.), is against the punctuation and the evenness of -the metre, interferes with the interpretation of the remaining words, -and has evidently arisen from a misunderstanding of the passage. -Besides, no people is known by such a name. It was owing to a feeling -of being consistent that the editor of Calmet felt himself constrained -to take אַרְגָּמָן as a proper name, Argamen, to correspond with the -parallel כַּרְמֶל; and to explain this clause as alluding to a particular -mode of plaiting the hair, like the weaving of Arech, a city in -Babylonia, supposed to be famous for its weaving manufactories. - -How beautiful, &c. The captivated king, having described the beauty of -the several parts of the body, now combines the separate members into -one lovely form, and endows it with life and fascination, which none of -the inanimate beauties to which he had compared her, however admirable, -possessed. אַהֲבָה, love, abstract for concrete, loved one, vide supra, -chap. v. 1. תַּעֲנוּג, charm, attraction, such as living beings possess. -Aquila and the Syriac, separating the word בְּתַּעֲנֻגִים, render it θυγάτηρ -τρυφῶν, בַּת עֲנֻגִים. - -7. This thy growth, &c. The beautiful growth of the palm-tree, like -that of the cedar and cypress, supplied a forcible image to the -ancients. Thus the Son of Sirach, xxiv. 13, 14:— - - - “I grew up as a cedar of Lebanon, - And as a cypress upon Mount Hermon; - I grew up as a palm-tree in En-gedi, - And as a rose-tree in Jericho.” - - -Comp. also Homer, Odyss. vi. 162, and supra, chap. v. 15. אֶשְׁכֹּל, -bunch, cluster, of grapes, dates, or flowers; the context must decide -which. Here, from its close proximity to תָּמָר, palm-tree, dates are -most probably intended. For the etymology of אֶשְׁכֹּל, see supra, chap. -i. 14; and for its form, both here and in ver. 9, Ewald, § 212 d. - -8. I long to climb, &c. After this flattering description Solomon tells -the Shulamite how greatly he desires, and how happy he should be to -enjoy, the affections of one so lovely and charming. We earnestly -request those who maintain the allegorical interpretation of the Song -seriously to reflect whether this verse, and indeed the whole of this -address, can be put into the mouth of Christ as speaking to the Church. -Would not our minds recoil with horror were we to hear a Christian -using it publicly, or even privately, to illustrate the love of Christ -for his Church?—אָמַר, to speak, also to wish, to desire, Gen. xliv. -28; Exod. ii. 14; 1 Sam. xx. 4. אָמַרְתִּי does not express the past, but -the present; comp. דָמְתָה in the preceding verse; Gesen. § 126, 3; -Ewald, § 135 b. The second verb אֶעֱלֶה is subordinate to the first, -vide supra, chap. ii. 3. גֶּפֶן is added to אֶשְׁכֹּל, to distinguish it -from the dates in ver. 7. - -And the odour of thy breath, &c. That is, be as sweet and as quickening -as that of apples. אַף is used in preference to פֶּה, because the -nostril, or the breathing (which אַף literally means) is regarded by -the Hebrews as that which in distension betokens pleasure, anger, &c. -The appropriateness of this expression will be more manifest when we -remember that hitherto all that the Shulamite showed towards Solomon -were resistance and independence. There is also a play of words here, -אַף being derived from אָנַף, to breathe, and תַּפּוּחַ, from נָפַח, to -breathe. Hodgson strangely renders וְרֵיחַ אַפֵף, “the fragrance of thy -face,” because several MSS. read אפיך with a yod. - -9. And thy speech, &c. That is, Let thy language to me be as the -sweetness of delicious wine. Rosenmüller, Döpke, De Wette, Noyes, -Delitzsch, Hengstenberg, &c., put these words into the mouth of the -maiden. But it is incredible that this modest woman would approve of -these expressions with regard to her own person, and that she would -continue the words דּוֹבֵב שִׂפְתֵי יְשֵׁינִים. חֵךְ, palate, metonymically for -speech; vide supra, chap. v. 16. טוֹב is used as a substantive, and -placed in the genitive after יַיִן; comp. Ps. xxi. 4; Prov. xxiv. 25; -Ewald, § 287 b. The phrase הֹלֵךְ לְמֵישָׁרִים describes the smooth or mellow -wine, which is of a very superior quality, and highly prized, Prov. -xxiii. 31. The expression לְדוֹדִי is added in order to describe still -more forcibly the nature of the wine, and affords a more striking -illustration of the pleasantness of the damsel’s speech. Her voice is -not merely compared to wine, valued because it is sweet to everybody; -but to such wine as would be sweet to a friend, and on that account is -more valuable and pleasant. Ammon, Ewald, Heiligstedt, Hitzig, &c. -regard לְדוֹדִי as having erroneously crept in here from ver. 11, whilst -Velthusen, Meier, &c. point it לְדוֹדַי in the plural; but this is -unsupported by MSS. Hodgson, taking לְדוֹדִי for לְדוֹדִים, translates it -ad amores, delightfully, corresponding to לְמֵישָׁרִיﬦ in the next clause. -But this rendering, to say the least, is contrary to the general -meaning of this word. The rendering of Williams, “which I sent to those -whom I love for their integrity,” is preposterous. - -And causes slumbering lips, &c. The wine is of such an animating -nature, that it even causes silent lips to speak. Thus Horace, Epist. -lib. i. Ep. v. 19:— - - - Fecundi calices quem non fecere disertum? - - “Whom have not soul-inspiring cups made eloquent?” - - -Others, however, with less probability, explain these words to mean -wine of so excellent a flavour, as to induce those who have indulged in -it to dream of it, and converse about it; or wine so delicious and -tempting that it leads to excess, in consequence of which the drinkers -fall asleep, and then either disclose the subject of their dream, or -mutter unintelligible words. דּוֹבֵב is not gently flowing, suffusing -(Ewald, Döpke, Gesenius, De Wette, Lee, Magnus, Noyes, Meier, -Philippson, Hitzig, &c.), but causing to speak (Vulg., Rashi, Ibn Ezra, -Rashbam, Mendelssohn, Kleuker, Hengstenberg, Fürst, Delitzsch, &c.) -This is corroborated by the derivative דִּבָּה, which primarily means -something spoken, a report, either good or bad, as is evident from Gen. -xxvii. 2; Numb. xiv. 37, where the adjective רָעֳה, evil, is joined to -it; and from Ezek. xxxvi. 3, where it stands in parallelism with שְׂפַת -לָשׁוֹן, and by the frequent usage in the Talmud and other Hebrew writers -of the word דָּבַב, for speaking. דּוֹבֵב is the Poel of דָּבַב, a form -frequently used in verbs ע״ע (comp. הֹולֵל, Eccl. vii. 7; סוֹבֵב, Ps. -lix. 7; Gesen. § 67, 8), and, like the Piel, is often the causative of -Kal, Gesen. § 55, 1. The Sept., Vulg., Sym., Syr., read שְׂפָתַיִﬦ וְשִׁנַּיִﬦ, -the lips and the teeth, instead of שִׂפְתֵי יְשֵׁנִיﬦ; but this is neither -supported by MSS., nor yields a better sense. - -10. I belong to my beloved, &c. The Shulamite gently but decidedly -refuses the wishes of the king, declaring that her affections are fixed -on one whom she ardently loves, and on whom alone it is her sacred duty -to look. Even Ibn Ezra and Rashbam, though explaining it differently, -admit that the maiden here refuses the petitioner of the last verse on -the plea that she belonged to her beloved. עָלַי, lit. on me, i.e. it -is upon me as a duty. עַל is frequently used to denote duty or -obligation, which rests upon one like a burden, and must be discharged. -Thus עָלַי לָתֵת, “it was my duty to give,” 2 Sam. xviii. 11; זִבְחֵי שְׁלָמִיﬦ -עָלַי, “peace-offerings are due from me,” Prov. vii. 14; Gesen. Lexicon, -עַל A. 1, α γ. Ewald, § 217, 4 γ. The suffix in תְּשׁוּקָתוֹ expresses the -object, i.e. the desire for him. This is often the case; comp. יִרְאָתוֹ, -his fear, i.e. the fear for him, Exod. xx. 20; Gesen. § 121, 5; Ewald, -§ 286 b. We thus obtain the same sense of this clause which Hodgson -gives it, without changing the words into זעליו תשוקתי, upon the -slender authority of one MS. to support the first, and three MSS. to -support the second alteration. - -11. Come, my beloved, &c. Having distinctly and finally refused the -king, who forthwith quitted her, the Shulamite now addresses her -beloved shepherd, who approached her, urging their departure from the -royal palace for their festive bowers in Nature’s hall. The want of -separate names, or initial letters of names, generally used in profane -composition to indicate the speaker or the person spoken to, is amply -supplied here by the skill of the inspired poet in putting into the -mouth of the Shulamite such rural language as shows most plainly that -she was a rustic maiden, and that her beloved, whom she here addresses, -is a shepherd. Comp. also chap. i. 7; ii. 8; v. 2, 4, &c. To ascribe -these words to a princess addressing king Solomon is preposterous. -Döderlein, Ewald, Meier, &c., take כְּפָרִיﬦ as the plural of כֹּפֶר, -cypress, vide supra, i. 14; iv. 13; but 1 Chron. xxvii. 25, where -כְּפָרִיﬦ, like here, coupled with שָׂדֶה, field, forms a contrast to -עִיר, city, is against it. הַשָּדֶה is the accusative of place, 1 Sam. -xx. 11; Gesen. § 118, 1. - -12. We will go early, &c. Transported with the thought of her speedy -arrival at her mother’s house, the Shulamite vividly depicts to her -beloved the scenes of home, where they will again together enjoy rural -life. It may be that Milton thought of this passage when he wrote the -words:— - - - “To-morrow, ere fresh morning streak the east - With first approach of light, we must be risen, - And at our pleasant labour, to reform - Yon flowery arbours, yonder alleys green, - Our walks at noon with branches overgrown.” - - Paradise Lost, iv. 623, &c. - - -נַשְׁכִּימָה לַכְּרָמִים is constructio praegnans, and is well explained by -Rashbam, נשכימה לטייל בכרמיﬦ, “we will rise early to stroll in the -vineyards.” Comp. Gen. xliv. 33; Numb. xiv. 24; Gesen. § 141. - -There will I give, &c. The shepherd, gladdened with the fact that his -loved one is restored to him, is desirous of expressing his joy and -affection, but the Shulamite, anxious to get off as quickly as -possible, tells him that at home, amidst the charms of nature, they may -indulge in sweet effusions of love. The Sept. and Vulg. have here again -דַּדַּיִם, breasts, instead of דֹודִים, love. But in addition to what has -already been remarked, we would state that whenever breasts are -mentioned in this Song, שָׁדַיִם is invariably used. - -13. The mandrakes diffuse, &c. Another reason for hastening away from -the royal prison into the rural home. There nothing will be wanting; -they have there the highly prized apples, they have all sorts of -precious fruit, which she left on the trees for him. A similar passage -occurs in Virgil, Ecl. i. 37, where the loved one kept fruit on the -tree for her lover:— - - - Mirabar, quid moesta deos, Amarylli, vocares; - Cui pendere suâ patereris in arbore poma: - Tityrus hinc aberat. - - “We stood amazed to see your mistress mourn; - Unknowing that she pined for your return: - We wonder’d why she kept her fruit so long, - For whom so late th’ ungather’d apples hung: - But no, the wonder ceases, since I see - She kept them only, Tityrus, for thee.” - - -דּוּדָאִים, which occurs only once more, (Gen. xxx. 14), is, according to -the testimony of the ancient versions, the mass of commentators and -modern travellers, the mandrake-plant, Atropa mandragora, called -yabrochack by the Arabs, the fruit of which is highly valued by the -Orientals for its supposed exhilarating, aphrodisiac, and procreative -properties. “It grows low, like lettuce, to which its leaves have a -strong resemblance, except that they have a dark green colour. The -flowers are purple, and the root is for the most part forked. The -fruit, when ripe, in the beginning of May, is of the size and colour of -a small apple, exceedingly ruddy, and of a most agreeable flavour.” See -Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit.; Winer, Bib. Dict. s.v. Here, however, this -plant is mentioned merely to fill out the picture of charming and -highly prized plants, without reference to any supposed internal -properties, and has evidently been suggested by the preceding דּוֹדִי, -beloved. דּוּדָאִים, lit. love-apples, is the plural of דּוּדַי, from the -root דּוּד, to love, with the termination –ַי, like לוּלָאוֹת, the -plural of לוּלַי, from the root לוּל. Gesen. § 93, 6, 6; Ewald, § 189 -g. וְעַל פְּתַחֵינוּ is well explained by Rashbam, אצל פתח פרדס שלנו, “in -our garden, close to our door,” &c. עַל has not unfrequently the sense -of neighbourhood and contiguity. Gesen. Lexicon, עַל 3. Others however -render עַל, over, i.e. “and over our doors grow,” &c.; others again -translate in, i.e. “in our house are,” &c., taking פֶּתַח in the sense -of house; comp. Prov. xiv. 19, but with less probability. Houbigant’s -transposition of letters, viz. על תפחינו, in nostris malis aureis, -instead of על פתחינו, is an idle conjecture. - -1. Oh that thou wert as my brother, &c. The charming description which -the Shulamite gave of their happiness when at home, recalled to her -mind the obstacles which they met with, even there; and hence she is -led to wish that he had sustained to her the relation of a brother, -that, whether in the street or the house, none might misinterpret or -interrupt the manifestation of their attachment. מִי יִתֵּן is used to -express the optative. Comp. Deut. v. 29; xxviii. 67; Ps. xiv. 7; Job -vi. 8; Gesen. § 136, 1; Ewald, § 329 c. כְּאָח is the accusative. The -rendering of the Septuag., Τὶς δῴη σε, ἀδελφιδέ μου, θηλάζοντα μαστοὺς -μητρός μου; and Luther, “O dass ich dich, mein Bruder, der du meiner -Mutter Brüste saugest, draussen fände,” are wrong. יֹונֵק שְׂדֵי אִמִּי, does -not mean “an infant still sucking the breasts.” (Grotius, Gill, Good, -Williams, &c.), but “one who had sucked and is now a youth;” it is the -second accusative to מִי יִתֶּנְךָ, and stands in parallelism with אָח, -brother; like the participle יֹולֶדֶת (which does not mean one who just -gave birth), and אֵﬦ, vide supra, chap. vi. 9. אֶמְצָאֲךָ is conditional, -with the particle אִﬦ implied, Judg. xi. 36; Prov. xxiv. 10; Ewald, § -367 b. גַם is used poetically for וְ, and, Judg. v. 4; Joel i. 12. -יָבֻזוּ: the third person is used to express the indeterminate third -person, the passive in English. Gen. xli. 14; Gesen. § 157, 3. For -לִי, me, five MSS. and two editions read לָךְ, thee, which Ewald -adopts. But this is against the majority of MSS. and all the versions, -and does not at all improve the sense. - -2. I would lead thee, &c. As a brother, she could unreservedly bring -him from the spot, where she met him in the street, to her mother’s -house. We must supply מִשָּׁם, thence, before אֱנְהָגְךָ; so Rashbam. Simple -as the word תְּלַמְּדֵנִי seems to be, it has nevertheless produced a -variety of renderings. The Septuagint and Syriac, followed by Percy, -entirely omit it, and interpolate here וְאֶל חֶדֶר הוֹרָתִי, and into the -apartment of her who gave me birth, from chap. iii. 4; after בֵית אִמִּי, -the house of my mother. Ibn Ezra, the Authorized Version, Kleuker, -Döderlein, Hitzig, &c., supply אֲשֶׁר, who, before תְּלַמְּדֵנִי, and refer -it to אִמִּי, my mother. But this interrupts the construction, and, -against the scope of the description, introduces the mother as an -actress. Hodgson and the editor of Calmet, strangely enough, render it -Talmudni, as a proper name of the maiden’s mother. The most natural way -seems to be to take it with the Vulgate, Chaldee, Rashbam, Luther, -Ewald, Döpke, De Wette, Delitzsch, Hengstenberg, Philippson, &c., as -the second person masculine. - -I would cause thee to drink, &c. On the aromatic wine, see supra, chap. -vii. 3. The pomegranate-juice was and still is a favourite beverage in -the East. “The Orientals,” says Dr. Kitto, “indulge largely in -beverages made with fresh juice of various kinds of fruits. Among -these, sherbet made with pomegranate-juice is particularly esteemed, -and, from its agreeable and cooling acidity, the present writer was -himself accustomed to prefer it to any other drink of this -description.” יַיִן, is either an anomalous construct (Gesenius; Fürst, -Lex. s.v.), or the absolute, and הַרֶקַח, apposition in the accusative. -Compare מַיִם לַחַץ, 1 Kings xx. 27; Gesen. § 116, 6, Rem. b; Ewald, § -287 h. אֶשָׁקְךָ and אֲשְׁקְךָ are a paranomasia, vide supra, chap. i. 3. -עַסִיס רִמֹּנִי, my pomegranate-juice, i.e. which I myself have prepared. -The noun in the genitive, expressing the quality of the nominative, has -the suffix; compare הַר קָדְשִׁי, my holy mountain, Ps. ii. 6; Gesen. § -121 b; Ewald, § 291 b. From an oversight of this most probably arose -the readings of רמנים or רמונים (several MSS.), רִמֹּנַי (Vulgate, -Syriac), the supposition that רִמֹּנִי is an adjective (Schultens), and -the opinion that it is an abbreviated plural from רִמֹנִים, like מִּנִּי -for מִנִּים, (Ps. xlv. 9, Meier, Fürst, Lexicon, מ, 3 b.) - -3. Let his left hand, &c. Exhausted with the attempt to describe her -unfailing attachment for her beloved shepherd, an attachment far deeper -than external circumstances permit her to manifest, the Shulamite -desires that no other hand should raise her drooping head, no other arm -support her enfeebled frame, than those of her beloved; compare chap. -ii. 6. - -4. I adjure you, &c. This last affecting scene, having brought the -Shulamite’s struggle to a successful termination, is closed by her -adjuring the court ladies as before (ii. 7, and v. 3), to make no more -attempt to draw her affections away from her beloved to any one else, -since they were unalterably fixed. The Septuagint, which is followed by -Good, &c., supplies here בִּצְבָאוֹת אוֹ בְּאַיְלוֹת הַשָּׂדֶה, from ii. 7, and v. 3. -It is obvious, from the change of אִם into the more urgent negative -particle מַה, (comp. Job xxxi.; Ewald, § 325 b), that the variation is -designedly made; and indeed the haste in which the Shulamite is to -depart with her beloved does not permit her to use the lengthy -adjuration. - -5. Who is it that comes up, &c. The last successful resistance secured -for the Shulamite her liberty. Convinced that even the blandishments of -a king cannot overcome the power of virtuous love in the heart of a -rustic damsel; satisfied that “all the wealth of his house” could not -buy it, Solomon dismisses her. Then, reunited to her beloved shepherd, -the happy pair immediately depart for home. As they approach their -native place the inhabitants, beholding them at a distance, exclaim, -“Who is it that comes up from the plain, leaning upon her beloved?” -הַמִּדְבָּר, the plain (vide supra, iii. 6), most probably the plain of -Esdraelon, at present known by the name of Merij Ibn ’Amir, lying -between Jezreel and Sulem (Robinson, Palestine, iii. 169), which the -lovers had to cross on their way home. מִתְרַפָּקֶת (from רָפַק, to lean; -hence מַרְפֵּק, an arm, on which one leans, Talm. Sabbath, 92), -supporting herself, being weary with so long a journey. So the Sept. -ἐπιστηριζομένη; the Vulg. innixa, &c. As for the additional -λελευκανθισμένη in the Sept., and deliciis affluens in the Vulg., the -one most probably arose from the word בָּרַה, used in chap. vi. 10, -where a similar question occurs, and the other from a marginal gloss, -מתפנקת or מתנענעת. - -Under this apple-tree, &c. As they drew nearer home they beheld the -endeared spot—the memorable shady tree under which the shepherd was -born, and where their mutual love was first kindled. These sweet -musings are at length terminated by the Shulamite, who joyfully -recounts the pleasing reminiscences of that place. The frequent -meetings of shepherds and shepherdesses under shady trees, (vide supra, -chap. i. 7), often resulted in the formation of a sacred tie. The -solemn vow of love was then engraven on the bark of the tree, as a -witness of their union. Thus Theocritus, Idyl. xviii. 47, 48:— - - - γράμματα δ’ ἐν φλοιῷ γεγράψεται, ὡς παριών τις - ἀννείμῃ, Δωριστὶ, σέβου μ’· Ἑλένας φυτὸν εἰμί. - - “——and on the bark, - In Doric, shall be engraven for all to mark, - ‘To me pay honour—I am Helen’s tree.’” - - -Compare also Idyl. xxiii. 46; Propert. I. xviii. 22; Virg. Ecl. x. 53; -and Pope, Past. iii. 66, 67. - -Here thy mother, &c. Confinements in the open air are of frequent -occurrence in the East (Gen. xv. 16). “There are in Asia,” says Dr. -Chardin in his manuscript notes, “large districts in which no midwives -are to be found, and even if some live there they are little known, for -mothers assist their daughters, and often female relatives or -neighbours fill the place of the former. In Kurman, I saw a woman who -was delivered without any assistance in the open fields, three hours -from a village, and to my great surprise, she arrived not much later in -town where I was. The people there smiled at my astonishment, remarking -that similar cases were very frequent in their country.” (See -Rosenmüller, Orient. i. 188; Paxton, Illustrations of Scripture, i. -462; Kalisch on Exod. p. 18.) עוֹרֵר, to excite, to move to love, vide -supra, ii. 7; iii. 5; viii. 4. חִבְּלָתְךָ does not mean conceived thee -(Aquila, Schultens, Hitzig, &c.), which the Shulamite could not know, -nor plighted, or engaged thee, (Houbigant, Michaelis, Percy, Kleuker, -Good, Williams, Boothroyd, Magnus, Meier, &c.), which is contrary to -the Piel signification of this verb, but signifies laboured with thee, -(Sept., Syriac, Chaldee, Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, Luther, Ewald, De -Wette, Gesenius, Philippson, &c.); compare Ps. vii. 15, and Hupheld in -loco. To put these words into the mouth of the bridegroom as addressing -his bride, (Percy, Good, Williams, Boothroyd, Delitzsch, Hitzig, &c.), -is contrary to the words in the text, which have masculine suffixes. -The form חִבְּלָתְךָ is used instead of חִבְּלַתְךָ, to correspond in sound -with יָלְדָתְךָ in pause, vide supra, iii. 11. יָלְרָתְךָ, i.q. יָלְדָה אוֹתְךָ. -The Vulgate, which seems here to savour of allegorism, translates שָׁמָּה -חִבְּלָתְךָ אִמֶּךָ שָׁמָּה חִבְּלָּה יְלָדָתְךָ, ibi corrupta est mater tua, ibi violata est -genitrix tua. “The tree,” the Roman Catholics explain of the cross; -“the individual” excited to love under it, the Gentiles redeemed by -Christ at the foot of the cross; and “the deflowered and corrupted -mother” means, the synagogue of the Jews (the mother of the Church), -which was corrupted by denying and crucifying the Saviour. - -6. Oh, place me as a seal, &c. That is, “Let me be near and dear to -thee.” The Shulamite, having shown her faithfulness during a period of -extraordinary trials, could now look up to the witnessing tree with an -inward satisfaction. It is therefore very natural that she should -remind her beloved, in the presence of this witness, of his vows. In -ancient times, when the art of writing was confined to a very few, and -writing materials were not so easily procurable, rings or signets, with -names engraven upon them, were generally used as manual signs. This -contrivance for a signature soon became used as an ornament. People who -could afford it had these seals or signets made of silver or gold, -inlaid with precious stones. Being indispensable articles of use, and -highly prized as decorations, they were carried in the bosom, suspended -from the neck by a string (Gen. xxxviii. 15), or were worn on the right -hand (Jer. xxii. 24; Sirach xlix. 11), and thus became a symbol of what -is dear and indispensable. Jehovah himself uses this metaphor, Jer. -xxii. 24:— - - - “Though Coniah, the son of Jehoiakim, king of Judah, - Were as a seal on my right hand, - Yet I would pluck thee thence.” - - -Comp. also Hag. ii. 23; Sirach xvii. 22; Rosenmüller, Orient. vi. 252; -i. 183; iv. 190; Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v. - -For love is strong as death, &c. True love seizes with a tenacious -grasp. Like death, it rules with resistless sway; like Hades, it is -never moved to give up its object: neither power nor prayer can -overcome it. קָשָׁה, hard, firm, inexorable. קִנְּאָה is not jealousy -(Sept., Vulg., Authorized Version, Percy, Kleuker, Good, Williams, -&c.), but devout affection, ardent love (Ewald, Gesenius, De Wette, -Noyes, Meier, Hitzig, Philippson &c.); it is here used as an -intensitive term for love, as is evident from the parallelism and the -connexion. - -The flames of the Eternal. These words are exegetical of “flames of -fire;” i.e. the flames of love, though having the same energy as those -of fire, are not of the same origin; they emanate from the Eternal, the -source of all love. Whether, with Ben Asher, we read שַׁלְהָבָתְיָהּ, -conjointly, like מַאֲפָלְיָהּ, Jer. ii. 31; or with Ben Naphtali, שַׁלְהֶבָת -יָהּ, separately, which is followed by most editions, Rashi, Ibn Ezra, -and the majority of modern critics, and which is required by the -parallelism; this predicate does not state that the flames of love are -“most vehement,” but affirms that they emanate from the Eternal. יָה, -an abbreviation of יַהֲוֶה (see Kalisch on Exod. iii. 14; xi. 2; Fürst, -Lexicon, s.v.), like אֵל, Isa. xiv. 13, is the genitive of cause or -origin. Comp. ἡ ἀγάπη ἐκ τοῦ Θεοῦ ἔστι, 1 John iv. 7. שַׁלְהֵב, flame, -may either be a quadriliteral, formed from שַׁהֵב, Arabic, to burn, with -the insertion of the ל after the first radical, according to the -analogy of זַלְעַף, violent heat, (Ps. ii. 6), from the root זָעַף, to -be hot; or, which is more probable, is the Shaphel conjugation of -לָהַב, to burn. Fürst, Lexicon, s.v.; Gesen. § 55, 6; Ewald, § 122 a. -The Sept. has φλόγες αὐτῆς, שִׁלְהָבֹתֶיהָ. That the original reading of the -text was שַׁלְהֲבֹתֶיהָ שַׁלְהֲבֹת יָהּ (Ewald, Döpke, Hitzig, &c.) is purely -conjectural. - -7. Floods cannot quench love. Being a flame of celestial origin no -terrestrial influence, however great, can destroy or wash it away; it -is not subjected to means resorted to for the extinction of ordinary -fires. מַיִם רַבִּים, prop. much water, i.e. a great quantity of it (Numb. -xx. 11), floods. שָׁטַף, to wash, or sweep away, Job xiv. 19; Isa. -xxviii. 17. - -If one should offer all, &c. Such divine love spontaneously flows from -the heart, and cannot be purchased with money; though one offered all -his riches for it, they would be utterly despised. This affirmation, -whilst true in itself, is levelled against the king, who attempted to -gain love by flatteries and praises (vide supra, i. 11; vi. 8), but was -utterly rejected (vii. 11). אִישׁ any one, one, Gen. xiii. 16; Exod. -xvi. 29; Gesen. § 122, Rem. 2. בּוֹז, the infinitive absolute, is -employed before the finite verb יָבוּזוּ, to express intensity, Gen. -xliii. 3; 1 Sam. xx. 6; Gesen. § 131, 3 a; Ewald, § 280 b. יָבוּזוּ, the -third person plural, is used for the passive, see supra, chap. viii. 1. - -8. Our sister is still young, &c. The brothers are here introduced, on -the arrival of the Shulamite, as repeating the promise which they had -once given to their sister if she kept virtuous, and, when espoused, -remained true to her vows. One of the brothers inquires of the others -what they should do for the Shulamite when she reached womanhood, and -is demanded in marriage. אֲחוֹת לָנוּ, i.q. אֲחוֹתֵינוּ, our sister, and is -well rendered by the Sept. ἀδελφὴ ἡμῶν, the Vulg. soror nostra, Luther, -unsere Schwester. The adjective קָטוֹן, like גָדוֹל, prop. denoting -size, is also used with reference to age. Gen. ix. 24; xxvii. 15; Judg. -xv. 2. שָׁדַיִם אֵין לָהּ, i.e. she has not yet reached puberty. בְּיוֹﬦ, -when, Gen. ii. 4. דִבֵּר בְּ, to speak for, to demand in marriage, 1 Sam. -xiii. 9; xxv. 39. - -9. If she be like a wall, &c. To this inquiry the second brother -replied, that if, having reached that age, she should firmly resist -every allurement as a battlement resists the attack of an enemy, they -would decorate her as an impregnable wall; i.e. highly reward her. The -expression “wall” is figuratively used for impregnability, Jer. ii. 18; -so Immanuel, שעמדה הזקה כהומה. The silver turret here mentioned most -probably refers to the silver horn, a highly prized ornament which -women wear on their heads. “One of the most extraordinary parts of the -attire of their females” (Druses of Lebanon), says Dr. Macmichael, “is -a silver horn, sometimes studded with jewels, worn on the head in -various positions, distinguishing different conditions. A married woman -has it affixed to the right side of the head, a widow to the left, and -a virgin is pointed out by its being placed on the very crown. Over -this silver projection the long veil is thrown, with which they so -completely conceal their faces as to rarely have more than one eye -(vide supra, chap. iv. 9), visible.” Comp. also Bowring, Report on -Syria, p. 8. - -But if she be like a door, &c. That is, accessible (vide supra, chap. -iv. 12), she shall be barricaded with cedar planks—be punished by being -locked up. The word “door” is metaphorically used for open to -seduction. The cedar wood is mentioned because it is exceedingly -strong, and increases the idea of strict vigilance. Similarly Immanuel, -ואם דלת שכבר נפתח נצור עליה לרח ארז כלמ׳ נביאה במצור ונסגור בעדה שלﬡ -תראה, וכלוה אדז שהוה הזק ותקיף. - -10. I am a wall, &c. The Shulamite now triumphantly responds, that she -had proved impregnable as a wall, and had now reached womanhood, and -therefore the promised reward was due to her. שָׁדַי כַּמִּגְדָלוֹת, i.q. שָׁדַי -נָכֹנוּ, Ezek. xvi. 7, is well explained by Rashbam, הגיע זמני להינשא, -my time for marriage has arrived, and is an answer to שָׁדַיִם אֵין לָהּ, in -the preceding verse. - -Then I was in his eyes, &c. That is, in her brother’s eyes. He now, -being convinced of his sister’s chastity, gave her the reward of -virtue. The suffix in בְּעֵינָיו, his eyes, does not refer to Solomon -(Ewald, Hitzig, Philippson, &c.), whose name has not been mentioned, -but to the brother (Ibn Ezra, &c.), who last spoke. שָׁלוֹם, peace, has -no reference to the name שְׁלֹמֹה, but is used in the sense of חַן, -favour, and refers to chap. i. 6; comp. Gen. xxxiv. 7 with ver. 11. - -11. Solomon had a vineyard, &c. Having been obliged, when demanding her -promised reward, to describe her virtue as an impregnable wall, the -Shulamite now relates more circumstantially how she had resisted the -attempt to gain her affections. Solomon had a large vineyard in -Baal-hammon, which he offered to consign to her if she granted his -request; but the Shulamite refused his offer, telling him he might keep -his large estate to himself, for she was quite satisfied with her -humble possession. Many are the conjectures hazarded as to the locality -of Baal-hammon, which occurs nowhere else, and no place is known by -this name. It is taken for Baal-Gad, or Heliopolis (Rosenmüller, Bib. -Geog. ii. p. 253), for חַמּוֹן, Hammon, a place in the tribe of Asher, -Josh. xix. 28 (Ewald), and for Βελαμὼν or Βαλαμὼν, Belamon or Balamon, -a place mentioned in the book of Judith, viii. 3, not far from the -plain of Esdraelon, Judith iii. 9 (Meier, Hitzig). It is, however, more -probable, according to Rashi, that Baal-hammon was in or near -Jerusalem, and was called בַּעַל הַמּוֹן, place of the multitude, because -its beauties and charms attracted a multitude of people, thus -presenting a greater temptation for the Shulamite. The Vulgate -strangely renders כֶּרֶם הָיָה לִשְׁלֹמֹה בְּבַעַל הַמּוֹן, vinea fuit pacifico in ea, -quae habet populos. - -He let out the vineyard, &c. This is intended to show the value of the -vineyard. It was so extensive that it was leased out to a number of -tenants, and every one of them paid a thousand shekels annually, and -yet had two hundred shekels left for himself. נֹטְרִיﬦ, an indefinite -number of keepers or farmers. אִישׁ each, vide supra, ver. 7. The -suffix in בְפִרְיוֹ, his fruit, refers to כֶּרֶם, vineyard, which is -masculine. כֶּסֶף, silver, stands for שֶׁקֶל כֶּסֶף, silver shekel: -substantives denoting weight, measure, or time, are frequently omitted. -Gen. xx. 16; xxxvii. 28; Acts xix. 9; Gesen. § 120, 4, Rem. 2; Ewald, § -287 i. The amount of a shekel is supposed to be about two shillings and -sevenpence. The shekel of the sanctuary, however, like all the weights -and measures of the Temple, was computed at double the ordinary. See -Ezek. xlv. 12; 1 Kings x. 17; comp. with 2 Chron. ix. 16; Mishna, -Shekalim, Maaser Sheni; Winer, Bib. Dict. s.v. A thousand shekels, -therefore, would be about one hundred and thirty pounds. Remembering -that each of these farmers had to pay this sum annually, and that money -in those days had fifteen or twenty, nay, according to Michaelis (Mos. -Rech. § 243), fifty times its present value, we shall be able to judge -of the allurement which this ample estate offered. - -12. I will keep my own vineyard, &c. And yet, notwithstanding all this, -the Shulamite prefers to keep her little vineyard, and be with her -beloved shepherd, rather than unfaithfully give him up for riches and -honours. כַּרְמִי שֶׁלִּי, my own vineyard, the vineyard which belongs to me; -vide supra, chap. i. 6. לְפָנָי lit. is before me; it is mine, and I -will keep it: this is obvious from the immediately following לְךָ, -thine, keep thou it. The words הָאֶלֶף לְךָ וגו״ are to be taken as an -exclamatory phrase, Ewald, § 329 a. אֶלֶף is here used collectively for -all the thousands put together, which come in annually from the -farmers; so מָאתַיִם, the two hundreds. The Vulgate translates here -again the proper שְׁלֹמֹה, mille tui pacifici. - -13. O thou that dwellest in the gardens, &c. The companions of the -shepherd, who had manifested their joy at the successful arrival of the -happy pair (vide supra, ver. 5), and rejoice that one of their humble -occupation has brought such honour upon the whole class, visit the -Shulamite, to hear from her own mouth her avowed attachment to her -beloved. The shepherd, therefore, requests her to gratify this desire. -She is no more הַיּוֹשֶׁבֶת בְּחַדְרֵי הַמֶּלֶךְ, sitting in the apartments of the -king, vide supra, chap. i. 4, but has the honourable appellation of -הַיּוֹשֶׁבֶת בַּגָנִים, dwelling in the gardens. חֲבֵרִיﬦ, companions, i.e. my -companions, fellow-shepherds, i. 8. - -14. Haste, O my beloved, &c. The Shulamite complies with the request. -In the presence of all, she calls the shepherd her beloved, and tells -him always to hasten to her with the speed of the swift-footed gazelle; -vide supra ii. 9, 17. He has no more to cross “the mountains of -separation” (see ii. 17), for they are united. These rugged mountains -have now given place to the much-wished-for aromatic hills, iv. 6. - - - - - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] אמר ר״ש בן עזאי מקובל אני מפי שבעים ושנים זקנים ביום שהושיבו את ר׳ -אליעזרבן עוריה בישובה ששיר השירם וקהלת מטמאים את הירים. אמר ר׳ עקיבה חם -ושׁלום לא נחלק אדִם מישראל עדֹ שיר השיריﬦ שלא תטמא את הידים שאין כל העולֹם -כדאי כיום שכתן בו שיר השירים לישראל, שכל הכובים קרש ושיר השירים קדש -קושים. As the phrase מטמא את הידים, polluting the hands, has -recently been quoted by Dr. Davidson (The Text of the Old Testament, -&c. p. 796), in direct contrariety to its meaning, we shall here give -an explanation of it. Let it be observed, that in the Mishna, whence -the above passage is quoted, the phrase is applied to all the Holy -Scriptures (כל כתבי הקדש מטמאין את הידים). The reason of this is -given in the Talmud, (Sabbath, 14 a,) where the question is asked, why -Holy Writ is reckoned among the eighteen subjects which are decreed as -polluting the hands? The answer there given is, because the -Theruma-food and the Thorah, both being regarded as holy, used to be -placed near each other. When it was afterwards discovered that the -sacred books were thereby exposed to danger (damage by mice), the -Rabbins decreed that they should henceforth be regarded as unclean, in -order to prohibit them from coming in contact with those sacred -eatables. Hence the decree כל כתבי הקדש מטמאין את הידים, all Holy -Scripture pollutes the hands, which exclusively applies to holy, i.e. -inspired books. Wherever, therefore, it is said that a book is מטמא את -הידים, polluting the hands, it affirms that it is canonical; and when -it is said אין מטמא את הידים, it does not pollute the hands, it means -that the book is not canonical. Thus we are told שיר השירים מטמא את -הידים שנאמר ברוח הקדש, “the Song of Songs pollutes the hands because -it is inspired.” And of the non-canonical ספר בן סיר׳ וכל הספרים -שנכתבו מכאן ואליך אינן מטמאין את הידיﬦ, “The book of the Son of -Sirach, and all the books written from that time and afterwards, do not -pollute the hands.” - -[2] Baba Bathra, 14. - -[3] Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. iv. 26. - -[4] For a full elucidation of this verse, see Henderson, “Divine -Inspiration,” pp. 219–224. - -[5] See Gesenius, Lexicon in voce. - -[6] Herodotus, i. 196. - -[7] Ælian, V. H. iv. 1. Strabo, xvi. 745. - -[8] Homer, Odyss. viii. 318, &c.; Pausanias, iii. 12, 2. - -[9] Tacitus, Germ. xviii. - -[10] Michaelis, the Laws of Moses, § 85; Rosenmüller, Orient. i. p. -132, &c.; Grant’s Nestorians, p. 214; Perkins, Eight Years in Persia, -p. 236. - -[11] Est. ii. 3, 14, 15; iv. 4; Joseph. Ant. lib. xv. c. 7, 4. - -[12] Plutarch’s Lives. Themistocles. - -[13] Alexander, History of Women, Introd. p. vii. - -[14] Lane, Arabian Nights, Vol. I. pp. 38, 39. - -[15] Euripides, Iphi. in Aulis. - -[16] Ant. lib. iv. c. 8, 15. - -[17] Hilochoth Eduth, c. ix. 1. - -[18] This is the date according to Aristobulus, which has, however, -been questioned. See Frankel, Vorstudien zu der Septuaginta; De Wette, -Einleitung, §§ 40, 41; Herzog, Real-Encyklopädie für protestantische -Theologie, art. Alexandrinische Bibelübersetzung; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. -Lit., under Septuagint. - -[19] Hävernick’s Einleitung Dritter Theil, p. 475. - -[20] Ewald, p. 34. Döpke, philologisch-critischer Commentar zum -Hohenliede, p. 34. - -[21] Vide Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit., art. Wisdom of Jesus; De Wette, -Einleitung, § 316. - -[22] Keil, in Hävernick’s Einleitung Dritter Theil, p. 476. - -[23] Das Hohelied Salomonis, p. 254. - -[24] Vide Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit., under, Wisdom of Solomon; De Wette, -Einleitung, § 314. - -[25] Rosenmüller, Scholia, p. 270, sqq. Delitzsch, Das Hohelied, p. 66. - -[26] Cont. Apion. 1. § 8. - -[27] Kleuker, Samlung der Gedichte Salomon’s, p. 54. Hengstenberg, p. -255. - -[28] Vide Stuart on the Old Testament Canon, sect. 12, p. 245. -Davidson’s Edit. Henderson, Divine Inspiration, p. 349. - -[29] Succa ad fin. - -[30] Torath Cohanim. Tosiftha Synhedrin, c. 7. Aboth di R. Nathan, c. -27. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, Dritter Band, p. 211. - -[31] Vide Jost, Allgemeine Geschichte des Israelitischen Volkes (1850), -Zweiter Band, pp. 63, 130, sqq. 153, Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, -Dritter Band, p. 210. Vierter Band, pp. 243–246, 441–443, 446, 473. -Zunz, Vorträge, p. 52. - -[32] א״ר יהושע בן לוי מאי דכתיב צרור המור רודי לי בן סרי ילין אמר׳ -כגסת ישׁראל לפגי הקב״ה רב״שע אף ע״ס שמיצר ומימר לי דורי גף שרי ילין -אשכול הכופר דודי לי בכרמי עפ גדי מי סהכל טלו מכפר לי על עון גדי סכרמתי -לי מאי משמע דהאי כרמי לישגא דמכניש הרה אמר בר זוטרא בריה דרב נחמן כדתנן -כסא של כינס שכורמי עליו את הכלימ: וא״ר יהושע בן לוי מאי דכתיב לחייר -כערגת הבושם כל דיבור ודיבור שיצא מפי הקב״ה נתמלא כל העולם כולו בשמים -וכּיון שמדיביר ראשון נתמלא דיבור שני להכין הלך חוציא הקב״ה חרוח -מאוצרותיו והיה מעביר ראשון ראשון שו״א שפתותיו שושנים נוטפות מור עובר אל -היקרי שושנים אלא ששונים: וא״ר יהושע בן לוי כל דיבור וריבור שיצא מפי -הקב״ה יצתה נשמתן של ישראל שנ״א נפשי יצאה בדברו ומאחר שמדיבור ראשון יצתה -נשמתן דיבור שני היאן קיבלו הוריד טל שעתּיד להחיות בו מתים והחיה אותם -שנא״ נשם נרבות חניף אלהים נחלת. ונלאה אתה כוננתה. מסנת שבת פח - -[33] Daily Bible Illustrations, the Song of Songs, p. 449. - -[34] Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Zweite Auflage, Erster Theil, -Erste Abtheilung, § 82, p. 401. - -[35] The Hebrew word יין, consisting of two יי 20, and ן 50, -caused this explanation. This mode of interpretation is called -גֵימַטְרִיָּא, Gematria, γεωμετρία, each letter of the word being taken -according to its numerical value and the text interpreted accordingly. - -[36] This interpretation is derived from reducing the word בך to its -numerical value, 22. See note on verse 1. - -[37] Vide supra, p. 26. - -[38] Hieros. Berach. p. 3. b. - -[39] Vide supra, p. 26. - -[40] Ibid. p. 28. - -[41] Comp. Wolfii Bibl. Rabbin. Vol. i. pp. 932–936; Ewald und Dukes, -Beiträge zur Geschichte der Alten Auslegung und Spracherklärung des -Alten Testamentes, Zweites Bändchen, p. 5, seqq. We must confess that -Dukes’ arguments, here produced against the genuineness of this -commentary, appear inconclusive. Such an allegorical exposition is just -what might have been expected from Saadias, judging from his -predilection for Rabbinisms and allegorising, which appears in his -translation of the Pentateuch. Moreover, רבים מההלקים does not -necessarily imply commentaries written before Saadias, but may refer to -the opinions of some of his contemporaries. It is, however, probable -that the translator of it into Hebrew has omitted some verbal -explanations, deeming them unnecessary for his purpose. - -[42] שיר השירים דע אחי כי תמצא רבים מתחלקים בפירוש שיר השירים ובאמת הם -מתהלקימ שנמשל שיר השירים למנעולים שברחו מפתחותיהן ויש אומרים שהוא נאמר -על מלכות בני ישראל ויש אומרים על ימות המשיח ויש אומרים בעבור הגלרת -ומשיה ואומרים כי דודי הוא משיח וכלה התורה וזה חטא וטעות גדול וראש -כפרנות, אבל האמת כי דודי הק״בה שנאמר אשירה נא לידידי שירת דודי לכרמו ו -פרש אותו ישעיה הנביא ואמר כי כרם ה׳ צבאות בית ישראל וזכר שלמה בזה הספר -מיציאת מצרים עד אחר ימות המשיח והמשיל לישראל עם הק״בה לחתן עם כלה שהוא -קרוב אליה והיא קרובה אליו וכשבא עמה בראשונה מבית אביה קראה רעיתי -וכשהגיע עמה לביתו קראה כלתי וכשמצאה חן בעיניו קרא אותה אחותי ושבח אותה -מהראש ועד הרגלים וכשקצף עליה אחר כך שבה היא והללה אותו מהראש ועד הרגליﬦ -אחר כך שב הוﬡ והלל אותה פעם שניה ובשלﬡ נכון לבﬡ החתן עﬦ הכלה אלﬡ בשטר -ועדיﬦ לכך תחלﬨ דבור שלמה אמר ישקני מנשיקוﬨ פיהו הטעﬦ הﬦ המצות והחקיﬦ -שנתן הק״כה לישראל ל ידי מושה ואהרן ומדים הצדיקים והוא תורה שבכתב ותורה -שבל פה ד שיבא לישראל שם טוב בערלם בחכמתם שנאמר ויבא לך שם בגוים ביופיך -כי כליל הוא עד שרבו אומות העולם להכנס תהת כנפי חשכינה ולהתגייר והם ערב -רב ויתרו ואהרים ולכך אמר לריח שמניך טובים והטעם שנסה הק״בה ממצרים עד -בּואם בארץ כנען אם הולכים בדרכיו שנאמר לכתך אחרי במדכר כארץ וגו״. - -משכני הטעם אומר בזה הפסוק הילוך ישרﬡל בירﬡת קב ׳ה וכיון ששמעו עשר -דברות בששה כסיון ועשיית העגל בי ׳ז בתמוז תמה שלמה ואמר בעבורם - -שחורה אני הטעם שחורה ונﬡוה שחורה בעבודת העגל ונאוה בשומען עשר דברות -ואמרו ישראל ששכח עונם בשלשת אלפי איש רשעי ישראל שעבדו ע ׳ז שהרגו נגד -השמש לכפר חטא גדול שנאמר כ, אתה עשית בסתר ואני ﬡעשה נגד כל ישראל ונגד -השמש והאומות שמוני נוטרת עבודת אלהים אחרים שעבדתי עבודה זרה שנאנמר -וימירו את כבודם בתכנית שור אוכל עשב - -[43] Vide Sachs, Religiöse Poesie der Juden in Spanien, p. 267. Zunz, -die Synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters, pp. 63, 64. - -[44] This refers to the giving of the Law, and God’s speaking face to -face. Compare the Chaldee on the verse. - -[45] Through receiving the law Israel was anointed, i.e., became wise, -and the fame of their wisdom was diffused abroad. Compare Saadias on -the passage. - -[46] i.e., Let the guiding Pillar allure us in the path of obedience. - -[47] i.e., Swarthy through the sin of the calf, comely through the -reception of the Law. Compare the Chaldee. - -[48] Zunz, Zeitschrift für die Wissenschaft des Judenthums, 1823, p. -272, seqq. Jost, Allgemeine Geschichte des Israelitischen Volkes, -Zweiter Band, p. 374. - -[49] Introduction to the Commentary. - -[50] Introduction to the Commentary. - -[51] Commentar zu Kohelot und dem Hohen Liede von R. Samuel ben Meier -herausgegeben von Adolph Jellineck. Leipz. 1855. This Commentary has -just been published for the first time, edited by the learned Adolph -Jellineck, who constantly enriches the Hebrew literature by bringing -before the public some ancient writings. - -[52] See Zunz, zur Literatur und Geschichte, i. 70, 71. - -[53] Introduction to the Commentary. - -[54] See Reland, Analecta Rabbinica, Vitæ celeberrimorum Rabbinorum, p. -69–80. Fürst, Biblioth. Judaica, i. p. 251–257. Herzog, -Realencyklopädie, art. Aben Ezra. - -[55] Introduction to the Second Gloss. - -[56] Introduction to the First Gloss. - -[57] Preface to the Commentary. - -[58] פירוש ׳ן כספי. אמר יוסין כספי אחר שקדﬦ לזו פי׳ קהלת ומשלי שהבר -שלמה ע״ה בחכמתו ראוי לנו שנכתוב דברים מה בפי׳ שיר השירים שחבר גם כן -שלמה ע ״ה, ואין אני צריך לפרש המלות כי כבר פירשוﬦ לפני, לכן לﬡ אדבר רק -על כונת הספר הזה בכלל, וארמוז רמזים בפרטיﬦ, זגם זאת הכוונה לא מלבי, כי -המאור המאיר לאדץ האיר עינינו בזה כשהודיעו זה ובפרט פרק נ״ﬡ משלשי, ודי -בו באוהו רמז לנו ולדומ׳ לנו, ולכן אומר שאין ספק אצלי שזה הספר הוא מן -ממין השוי מן המשלים שזכר המורה ז״ל בתחלת ספרו שאיז כל מלה יש במשל לענין -הנמשל כמו שהוﬡ הענין באותה הפרשה שזכר שגﬦ הוﬡ מעניני החשוק והחשוקה כמו -שהוﬡ ענין זה הספר, רק שאין העניניﬦ שוים בוה, כי אותו הספור הוﬡ משל -לדבוק החמרי והצורה הטכעית, וזה הספר הוﬡ משל לדבוק השכל הפועל עם שכל -האדם, שהוא נחלק לד׳ מינים, זהנכבד שבם הוא השכל הנאצל, ולכן כוון שלמה -ע״ה לרמזו בכל זה הספר בפרט ואם הענין נאות לכלל, ולכן היותר מדוקדק הוא -שקרא היפה בנשים זה הכח היותר יקר, וקרﬡ הרוד הנעים השכל הפעל. אבל ג״כ -כוון לרמוז על כלל הנפש המדברת, פי זה צריך במשלנו בכמה מקומות בזה הספר, -וידוע כי זה השכל הפועל הוﬡ המניע המעורר ואת הנפש עד שיבﬡ מן הכח אל -הפועל, כמו שירוע ליודע החכמות, וגם תצטרך הנפש שתדרוש אותו שכתו״, אם -תדרשו וימצﬡ לך, ואחר שיבארנו וה הענין בכלל, אין לנו צורך מבאר פרטי -המאמרים ואין טעﬦ מיוחר במכוון רק במעט מהם להעיר על זה ער שרובו שהוﬡ -כללו אינו רק יפויים ותקויים דרך מלאכת השיר וידועת הגיון וזה הודיענו -שלמה ע״ה בראש ספרו וﬡ׳ שיר השירים, יודע עוד ענין כולל והוא כי שלמה ע״ה -חבר ג, ספרים הנמצאים בידינו, ובעבור שדבור הנביאים ע״ה הוﬡ על ג, מינינ -שכלו נגלה ופשוטו אין בו תוך כלל, וזה נקרﬡ כלו כסף, והאחד שכלו נסתר אין -בו גנלה רק משל ודמיון נמור, וזה כלו זהב, והאחד שיש בו נסתר וגננלה, אשר -זה יכונה תפנחי זהב, לכן תבר שלמה ע״ה נ׳ הספרים, והיה קהלת מן המין -הראשון, ושיר השירימ מן המין הב׳ ומשלי מן המין השלישי, וזכור זה והקש על -זה בתורה ובכל כתבי הקדש והנביאים ע״ה אך במאמר ובמאמר בסכנה נדבר בזה -נחליף מין במין עד שנחליף חי במות, כי זה יביאנו לא׳ מב׳ טעיות אם הניתם -במאמרם מה שהוא כזב ושקר, ומה שלא היה כוונת האומר אותו ולא יהיה א״כ מה -שנא׳ אנחגו גקרא פירש אבל הוא חביר ותדוש ספר, ולא אקרא אגי פירש אלא א״כ -נכא עד תכלית כווגת המחבר הספר, ופני הספר יוכיחו במין מין בחינת זכי המוח -וטובו השכל המתישבים כי לא נוכל לעשות מופתים נמורי על זה, ודיכי האמת עד -לעצמו, עוד דע עגין יקר והוא כי בזה כוון למשה ע״ה כמו שכוון ביתר ספריו, -וכן כל הנביאים ע״ה לפרש מלות ושמות נפררות שבאו בתורת משה ובפרט ממה -שכתוב בתורה כעגין מעשה בראשית ומעשה מרכבה שזהו עקר התירת, נשמע הפלנת -תחבולת המלאכה שעשו הנביאים ע״ה ואחריהם ר׳ז׳ל בספריהם כאשר רצן להעמיק -רמז לא יזכדו שם למלה כמו שהם בתירה אבלל ימירוהו בשם ומלה אחרת שהוה כמו -נרדף לראשון ע״ד יין וחמר פ־דס, ומזה המין הפלגת בדבר ר׳ז׳ל כי לא נעלמה -מהם חכמה, אבל ׳לא צריכים אנחנו בזה ודי באלו הע־ות זה הספר לפי כוונתינו, -ולאל ההודאה ית׳ שמ אמן. - -[59] שיר השירים אשר לשלמה אמר עמגואל ב׳כ׳ר שלמה ז׳צ׳ל אחרי הודות ל׳ה -ית׳ על טוב גמולותיו, אומר כי הספר הזה על דעה רבותי׳ ז׳ל דוא מבתר הספרימ -שנאמרו ברוח הקודש. ונחלקו המפרשים בבארו, והתחלפו דעותיהם בו כפי התחלפות -הכרתם, כי קצתם והﬦ אותם שלא נפרדו מהמורגש, והתכלית אשר אליו עיניהם -נשואות וכלות אליו כל היום, הוא יקר העולם הזה ותפארתו, והגמול הגדול אשר -אליו ייחלו חלף עבודתם ומשכורתם מאת האלהים, שובם לגדולתם אל ארץ זבת חלב -ודבש, ולמלאות כריסם מבשר לויתן, ומורם מן היין המשומר בענביו יפרשו הספר -הזה הנכבד, שידבר מספור מעשי האבות, ורדתם למצרים, וצאתם משם ביד חזקה -ובזרוע נטויה, וקבולם התורה, ובואם אל ארץ זבת חלב ודבש, ועמידת ישראל -בארץ, וגלותם ממנה, ושובם אל הארץ בבנין בית שני, וגלותם משם שנית, -והגאולה העתידה, והם יחשבו שיהיה הספר הזה שהוא קודש קדשים, כאחד מן -הספרים ההמונים, וכספרי דברי הימים אשר לאחד מן המלכים אשר תועלתם מועט -והקריאה בהם אבוד הזמן. וקצת מן החכמים האלהים אשר השיגו מעלת החכמה -האמיתית, ונפרדו מהמורגש, ובזו לענינים הזמנים, ונכספה גם כלתה נפשם -לחצרות ה׳, וכשתהיינה עומדות רגליהם בירושלם שלמעלה, ולבם ובשרם ירננו אל -אל חי, פשטו לבושי הכסילות מעליהם, ולבשו מחלצות השכל, וחקרו בדעתם סודות -הספר הזה היקר, וראו דרך נקבי משכיות הכסף, אשר אל תפוחי משל הזהב הטמון -בקרבו, ועברו ימיו באני שכלם, והוציאו פשטו מתהומותיו, וגזרו אומר שהספר -הזה חובר לבאר ולגלות בו אפשרות שוב השכל הנפרד המעורר צורת הנפש המשכלת -והמשפיע עליה שפע טובו, והרעיה משל אל השכל החמרי, המשתוקק אל שפה השכל -הפועל, וכוסף להדמות אליו כפי היכולת להדבק בו, ולשוב במדרגתו שהוא התכלית -המכוון ממנו. והחכמים האלהים אשר קדם זכרם, זכרו כוונת הספר הזה בכלל, -ובארו קצת פסוקיו דרך העברה, ולא בארו הספר הזה על הסדר מראשו לסופו, עד -שבא החכם המפורשם ר׳ משה אבן תיבון, ובאר הספר הזה על דרך החכמה, והוא מלא -חכמת וכליל יופי, אלא שעבר על קצת פרטיו, ולא הזכיר המכוון בהם. ובראות -חכמי דורינו מה שכתב החכם הנזכר, נכספו לבוא אל חדריו, והפצירו בו בגזירת -האהבה, לחבר באור הספר הזה על הדרך אשר דרך החכם הנזכר, ולהעמיק על פרטיו, -ולחדש בהם חדושים לא נזכרו בספרו, ולהעמיד פשטי הספר הזה גם כן על -מתכונתם, ביד ה׳ הטובה עלי. ובראתי כי ידם עלי חזקה, ולמלאות בקשתם חובה, -אזרתי בעז מתני, וחברתי באור הספר הזה כפי קוצר השגתי, ודרכתי דרך החכמה -הנזכר, והזכרתי קצת מדבריו, ושניתי בקצתם, והותרתי וחסרתי כפי מה שהראוני -מן השמים, וזה החלי לעשות. וראוי שנזכר בתחלה כונת הספר הזה בכללו וחלוק -פרשיותיו. ואומר כי כל החכמים האמתיים, אשר נדבה רוחם אותם לדבר בבאור -הספר הזה על דרך החכמה, ראו בעין שכלם שהספר הזה נחלק לשלשה חלקים -ראשונים. החלק הראשון הוא מתחלת הספר עד על משכבי בלילות. החלק השני הוא -מן על משכבי בלילות עד אני ישנה. החלק השלישי הוא מן אני ישנה ולבי ער עד -סוף הספר. והשלוש פרשיות הנזכרות הם רמז לשלשה מיני בני אדם ובאור זה. - -הפרשה הראשונה והיא מתחלת הספר עד על משכבי בלילות, הוא המשל על האדם -שהיה בגן עדן בכח או בפעל, קודם שחטא, כל זמן שלא הוציא לפועל בחירתו לטוב -או לרע, באמרו ויטע האלהים גן בעדן מקדם וישם שם את האדם אשר יצר ויצמח ה׳ -אלהים מן האדמה כל עץ נחמד למראה וטוב למאכל ועץ החיים בתוך הגן ועץ הדעת -טוב ורע, והרשהו י״ת וצוהו מכל עץ הגן, ויורהו ה׳ עץ לבלתי אכול ממנו פן -ימות באמרו ומעץ הדעת טוב ורע לא תאכל ממנו כי ביום אכלך ממנו מות תמות -ואם היה בבחירת האדם לאכול מעץ החיים ואכל וחי לעולם בלא פצע ובלא פגע רע -באמרו ראה נתתי לפניך את החיים ואת הטוב ואת המות ואת הרע ובחרת בחיים -למען תחיה וזה משל על מי שישתדל ללמוד החכמה על סדר וירא פן יחרד מהביט -אל האלהים בראותו שאין פירותיו מבושלים והוא אמרו בפרשה הזאת הראשונה סוב -דמה לך דודי לצבי או לעפר האילים על הרי בתר ואמרו אחזו לנו שועלים קטנים -מחבלים כרמים וכרמינו סמדר וזה מורה כי עדיין לא נתבשלו הפירות ולא הזכירה -הרעיה הנזכרת בזאת הפרשה הראשונה שאכלה מהפירות כי אמרה בצלו חמדתי וישבתי -ופריו מתוקי לחקי הוא ספור חשקה והעד חמדתי וטעם פריך דבריו וחכמתו ומוסרו -ובכל זאת הפרשה הראשונה מדברת בענין שכל האדם בעודו נער שלא הוציא לפועל -מיציאותו המכוון ממנו וכחות הגוף גוברות עליו ושלא השתדל כי אם בלימודיות -ובטבעיות וזאת הפרשה הנזכרת נחלקת לשני חלקים החלק הראשון הוא מתחילת -הספר ער קול דודי זה בא והוא משל למי שהוא ירא ה׳ וסר מרע ויורע השם י״ת -דרך קבלה ואין בו שום חכמה ומן קול דודי הנה זה בא עד סוף הפרשה הראשונה -משל אל מי שלמד חכמת הלמודים וחכמת הטבע - -והפרשה השנית שהיא מן על משכבי בלילות עד אני ישנה הוא משל אל מי שמצא -אשת חיל אל אישה תשוקתה מבקשת דודה על משכבה ואשר בטח בה לב בעלה והוציא -לפועל מה שהיה בו בכח ושלח ידו ולקח גם מעץ החיים ואכל וחי לעולם הוא אמרו -בזאת הפרשה השנית כמעט שעברתי מהם עד שמצאתי את שאהבה נפשי אחזתיו ולא -ארפנו עד שהבאתי אל בית אמי ואל חדר הורתי והזכיר יום חתונתו ויום שמחת -לבו שהוא יום הנשואים והדבוק האמתי, ושהיה לו מטה באמרו הנה מטתו שלשלמה, -ושעשה לו אפריון, ושהגיע למלוכה, ואמר׳ המלך שלמה ובמלך שלמה מה שלא הזכיר -בן בשאר הפרשיות, כי לא הזכיר בהם כי אם שלמה ושולמית בלשון נקבה לפחיתותה -והדוד העיד על רעיתו שמצאה גן נעול ושהיו שלחיה פרדס רמונים עם פרי מגדים -כלומר אפי׳ מה שהרוב מהם הוא חמוץ הוא מתוק וערב ומבושל, והעיד כי כֻלָּהּ יפה -ומום אין בה, וקראה כלה ששה פעמים מה שלא עשה כן בשאר, כלל כי היא אשתו -האמיתית והמיוחדת לו מכל וכל, וחלתה פני דודה שיבוא לגנו ויאכל פרי מגדיו, -כלומ׳ הפירות שלו והראוים לו, והוא שהזכיר הוא באמרו שלהיך פרדס רמונים עם -פרי מגדים, לא שתתן היא לבעלה ותאכילהו מהפירות הראוים לאשה הנשמעת לדברי -הנחש והנסתת לו. והדוד העיד על עצמו שבא לגנו, ואכל ושתה ושהאכיל והשקה -רעיו, ושעשה להם משתה, כי במשול צדיקים תעלוז קריה, והוא אמ׳ באתי לגני -אחתי כלה אריתי מורי עם בשמי אכלתי יערי עם דבשי שתיתי ייני עם חלבי אכלו -רעים שתו ושכרו דודים. וזה שלח ידו ולקח מעץ החיים ואכל וחיי לעולם, בלא -פצע ובלא מכה, ועבר שלשתם על הסדר ונכנס בהם בשלום ויצאה בשלום. והענין -שעבר כולם והשלימם על סדר בלא הריסה ובלא טעות, וכחותיו החמריות, והם -השומרים הסובבים בעיר, וכל שכן השכליות, והם שומרי החומות, כלם כאחד טובים -ומישרים אליו הדרך, לא שיעותו דרכה ויבטלו או יאחרו פעלתה, עד כי שאלה -משומרי העיר את שאהבה נפשי ראיתם, ולרוב ישרם ושלמות דעתם כאלו הם רואים -ומראים, ואמנם לא הושיבו לה דבר, כי אין מטבעם להראותו, אבל כמעט שעברה -מהם ורחקה מהם רוחק מועט, מצאה דודה והתחברה עמו, באמרה כמעט שעברתי מהם -עד שמצאתי את שאהבה נפשי אחזתיו ולא ארפנו עד שהביאתיו אל בית אמי ואל חדר -הורתי. יעשר מטה ואפיריון וחדוה, ושמחה ומשתה כאשר בארנו. וזאת הפרשה -השניה גם כן נחלקת לשני חלקים. החלק הראשון הוא מן על משכבי בלילות עד מי -זאת עולה מן המדבר והחלק השני הוא מן מי זאת עולה עד אני ישנה והחלק השני -הוא באור החלק הראשון. - -והפרשה השלישית שהיא מן אני ישנה עד סוף הספר הוא משל אל אדם שיש לו אשה -חוטאת, הנסתת לנפש המתאוה, והנשמעה אליו, ואשר אכלה מעץ הדעת טוב ורע, -ותתן גם לאישה עמה ויאכל, ואמרו עמה, כי האדם לא יוכל לאכול ממנו, כי אם -עמה, כי לא גלה הקב״ה אותו לאדם, ולא עתיד לגלותו, ואין לו בו שליחות יד, -כי אם על יד האשה כי היא אשר תמצאהו ואש׳ תקחהו, והיא אשר תרדוף ההנאות, -ונמשכת אחר התאות, זאת אישה לא בקשה לפני משכבה, ולא המתינה לו, והלכה -לישן והפשיטה בגדיה ורגליה רחצה ואצבעותיה מבושמים במור עובר לנצחי וקיים -גם התעצלה לפתוח מהר, וקול דודה דופק, ואמ׳ פתחי לי אחותי רעיתי וגו׳. -ואמנם אחר כן משל בה אישה, והיתה בעלת תשובה, כי לא נשקעה בשינה, אבל היה -לבה ער, ופתחה לדודה בעצלותה הגדול, והנה דודה חמק עבר ובקשותהו ולא -מצאתהו וקראתהו ולא ענה אותה, ומצאוה שומרי החומות והשומרים הסובבים בעיר -והכוה ופצעוה ונשאו את רדידה מעליה, והענין שכולם עותו דרכה ומנעו אותה -מהשיג דודה, כי קשה להם לפרוש אחרי אשר טעמו טעם חטא, עד כי לא נזכר בתורה -באדם אחרי שגורש מגן עדן ששלח ידו ולקח מעץ החיים ושב ורפא לו, א׳ע׳פ שהיה -לו היכולת בזה באמרו ועתה פן ישלח ידו ולקח גם מעץ החיים ואכל וחי לעולם, -ש׳ר׳ל הלואי ישלח ידו כי צדיק ה׳ צדקות אהב ולא אל חפץ רשע הוא באמרו חי -אני נאום ה׳ אם אחפוץ במות הרשע כי אם בשוב רשע מדרכו וחי, ועם כל זה לא -נזכר בתורה שאכל מעץ החיים אחר כך, ואולי הוא רמז כי קרוב הוא לנמנע, למי -שאכל מעץ הדעת טוב ורע לאכול עוד מעץ החיים ”כי זוג שני קשה לזוגו בקריעת -ים סוף“ שהוא שנוי טבע, א׳ע׳פ שאינו נמנע לגמרי לפי האמת וכן השאיר שלמה -הדבר סָתוּם ואם ספר גורל חשקם אחרי כן, ושבח כל אחד מהם את חבירו כדרך -חושקים, לא נמצא בהם שנדבקו עולם, ושעשו חתונה ומטה ואפיריון ומשתה ושמחה -כדרך איש ואשתו, ואחרית דבריה שהיה דודה מזהיר אותה, ואומר לה חברים -מקשיבים לקולך ואין דרך האשה להשמיע קולה לבחורים ”כי קול באשה ערוה“ וחלה -פניה להשמיע לו קולה ולא לאחר, והיא העזה פניה ותאמר לו, ברח דודי ודמה לך -לצבי או לעופר האיילים על הרי בשמים, כאלו היו החברים הבעלים, והדור היה -החושק מסתתר ובורה מפניהם פן יפגעו בו. והפרשה הזאת גם כן נחלקת לשני -חלקים, החלק האחד הוא מאני ישנה ער מי זאת עולה והחלק השני מן מי זאת עולה -עד סוף הספר, והחלק השני באור לחלק הראשון. זאת היא הלוקת הספר לפי מה -שהסכימו החכמים אשר דברו בבאור הספר הזה. - -[60] De Rossi, pp. 114–117. Fürst, Bibl. Jud., vol. i. pp. 82–84. - -[61] ויהי כאשר האליצוני ומתרדת שנתי הקיצוני התבוננתי בפירושים אשר -הגיעו לידי ואמתיק סודו והנם חלוקים ואם להתכוין את המשל כולם דבקים, מהם -מי שפירש אותו בדקדוק מלותיו ונעם מליצותיו וחשק האהבה הכלולה כי יבעל -בחור בתולה והניח המשל מגזר מכל סביביו היין השומר בענבו, מהם מי שפרש -אותו בין הגוף והנשמה, אשה אות חכמה המעורות אל הדרך הישרה להיות לו מגן -ועורה, וזכר האריך לדבר הוסיף וגרע ודרש וחבר, מהם מי שפירש אותו על דרך -המדרש והסתום אספ ודרש ובכל אשר לעשות הפליא כאלי הריק מכלי אל כלי, מהם -מי שפירש אותו על דרך ענין הפסוקים לכונתו בצע אמרתו באמרו כי כולו -דמיובים ביציאת השכלים מן הכח אל הפועל אשובו על ירמיון הדוד הוא השכל -הפועל בחכמה והחשוקה היה הנפש השלימה והנריל גוף הספר במאמריו ונכרים באו -שעריו עד אשר הקורא בו בלשונו רכל נלאתי כלכל לא אוכל ואם זה היתה כונת -החכם שלמה בשירו מה הועיל שבחו וזמרו יתר מזה ראש הפלוסופים בקצר ענין -ובנה עליו בנין על כל יאמר בעזני בספר מלחמות ה׳ אין זה כונת השיר ותפארתו -אשר היתה באמנג אתו. - -From a MS. in the possession of the Bodleian. Oppenheim Collection, No. -261. - -[62] De Rossi, pp. 294, 295. - -[63] Fürst, Bib. Jud. vol. i. p. 187. - -[64] This commentary is erroneously called Tamach’s, the euphemic -expression תמ״ך, i.e. תְּהִי מְנוּחָתוֹ כָבוָר, used for the departed, being -mistaken for a proper name. Vide Fürst, Bib. Jud. vol. ii. p. 243. - -[65] Ibid. vol. i. p. 314. - -[66] Ibid. vol. i. pp. 41, 42. - -[67] Vide Magnus, Das Hohe Lied Salomo’s, p. 26. - -[68] De Amore dial., c. iii. Delitzsch im Literaturblatt des Orients, -1840, No. 6, &c. - -[69] Melizat Jeshurun. Vienna, 1816. - -[70] Gottesdienstliche Vorträge. Berlin, 1832, p. 334. - -[71] 1834—Dr. Zunz also wrote a valuable introduction to Rebenstein’s -Commentary on the Song of Songs (Berlin, 1834), in which he gives a -catalogue of Hebrew writers on this book, existing in MS. I am sorry -that all my exertions to obtain it have proved abortive. - -[72] Vierter Band., p. 367. - -[73] Israelitische Bibel, Dritter Theil. 1854, pp. 660, 661. - -[74] The following is a list of the names of some of the commentators -and their works, selected from a large number of authors who have -written upon this book, and which we could not analyse in our -historical sketch. - -Abi-Simra, מִכְתָּם לְדָוד (printed, according to de Rossi, at -Constantinople). Affendopulo, סֵ׳ עֲשָׂרָה מַאֲמָרוֹת (Dod Mordechai, c. 3, -Vienna, 1830). Allemanno, חֶשֶׁק שְׁלֹמֹה. Almosneno, יְדֵי מֹשֶׁה (Venice, -1597). Arepol, שַׂר שָׁלוֹם (Ssafet, 1579). Asulai, נַחַל אֶשְׁכּוֹל, and פְּנֵי -חַמָּח (Leghorn, 1800.) Bär. b. Naphtali, מַתְּנוֹת כְּהֻנָּה (Amsterdam, 1725). -Baruch b. Isaac, זָרַע בַּרַכְ (Amsterdam, 1730). Birs, שִׁירָה לְדָוִד -(Grodno, 1797). Chiquitilla, in MS. Cohen, זְקַן אַהֲרֹן (Venice, 1657). -Eliezer b. Judah, יֵין הָרֶקַח (Lublin, 1608). Elijah b. Salomon-Abraham, -בִּ אוּר עַל ג׳מְגִלּוֹת, in MS. Gensburg, נַסְתָּלִי שְׂבַע רָצוֹן (Hamburg, 1708). -Jaabez, קֹדָשׁ הִלּוּלַים (in Frankfurter’s Bible, Amsterdam, 1724–27). Ibn -Jaehaj (in the Amsterdam Rab. Bible, 1724). Ibn Jaish, מָקוֹר בָּררּך עַל -שה״ש (Constantinople, 1576). Jacob b. Isaac, צְאָינָה וּרְאֶינָה (Berlin, -1709). Jacob b. Joel, שְׁאֵרִית יַעֲקֹב (Altona, 1727). Jacob-Lissa, אִמְרֵי -יֹשֶׁר (Dyrhenfurt, 1815–19). Joseph-Jossel, פּוֹרָת יוֹסֵף (Wandsbeck, -1727). Kara, in MS. Dav. Kimchi, in MS. Landsberger, שׁוֹמֵר אֱמוּניִם -(Offenbach, 1724). Lando, נִקֻדוֹת הַכֶּסֶף (Venice, 1619). Libowitzer, סֵ׳ -אַיֶּלֶת אֲהָבִים (Korez, 1791), Loanz, surnamed Baal Shem, רִנַּת דּוֹדִים -(Basle, 1606). Löw b. Joshua, לֵב אַרְיֵה (Wilmersdorf, 1674). Saul Löw, -בִנְיַן אֲרִיאֵל (Amsterdam, 1778). Meyer (Frankfort on the Main, 1679). -Solomon Ibn Melech, מִכְלַל יֹפִי (Amsterdam, 1661). Salomon b. Jacob -(Prague, 1628). - -[75] Origenes Selecta in Psalmos 1. Hieronymus Apologia adversus -Rufinum. See on this subject Frankel, Monatschrift, 1852, p. 219, and -Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, Vierter Band, p. 279. - -[76] Davidson, Introduction to the Old Testament, &c., p. 790. - -[77] Comp. Hieronymus ad Pamachium; Prefacio in Paralipomena, in -Tobiam, in Job. To his ingratitude and bitter vituperations against the -Jews, this people may trace many of their subsequent sufferings from -so-called Christians. (Com. Hiero. adversus Rufinum ii., Graetz, -Geschichte der Juden, Vierter Band, p. 462.) - -[78] Bernardi Oper. vol. ii. (Paris, 1719), p. 276, et seqq. - -[79] “Ecclesia humilis et abjecta inter hostes saeculi, et hoc fuit -usque ad tempus Constantini.” - -[80] Comment. in Cant. Canticor. - -[81] Homil. xxxii. - -[82] Bib. Sac., book vi. haer. xiii. p. 664. - -[83] An Exposition upon the Book of Canticles. London, 1624, p. 2. - -[84] A Commentary on the Canticles. Amsterdam, 1644, p. 2. - -[85] Annotations upon the Five Books of Moses, the Book of the Psalms, -and the Song of Songs (London, 1639), pp. 4, 5. - -[86] Est ὀαριστὺς inter Salomonem et filiam regis Aegypti, -interloquentibus etiam choris duobus tum juvenum tum virginum, qui in -proximis thalamo locis excubabant. Nuptiarum arcana sub honestis -verborum involucris hic latent: quae etiam causa est, cur Hebraei -veteres hunc librum legi noluerint nisi a jam conjugio proximis. -Creditur autem Salomon, quo magis perennaret hoc scriptum, ea arte id -composuisse, ut sine multa distorsione ἀλληγορίαι in eo inveniri -possent; quae Dei amorem adversus populum Israeliticum exprimerent; -quod et sensit et ostendit Chaldaeus hic paraphrastes, nec aliter -accepit Maimonides. Ille autem amor typus cum fuerit amoris Christi -erga ecclesiam, Christiani ingenia sua ad applicanda ad eam rem hujus -carminis verba exercuerunt laudabili studio. Nam et Apostoli Christi -cum ecclesia conjunctionem matrimonio comparaverant. Eph. v. 32; 2 Cor. -ii. 2; Apoc. vii. 8. Annot. in Vet. Test. - -[87] Vide Opera Cocceii, Tom. viii. fol. Amstel. Tom. ii. Synopsis et -Medulla prophet. Cantici. - -[88] A brief Exposition of the whole book of Canticles (London, 1648), -p. 4. - -[89] A Commentary upon the Book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song -of Songs (London, 1650), pp. 174, 175. - -[90] Comm. Apocalypticus in Canticum Canticorum, 1688. - -[91] Praef. in Cant. Paris, 1693. - -[92] Paraphrase and Annotations on the Song of Songs, in loco. - -[93] Preface to the Exposition of the Song of Solomon. - -[94] Clavis Cantici, or an Exposition of the Song of Solomon -(Edinburgh, 1723), pp. 11, 12. - -[95] Exposition, pp. 103, 106. - -[96] A Supplement to Whiston’s late Essay towards restoring the true -text of the Old Testament (London, 1723), pp. 5, 7. - -[97] An Exposition of the book of Solomon’s Song, &c. (London, 1854), -p. 10. - -[98] See Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, Lect. xxx.; p. -345, Gregory’s Translation, Third Edition. - -[99] Preface to the Song of Solomon, newly translated from the original -Hebrew, with a Commentary and Annotations, London, 1764. - -[100] Explanatory Notes upon the Old Testament, by John Wesley, -(Bristol, 1765.) Vol. III. p. 1926. - -[101] The Outlines of a new Commentary on Solomon’s Song, London, 1768; -second edition, 1775, pp. 74, 75, 81. - -[102] Notes to Bishop Lowth’s Praelectiones. - -[103] Das durch eine leichte und ungekünstelte Erklärung von seinen -Vorwürfen gerettete Hohelied, 1771. - -[104] Vide supra, pp. 46, 56. - -[105] Critical Remarks on Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, -1772. - -[106] Umschreibung des Hohenliedes, oder die Gemeine mit Christo und -den Engeln im Grabe, nebst andern biblischen Erklärungen. Herausgegeben -von D. Conrad Heinrich Runge. Bremen, 1776. - -[107] Salomon’s Lieder der Liebe, &c. Herder’s Sämmtliche Werke in -vierzig Bänden, Dritter Band, pp. 82, 83. Stuttgart und Tübingen, 1852. - -[108] Sammlung der Gedichte Salomons, &c. Hamm, 1780. - -[109] A poetical Translation of the Song of Solomon, London, 1781. - -[110] Solomon’s Song, translated from the Hebrew, by Bernard Hodgson, -LL.D. Principal of Hertford College, Oxford, 1786. - -[111] Vide supra, p. 58. - -[112] Neueste Uebersetzung des Hohen Liedes, Basel, 1789; see Magnus, -Comment, p. 26. - -[113] Salomon’s verschmähte Liebe, oder die belohnte Treue. Leipzig, -1790. - -[114] The Song of Songs, a new translation, with a Commentary and -Notes. London, 1801, pp. 54, 55. - -[115] Song of Songs, &c., translated from the original Hebrew, with -Notes, critical and explanatory. London, 1803, Preface pp. xii. xiii. -xiv. - -[116] Das Hohelied, in einer noch unversuchten Deutung. Freyburg, 1803. - -[117] Lied der Liebe, das älteste und schönste aus dem Morgenlande. -Göttingen, 1820, second edition, 1828, pp. 20, 21. - -[118] Das Hohelied, ein Collectiv-Gesang auf Serubabel, Ezra und -Nehemia, als die Wiederhersteller einer Jüdischen Verfassung in der -Provinz Juda. Erlangen, 1825. - -[119] Das Hohelied Salomo’s übersetzt mit Einleitung, Anmerkungen, &c. -Göttingen, 1826. - -[120] Philologisch-critischer Commentar zum Hohen Liede Salomo’s. -Leipzig, 1829. - -[121] Rosenmüller, Scholia, ix. 2, p. 270. - -[122] Script. Test. to the Messiah, vol. i. book i. chap. ii. note A; -and Congregational Magazine for 1837, p. 415. - -[123] Congregational Magazine for 1837 and 1838. - -[124] For 1838, p. 471, et seq. - -[125] Das Lied der Lieder oder Sieg der Treue. Zürich, 1840. - -[126] Kritische Bearbeitung und Erklärung des Hohen Liedes Salomo’s. -Halle, 1842. - -[127] Critical History and Defence of the Old Testament Canon, p. 360, -ed. Davidson. - -[128] A New Translation of the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the -Canticles. Boston, 1846, p. 119. - -[129] Ibid. p. 132. - -[130] Article in the Biblical Repository for April, 1847, reprinted in -the Journal of Sacred Literature for 1852, p. 338. - -[131] Hävernick’s Einleitung in das Alte Testament. Dritter Theil, p. -504. - -[132] Das Hohelied untersucht und ausgelegt von Franz Delitzsch. -Leipzig, 1851, pp. 31, 175. - -[133] Das Hohe Lied von Salomo, übersetzt und erklärt von Heinrich -Augustus Hahn. Breslau, 1852, p. 7. - -[134] Das Hohe Lied Salomonis ausgelegt von W. Hengstenberg. Berlin, -1853, p. 239. - -[135] A Commentary on the Song of Solomon, by the Rev. George Burrowes, -Professor in Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. Philadelphia, 1853, pp. -87–90. - -[136] Das Hohe Lied in deutscher Uebersetzung, Erklärung, und -kritischer Textausgabe, von Ernst Meier, Professor der Morgenländischen -Sprachen. Tübingen, 1854. - -[137] Cantici Canticorum poetica forma; dissertatio Ernesti Fred. -Friedrich. Königsberg, 1855. - -[138] Das Hohe Lied erklärt von Ferd. Hitzig. 16te Lieferung des -Kurzgef. exegetischen Handbuch’s zum Alten Testament. Leipzig, 1855. - -[139] Monatschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums, -herausgegeben vom Oberrabbiner Dr. Frankel. Leipzig, 1856, p. 215, et -seq. - -[140] Geschichte der poetischen National-Literatur der Hebräer von Dr. -Ernst Meier. Leipzig, 1856, p. 215, et seq. - -[141] The Text of the Old Testament considered, &c., by Samuel -Davidson, D.D. London, 1856, p. 806. - -[142] Herzog’s Real-Encyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und -Kirche. Stuttgart, 1856, vol. vi. p. 220. - -[143] Stuart, Critical History and Defence of the Old Testament Canon, -pp. 342, 343, ed. Davidson. - -[144] Song of Songs, &c., Preface, p. 19. - -[145] An Article on Solomon’s Song, by the Rev. C. E. Stowe, D.D., -Professor of Biblical Literature, reprinted in Kitto’s Journal of -Sacred Literature, 1852, pp. 331, 332. - -[146] Reply to Dr. Pye Smith, Congregational Magazine for 1838, pp. -148, 149. - -[147] Praef. in Canticum Canticorum, Œuvres, tom. i. p. 467, 4to. edit. - -[148] Lecture xxxi. p. 350, third edition. - -[149] Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, vol. -ii. p. 215, et seqq. - -[150] The author of the poem. The singer sometimes puts his own name in -the place of this. - -[151] Tá-Há is a name of the Arabian prophet. - -[152] Crishna continues to this hour the darling god of the Indian -women. The sect of Hindoos, who adore him with enthusiastic and almost -exclusive devotion, have broached a doctrine which they maintain with -eagerness, and which seems general in those provinces, that he was -distinct from all the Avatars, who had only an ansa, or portion of his -divinity; while Crishna was the person of Vishnu himself in a human -form.—Sir W. Jones, Asiatic Researches, vol. i. p. 260. - -[153] Noyes, A New Translation of the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and -Canticles, pp. 130–132. - -[154] Historia Crit. Vet. Test. l. i. c. iv. p. 28. - - - - - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SONG OF SONGS *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |