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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #69319 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69319)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of Prehistoric villages, castles, and
-towers of southwestern Colorado, by Jesse Walter Fewkes
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: Prehistoric villages, castles, and towers of southwestern
-       Colorado
-
-Author: Jesse Walter Fewkes
-
-Release Date: November 9, 2022 [eBook #69319]
-
-Language: English
-
-Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
-             https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
-             generously made available by The Internet Archive)
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PREHISTORIC VILLAGES,
-CASTLES, AND TOWERS OF SOUTHWESTERN COLORADO ***
-
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber’s Notes:
-
-  Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
-    in the original text.
-  Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
-  Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs.
-  Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.
-  Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.
-
-
-
-
-                        SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
-                     BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
-                              BULLETIN 70
-
-                  PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND
-                        TOWERS OF SOUTHWESTERN
-                               COLORADO
-
-                                  BY
-                           J. WALTER FEWKES
-
-                            [Illustration]
-
-                              WASHINGTON
-                      GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
-                                 1919
-
-
-
-
-                     LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
-
-                               SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
-                             BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY,
-                          _Washington, D. C., January 23, 1919_.
-
-   SIR: I have the honor to transmit the accompanying manuscript,
-   entitled “Prehistoric Villages, Castles, and Towers of
-   Southwestern Colorado,” by J. Walter Fewkes, and to recommend its
-   publication, subject to your approval, as Bulletin 70 of this Bureau.
-
-         Very respectfully,
-                                            J. WALTER FEWKES,
-                                                     _Chief_.
-
-    DR. CHARLES D. WALCOTT,
-       _Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution_.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS
-
-
-                                                          Page
-    Introduction                                             9
-    Historical                                              10
-    Classification                                          14
-        Villages                                            16
-            Rectangular ruins of the pure type              16
-                Surouaro                                    16
-                Goodman Point Ruin                          17
-                Johnson Ruin                                18
-                Bug Mesa Ruin                               19
-                Mitchell Spring Ruin                        19
-                Mud Spring (Burkhardt) Ruin                 20
-                Ruin with semicircular core                 22
-                Wolley Ranch Ruin                           22
-                Blanchard Ruin                              23
-                Ruins at Aztec Spring                       23
-                Great open-air ruins south and southwest
-                    of Dove Creek post office               28
-                Squaw Point Ruin                            28
-                Acmen Ruin                                  29
-                Oak Spring House                            29
-                Ruin in Ruin Canyon                         30
-                Cannonball Ruin                             30
-            Circular ruins with peripheral compartments     31
-                Wood Canyon Ruins                           32
-                Butte Ruin                                  32
-                Emerson Ruin                                33
-                Escalante Ruin                              36
-        Cliff-dwellings                                     37
-            Cliff-dwellings in Sand Canyon                  38
-            Double cliff-house                              38
-            Scaffold in Sand Canyon                         38
-            Unit type houses in caves                       39
-            Cliff-houses in Lost Canyon                     40
-        Great houses and towers                             40
-            Masonry                                         40
-            Structure of towers                             42
-            Hovenweep district                              44
-                Ruin Canyon                                 44
-                Square Tower Canyon                         45
-                Classification of ruins in
-                    Square Tower Canyon                     46
-                Hovenweep House (Ruin 1)                    46
-                Hovenweep Castle                            47
-                    Western section of Hovenweep Castle     47
-                    Eastern section of Hovenweep Castle     48
-                Ruin 3                                      48
-                Ruin 4                                      49
-                Ruin 5                                      49
-                Ruin 6                                      49
-                Eroded bowlder house (Ruin 7)               49
-                Twin Towers (Ruin 8)                        50
-                Ruin 9                                      50
-                Unit type House (Ruin 10)                   50
-                Stronghold House (Ruin 11)                  51
-                Ruins in Holly Canyon                       52
-                    Ruin A, Great House, Hackberry Castle   52
-                    Towers [C and D]                        52
-                    Holly House                             53
-                Ruins in Hackberry Canyon                   53
-                    Horseshoe House                         53
-            Towers in the Main Yellow Jacket Canyon         54
-                Davis Tower                                 55
-                Lion (Littrell) Tower                       55
-            McLean Basin                                    55
-            Tower in Sand Canyon                            57
-            Towers in Road (Wickyup) Canyon                 57
-            Towers of the Mancos                            58
-                Holmes Tower                                58
-                Towers on the Mancos River below the bridge 59
-                    Tower A                                 59
-                    Tower B                                 59
-        Megalithic and slab house ruins at McElmo Bluff     60
-    Grass Mesa Cemetery                                     64
-    Reservoirs                                              64
-    Pictographs                                             65
-    Minor antiquities                                       66
-    Historic remains                                        68
-    Conclusions                                             68
-    Index                                                   77
-
-
-
-
-ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-
-                                       PLATES
-     1. _a_, Butte Ruin.
-        _b_, Aztec Spring Ruin.
-        _c_, Surouaro, Yellow Jacket Spring Ruin.
-     2. _a_, Blanchard Ruin.
-        _b_, Blanchard Ruin, Mound 2.
-        _c_, Surouaro, Yellow Jacket Spring Ruin.
-     3. _a_, Acmen Ruin.
-        _b_, Mud Spring Ruin.
-     4. _a_, Building on rock pinnacle, near Stone Arch, Sand Canyon.
-        _b_, Stone Arch, Sand Canyon.
-     5. _a_, Tower in Sand Canyon.
-        _b_, Unit type House in Sand Canyon.
-     6. _a_, Stone Arch House, Sand Canyon.
-        _b_, Cliff-house, showing broken corner.
-     7. _a_, Scaffold in Sand Canyon.
-        _b_, Storage cist in Mancos Valley.
-        _c_, Pictographs near Unit type House in cave.
-     8. Double cliff-dwelling, Sand Canyon.
-     9. _a_, Cliff-dwelling under Horseshoe Ruin.
-        _b_, Cliff-dwelling, Ruin Canyon.
-    10. _a_, Kiva of cliff ruin, Lost Canyon.
-        _b_, Cliff ruin, Lost Canyon.
-    11. _a_, Square Tower in Square Tower Canyon.
-        _b_, Tower in McLean Basin.
-        _c_, Ruin in Hill Canyon, Utah.
-    12. Head of South Fork, Square Tower Canyon.
-    13. North Fork of Square Tower Canyon, looking west.
-    14. _a_, Hovenweep House and Hovenweep Castle, from the south.
-        _b_, Hovenweep Castle, from the west.
-        _c_, Hovenweep Castle, from the south.
-    15. _a_, West end of Twin Tower, showing small cliff-house.
-        _b_, Twin Towers, Square Tower Canyon, from the south.
-        _c_, Tower 4, junction of North and South Forks,
-             Square Tower Canyon.
-    16. _a_, Hovenweep Castle, with Sleeping Ute Mountain, South Fork,
-             Square Tower Canyon.
-        _b_, Entrance to South Fork, Square Tower Canyon.
-    17. Stronghold House, Square Tower Canyon.
-    18. _a_, Head of Holly Canyon.
-        _b_, South side of Hovenweep Castle, Square Tower Canyon.
-    19. _a_, Holly Canyon group, from the east.
-        _b_, Great House at head of Holly Canyon, from the north.
-        _c_, Unit type Ruin, from the east.
-    20. _a_, Great House at head of Holly Canyon, from the south.
-        _b_, Ruin B at head of Holly Canyon, from the west.
-        _c_, Great House at head of Holly Canyon.
-    21. _a_, Great House, Holly Canyon.
-        _b_, Stronghold House and Twin Towers, Square Tower Canyon.
-    22. _a_, Hovenweep Castle.
-        _b_, Southern part of Cannonball Ruin, McElmo Canyon.
-    23. _a_, Square tower with rounded corners, Holly Canyon.
-        _b_, Holly Tower in Holly Canyon.
-        _c_, Horseshoe House.
-    24. _a_, Horseshoe Ruin.
-        _b_, Bowlder Castle, Road (Wickyup) Canyon.
-    25. _a_, Closed doorway in Bowlder Castle, Road (Wickyup) Canyon.
-        _b_, Broken-down round tower, Square Tower Canyon.
-    26. _a_, North side of tower, Square Tower Canyon.
-        _b_, D-shaped tower near Davis ranch, Yellow Jacket Canyon.
-        _c_, Model of towers in McLean Basin.
-    27. Round tower and D-shaped tower in McLean Basin.
-    28. _a_, D-shaped tower in McLean Basin,
-             showing cross section of wall.
-        _b_, Round tower in McLean Basin, showing standing stone slab.
-    29. _a_, Holmes Tower, Mancos Canyon.
-        _b_, Lion Tower, Yellow Jacket Canyon.
-    30. _a_, Tower above cavate storehouses, Mancos Canyon,
-             below bridge.
-        _b_, Tower on mesa between eroded cliffs and bridge over Mancos
-             Canyon, on Cortez Ship-rock Road.
-    31. _a_, Tower above cavate storehouses, Mancos Canyon,
-             below bridge.
-        _b_, Eroded shale formation in which are small walled cavate
-             storehouses.
-    32. _a_, Reservoir near Picket corral, showing retaining wall.
-        _b_, Kiva, Unit type House, Square Tower Canyon.
-    33. Pictographs, Yellow Jacket Canyon.
-
-
-                       TEXT FIGURES
-                                                         Page
-     1. Ground plan of Aztec Spring Ruin                   26
-     2. Ground plan of Wood Canyon Ruin                    32
-     3. Metes and bounds of Emerson Ruin                   34
-     4. Schematic ground plan of Emerson Ruin              35
-     5. Ground plan of Unit type House in cave             39
-     6. Square Tower Canyon                                45
-     7. Ground plan of Hovenweep House                     46
-     8. Ground plan of Hovenweep Castle                    47
-     9. Ground plan of Twin Towers                         50
-    10. Ground plan of Unit type House                     51
-    11. Holly Canyon Ruins                                 52
-    12. Horseshoe (Hackberry) Canyon                       53
-    13. Ground plan of Horseshoe House                     54
-    14. Ground plan of Davis Ruin                          55
-    15. Ground plan of Lion House                          55
-    16. Ground plan of ruin with towers in McLean Basin    56
-    17. Doorway in Round Tower, McLean Basin               57
-    18. Megalithic stone inclosure, McElmo Bluff           61
-
-
-
-
-PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS OF SOUTHWESTERN COLORADO
-
-By J. WALTER FEWKES
-
-
-
-
-INTRODUCTION
-
-
-The science of archeology has contributed to our knowledge some of
-the most fascinating chapters in culture history, for it has brought
-to light, from the night of the past, periods of human development
-hitherto unrecorded. As the paleontologist through his method has
-revealed faunas whose like were formerly unknown to the naturalist, the
-archeologist by the use of the same method of research has resurrected
-extinct phases of culture that have attained a high development and
-declined before recorded history began. No achievements in American
-anthropology are more striking than those that, from a study of human
-buildings and artifacts antedating the historic period, reveal the
-existence of an advanced prehistoric culture of man in America.
-
-The evidences of a phase of culture that had developed and was on the
-decline before the interior of North America was explored by Europeans
-are nowhere better shown than in southwestern Colorado, New Mexico,
-Arizona, and Utah, the domain of the Cliff-dwellers, or the cradle of
-the Pueblos. There flourished on what is now called the Mesa Verde
-National Park, in prehistoric times, a characteristic culture unlike
-that of any region in the United States. This culture reached its
-apogee and declined before the historic epoch, but did not perish
-before it had left an influence extending over a wide territory, which
-persisted into modern times. Through the researches of archeologists
-the nature of this culture is now emerging into full view; but much
-material yet remains awaiting investigation before it can be adequately
-understood. The purpose of this article is to call attention to new
-observations bearing upon its interpretation made by the author, under
-the auspices of the Bureau of American Ethnology, on brief trips to
-Colorado and Utah in 1917 and 1918.
-
-The peculiar cliff-dwellings and open-air villages of the Mesa Verde
-are here shown to be typical of those found over a region many miles
-in extent. They indicate a distinct culture area, which is easily
-distinguished from others where similar buildings do not exist, but
-not as readily separated from that of adjacent regions where the
-buildings are superficially similar but structurally different. In
-order to distinguish it from its neighbors and determine its horizon,
-we must become familiar with certain architectural characteristics. As
-our knowledge of the character of buildings in this area is incomplete,
-the intention of the author is to define the several different types of
-buildings that characterize it.
-
-When, in 1915, there was brought to light on the Mesa Verde National
-Park, Colorado, the mysterious structure, Sun Temple, the author
-recalled well-known descriptions of towers and other related buildings
-that have been recorded from other localities in southwestern Colorado
-and Utah. The published descriptions of these structures did not seem
-to him adequate for comparisons, and he planned an examination of these
-great houses and towers, hoping to gather new data that would shed some
-light on his interpretation of Sun Temple. During the field work in
-1917, thanks to an allotment from the Bureau of American Ethnology for
-that purpose, he undertook a reconnoissance in the McElmo district,
-where similar buildings are found and where he believed cultural
-relatives of the former inhabitants of Mesa Verde once lived. In 1918
-he extended his field work still farther. He investigated ruins as far
-as the western tributaries of the Yellow Jacket Canyon, penetrating a
-short distance beyond the Colorado border into Utah. The object of the
-following pages is to make known the more important results of this
-visit, and interpret the evidence they present as a contribution to
-our knowledge of the extension in prehistoric times of the Mesa Verde
-culture area.
-
-
-
-
-HISTORICAL
-
-
-Attention was first publicly called, about 40 years ago (1875-1877),
-by Messrs. Jackson,[1] Holmes, Morgan, and others, to some of the
-ruins here considered. It is difficult to identify all of the ruins
-mentioned or described by these pioneers. Their “Hovenweep Castle” is
-supposed to lie in about the center of the district here considered,
-possibly on Square Tower (Ruin) Canyon, although the large castellated
-building[2] in Holly Canyon would also fulfill conditions equally
-well. Their “Pueblo” may have been situated on the McElmo near the
-mouth of Yellow Jacket Canyon. Early writers rather vaguely refer to
-a cluster of castles and towers as situated some distance from the
-“Burial Place,” which is readily identified on the promontory at the
-mouth of the McElmo, as probably those in Square Tower (Ruin) Canyon,
-but the cluster may be either at Square Tower or Holly Canyon, both
-of which are about the same distance from this site. As “Pueblo” is
-not indicated on the map accompanying the Hayden report, the sites of
-rock shelters “some 7 miles from ‘Pueblo’ and 3 miles from the McElmo”
-remain doubtful. The author retains the name “Hovenweep Castle” for the
-ruin in Square Tower Canyon.
-
-[1] Ancient Ruins in Southwestern Colorado. Rept. U.S. Geol. Surv.
-Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1874, Washington, 1876.
-
-[2] The situation of a spring near Hovenweep Castle indicates that the
-Great House may be the Hovenweep Castle of early writers.
-
-In his account of ruins in the region visited, Prof. W. H. Holmes[3]
-considers several other ruins, as “the triple-walled tower” (here
-called Mud Spring village, p. 20), ruins at Aztec Spring (p. 23),
-cliff-dwellings and towers of the San Juan and Mancos, the “slab cysts”
-or burial places on the Dolores, and the promontory at the junction
-of the Hovenweep and McElmo (p. 60). The best preserved towers and
-castellated buildings which his article considers occur on the San Juan
-and Mancos Canyons, districts on the periphery of the region covered by
-this account.
-
-[3] Report on the ancient ruins of Southwestern Colorado. Tenth Ann.
-Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1876, Washington,
-1879.
-
-These pioneer reports of Jackson and Holmes not only called attention
-to a new archeological field, but also introduced to the archeologist
-several new types of prehistoric American architecture of which nothing
-was previously known. They have been repeatedly quoted and are still
-constantly referred to by writers on southwestern archeology.
-
-Although Jackson made many photographs of the castles and towers of
-the Hovenweep, none of these were published in his reports, possibly
-because halftone methods of reproduction were then unknown. The
-illustrations that appear in the text of early reports are mainly
-reproductions of sketches. These reports, in which the discovery of
-the tower type of architecture and its adjacent cliff-dwellings were
-announced, should thus rightly rank as the first important steps in the
-scientific investigations of the stone-house builders of this district
-of our Southwest; although the allied “Casas Grandes” or great houses
-of the Chaco had been described a few years before by Gregg, Stimpson,
-and others.
-
-We have, in addition to these pioneer reports, several magazine
-articles of about the same date, the material for which was largely
-drawn from them. One of the most important newspaper articles of that
-date was written by Mr. Ernest Ingersoll, published in the New York
-Tribune, and another, of anonymous authorship, is to be found in the
-Century Magazine for the year 1877. New forms of towers and castellated
-buildings were added in these accounts to those of the earlier authors.
-
-One of the most important contributions to the antiquities of the
-region about Mesa Verde was made by the veteran ethnologist, Morgan,
-who published notes contributed by Mr. Mitchell on a cluster of mounds
-near his ranch. As no name was given this village it is here called
-the Mitchell Spring Village. Morgan likewise mentions the ruin at Mud
-Spring and a tower in the ruin near his spring. Professor Newberry was
-the first author to affix the name Surouaro to a ruin situated at the
-head of the Yellow Jacket Canyon.
-
-Several of these ruins were described and figured by Mr. Warren K.
-Moorehead as “The Great Ruins of Upper McElmo Creek” in the Illustrated
-American for July 9, 1892, the sixth of a series of articles under a
-general title “In search of a Lost Race.” He gives descriptions of a
-“cave shelter” found near Twin Towers, Square Tower in “Ruin Canyon,”
-a building (Hovenweep Castle), and the tower at the junction of the
-North and South Forks of Ruin Canyon. This paper is accompanied by a
-map of Ruin Canyon by Mr. Cowen. In Moorehead’s discussion of these
-remains, individual towers and other ruins are designated by capital
-letters, A-V, to some of which are also affixed the names “Hollow
-Boulder,” “Twin Towers,” “Square Tower,” etc. Details of structure and
-measurements of the more striking buildings and a discussion of certain
-features of structure, some of which will be considered later under
-individual ruins, are likewise given.
-
-The most important general article yet published on the prehistoric
-remains of the region here considered is by Dr. T. Mitchell Prudden,[4]
-who also mentions several of the ruins here treated. His most important
-contribution is a description of what he calls the “unit type,” which
-he recognized as a fundamental structural feature in the pueblos of
-this region. He also showed that the kiva in Montezuma Valley villages
-is identical with that of cliff-dwellings in the Mesa Verde, and
-emphasized, as an important feature, the union of the tower and the
-pueblo, a characteristic of the highest form of pueblo architecture.
-
-Doctor Prudden has followed his comprehensive paper above mentioned
-with an account[5] of the excavation of one of the mounds at Mitchell
-Spring in which he adds to our knowledge of the structure of his “unit
-type.”
-
-In “A Further Study of Prehistoric Small House Ruins in the San Juan
-Watershed,”[6] Doctor Prudden has furnished important additional data
-which shows the uniformity of the unit type over a large area of the
-San Juan drainage.
-
-[4] The Prehistoric Ruins of the San Juan Watershed in Utah, Arizona,
-Colorado, and New Mexico., Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. v, no. 2, 1903.
-
-[5] The Circular Kivas of Small Ruins in the San Juan Watershed. Amer.
-Anthrop., n. s. vol. xvi, no. 1, 1914.
-
-[6] Memoirs Amer. Anthrop. Asso., vol. v, no. 1, 1918.
-
-The following among other prehistoric remains in the district
-mentioned or described by Doctor Prudden are covered by the author’s
-reconnoissance:
-
-     1. Ruins at Dolores Bend (Escalante Ruin).
-     2. Wolley Ranch Ruin.
-     3. Burkhardt Ruin (Mud Spring Village).
-     4. Goodman Point Ruin.
-     5. Unnamed ruin west of Goodman Lake.
-     6. Ruin at junction of McElmo and Yellow Jacket.
-     7. Group on Yellow Jacket nearly opposite mouth of Dawson Canyon
-          (Davis or Littrell Tower).
-     8. Surouaro.
-     9. Cannonball Ruin.
-    10. Towers and buildings of Ruin and Bridge Canyons.
-    11. Pierson Spring Ruin.
-    12. Bug Spring Ruins.
-
-The following towers can be identified from his figures:[7]
-
-    1. “Square building opposite mouth of Dawson Creek.”
-       Prudden, pl. xviii, fig. 2. (This building is not
-       square, but semicircular.)
-
-    2. Cannonball Ruin. Prudden, pl. xxi [xxii].
-
-    3. “Small tower-like structure ... at the head of Ruin
-       Canyon, in the Yellow Jacket group.” Prudden, pl.
-       xxiii, fig. 2. (This building is not in Ruin Canyon,
-       but in Holly Canyon.)
-
-    4. “Tower ... about the head of Ruin Canyon.” Prudden,
-       pl. xxiii, fig. 1. (This is the most eastern of the
-       Twin Towers, but not about the head of the canyon.)
-
-    5. Sand Canyon Tower. Prudden, pl. xxiv, fig. 2.
-
-Although mainly devoted to descriptions of the cliff-houses of the
-Mesa Verde, Baron G. Nordenskiöld’s “Cliff-Dwellers of the Mesa Verde”
-discusses in so broad a manner the relationship of pueblo ruins and
-cliff-houses that no student can overlook this epoch-making work. In
-fact, Nordenskiöld laid the foundations for subsequent students of
-pueblo morphology, although some of his comparisons and generalizations
-were premature because based on imperfect observations which have been
-superseded by later investigations.
-
-The partial excavation of the excellent ruin at the head of Cannonball
-Canyon by S. G. Morley[8] sheds considerable light on the morphology
-of prehistoric buildings in the McElmo district. Unfortunately
-no attempt was made by him to repair the walls of this ruin for
-permanent preservation, but it is not too late still to prevent
-their further destruction and preserve them for future students and
-visitors. Morley’s description of the buildings is accompanied by
-good photographs and a ground plan. He brought to light in this ruin
-examples of the characteristic unit type kiva.
-
-[7] Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. v, no. 2, 1903.
-
-[8] The Excavation of the Cannonball Ruins in Southwestern Colorado.
-Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. x, no. 4, 1908.
-
-The latest work on the McElmo Ruins, one part of which has already
-appeared, is a joint contribution by Morley and Kidder.[9] In this
-publication accurate dimensions and sites of ruins in the McElmo and
-Square Ruin Canyons are given, with other instructive data. Morley
-and Kidder have designated the ruins by Arabic numbers, and in a few
-instances by names. The author has preserved these numbers so far as
-possible in his account.
-
-The following ruins in Ruin Canyon and neighboring district covered by
-this reconnoissance are described by Morley and Kidder:
-
-    No.  1. Wickyup Canyon, Ruin 1 and Ruin 2, “Boulder Castle.”
-    No.  2. Two towers in Ruin Canyon: 1ᵃ, near the mouth; 1ᵇ,
-            Towers on or near forks, No. 1 [Hovenweep Pueblo],
-            No. 2 [Hovenweep Castle.]
-    No.  3. [Square Tower.]
-    No.  4. [Oval Tower.]
-    No.  5. [Tower.]
-    No.  6. [6.]
-    No.  7. [Boulder Cliff-house.]
-    No.  8. Twin Towers.
-    No.  9. [9.]
-    No. 10. [Unit type House.]
-    No. 11. Gibraltar House and ruin. [Stronghold House.]
-    No. 12. [12.]
-
-The pueblos and cave dwellings of the “Pivotal group” (those on or near
-the promontory at the junction of the McElmo and Yellow Jacket Canyons)
-were also studied by the authors.
-
-Almost the whole article by Morley and Kidder, which the editor
-announces will be completed in a future number of “El Palacio,” is
-devoted to descriptions of buildings[10] in Ruin and Road (Wickyup)
-Canyons and the ruins of the “Pivotal group” at the base of a
-promontory between the junction of the Yellow Jacket and McElmo.
-
-[9] The Archaeology of McElmo Canyon, Colorado. El Palacio, vol. iv,
-no. 4, Santa Fe, 1917.
-
-[10] The dimensions of buildings and towers given in this article are
-welcome additions to our knowledge, but from lack of ground plans
-one can not fully determine the arrangement of rooms designated in
-individual ruins.
-
-
-
-
-CLASSIFICATION
-
-
-In the classification by Morley and Kidder and the majority of writers,
-sites rather than structural features are adopted as a basis although
-all recognized that large cliff-dwellings like Cliff Palace are
-practically pueblos built in caves. In the following classification
-more attention is directed to differences in structure than to
-situation, notwithstanding the latter is convenient for descriptive
-purposes.
-
-1. Villages or clusters of houses, each having the form of the pure
-pueblo type. The essential feature of the pure type is a compact
-pueblo, containing one or more unit types, circular kivas of
-characteristic form, surrounded by rectangular rooms. These units,
-single or consolidated, may be grouped in clusters, as Mitchell Spring
-or Aztec Spring Ruins; the clusters may be fused into a large building,
-as at Aztec or in the community buildings on Chaco Canyon.
-
-2. Cliff-houses. These morphologically belong to the same pure type as
-pueblos; their sites in natural caves are insufficient to separate them
-from open-sky buildings.
-
-3. Towers and great houses. These buildings occur united to
-cliff-dwellings or pueblos, but more often they are isolated.
-
-4. Rooms with walls made of megaliths or small stone slabs set on edge.
-
-In reports on the excavation of Far View House[11] on the Mesa Verde,
-the author called attention to clusters of mounds indicating ruined
-buildings in the neighborhood of Mummy Lake, a little more than 4 miles
-from Spruce-tree House. This cluster he considers a village; Far View
-House, excavated from one of the mounds, is regarded as a prehistoric
-pueblo of the pure type. The forms of other buildings covered by the
-remaining mounds of the Mummy Lake site are unknown, but it is probable
-that they will be found to resemble Far View House, or that all members
-of the village have similar forms.
-
-[11] A Prehistoric Mesa Verde Pueblo and its People. Smithson. Rept.
-for 1916, pp. 461-488, 1917. Far View House—a Pure Type of Pueblo Ruin.
-Art and Archaeology, vol. vi, no. 3, 1917.
-
-This grouping of small pueblos into villages at Mummy Lake on the Mesa
-Verde is also a distinctive feature of ruins in the Montezuma Valley
-and McElmo district. In these villages one or more of the component
-houses may be larger and more conspicuous, dominating all the others,
-as at Goodman Point, or at Aztec Spring. The houses composing the
-village at Mud Spring were about the same size, but at Wolley Ranch
-Ruin only one mound remains, evidently the largest, the smaller having
-disappeared.
-
-The third group, towers and great houses, includes buildings of oval,
-circular, semicircular, and rectangular shapes. Morphologically
-speaking, they do not present structural features of pueblos, for they
-are not terraced, neither have they specialized circular ceremonial
-rooms, kivas with vaulted roofs surrounded by rectangular rooms,
-or other essential features of the pueblo type. The group contains
-buildings which are sometimes consolidated with cliff-houses and
-pueblos, but are often independent of them. In this type are included
-castellated buildings in the Mancos, Yellow Jacket, McElmo, and the
-numerous northern tributary canyons of the San Juan.
-
-
-VILLAGES
-
-RECTANGULAR RUINS OF THE PURE TYPE
-
-As the word is used in this report, a village is a cluster of houses
-separated from each other, each building constructed on the same plan,
-viz, a circular ceremonial room or kiva with mural banquettes and
-pilasters for the support of a vaulted roof, inclosed in rectangular
-rooms. When there is one kiva and surrounding angular rooms we adopt
-the name “unit type.” When, as in the larger mounds, there are
-indications of several kivas or unit types consolidated—the size
-being in direct proportion to the number—we speak of the building as
-belonging to the “pure type.” Doctor Prudden, who first pointed out the
-characteristics of the “unit type,”[12] has shown its wide distribution
-in the McElmo district. The Mummy Lake village has 16 mounds indicating
-houses. Far View House, one of these houses, is made up of an
-aggregation of four unit types and hence belongs to the author’s “pure
-type.”
-
-[12] The situation of the cemetery, one of the characters of Prudden’s
-“unit type,” appears constant in one kiva buildings, but is variable
-in the pure type, and, as shown in the author’s application of the
-unit type to the crowded condition in Spruce-tree House and other
-cliff-houses, does not occur in the same position as in pueblos of the
-pure type open to the sky.
-
-While villages similar to the Mummy Lake group, in the valleys near
-Mesa Verde, have individual variations, the essential features are
-the same, as will appear in the following descriptions of Surouaro,
-and ruins at Goodman Point, Mud Spring, Aztec Spring, and Mitchell
-Spring. Commonly, in these villages, one mound predominates in size
-over the others, and while rectangular in form, has generally circular
-depressions on the surface, recalling conditions at Far View mound
-before excavation. These mounds indicate large buildings in blocks,
-made up of many unit forms of the pure type, united into compact
-structures. One large dominant member of the village recalls those
-ruins where the village is consolidated into one community pueblo.
-The separation of mounds in the village and their concentration in
-the community house may be of chronological importance, although the
-relative age of the simple and composite forms can not at present
-be determined; but it is important to recognize that the units of
-construction in villages and community buildings are identical.
-
-
-SUROUARO
-
-The cluster of mounds formerly called Surouaro, now known as Yellow
-Jacket Spring Ruin, is situated near the head of the canyon of the same
-name to the left of the Monticello road, 14 miles west of Dolores. This
-village (pls. 1, _c_; 2, _c_) contains both large and small houses of
-the pure pueblo type, covering an area somewhat less than the Mummy
-Lake group, on the Mesa Verde. The arrangement of mounds in clusters
-naturally recalls the Galisteo and Jemez districts, New Mexico, where,
-however, the arrangement of the mounds and the structure of each is
-different. The individual houses in a Mesa Verde or Yellow Jacket
-village were not so grouped as to inclose a rectangular court, but were
-irregularly distributed with intervals of considerable size between
-them.[13]
-
-The largest mound in the Surouaro village, shown in plate 1, _c_,
-corresponds with the so-called “Upper House” of Aztec Spring Ruin, but
-is much larger than Far View or any other single mound in the Mummy
-Lake village.
-
-Surouaro was one of the first ruins in this region described by
-American explorers, attention having been first called to it by
-Professor Newberry,[14] whose description follows: “Surouaro is the
-name of a ruined town which must have once contained a population of
-several thousands. The name is said to be of Indian (Utah) origin,
-and to signify desolation, and certainly no better could have been
-selected.... The houses are, many of them, large, and all built of
-stone, hammer dressed on the exposed faces. Fragments of pottery are
-exceedingly common, though like the buildings, showing great age....
-The remains of _metates_ (corn mills) are abundant about the ruins. The
-ruins of several large reservoirs, built of masonry, may be seen at
-Surouaro, and there are traces of acequias which led to them, through
-which water was brought, perhaps from a great distance.”
-
-[13] In his valuable study, Pueblo Ruins of the Galisteo Basin, New
-Mexico (Anthrop. Papers of the Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. XV, pt. 1,
-1914), Mr. Nelson figures (Plan I, _B_) an embedded circular kiva in
-what he calls the “historic part” of the Galisteo Ruin, but does not
-state how he distinguishes the historic from the prehistoric part of
-this building. The other kivas at Galisteo are few in number and not
-embedded, but situated outside the house masses as in historic pueblos.
-
-[14] Report of the exploring expedition from Santa Fe, New Mexico,
-to the Junction of the Grand and Green Rivers of the Great Colorado
-of the West in 1859, under the command of Capt. J. N. Macomb, p. 88,
-Washington, 1876.
-
-
-GOODMAN POINT RUIN
-
-This ruin is a cluster of small mounds surrounding larger ones,
-recalling the arrangement at Aztec Spring. They naturally fall into two
-groups which from their direction or relation to the adjacent spring
-may be called the south and north sections.
-
-The most important mound of the south section, Block A, measures 74
-feet on the north, 79 feet on the south, and 76 feet on the west side.
-This large mound corresponds morphologically to the “Upper House” at
-Aztec Spring (fig. 1, _A_). About it there are arranged at intervals,
-mainly on the north and east sides, other smaller mounds generally
-indicating rectangular buildings. The southeast angle of the largest
-is connected by a low wall with one of the smaller mounds, forming
-an enclosure called a court, whose northern border is the rim of
-the canyon just above the spring. A determination of the detailed
-architectural features of the building buried under Block A is not
-possible, as none of its walls stand above the mass of fallen stones,
-but it is evident, from circular depressions and fragments of straight
-walls that appear over the surface of the mound, that the rooms were
-of two kinds, rectangular forms, or dwellings, and circular chambers,
-or kivas. This mound resembles Far View House on the Mesa Verde before
-excavation.
-
-A large circular depression, 56 feet in diameter, is situated in the
-midst of the largest mounds. A unique feature of this depression,
-recognized and described by Doctor Prudden, are four piles of stones,
-regularly arranged on the floor. The author adopts the suggestion
-that this area was once roofed and served as a central circular kiva,
-necessitating a roof of such dimensions that four masonry pillars
-served for its support. The mound measures about 15 feet in height,
-and has large trees growing on its surface, offering evidence of
-a considerable age. Several other rooms are indicated by circular
-surface depressions, but their relation to the rectangular rooms can be
-determined only by excavation.
-
-
-JOHNSON RUIN
-
-This ruin, to which the author was conducted by Mr. C. K. Davis, is
-about 4 miles west of the Goodman Point Ruin near Mr. Johnson’s ranch
-house, in section 12, township 36, range 18. It is said to be situated
-at the head of Sand Canyon, a tributary of the McElmo, and is one of
-the largest ruins visited. The remains of former houses skirt the rim
-of the canyon head for fully half a mile, forming a continuous series
-of mounds in which can be traced towers, great houses, and other types
-of buildings, and numerous depressions indicating sunken kivas. The
-walls of these buildings were, however, so tumbled down that little
-now remains above ground save piles of stones in which tops of buried
-walls may still be detected, but not without some difficulty. In a cave
-under the “mesa rim” there is a small cliff-house in the walls of which
-extremities of the original wooden rafters still remain in place.
-
-In an open clearing, about 3 miles south and west of Mr. J. W. Fulk’s
-house, Renaraye post office, there is a small ruin of rectangular form,
-the ground plan of which shows two rectangular sections of different
-sizes, joined at one angle. The largest section measures approximately
-20 by 50 feet. It consists of low rooms surrounding two circular
-depressions, possibly kivas. Although constructed on a small scale,
-this section reminds one of the Upper House of Aztec Spring Ruin. The
-smaller section, which also has a rectangular form, has remains of
-high rooms on opposite sides and low walls on the remaining sides.
-In the enclosed area there is a circular depression or reservoir,
-corresponding with the reservoir of the Lower House at Aztec Spring
-Ruin.
-
-
-BUG MESA RUIN
-
-The author was guided by Mr. H. S. Merchant to a village ruin, one of
-the largest visited, situated a few miles from his ranch house. This
-village is about 10 miles due south of the store at the head of Dove
-Creek, and consists of several large mounds, each about 500 feet long,
-arranged parallel to each other, and numerous isolated smaller mounds.
-Not far from this large ruin there is a prehistoric reservoir estimated
-as covering about 4 acres. Many circular depressions, indicated
-kivas, and lines of stones showed tops of buried rectangular rooms.
-Excavations in a small mound near this ruin were conducted by Doctor
-Prudden.[15]
-
-The canyon which heads near the corral on the road to Merchant’s house
-revealed no evidence of prehistoric dwellings.
-
-
-MITCHELL SPRING RUIN
-
-This ruin takes its name from the earliest known description of it by
-Morgan,[16] which was compiled from notes by Mr. Mitchell, one of the
-early settlers in Montezuma Valley. Morgan’s account is as follows:
-
-“Near Mr. Mitchell’s ranch, and within a space of less than a mile
-square, are the ruins of nine pueblo houses of moderate size. They are
-built of sandstone intermixed with cobblestone and adobe mortar. They
-are now in a very ruinous condition, without standing walls in any
-part of them above the rubbish. The largest of the number is marked
-No. 1 in the plan, figure 44, of which the outline of the original
-structure is still discernible. It is 94 feet in length and 47 feet
-in depth, and shows the remains of a stone wall in front inclosing a
-small court about 15 feet wide. The mass of material over some parts of
-this structure is 10 or 12 feet deep. There are, no doubt, rooms with a
-portion of the walls still standing covered with rubbish, the removal
-of which would reveal a considerable portion of the original ground
-plan.”
-
-The author paid a short visit to the Mitchell Spring village and by
-means of Morgan’s sketch map was able to identify without difficulty
-the nine mounds and tower he represents. The village at Mitchell Spring
-differs from that at Mud Spring and at Aztec Spring mainly in the small
-size and diffuse distribution of the component mounds and an absence
-of any one mound larger than the remainder. It had, however, a round
-tower, but unlike that at Mud Spring village, this structure is not
-united to one of the houses. The addition of towers to pueblos, as
-pointed out by Doctor Prudden[17] several years ago, marks the highest
-development of pueblo architecture as shown not only in open-air
-villages but also in some of the large cliff pueblos, like Cliff
-Palace. Isolated towers are as a rule earlier in construction.
-
-[15] Memoirs Amer. Anthrop. Asso., vol. V, no. 1, 1918.
-
-[16] Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines. Cont. N. Amer.
-Ethn., vol. IV, pp. 189-190, 1831.
-
-[17] Prudden excavated a unit type ruin from one of the Mitchell Spring
-mounds. (Amer. Anthrop., vol. XVI, no. 1, 1914.)
-
-The unit type mound uncovered by Doctor Prudden is one of the most
-instructive examples of this type in Montezuma Canyon, but the author
-in subsequent pages will call attention to the existence of the same
-type in Square Tower Canyon. All of these pueblos probably have kivas
-of the pure type, practically the same in structure as Far View House
-on the Mesa Verde National Park.
-
-
-MUD SPRING (BURKHARDT) RUIN
-
-The collection of mounds (pl. 3, _b_), sometimes called Burkhardt
-Ruin, situated at Mud Spring, belongs to the McElmo series. This
-ruin, in which is the “triple-walled tower” of Holmes, for uniformity
-with Mitchell Spring Ruin and Aztec Spring Ruin, is named after a
-neighboring spring. Like these, it is a cluster of mounds forming a
-village which covers a considerable area. The arroyo on which it is
-situated opens into the McElmo, and is about 7 miles southwest from
-Cortez, at a point where the road enters the McElmo Canyon.
-
-The extension of the area covered by the Mud Spring mounds is
-east-west, the largest mounds being those on the east. These latter
-are separated from the remainder, or those on the west, by a shallow,
-narrow gulch. There are two towers united to the western section
-overlooking the spring, the following description of one of which, with
-a sketch of the ground plan, is given by Holmes.[18]
-
-[18] Op. cit., pp. 398-399.
-
-“The circular structures or towers have been built, in the usual
-manner, of roughly hewn stone, and rank among the very best specimens
-of this ancient architecture. The great tower is especially
-noticeable.... In dimensions it is almost identical with the great
-tower of the Rio Mancos. The walls are traceable nearly all the way
-round, and the space between the two outer ones, which is about 5 feet
-in width, contains 14 apartments or cells. The walls about one of these
-cells are still standing to the height of 12 feet; but the interior can
-not be examined on account of the rubbish which fills it to the top.
-No openings are noticeable in the circular walls, but doorways seem to
-have been made to communicate between the apartments; one is preserved
-at _d_.... This tower stands back about 100 feet from the edge of the
-mesa near the border of the village. The smaller tower, _b_, stands
-forward on a point that overlooks the shallow gulch; it is 15 feet in
-diameter; the walls are 3½ feet thick and 5 feet high on the outside.
-Beneath this ruin, in a little side gulch, are the remains of a wall
-12 feet high and 20 inches thick.... The apartments number nearly a
-hundred, and seem, generally, to have been rectangular. They are not,
-however, of uniform size, and certainly not arranged in regular order.”
-
-Morgan[19] gives the following description of the same ruin which seems
-to the author to be the Mud Creek village:
-
-“Four miles westerly [from Mitchell ranch], near the ranch of Mr.
-Shirt, are the ruins of another large stone pueblo, together with an
-Indian cemetery, where each grave is marked by a border of flat stones
-set level with the ground in the form of a parallelogram 8 feet by 4
-feet. Near the cluster of nine pueblos shown in the figure are found
-strewn on the ground numerous fragments of pottery of high grade in the
-ornamentation, and small arrowheads of flint, quartz, and chalcedony
-delicately formed, and small knife blades with convex and serrated
-edges in considerable numbers.
-
-“This is an immense ruin with small portions of the walls still
-standing, particularly of the round tower of stone of three concentric
-walls, incorporated in the structure, and a few chambers in the north
-end of the main building. The round tower is still standing nearly
-to the height of the first story. In its present condition it was
-impossible to make a ground plan showing the several chambers, or to
-determine with certainty which side was the front of the structure,
-assuming that it was constructed in the terraced form.... The Round
-Tower is the most singular feature in this structure. While it
-resembles the ordinary _estufa_, common to all these structures, it
-differs from them in having three concentric walls. No doorways are
-visible in the portion still standing, consequently it must have been
-entered through the roof, in which respect it agrees with the ordinary
-_estufa_. The inner chamber is about 20 feet in diameter, and the
-spaces between the encircling walls are about 2 feet each; the walls
-are about 2 feet in thickness, and were laid up mainly with stones
-about 4 inches square, and, for the most part, in courses. There is a
-similar round tower, having but two concentric walls, at the head of
-the McElmo Canyon, and near the ranch of Mr. Mitchell [Mitchell Ruin].”
-
-As the name Mud Spring is locally known to the natives, especially
-to employees of livery stables and garages, the ruin is here called
-Mud Spring. The tower and the other circular buildings are united to
-other rooms as in similar groups of mounds. The presence of surface
-depressions, thought to indicate circular kivas,[20] shows that the Mud
-Spring mounds are remains of a village of the same type as the Mummy
-Lake group, but with towers united to the largest mounds.
-
-[19] Op. cit., p. 190.
-
-[20] Although the kivas of Mud Spring Ruin have not been excavated
-there is little doubt from surface indications that they belong to the
-unit type.
-
-The time the author could give to his visit to the Mud Spring Ruin
-(pl. 3, _b_) was too limited to survey it, but he noticed in addition
-to the two circular buildings already recorded, a large mound situated
-on the west side of the gulch, and numerous small mounds on the
-east side of the same, each apparently with a central depression
-like a kiva. All these mounds have been more or less mutilated by
-indiscriminate digging, but many mounds, still untouched, remain to
-be excavated before we can form an adequate conception of the group.
-The “triple-walled tower” is now in such a condition that the author
-could not determine whether it was formerly circular or D-shaped; the
-“small tower” is in even worse condition and its previous form could
-not be made out. The Mud Spring mounds cover a much larger area than
-descriptions or ground plans thus far published would indicate.
-
-Originally Mud Spring Ruin consisted of a cluster of pueblos of various
-sizes, each probably with a circular kiva and rectangular rooms,
-combined with one or more towers at present too much dilapidated to
-determine architectural details without excavations. Like the other
-clusters of pueblos in the McElmo and Montezuma Valley, the cemetery
-near Mud Spring Ruin has suffered considerably from pothunters, but
-there still remain many standing walls that are well preserved.
-
-
-RUIN WITH SEMICIRCULAR CORE
-
-This ruin is situated on the San Juan about 3 miles below the sandy
-bed of the mouth of the Montezuma, on a bluff 50 feet above the river.
-The ground plan by Jackson[21] indicates a building shaped like a
-trapezoid, 158 feet on the northeast side, 120 on the southeast, and
-32 on the northwest side. The southwest side is broken midway by a
-reentering area at the rim of the bluff over the river.
-
-[21] Tenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1876,
-pl. xlviii, fig. 2, 1879.
-
-In the center of this trapezoidal structure there is represented a
-series of rooms arranged like those of Horseshoe House, but composed
-of a half-circular chamber surrounded by seven rooms between two
-concentric circular walls. Thus far the homology to Horseshoe House is
-close but beyond this series of rooms, following out the trapezoidal
-form, at least five other rooms appear on the ground plan. The position
-of these recalls the walls arranged around the tower at Mud Spring
-village. In other words, the ruin resembles Horseshoe House, but has
-in addition rectangular rooms added on three sides, forming an angular
-building. So far as the author’s information goes, no other ruin of
-exactly this type, which recalls Sun Temple, has been described by
-other observers.
-
-
-WOLLEY RANCH RUIN
-
-Wolley Ranch Ruin, situated 10 miles south of Dolores, is one of the
-largest mounds near Cortez. There are evidences of the former existence
-of a cluster of mounds at this place, only one of which now remains.
-This is covered with bushes, rendering it difficult to trace the
-bounding walls.
-
-
-BLANCHARD RUIN
-
-Several years ago private parties constructed at Manitou, near Colorado
-Springs, a cliff-dwelling on the combined plan of Spruce-tree House and
-Cliff Palace. The rocks used for that purpose were transported from
-a large mound on the Blanchard ranch near Lebanon, in the Montezuma
-Valley, at the head of Hartman’s draw, about 6 miles south of Dolores.
-Two mounds (pl. 2, _a_, _b_), about three-quarters of a mile apart,
-are all that now remain of a considerable village; the other smaller
-mounds, reported by pioneer settlers, have long since been leveled by
-cultivation. As both of these mounds have been extensively dug into to
-obtain stones, the walls that remain standing show much mutilation.
-The present condition of the largest Blanchard mound, as seen from its
-southwest angle, is shown in plate 2, _b_. About half of the mound, now
-covered with a growth of bushes, still remains entire, exposing walls
-of fine masonry, on its south side. The rooms in the buried buildings
-are hard to make out on account of this covering of vegetation and
-accumulated débris; but the central depressions, supposed to be kivas,
-almost always present in the middle of mounds in this district, show
-that the structure of Blanchard Ruin follows the pure type.
-
-
-RUINS AT AZTEC SPRING
-
-The mounds at Aztec Spring (pl. 1, _b_), situated on the eastern flank
-of Ute Mountain, at a site looking across the valley to the west end
-of Mesa Verde, were described forty years ago by W. W. Jackson[22] and
-Prof. W. H. Holmes.[23] The descriptions given by both these pioneers
-are quoted at length for the reason that subsequent authors have added
-little from direct observation since that time, notwithstanding they
-have been constantly referred to and the illustrations reproduced.
-
-[22] Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1874,
-Washington, 1876.
-
-[23] Op. cit.
-
-As a result of a short visit, the author is able to add the few
-following notes on the Aztec Spring mounds. The ruin is a village
-consisting of a cluster of unit pueblos of the pure type in various
-stages of consolidation. No excavations were made, but the surface
-indications point to the conclusion that the different mounds indicate
-that these pueblos have different shapes and sizes.
-
-The author’s observations differ in several unimportant particulars
-from those of previous writers, and while it is not his intention to
-describe in detail the Aztec Spring village he will call attention to
-certain features it shares with other villages in the Montezuma Valley.
-
-The best, almost the only accounts of this village are the following
-taken from the descriptions by Jackson and Holmes published in 1877.
-Mr. Jackson gives the following description:[24]
-
-    “Immediately adjoining the spring, on the right, as
-    we face it from below, is the ruin of a great massive
-    structure [Upper House?] of some kind, about 100
-    feet square in exterior dimensions; a portion only
-    of the wall upon the northern face remaining in its
-    original position. The _débris_ of the ruin now
-    forms a great mound of crumbling rock, from 12 to 20
-    feet in height, overgrown with artemisia, but showing
-    clearly, however, its rectangular structure, adjusted
-    approximately to the four points of the compass. Inside
-    this square is a circle, about 60 feet in diameter,
-    deeply depressed in the center. The space between
-    the square and the circle appeared, upon a hasty
-    examination, to have been filled in solidly with a
-    sort of rubble-masonry. Cross-walls were noticed in
-    two places; but whether they were to strengthen the
-    walls or divided apartments could only be conjectured.
-    That portion of the outer wall remaining standing is
-    some 40 feet in length and 15 in height. The stones
-    were dressed to a uniform size and finish. Upon the
-    same level as this ruin, and extending back some
-    distance, were grouped line after line of foundations
-    and mounds, the great mass of which is of stone but
-    not one remaining upon another.... Below the above
-    group, some 200 yards distant, and communicating by
-    indistinct lines of _débris_, is another great
-    wall, inclosing a space of about 200 feet square [Lower
-    House?].... This better preserved portion is some 50
-    feet in length, 7 or 8 feet in height, and 20 feet
-    thick, the two exterior surfaces of well-dressed and
-    evenly laid courses, and the center packed in solidly
-    with rubble-masonry, looking entirely different from
-    those rooms which had been filled with _débris_,
-    though it is difficult to assign any reason for its
-    being so massively constructed.... The town built about
-    this spring is nearly a square mile in extent, the
-    larger and more enduring buildings in the center, while
-    all about are scattered and grouped the remnants of
-    smaller structures, comprising the suburbs.”
-
-The description by Professor Holmes[25] is more detailed and
-accompanied by a ground plan, and is quoted below:
-
-[24] Op. cit., pp. 377-378.
-
-[25] Op. cit., p. 400.
-
-“The site of the spring I found, but without the least appearance of
-water. The depression formerly occupied by it is near the center of a
-large mass of ruins, similar to the group [Mud Spring village] last
-described, but having a rectangular instead of a circular building as
-the chief and central structure. This I have called the _upper house_
-in the plate, and a large walled enclosure a little lower on the slope
-I have for the sake of distinction called the _lower house_.
-
-“These ruins form the most imposing pile of masonry yet [1875] found
-in Colorado. The whole group covers an area about 480,000 square
-feet, and has an average depth of from 3 to 4 feet. This would give
-in the vicinity of 1,500,000 solid feet of stonework. The stone used
-is chiefly of the fossiliferous limestone that outcrop along the base
-of the Mesa Verde a mile or more away, and its transportation to this
-place has doubtless been a great work for a people so totally without
-facilities.
-
-“The upper house is rectangular, measuring 80 feet by 100 feet, and is
-built with the cardinal points to within a few degrees. The pile is
-from 12 to 15 feet in height, and its massiveness suggests an original
-height at least twice as great. The plan is somewhat difficult to make
-out on account of the very great quantity of _débris_.
-
-“The walls seem to have been double, with a space 7 feet between; a
-number of cross-walls at regular intervals indicate that this space has
-been divided into apartments, as seen in the plan.
-
-“The walls are 26 inches thick, and are built of roughly dressed
-stones, which were probably laid in mortar, as in other cases.
-
-“The enclosed space, which is somewhat depressed, has two lines of
-_débris_, probably the remains of partition-walls, separating it into
-three apartments, _a_, _b_, _c_ [note]. Enclosing this great house is a
-network of fallen walls, so completely reduced that none of the stones
-seem to remain in place; and I am at a loss to determine whether they
-mark the site of a cluster of irregular apartments, having low, loosely
-built walls, or whether they are the remains of some imposing adobe
-structure built after the manner of the ruined pueblos of the Rio Chaco.
-
-“Two well-defined circular enclosures or _estufas_ [kivas] are situated
-in the midst of the southern wing of the ruin. The upper one, A, is on
-the opposite side of the spring from the great house, is 60 feet in
-diameter, and is surrounded by a low stone wall. West of the house is a
-small open court, which seems to have had a gateway opening out to the
-west, through the surrounding walls.
-
-“The lower house is 200 feet in length by 180 in width, and its walls
-vary 15 degrees from the cardinal points. The northern wall, _a_, is
-double and contains a row of eight apartments about 7 feet in width by
-24 in length. The walls of the other sides are low, and seem to have
-served simply to enclose the great court, near the center of which is a
-large walled depression (_estufa_ B).”
-
-The number of buildings that composed the Aztec Spring village (fig. 1)
-when it was inhabited can not be exactly estimated, but as indicated
-by the largest mound, the most important block of rooms exceeds in
-size any at Mitchell Spring Ruin. While this village also covered more
-ground than that at Mud Spring, it shows no evidence of added towers,
-a prominent feature of the largest mound of the latter. Two sections
-(fig. 1, _A_, _B_) may be distinguished in the arrangement of mounds
-in the village; one may be known as the western and the other as the
-eastern division.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 1.—Ground plan of Aztec Spring Ruin.]
-
-The highest and most conspicuous mound of the western section (_A_)
-is referred to by Professor Holmes as the “Upper House.” Surface
-characteristics now indicate that this is the remains of a compact
-rectangular building, with circular kivas and domiciliary rooms of
-different shapes, the arrangement of which can not be determined
-without extensive excavations. The plan of this pueblo published
-by Holmes[26] shows two large and one small depression, indicating
-peripheral rectangular chambers surrounded by walls of rectangular
-rooms.
-
-[26] Op. cit., pl. xl.
-
-The author interprets the depressions, _K_, as kivas, but supposes
-that they were not rectangular as figured by Holmes, but circular,
-surrounded on all four sides by square secular chambers, the “Upper
-House” being formed by the consolidation of several units of the pure
-pueblo type. Although Aztec Spring Ruin is now much mutilated and its
-walls difficult to trace, the surface indications, aided by comparative
-studies of the rooms, show that Holmes’ “_a_,” “_b_,” and “_c_,” now
-shown by depressions, are circular, subterranean kivas. They are the
-same kind of chambers as the circular depressions in the mounds on
-the south side of the spring. The height of the mound called “Upper
-House” indicates that the building had more than one story on the
-west and north sides, and that a series of rooms one story high with
-accompanying circular depressions existed on the east side.
-
-The “Upper House” is only one of several pueblos composing the western
-cluster of the Aztec Spring village. Its proximity to the source of
-water may in part account for its predominant size, but there are
-evidences of several other mounds (_E-H_) in its neighborhood, also
-remains of pueblos. Those on the north (_C_) and west sides (_E-H_) are
-small and separated from it by intervals sometimes called courts. The
-most extensive accumulation of rooms next the “Upper House” is situated
-across the draw in which the spring lies, south of the “Upper House”
-cluster already considered. The aggregation of houses near the “Upper
-House” is mainly composed of low rectangular buildings among which are
-recognized scattered circular depressions indicating kivas. The largest
-of these buildings is indicated by the mound on the south rim of the
-draw, where we can make out remains of a number of circular depressions
-or kivas (_K_), as if several unit forms fused together; on the north
-and west sides of the spring there are small, low mounds, unconnected,
-also suggesting several similar unit forms. The most densely populated
-part of the village at Aztec Spring, as indicated by the size of the
-mounds clustered on the rim around the head of the draw, is above the
-spring, on the northwest and south sides.
-
-There remains to be mentioned the eastern annex (_B_) of the Aztec
-Spring village, the most striking remains of which is a rectangular
-inclosure called “Lower House,” situated east of the spring and lower
-down the draw, or at a lower level than the section already considered.
-The type of this structure, which undoubtedly belonged to the same
-village, is different from that already described. It resembles a
-reservoir rather than a kiva, inclosed by a low rectangular wall,
-with rows of rooms on the north side. The court of the “Lower House”
-measures 218 feet. The wall on the east, south, and west sides is only
-a few feet high and is narrow; that on the north is broader and higher,
-evidently the remains of rooms, overlooking the inclosed area.
-
-Perhaps the most enigmatical structures in the vicinity of Aztec Spring
-village are situated on a low mesa south of the mounds, a few hundred
-feet away. These are circular depressions without accompanying mounds,
-one of which was excavated a few years ago to the depth of 12 feet; on
-the south there was discovered a well-made wall of a circular opening,
-now visible, by which there was a communication through a horizontal
-tunnel with the open air. The author was informed that this tunnel
-is artificial and that one of the workmen crawled through it to its
-opening in the side of a bank many yards distant.
-
-No attempt was made to get the exact dimensions of the component
-houses at Aztec Spring, as the walls are now concealed in the mounds,
-and measurements can only be approximations if obtained from surface
-indications without excavation. The sketch plan here introduced (fig.
-1) is schematic, but although not claimed as accurate, may serve to
-convey a better idea of the relation of the two great structures and
-their annexed buildings than any previously advanced.
-
-The author saw no ruined prehistoric village in the Montezuma Valley
-that so stirred his enthusiasm to properly excavate and repair as that
-at Aztec Spring,[27] notwithstanding it has been considerably dug over
-for commercial purposes.
-
-[27] Mr. Van Kleeck, of Denver, has offered this ruin to the Public
-Parks Service for permanent preservation. It is proposed to rename it
-the Yucca House National Monument.
-
-
-GREAT OPEN-AIR RUINS SOUTH AND SOUTHWEST OF DOVE CREEK POST OFFICE
-
-In the region south and southwest of Dove Creek there are several large
-pueblo ruins, indicated by mounds formed of trimmed stone, eolean sand,
-and clay from plastering, which have certain characters in common.
-Each mound is a large heap of stones (pl. 3, _a_) near which is a
-depression or reservoir, with smaller heaps which in different ruins
-show the small buildings of the unit type. These clusters or villages
-are somewhat modified in form by the configuration of the mesa surface.
-The larger have rectangular forms regularly disposed in blocks with
-passageways between them or are without any definite arrangement.
-
-
-SQUAW POINT RUIN
-
-This large ruin, which has been described by Doctor Prudden as Squaw
-Point Ruin and as Pierson Lake Ruin, was visited by the author, who has
-little to add to this description. One of the small heaps of stone or
-mounds has been excavated and its structure found to conform with the
-definition of the unit type. The subterranean communication between one
-of the rectangular rooms and the kiva could be well seen at the time of
-the author’s visit and recalls the feature pointed out by him in some
-of the kivas of Spruce-tree House. The large reservoir and the great
-ruin are noteworthy features of the Squaw Point settlement.
-
-It seems to the author that the large block of buildings is simply a
-congeries of unit types the structure of one of which is indicated by
-the small buildings excavated by Doctor Prudden, and that structurally
-there is the same condition in it as in the pueblo ruins of Montezuma
-Valley, a conclusion to which the several artifacts mentioned and
-figured by Doctor Prudden also point.
-
-The same holds true of Bug Point Ruin, a few miles away, also excavated
-and described by Doctor Prudden. Here also excavation of a small mound
-shows the unit type, and while no one has yet opened the larger mound
-or pueblo, superficial evidences indicate that it also is a complex of
-many unit types joined together. Until more facts are available the
-relative age of the small unit types as compared to the large pueblo
-can not be definitely stated, but there is little reason to doubt that
-they are contemporaneous, and nothing to support the belief that they
-do not indicate the same culture.
-
-
-ACMEN RUIN
-
-Following the Old Bluff Road and leaving it about 5 miles west of
-Acmen post office, one comes to a low canyon beyond Pigge ranch. The
-heaps of stone or large mounds cover an area of about 10 acres, the
-largest being about 15 feet high. East of this is a circular depression
-surrounded by stones, indicating either a reservoir or a ruined
-building.
-
-The top of the highest mound (pl. 3, _a_)—no walls stand above the
-surface—is depressed like mounds of the Mummy Lake group on the Mesa
-Verde. This depression probably indicates a circular kiva embedded
-in square walls, the masonry of which so far as can be judged
-superficially is not very fine. There are many smaller mounds in the
-vicinity and evidences of cemeteries on the south, east, and west
-sides, where there are evidences of desultory digging; fragments of
-pottery are numerous.
-
-These mounds indicate a considerable village which would well repay
-excavation, as shown by the numerous specimens of corrugated, black and
-white, and red pottery in the Pigge collection, made in a small mound
-near the Pigge ranch.
-
-The specimens in this collection present few features different from
-those indicated by the fragments of pottery picked up on the larger
-mounds a mile west of the site where they were excavated. They are the
-same as shards from the mounds in the McElmo region.
-
-
-OAK SPRING HOUSE
-
-About 15 miles southwest of Dove Creek on Monument Canyon there is a
-good spring called Oak Spring, near which are several piles of stones
-indicating former buildings, the largest of which, about a quarter of a
-mile away, has a central depression with surrounding walls now covered
-with rock or buried in soil or blown sand. Very large piñon trees grow
-on top of the highest walls of this ruin, the general features of which
-recall those at Bug Spring, though their size is considerably less. In
-the surface of rock above the spring there are numerous potholes of
-small size. One of these, 4 feet deep and about 18 feet in diameter, is
-almost perfectly circular and has some signs of having been deepened
-artificially. It holds water much of the time and was undoubtedly a
-source of water supply to the aborigines, as it now is to stock in that
-neighborhood.
-
-
-RUIN IN RUIN CANYON
-
-One of the large rim-rock ruins may be seen on the left bank of Ruin
-Canyon in full view from the Old Bluff Road. The ruin is an immense
-pile of stones perched on the very edge of the rim, with no walls
-standing above the surface. The most striking feature of this ruin is
-the cliff-house below, the walls and entrance into which are visible
-from the road (pl. 9, _b_). It is readily accessible and one of the
-largest in the country. On either side of the Old Bluff Road from Ruin
-Canyon to the “Aztec Reservoir” small piles of stone mark the sites
-of many former buildings of the one-house type which can readily be
-seen, especially in the sagebrush clearings as the road descends to the
-Picket corral, the reservoirs, and the McElmo Canyon.
-
-
-CANNONBALL RUIN
-
-One of the most instructive ruins of the McElmo Canyon region is
-situated at the head of Cannonball Canyon, a short distance across
-the mesa north of the McElmo, at a point nearly opposite the store.
-This ruin is made up of two separate pueblos facing each other, one of
-which is known as the northern, the other as the southern pueblo (pl.
-22, _b_). Both show castellated chambers and towers, one of which is
-situated at the bottom of the canyon. The southern pueblo was excavated
-a few years ago by Mr. S. G. Morley, who published an excellent plan
-and a good description of it, and made several suggestions regarding
-additions of new rooms to the kivas which are valuable. Its walls were
-not protected and are rapidly deteriorating.
-
-This pueblo, as pointed out by Mr. Morley,[28] has 29 secular rooms
-arranged with little regularity, and 7 circular kivas, belonging to
-the vaulted-roofed variety. It is a fine example of a composite pueblo
-of the pure type, in which there are several large kivas. Morley has
-pointed out a possible sequence in the addition of the different kivas
-to a preexisting tower and offers an explanation of the chronological
-steps by which he thinks the aggregation of rooms was brought about.
-Occasionally we find inserted in the walls of these houses large
-artificially worked or uncut flat stones, such as the author has
-mentioned as existing in the walls of the northwest corner of the court
-of Far View House. This Cyclopean form of masonry is primitive and may
-be looked upon as a survival of a ruder and more archaic condition best
-shown in the Montezuma Mesa ruins farther west, a good example of which
-was described by Jackson.[29]
-
-[28] Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. x, no. 4, pp. 596-610, 1908.
-
-[29] Op. cit., pp. 428-429.
-
-
-CIRCULAR RUINS WITH PERIPHERAL COMPARTMENTS
-
-It has long been recognized that circular ruins in the Southwest differ
-from rectangular ruins, not only in shape but also in structural
-features, as relative position and character of kivas. The relation
-of the ceremonial chambers to the houses, no less than the external
-forms of the two, at first sight appear to separate them from the pure
-type.[30] They are more numerous and probably more ancient, as their
-relative abundance implies.
-
-[30] It is premature to declare that the kivas in circular ruins do
-not belong to the vaulted-roofed type simply from want of observation
-to that effect. In Penasco Blanco and other ruins of the Chaco Canyon
-group, as shown in ground plans, they appear to be embedded in secular
-rooms. Additional studies of the architectural features of circular
-pueblos are desirable.
-
-These circular ruins, in which group is included certain modifications
-where the curve of one side is replaced (generally on the south) by a
-straight wall or chord, have several concentric walls; again, they take
-the form of simple towers with one row of encircling compartments, or
-they may have a double wall with inclosed compartments.
-
-Many representations of semicircular ruins were found in the region
-here considered, some of which are of considerable size. The simplest
-form is well illustrated by the D-shaped building, Horseshoe House,
-in Hackberry Canyon, a ruin which will be considered later in this
-article. Other examples occur in the Yellow Jacket, and there
-are several, as Butte Ruin, Emerson, and Escalante Ruins, in the
-neighborhood of Dolores.
-
-In contrast to the village type consisting of a number of pueblos
-clustered together, but separated from each other, where the growth
-takes place mainly through the union of components, the circular
-ruin in enlarging its size apparently did so by the addition of new
-compartments peripherally or like additional rings in exogenous trees.
-Judging from their frequency, the center of distribution of the
-circular type lies somewhere in the San Juan culture area. This type
-does not occur in the Gila Valley or its tributaries, where we have an
-architectural zone denoting that a people somewhat different in culture
-from the Pueblos exists, but occurs throughout the “Central Zone,” so
-called, extending across New Mexico from Colorado as far south as Zuñi.
-Many additional observations remain to be made before we can adequately
-define the group known as the circular type and the extent of the area
-over which it is distributed.
-
-The following examples of this type have been studied by the author:
-
-
-WOOD CANYON RUINS
-
-Reports were brought to the author of large ruins on the rim of Wood
-Canyon, about 4 miles south of Yellow Jacket post office, in October,
-1918, when he had almost finished the season’s work. Two ruins of size
-were examined, one of which, situated in the open sagebrush clearing,
-belongs to the village type composed of large and small rectangular
-mounds. The other is composed of small circular or semicircular
-buildings with a surrounding wall. The form of this latter (fig. 2)
-would seem to place it in a subgroup or village type. Approach to the
-inclosed circular mounds was debarred by a high bluff of a canyon on
-one side and by a low defensive curved wall (_E_), some of the stones
-of which are large, almost megaliths, on the side of the mesa. From
-fragmentary sections of the buried walls of one of these circular
-mounds (_A_, _B_), which appear on the surface, it would seem that the
-buildings were like towers (_C_, _D_). This is one of the few known
-examples of circular buildings in an area protected by a curved wall.
-In the cliffs below Wood Canyon Ruin is a cliff-dwelling (_G_, _H_,
-_J_) remarkable mainly in its site.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 2.—Ground plan of Wood Canyon Ruin.]
-
-
-BUTTE RUIN
-
-The so-called Butte Ruin, situated in Lost Canyon, 5 miles east of
-Dolores, belongs to the circular type. It crowns a low elevation,
-steep on the west side, sloping more gradually on the east, and
-surrounded by cultivated fields. The view from its top looking toward
-Ute Mountain and the Mesa Verde plateau is particularly extensive. The
-butte is forested by a few spruces growing at the base and extending up
-the sides, which are replaced at the summit by a thick growth of sage
-and other bushes which cover the mound, rendering it difficult to make
-out the ground plan of the ruin on its top.
-
-From what appears on the surface it would seem that this ruin was
-a circular or semicircular building about 60 feet in diameter, the
-walls rising about 10 feet high. Like other circular mounds it shows
-a well-marked depression in the middle, from which radiate walls or
-indications of walled compartments. Like the majority of the buildings
-of the circular form, the walls on one side have fallen, suggesting
-that a low straight wall, possibly with rectangular rooms, was annexed
-to this side.
-
-In the neighborhood of Butte Ruin there is another hill crowned with a
-pile of stones, probably a round building of smaller size and with more
-dilapidated walls. Old cedar beams project in places out of the mounds.
-
-The cliff-houses below the largest of these mounds show well-made walls
-with a few rafters and beams. There are pictographs on the cliff a
-short distance away.
-
-
-EMERSON RUIN
-
-This ruin crowns a low hill about 3 miles south of Dolores (fig.
-3). The form of the mound is semicircular with a depression in the
-middle around which can be traced radiating partitions suggesting
-compartments. Its outer wall on the south side, as in so many other
-examples of this type, has fallen, and the indications are that here
-the wall was straight, or like that on the south side of Horseshoe Ruin.
-
-The author’s attention was first called to this ruin by Mr. Gordon
-Parker, supervisor of the Montezuma Forest Reserve, it having been
-discovered by Mr. J. W. Emerson, one of his rangers. The circular or
-semicircular form (fig. 4) of the mound indicates at once that it does
-not belong to the same type as Far View House; the central depression
-is surrounded by a series of compartments separated by radiating
-walls like the circular ruins in the pueblo region to the south. Mr.
-Emerson’s report, which follows, points out the main features of this
-remarkable ruin.[31]
-
-[31] The letter referring to the circular ruin near Dolores was
-prepared by Mr. Emerson, the discoverer of this ruin, and was
-transmitted to the Smithsonian Institution as part of a phase of
-cooperative work with the Forest Service, by Mr. Gordon Parker,
-superintendent of the Montezuma Forest Reserve.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 3.—Metes and bounds of Emerson Ruin. (After
-Emerson.)]
-
-                      DOLORES, COLORADO, _July 7, 1917_.
-
-    In August, 1916, I visited Mesa Verde National Park.
-    While there Doctor Fewkes inquired in regard to
-    ruins in the vicinity of the Big Bend of the Dolores
-    River. He informed me that the log of two old Spanish
-    explorers of 1775 described a ruin near the bend of the
-    Dolores River as of great value.
-
-    Later, during October, 1916, I visited a number of
-    ruins in this vicinity, including the one which (for
-    the want of a better name) I have mapped and named Sun
-    Dial Palace. Later, last fall, I again visited these
-    ruins with Mr. R. W. Williamson, of Dolores, Colorado.
-
-    On July 5, 1917, I again visited these ruins, which
-    I have designated as Reservoir Group and Sun Dial
-    Palace.[32] For location and status of land on which
-    they lie see map of sec. 17, T. 37 N., R. 15 W., N. M.
-    P. M. (fig. 3).
-
-    While examining Sun Dial Palace I noted the “D-shaped
-    construction, also that the south wall of the building
-    ran due east and west.” Also please note the regularity
-    of wall bearings from the approximate center of the
-    elliptical center chamber. I also noted that a shadow
-    cast by the sun apparently coincides with some of these
-    walls at different hours during the day. This last gave
-    suggestion to the name. Also please note that the first
-    tier of rooms around the middle chamber does not show
-    a complete set of bearings but seems to suggest that
-    these regular bearings were obtained from observation
-    and study of a master builder. The result of his study
-    was built as the next circular room tier was added. The
-    two missing rooms on the western side of the building
-    seem to suggest that this building was never completed,
-    and also bear out my theory of an outward building of
-    room tiers from the middle chamber.
-
-    On the ground this building is fully completed on the
-    south side and forms a due east and west line. An error
-    in mapping the elliptical middle chamber has given the
-    south side an incomplete appearance.
-
-    I believe that the excavation and study of this ruin
-    will recall something of value, as Father Escalante
-    wrote in his log in 1775.
-
-    Respectfully submitted.
-                              (Signed) J. WARD EMERSON,
-                                       _Forest Ranger_.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 4.—Schematic ground plan of Emerson Ruin. (After
-Emerson.)]
-
-[32] Also see detailed map of construction of Sun Dial Palace (fig. 4).
-
-A personal examination of the remains of this building leads the author
-to the conclusion that while it belongs to the circular group, with a
-ground plan resembling Horseshoe House, and while the central part had
-a wall completely circular, the outer concentric curved walls did not
-complete their course on the south side, but ended in straight walls
-comparable with the partitions separating compartments. The author
-identifies another ruin as that mentioned by the Catholic fathers in
-1775.
-
-
-ESCALANTE RUIN
-
-The name Escalante Ruin, given to the first ruin recorded by a white
-man in Colorado, is situated about 3 miles from Dolores on top of a low
-hill to the right of the Monticello Road, just beyond where it diverges
-from the road to Cortez. The outline of the pile of stones suggests a
-D-shaped or semicircular house with a central depression surrounded by
-rooms separated by radiating partitions. The wall on the south or east
-sides was probably straight, rendering the form not greatly unlike the
-other ruins on hilltops in the neighborhood of Dolores.
-
-This is supposed to be the ruin to which reference is made in the
-following quotation from an article in Science:[33]
-
-“There is in the Congressional Library, among the documents collected
-by Peter Force, a manuscript diary of early exploration in New Mexico,
-Colorado, and Utah, dated 1776, written by two Catholic priests, Father
-Silvester Velez Escalante and Father Francisco Atanacio Dominguez. This
-diary is valuable to students of archeology, as it contains the first
-reference to a prehistoric ruin in the confines of the present State of
-Colorado, although the mention is too brief for positive identification
-of the ruin.[34] While the context indicates its approximate site,
-there are at this place at least two large ruins, either of which might
-be that referred to. I have no doubt which one of these two ruins
-was indicated by these early explorers, but my interest in this ruin
-is both archeological and historical. Our knowledge of the structure
-of these ruins is at the present day almost as imperfect as it was a
-century and a half ago.
-
-“The route followed by the writers of the diary was possibly an Indian
-pathway, and is now called the Old Spanish Trail. After entering
-Colorado it ran from near the present site of Mancos to the Dolores.
-On the fourteenth day from Santa Fe, we find the following entry: ‘En
-la vanda austral del Vio [Rio] sobre un alto, huvo anti-quam (te) una
-Poblacion pequeña, de la misma forma qᵉ las de los Indios el Nuevo
-Mexico, segun manifieran las Ruinas qᵉ de invento registramos.’
-
-“By tracing the trip day by day, up to that time, it appears that
-the ruin referred to by these early fathers was situated somewhere
-near the bend of the Dolores River, or not far from the present town
-Dolores, Colo. The above quotation indicates that the ruin was a small
-settlement, and situated on a hill, on the south side of the river or
-trail, but it did not differ greatly from the ruined settlements of the
-Indians of New Mexico with which the writers were familiar, and had
-already described.”
-
-[33] Fewkes, J. W., The First Pueblo Ruin in Colorado Mentioned in
-Spanish Documents. Science, vol. xlvi, Sept. 14, 1917.
-
-[34] Diario y Dereotero de las nuevas descubrimientos de tierras a los
-r’bos N. N. OE. OE. del Nuevo Mexico por los R. R. P. P. Fr. Silvester
-Velez Escalante, Fr. Francisco Atanacio Dominguez, 1776. (Vide Sen. Ex.
-Doc. 33d Congress, No. 78, pt. 3, pp. 119-127.)
-
-
-CLIFF-DWELLINGS
-
-There are numerous cliff-houses in this district, but while, as a
-rule, they are much smaller than the magnificent examples in the Mesa
-Verde, they are built on the same architectural lines as their more
-pretentious relatives. Both large and small have circular subterranean
-kivas, similarly constructed to those of Spruce-tree House, and
-have mural pilasters (to support a vaulted roof, now destroyed),
-ventilators, and deflectors.
-
-There are also many rooms in cliffs, possibly used for storage or for
-some other unknown purposes, but too small for habitations. It is
-significant that these are identical so far as their size is concerned
-with the “ledge houses,” near Spruce-tree House, indicating similar or
-identical uses.
-
-The kivas of cliff-dwellings of size in the region considered have the
-same structural features as those of adjacent ruins, but very little
-resemblance, save in site, to those of cliff-dwellings in southern
-Arizona, as in the Sierra Ancha or Verde Valley, the structure of which
-resembles adjacent pueblos.
-
-The absence in the McElmo region of very large cliff-houses is due
-partly but not wholly to geological conditions, the immense caves of
-the Mesa Verde not being duplicated in the tributaries of the McElmo;
-but wherever caverns do occur, as in Sand Canyon, we commonly find
-diminutive representatives. While differences in geological features
-may account for the size of these prehistoric buildings, the nature of
-the site or its size is not all important.[35]
-
-[35] Attention may be called to the fact that often we find very
-commodious caves without correspondingly large cliff-houses, even in
-the Mesa Verde.
-
-Here and there one sees from the road through the McElmo Canyon a few
-small cliff-houses, and if he penetrates some of the tributaries, he
-finds many others. The canyon is dominated by the Ute Mountain on the
-south, but on the north are numerous eroded cliffs in which are many
-caves affording good opportunities for the construction of cliff-houses.
-
-These buildings do not differ save in size from the cliff-houses of the
-Mesa Verde. Their kivas resemble the vaulted variety and the masonry is
-identical.
-
-Although the existence of cliff-dwellings in the tributaries of the
-McElmo has long been known, the characteristic circular kivas which
-occur in the Mesa Verde had not been recognized previous to the present
-report.
-
-The relative age of the pueblos and great towers and the same
-structures in caves can not be decided by the data at hand, but the
-indications are that they were contemporary.
-
-On account of the similarity in structure of the McElmo cliff-dwellings
-to those on Mesa Verde, only a few examples from the former region are
-here considered. It may be worthy of note that while McElmo
-cliff-dwellings are generally accompanied by large open-air pueblos
-and towers or great houses on the cliffs above, in the Mesa Verde
-open-air buildings[36] are generally situated some distance from the
-cliff-dwellings.
-
-
-CLIFF-DWELLINGS IN SAND CANYON
-
-Several small cliff-houses occur in Sand Canyon, one of the northern
-tributaries of the McElmo. Stone Arch House, here figured (pl. 6, _a_),
-so-called from the eroded cliff (pl. 4, _b_) near by. It is situated in
-the cliff, about a mile from where the canyon enters the McElmo Canyon
-near Battle Rock. Abundant piñon trees and a few scrubby cedars grow
-in the low mounds of the talus below the ruin, near which, on top of a
-neighboring rock pinnacle, still stand the well-constructed walls of a
-small house (pl. 4, _a_).
-
-
-DOUBLE CLIFF-HOUSE
-
-The formerly unnamed cliff-house shown in plate 8[37] is one of the
-best preserved in Sand Canyon. It consists of an upper and a lower
-house, the former situated far back in the cave, the latter on a
-projecting terrace below. Unfortunately it is impossible to introduce
-an extended description of this building as it was not entered by the
-author’s party, but from a distance the walls exhibit fine masonry.
-It is unique in having double buildings on different levels, an
-arrangement not rare in a few examples of cliff-dwellings on the Mesa
-Verde. As shown in plate 8, the character of the rock on which the
-lower house stands is harder than that above in which the cave has been
-eroded. The upper house is wholly protected by the roof[38] of the cave
-and occupies its entire floor. The lower house shows from a distance at
-least two rooms, the front wall of one having fallen.
-
-[36] Sun Temple, however, is a seeming exception and follows the McElmo
-rule of proximity; several large cliff-dwellings occur under the cliff
-on which this mysterious building stands.
-
-[37] Taken from a point across the canyon, the only one from which both
-houses can be included in the same photograph.
-
-[38] For a good example of cliff-houses at different levels, see
-Cliff-Dwellings in Fewkes Canyon, Mesa Verde National Park, Holmes
-Anniversary Volume.
-
-From a distance the walls of both the lower and the upper house seem to
-be well preserved, although many of the component stones have fallen to
-the base of the cliff.
-
-
-SCAFFOLD IN SAND CANYON
-
-One of the cliffs bordering Sand Canyon has an inaccessible cave in
-which is an artificial platform or lookout shown in plate 7, _a_.
-Although this structure is not as well preserved as the scaffold in
-the neighborhood of Scaffold House in Laguna (Sosi) Canyon, on the
-Navaho National Monument, it seems to have had a similar purpose. It
-is constructed of logs reaching from one side of the cave to the other
-supporting a floor of flat stones and adobe. Its elevated situation
-would necessitate for entrance either holes cut in the cliffs or
-ladders.
-
-
-UNIT TYPE HOUSES IN CAVES
-
-In subsequent pages the author will describe a ruin called the Unit
-type House, situated in the open on the north rim of Square Tower
-Canyon. A similar type of unit type house is found in a cave in Sand
-Canyon. The reader’s attention may first be called to the definition
-of a unit type, which is a building composed of a circular kiva,
-with mural banquettes and pedestals supporting a vaulted roof, with
-ventilator, reflector, and generally a ceremonial opening near a
-central fire hole in the floor. This kiva (fig. 5) is generally
-embedded in or surrounded by rectangular rooms. The single-unit type
-has one kiva with several surrounding rooms; the so-called pure type is
-composed of these units united.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 5.—Ground plan of Unit type House in cave.]
-
-In an almost inaccessible cave (pl. 5, _b_) in Sand Canyon a few miles
-from the McElmo road near the scaffold already mentioned there is a
-cliff ruin, so far as known the first described single-unit house in
-a cave. It covers the whole floor of the cave (fig. 5) and its walls
-are considerably dilapidated, but the kiva shows this instructive
-condition: The walls are double, one inside the other, with two sets
-of pedestals, the outer of which are very much blackened with smoke
-of constant fires; the inner fresh and untarnished, evidently of late
-construction. A similar double-walled kiva known as “Kiva A” exists
-in Spruce-tree House, as described in the author’s account of that
-ruin.[39] On the perpendicular wall of the precipice at the right hand
-of the ruin in the cave above mentioned are several pictographs shown
-in plate 7, _c_.
-
-[39] Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Spruce-tree House.
-Bull. 41, Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1909.
-
-The rectangular rooms about the kiva are in places excavated out of the
-cliffs, but show standing walls on the front. These were not, however,
-constructed with the same care as those of the kiva.
-
-The cliff-house in Hackberry Canyon (pl. 9, _a_) is one of the most
-instructive. It lies below Horseshoe House and appears to be a second
-example of a unit type kiva and surrounding rooms.
-
-The cliff-dwelling in Ruin Canyon[40] visible across the canyon from
-the Old Bluff City Road is well preserved. On the rim of the canyon are
-piles of stone indicating a very large pueblo, with surface circular
-depressions indicating unit type houses.
-
-[40] The name Ruin Canyon, often applied also to Square Tower Canyon,
-is retained for this canyon.
-
-
-CLIFF-HOUSES IN LOST CANYON
-
-Lost Canyon, a southern tributary of the Dolores River, contains
-instructive cliff-houses to which my attention was called by Mr. Gordon
-Parker, superintendent of the Montezuma Forest Reserve, who has kindly
-allowed me to use the accompanying photographs. This cliff-house
-(pl. 10, _a_, _b_) belongs to the true Mesa Verde type and shows
-comparatively good preservation of its walls, some of the beams being
-in place. It is most easily approached from Mancos.
-
-There are small cliff-houses in the same canyon not far from Dolores,
-but these are smaller and their walls very poorly preserved.
-
-An interesting feature of these cliff-houses in Lost Canyon is that
-they mark the northern horizon of cliff-dwellings of the Mesa Verde
-type, having kivas similarly constructed.
-
-
-GREAT HOUSES AND TOWERS
-
-Great houses and towers differ from pueblos of the pure type but may
-often be combined with them, forming composite houses arranged in
-clusters called villages. Castles and towers may be isolated structures
-without additional chambers, or may have many annexed rooms which
-are rectangular, round, or semicircular in form. Semicircular towers
-surrounded by concentric curved walls connected by radial partitions
-forming compartments are shown in Horseshoe Ruin, to which attention
-has been called in preceding pages, and possibly in the circular or
-semicircular ruins on hilltops near Dolores.
-
-
-MASONRY
-
-The masonry of the great house and tower type (pl. 11, _a_, _b_) varies
-in excellence, not only in different examples but also in different
-portions of the same building. Some of the walls contain some of the
-best-constructed masonry north of Mexico; others (see pl. 6, _b_) are
-crudely made. In the Great House of the Holly group, where the walls
-show superior construction, the lowest courses of rock are larger than
-those above, but in Hovenweep Castle small stones are found below those
-of larger size; the Round Tower in McLean Basin shows small and large
-stones introduced for ornamentation.
-
-The ambitious constructors of several towers have built the foundations
-of these towers on bowlders sloping at a considerable angle, and it
-is a source of wonder that these walls have stood for so many years
-without sliding from their bases. Although so well constructed in many
-instances, the courses were weak from their want of binding to the
-remaining wall. As a consequence many corners have fallen, leaving
-the remaining walls intact. The builders often failed to tie in the
-partitions to the outer walls, by which failure they lost a brace and
-have sprung away from their attachment.
-
-In a general way we may recognize masonry of two varieties.
-
-1. That in which horizontal courses are obscure or absent. This has
-resulted from the use of stones of different sizes, the intervals
-between which are filled in with masses of adobe. These stones are
-little fashioned, or dressed only on one side, that forming the face of
-the wall.
-
-2. That constructed of horizontal courses, constituting by far the
-larger number of these buildings. Each course of this masonry is made
-of well-dressed stones, carefully pecked, and of the same size. In this
-horizontal masonry the thickness of stones used may vary in different
-courses (pl. 11, _b_). They may be alternately narrow or thick, or
-layers of thick stones may be separated by one or more layers of
-tabular or thin stones. This method of alternation may be so regular
-as to please the eye and thus become decorative, a mode of decoration
-that reached a high development in the Chaco Ruins. The stones in the
-horizontal style of masonry are equal in size throughout the whole
-building in some cases, and show not only care in choice of stones but
-also in dressing them to the same regulation size. In these cases the
-joints fit so accurately that chinking has not been found necessary and
-a minimum use of adobe was required.
-
-The inner walls of kivas are much better constructed than the outer
-walls of the same or of the walls about them. The masonry here is
-regular horizontal. The sides, lintels, and thresholds of doorways
-are among the finest examples of construction. With the exception of
-walls sheltered by overhanging cliffs, the plastering has completely
-disappeared, but there is no reason to doubt that the interiors of all
-the great houses and towers were formerly plastered.
-
-It is instructive to compare the masonry of the great houses and
-towers of the Mancos with that of the towers in Hill Canyon (pl. 11,
-_c_) in Utah, the most northern extension of these two types. In Eight
-Mile Ruin, one of the largest of these buildings in Hill Canyon, we
-have a circular tower with annexed great houses, all constructed of
-well-dressed stones, the masonry in the walls showing on one side of
-the tower. No excavations, however, have yet been undertaken in Hill
-Canyon Ruins, and it is not known whether the unit type of kiva is
-found there, but the combination of great houses and towers is evident
-from the ground plans elsewhere published.[41]
-
-The feature of the towers in Hill Canyon is the clustering into groups,
-somewhat recalling the condition in Cannonball Ruin, where, however,
-they are united. In the Eight Mile Ruin one of the towers is separated
-from the remaining houses.
-
-Several towers have accompanying circular depressions with surrounding
-mounds. This association can well be seen in Holmes Tower on the
-Mancos Canyon and in Davis Tower and one or two others on the Yellow
-Jacket. These depressions, sometimes called reservoirs, have never been
-excavated, but from what is known of rooms accompanying towers in the
-western section of Hovenweep Castle it may be that they indicate kivas.
-Some towers have no sunken area in the immediate vicinity, especially
-those mounted on rocky points or perched on bowlders. At Cannonball
-Ruin there are several kivas side by side in one section and towering
-above them is a massive walled tower and other rooms.
-
-
-STRUCTURE OF TOWERS
-
-None of the towers examined have evidences of mural pilasters to
-support a roof or recesses in the walls as in vaulted-roofed kivas.
-They are sometimes two stories high, the rafters and flooring resting
-on ledges of the inner wall. Lateral entrances are common and windows
-are absent.[42]
-
-While the author has found no ruin of the same ground plan as Sun
-Temple on the Mesa Verde, D-shaped towers or great houses from several
-localities distantly recall this mysterious building, and there may be
-an identity in use between Sun Temple and the massive walled structures
-of the McElmo and Yellow Jacket; what that use was has not thus far
-been determined.[43] If they were constructed for observatories we can
-not account for the square tower in the South Fork of Square Tower
-Canyon, from which one can not even look down the canyon, much less in
-other directions, hemmed in as it is by cliffs. Isolated towers are
-often too small for defense; and they show no signs of habitation.
-
-[41] Smithson. Misc. Colls., vol. 68, no. 1, 1917.
-
-[42] Our knowledge of the entrances into kivas of the vaulted-roofed
-type is not all that could be desired. Kiva D of Spruce-tree House has
-a passageway opening through the floor of an adjacent room, and Kiva A
-of Cliff Palace has the same feature. Doctor Prudden has found lateral
-entrances from kivas into adjoining rooms in his unit type pueblo. The
-majority of cliff-dwellers’ kivas show no evidence of lateral entrances.
-
-[43] Mr. Jackson, op. cit., p. 415, regarded it likely that the towers
-were “lookouts or places of refuge for the sheep herders who brought
-their sheep or goats up here to graze, just as the Navajos used to and
-as the Utes do at the present time.” This explanation is impossible,
-for there is no evidence that the builders of the towers had either
-sheep or goats, the Navajos and the Utes obtaining both from the
-Spaniards.
-
-Are they granaries for storage of corn or places for rites and
-ceremonies? Do they combine several functions—observation, defense, and
-storage of food? Thus far in studies of more than 30 towers and great
-houses not one has been found so well preserved that enough remains
-to determine its use, and yet their walls are among the best in all
-southwestern ruins. Some future archeologist may find objects in towers
-that will demonstrate their function, but from our present knowledge no
-theory of their use yet suggested is satisfactory.
-
-It is impossible from the data available to determine the century in
-which the towers and great houses of the region were constructed. Thus
-far a few were seen with great trees growing in them, but none with
-roofs; the state of preservation of the walls does not point to a great
-age. Several writers have regarded them as occupied subsequently to
-the Spanish conquest, while others have ascribed to them a very remote
-antiquity. It can hardly be questioned that the cliff-dwellers, and by
-inference their kindred, the tower builders, were superior in their
-arts to modern Pueblos.
-
-It is important to determine first of all the forms of these towers;
-whether their ground plans are circular, oval, square, rectangular, or
-semicircular. The northern wall of many is uniformly curved and the
-last to fall, which might lead to the belief that the southern side,
-generally straight, was poorly made, but one can not determine that by
-direct observation, since the latter has fallen. As a matter of fact
-the south wall was generally low and straight, over 50 per cent of
-the “round” towers being semicircular, D-shaped, or some modification
-of that form; but we also have square and rectangular towers. It is
-also important to determine whether these had single or multiple
-chambers and the arrangement of the rooms in relation to them. This is
-especially desirable in towers with concentric compartments.
-
-It is also instructive to know more of the association of towers with
-pueblos and cliff-dwellings or to analyze component architectural
-features. The tower type often occurs without appended rooms. At Cliff
-Palace and Square Tower House it is united with a pueblo village under
-cliffs; in Mud Spring Ruin it has a like relation to rooms of a pueblo
-in the open. Has its function changed by that union? What use did the
-tower serve when isolated and had it the same use when united with
-other kinds of rooms in cliff-dwellings and pueblos?
-
-No writer on the prehistoric towers of Colorado and Utah has emphasized
-the fact that a large number of these buildings are semicircular or
-D-shaped, but it has been taken for granted that the fallen wall on
-the south side was curved, rendering the tower circular or oval.[44]
-In most cases this wall was the straight side of a D-shaped tower.
-Doctor Prudden, who first recognized the importance of a union of
-towers with other types of architecture in the McElmo district,
-says:[45] “Towers of various forms and heights occasionally form a part
-of composite ruins of various types.” He says also: “Several of the
-houses are modified by the introduction of a round tower.” And again:
-“At the head of a short canyon north of the Alkali, which I have called
-Jackson Canyon ... each building consists of an irregular mass of rooms
-about 200 feet long, with low towers among them.”
-
-As our studies are morphological, dealing with forms rather than
-sites of towers, little attention need be paid to their situation on
-bowlders, in cliffs, or at the bottoms of canyons. The majority of the
-castellated ruins considered in the following pages are in the proposed
-Hovenweep National Monument, but there are others in the main Yellow
-Jacket and its other tributaries.
-
-[44] The tower figured by Prudden (Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. v, no. 2,
-pl. xviii, fig. 2) as a “round tower” is really semicircular, as shown
-in the ground plan (fig. 14) here published.
-
-[45] Ibid., pp. 241, 263, 273.
-
-
-HOVENWEEP DISTRICT
-
-The name Hovenweep (“Deserted Valley”) is an old one in the
-nomenclature of the canyons of southwestern Colorado and formerly
-(1877) was applied to the canyon now called the Yellow Jacket, but at
-present is limited to one of the tributaries. The name is here used to
-designate an area situated just over the Colorado State line, in Utah,
-part of which it is hoped will later be reserved from the public domain
-and made a monument to be called Hovenweep National Monument.
-
-The ruined castles and towers in this district are marvelously well
-preserved, considering their age and imperfect masonry. We can
-determine their original appearance with no difficulty and use them
-in reconstructing the possible forms of more dilapidated ruins, now
-piles of débris. The best castles and towers known to the author are
-localized in three canyons: (1) Square Tower Canyon, (2) Holly Canyon,
-(3) Hackberry Canyon. There are, of course, other castles and towers in
-the Yellow Jacket-McElmo region, but there is no locality where so many
-different forms appear in equal numbers in a small area.
-
-
-RUIN CANYON
-
-The Old Bluff Road from Dolores diverges southward from that to
-Monticello at Sandstone post office and passes a pile of rocks visible
-from the road on the Ruin Canyon long before it reaches Square Tower
-Canyon (fig. 6). This large ruin is situated on the east rim and under
-it in the side of the cliff are fairly well-preserved cliff-houses.
-Other ruins with high standing walls were reported in Ruin Canyon but
-were not visited.
-
-The duplication of names of canyons in this district is misleading.
-Names like Ruin Canyon are naturally applied to canyons in which
-there are ruins. When the author learned at Dolores of Ruin Canyon,
-he supposed it was a tributary of the Yellow Jacket or McElmo, but
-while the canyon known to cowboys at Dolores by this name has large
-ruins on its rim, it is not the “Ruin Canyon” to which attention is
-now directed. The duplication of names has led me to retain the name
-Ruin Canyon for one and to suggest the name Square Tower Canyon for the
-other.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 6.—Square Tower Canyon.]
-
-After leaving Ruin Canyon the Old Bluff Road takes a southerly course,
-passing through the cedars until a sagebrush clearing replaces the
-“timber,” where it crosses two well-preserved Indian reservoirs, or
-bare surfaces of rock, dipping south, the southern border having as
-a retaining wall a low ridge of earth to hold back the water. The
-retaining wall of the second reservoir has been built up by stockmen
-and, when the author was there, contained considerable water. Crossing
-the second reservoir a trail turns east or to the left and follows the
-road to Keeley Camp, near which are the “Keeley Towers.”
-
-At present an automobile can approach within a mile of these ruins.
-
-
-SQUARE TOWER CANYON
-
-To reach the Square Tower Canyon (pls. 11-17) one returns to the
-reservoir on the Bluff Road and continues east about 3 miles farther,
-where a signboard on the left hand indicates the turn off to Square
-Tower Canyon. Following the new direction about southeast the great
-buildings are visible a mile away. An automobile can go to the very
-head of this canyon and a camp can be made within a few feet of
-Hovenweep House. If the visitor approaches Square Tower Canyon from the
-McElmo, he passes through Wickyup Canyon, where there are two towers on
-the summits of elevated buttes, not far from the junction of the canyon
-and the Yellow Jacket.
-
-The castles and towers in Square Tower Canyon have been known for many
-years and have been repeatedly photographed.[46]
-
-[46] Among the older photographs seen by the author are those of W.
-H. Jackson, prints of which are on exhibition in the State Historical
-Museum at Denver, Colo.
-
-Several descriptions of these ruins have been printed, but no
-satisfactory studies of their structure have been published. They
-are recognized as prehistoric and are generally thought to have been
-inhabited contemporaneously with the cliff-dwellers of the Mesa Verde,
-being built in the same style of architecture.
-
-
-CLASSIFICATION OF RUINS IN SQUARE TOWER CANYON
-
-The ruins in Square Tower Canyon are classified for convenience in
-description as follows:
-
-(1) Ruins which have indications of inclosed circular kivas, with
-mural pilasters and banquettes, and closely approximated surrounding
-rooms. To this class belong ruins 1, 2, and 10. Of these, Unit type
-Ruin (No. 10) has only one kiva and belongs to the simplest or unit
-form of the pure type. Ruins 1 and 2 have two or more kivas and are
-formed by a union of several units, combined with towers and great
-houses. (2) Ruins, the main feature of which is absence of a circular
-kiva. The Twin Towers belong to this second or “great house” type. The
-few cliff-dwellings in this canyon are small, generally without kivas,
-resembling storage cists rather than domiciles.
-
-
-HOVENWEEP HOUSE (RUIN 1)
-
-This ruin (fig. 7), the largest in the canyon, is situated at the head
-of the South Fork. Although many of its walls have fallen, there still
-remains a semicircular great house (_B_, _C_, _D_) with high walls
-conspicuous for some distance. The ruin is a pueblo of rectangular form
-belonging to the pure type, showing circular depressions identified as
-kivas (_K_), embedded in collections of square and rectangular rooms,
-and massive walled buildings (_E_) on the south side.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 7.—Ground plan of Hovenweep House.]
-
-The standing walls of the ruin are remains of a conspicuous D-shaped
-tower (_B_, _C_, _D_), which is multichambered. Its straight wall
-measures 23 feet, the curved wall 56 feet, and its highest wall, which
-is on the northeast corner, is 15 feet high. At the northwest angle of
-the ruin (A) there stand remains of high walls which indicate that
-corner of a rectangular pueblo. Hovenweep House (pl. 14, _a_) was the
-largest building in this canyon, but with the exception of the addition
-of a semicircular tower or great house, does not differ greatly from
-a pueblo like Far View House on the Mesa Verde. The piles of stone
-and earth indicating rooms below justify the conjecture that when the
-fallen débris is removed the unfallen walls will still rise several
-feet above their rocky foundations. If properly excavated, Hovenweep
-House would be an instructive building, but in its present condition,
-while very picturesque, its structure is difficult to determine.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 8.—Ground plan of Hovenweep Castle.]
-
-
-HOVENWEEP CASTLE
-
-This ruin (pls. 14, _b_, _c_; 18, _b_), like the preceding, has
-circular kivas compactly embedded in rectangular rooms arranged
-about them, indicating the pure type of pueblos. The massive walled
-semicircular towers and great houses are combined with square rooms and
-kivas, indicating that it is distinguished by two sections, an eastern
-and a western, which, united, impart to the whole the shape of a letter
-L (fig. 8).
-
-
-WESTERN SECTION OF HOVENWEEP CASTLE
-
-The western section (fig. 8, _A-D_, _M_) of Hovenweep Castle is made up
-of five rooms, the most western of which, _M_, is semicircular, while
-_A_, _B_, _C_, and _D_ are rectangular. Room _A_ is almost square,
-one of its walls forming the straight wall of the south side of the
-semicircular tower, _M_. At the union its walls are not tied into
-the masonry of the circular wall of the tower, as may be seen in the
-illustration, plate 14, _b_, implying that it was constructed later.
-There is an entrance into _A_ from the south or cliff side, and a
-passageway from _A_ to Room _B_, which latter opens by a doorway into
-Room _C_. All rectangular rooms of the western section communicate with
-each other, but none except A seem to have had an external entrance.
-The photograph of the south wall of the west section of the ruin (pl.
-14, _c_) shows small portholes in the second story and narrow slits in
-the tower walls. The lower courses of masonry are formed of thinner
-stones than the rows above, but smaller stones compose the courses at
-the top of the wall. A view of the north wall of the western section
-(pl. 22, _a_) shows the tower and rooms united to it. There is no kiva
-in the western section.
-
-
-EASTERN SECTION OF HOVENWEEP CASTLE
-
-The longest dimension of the western section (pls. 12, 14, _c_) is
-approximately east-west; that of the eastern is nearly north-south. The
-eastern section (fig. 8, _E-L_), like the western, has a tower (_L_),
-which is situated between two circular depressions or kivas (_K_). On
-the north and south ends the eastern section is flanked by rectangular
-rooms. Those at the north end were better constructed, and even now
-stand as high as the walls of the western tower. The views show that
-their corners are not as well preserved as their faces, which is due
-to defects in masonry, as lack of bonding. Although much débris has
-accumulated around the kivas, especially in their cavities, it is
-evident that these ceremonial rooms were formerly one storied, and
-practically subterranean on account of the surrounding rooms. Several
-fragments of walls projecting above the accumulated débris indicate
-rooms at the junction of the eastern and western sections of the ruin,
-but their form and arrangement at that point are not evident and can be
-determined only by excavation. The inner kiva walls show evidences of
-mural pilasters and banquettes like those of cliff-dwellings and other
-pure pueblo types.
-
-
-RUIN 3
-
-The square tower (pl. 11, _a_), standing on a large angular rock in the
-canyon below Hovenweep Castle, is a remarkable example of prehistoric
-masonry so situated that it is shut in by cliffs, rendering the
-outlook limited. Several published photographs of this tower give the
-impression that it stands in the open and was an outlook, but that this
-is hardly the case will be seen from a general view looking west up the
-South Fork.
-
-
-RUIN 4
-
-This ruin is a small tower situated in a commanding position on the
-point of the mesa where the canyon forks. The section of the wall still
-standing indicates a circular form, the north side of which has fallen;
-the part still intact, or that on the south side, exhibits good masonry
-about 8 feet high (pl. 15, _c_).
-
-
-RUIN 5
-
-The walls of the north segment of a tower stand on a large angular
-block of stone rising from a ledge above the arroyo, or bed of the
-canyon, below Ruin 4, on the South Fork. What appears to have been a
-doorway opens on its north side; this opening is defended by a wall,
-remains of a former protected passageway into the tower.
-
-On the perpendicular cliff of the precipice near Ruin 5 and below
-the point on which Ruin 4 stands there are several almost illegible
-pictographs, below which are rather obscure evidences of a building,
-the features of which can be determined only by excavation.
-
-Instructive features of Tower No. 5 are two parallel walls, one
-on each side of the doorway, like those of the circular towers on
-the promontory at the junction of the Yellow Jacket and McElmo.
-Other towers on the canyon rim show defensive walls, as in Ruin 9,
-constructed about their entrances from corners of the buildings to
-the mesa rim, effectually preventing passage. Morley and Kidder have
-suggested that the walled recess in the cliff below Ruin 9 was probably
-built to prevent access from below. This feature is found in the floor
-entrances of a building near the Great House of the Holly group.
-
-
-RUIN 6
-
-This ruin is a small tower whose curved walls are so broken down that
-the form is not evident. It is situated in the base of the talus at the
-head of the South Fork (pl. 26, _a_).
-
-
-ERODED BOWLDER HOUSE (RUIN 7)
-
-This house, more remarkable from its site than its structure, was
-constructed in an eroded cave of a bowlder halfway down the talus of
-the cliff. The front walls are somewhat broken down, but others built
-in the rear of the cave still remain intact. On the top of the bowlder
-is the débris of fallen walls, suggesting a former tower, but not
-much remains in place to determine its outlines. Where the walls are
-protected the mortar shows impressions of human hands and at one place
-there are the indentations of a corncob used by the plasterers to press
-the mortar between the layers of stone. There were formerly at least
-two rooms in the rear of the cave, the front walls of which have fallen
-and are strewn down the talus to the bottom of the canyon.
-
-
-TWIN TOWERS (RUIN 8)
-
-The so-called Twin Towers, which seen together from certain points
-appear as one ruin (pl. 15, _a_, _b_), rank among the most impressive
-buildings in Square Tower Canyon. They stand on the south side of the
-canyon on a rock isolated by a cleft from the adjoining cliff. The
-larger (fig. 9, _A-E_) has an oval ground plan and a doorway in the
-southwest corner; the smaller (_F_, _G_, _H_, _I_) is horseshoe shaped
-with a doorway in the east wall, which is straight. The arrangement of
-rooms is seen in figure 9. Small walled-up caves are found below the
-foundation on the northwest base of the larger room.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 9.—Ground plan of Twin Towers.]
-
-
-RUIN 9
-
-The ground plan of this ruin is rectangular in form, 19 feet 6 inches
-long by 10 feet wide. The standing walls measure 11 feet in altitude.
-It is situated on the south rim at the mouth of the South Fork, just
-above Ruin 7, a few feet back from the cliff. A doorway opening in the
-middle of its north wall was formerly made difficult of entrance by
-walls, now fallen, extending from the northeast and northwest angles to
-the edge of the cliff. The masonry throughout is rough; projecting ends
-of rafters indicate a building two stories high. There are peepholes
-with plastered surfaces through the southeast and west walls, which
-suggest ports. A short distance east of the building is a circle of
-stones reminding the author of a shrine.
-
-
-UNIT TYPE HOUSE (RUIN 10)
-
-This pueblo (pl. 19, _c_), from a comparative point of view, is one
-of the most interesting ruins in the Hovenweep, and is situated on
-the very edge of the canyon on the North Fork not far from where it
-begins. It is the simplest form of prehistoric pueblo, or the unit[47]
-of a pure type, made up of a centrally placed circular ceremonial room
-(fig. 10, _K_) embedded in rectangular rooms, six in number (_A-F_).
-The resulting or external form is rectangular, oriented about due north
-and south; the southern side, which formerly rose from the edge of the
-canyon, being much broken down and its masonry precipitated over the
-cliff.
-
-[47] The “unit type” was first recognized by Doctor Prudden in his
-illuminating studies of the pueblos of the San Juan Basin. The author
-was the first to point out its existence in cliff-houses of the same
-area.
-
-The central kiva (fig. 10) is made of exceptionally fine masonry and
-shows by what remains that it had mural banquettes, and pilasters to
-support the roof, with other features like a typical kiva of the Mesa
-Verde cliff-houses. A side entrance opens in one corner into a small
-room (fig. 10, _G_) in which ceremonial objects may have been formerly
-stored (pl. 32, _b_).
-
-The kiva of Unit type House is architecturally the same as those with
-vaulted roofs at Spruce-tree House, Cliff Palace, and Far View House on
-the Mesa Verde. A similar structure, according to Prudden,[48] occurs
-at Mitchell Spring Ruin in the Montezuma Valley, and near the Picket
-corral. The same type was found by Morley[49] at the Cannonball Ruin
-and by Kidder[50] in a kiva on Montezuma Creek in Utah, where clusters
-of mounds would appear to be composed of single or composite ruins of
-this type. This small pueblo was probably inhabited by one social unit,
-and may be regarded as the first stage of a compound pueblo.
-
-[48] Circular Kivas in San Juan Watershed. Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol.
-16, no. 1, 1914.
-
-[49] Excavation of the Cannonball Ruins in southwestern Colorado. Amer.
-Anthrop., n. s. vol. x, no. 4, 1908.
-
-[50] Explorations in southeastern Utah. Amer. Journ. Archæol., 2d ser.,
-vol. xiv, no. 3, 1910.
-
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 10.—Ground plan of Unit type House.]
-
-
-STRONGHOLD HOUSE (RUIN 11)
-
-Ruin 11 is composed of a cluster of several small buildings, one of
-which is situated on the north edge of the mesa somewhat east of Ruin
-10 (pl. 25, _b_); another, called by Morley and Kidder Gibraltar
-House, formerly of considerable size, was built on the sloping surface
-of an angular bowlder (pl. 17, 21, _b_). Although many walls have
-fallen, enough remains to render it a picturesque ruin, attractive to
-the visitor and instructive to the archeologist, by whom it has been
-classed as a tower. This building from the east appears to be a square
-tower, but it is in reality composed of several rooms perched on an
-inaccessible rock.
-
-
-RUINS IN HOLLY CANYON
-
-The towers in Holly Canyon (fig. 11) are in about the same condition
-of preservation as those in Square Tower Canyon. They cluster about
-the head of a small canyon (pl. 18, _a_) and may be approached on foot
-along the mesa above Keeley Camp, about a mile distant. Two of the
-Holly ruins belong to the tower type and were built on fallen bowlders.
-One of these has two rooms on the ground floor. (Pls. 19, _a_, _b_; 20,
-_a_, _c_.)
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 11.—Holly Canyon Ruins.]
-
-
-RUIN A, GREAT HOUSE, HACKBERRY CASTLE
-
-Ruin A (pl. 21, _a_), the largest building of the group, which stands
-on the edge of the canyon, is rectangular in form, measuring 31 by
-9 feet, and is 20 feet high (fig. 11, _A_). Evidences of two rooms
-appear on the ground plan, one of which is 14 feet long, the other 12
-feet inside measurement. The partition separating the two rooms is
-not tied into the outer walls, an almost constant feature in ancient
-masonry. The ends of the rafters are still seen in the wall at a level
-12 feet above the base. Fallen stones have accumulated in the rooms to
-a considerable depth, and the tops of the remaining wall, where the
-mortar is washed out, will tumble in a short time.
-
-Ruin B (pl. 20, _b_), situated a short distance north of Ruin A, also
-stands on the canyon rim. The north wall is entire, but the south wall
-has fallen. What remains indicates that the ruin was about square, with
-corners on the north side rounded, imparting to it a semicircular form.
-The entrance into this room may have been through the floor.
-
-
-TOWERS [C AND D]
-
-These towers (pl. 23, _a_, _b_) show some of the finest masonry known
-in this region, being constructed on fallen bowlders which their
-foundations almost completely cover. Holly Tower (pl. 23, _b_) measures
-16 feet high and 21 feet in diameter. It is 7 feet wide, its top rising
-to a height level with that of the mesa on which stand buildings
-already considered. One of the two rooms of this tower is narrower
-and wider than the other, shown in an offset as if constructed at a
-different time. Its foundations are 17 feet long by 8 feet wide, the
-highest wall measuring, at the southeast corner, 12 feet 8 inches.
-There is a fine doorway, wide above and narrow below, in the north
-wall. The approach at present is difficult on account of the height
-of the rock on which it stands, but there are evidences of former
-footholes.
-
-
-HOLLY HOUSE
-
-Several broken-down walls, some of which are over 6 feet high, situated
-east of Ruin A, appear to belong to a pueblo of considerable size (fig.
-11, _E_, _F_), but the large foundation rock on which it is situated
-has settled, its top having separated from the edge of the canyon, so
-that the corner of the building (_F_) is out of plumb. The walls on the
-adjoining cliff are also much broken down, although several sections
-of them rise a few feet above the general surface. The cause of this
-change in level of the base may have been an earthquake or the settling
-or sliding of the bowlder on the talus down the hill. The united
-building appears to have been a pueblo of rectangular form. Its walls
-are so broken down that it was not possible to determine its exact
-dimensions.
-
-
-RUINS IN HACKBERRY CANYON
-
-HORSESHOE HOUSE
-
-The large building in Hackberry Canyon, one of the terminal spurs of
-Bridge Canyon, a mile northeast of the cluster in Holly Canyon, is
-particularly instructive from the fact that surrounding the remains of
-a circular tower, for two-thirds of its circumference, is a concentric
-wall with compartments separated by radial partitions (fig. 12, 1).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 12.—Horseshoe (Hackberry) Canyon.]
-
-Horseshoe House (pl. 23, _c_) stands on the north edge of the canyon
-(fig. 12, 1), having its straight wall on the south side, as is usually
-the case, the well-preserved north side being curved. The northeastern
-corner still stands several feet high. The southeastern corner formerly
-rested on a projecting rock, which recalls the cornerstone of Sun
-Temple. The masonry of most of the southern segment of the enclosed
-circular room or tower has fallen down the cliff. There does not
-appear to have been a doorway on the south side, and there is not space
-for rooms on this side on account of the nearness to the edge of the
-cliff. While the form (fig. 13) of Horseshoe Ruin recalls that of Sun
-Temple, in details of room structure it is widely divergent. The length
-of the south wall, or that connecting the two ends of the horseshoe,
-is 30 feet, its width 27 feet; the highest wall on the northwest side
-is 12 feet. Figure 13 shows the arrangement of the rooms and the
-mutilation of the south wall of the ruin. The distance between the
-outer and inner concentric walls averages 4 feet; the circular room is
-17 feet in diameter.
-
-In the same cluster as Horseshoe Ruin (pl. 24, _a_) there is another
-well-made tower (fig. 12, 4), constructed on a point at the entrance
-to the canyon, and below it in a cave are well-preserved walls of a
-cliff-dwelling.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 13.—Ground plan of Horseshoe House.]
-
-A short distance due north of Horseshoe House, at the head of a small
-canyon, a tributary of Bridge Canyon, there are two large pueblos and a
-round tower. The pueblos are mentioned by Prudden, who gives a ground
-plan which indicates an extensive settlement.
-
-
-TOWERS IN THE MAIN YELLOW JACKET CANYON
-
-Of the several towers and great houses of the main Yellow Jacket Canyon
-two may suffice to show their resemblance to those in Square Tower
-Canyon. The two towers considered belong to the D-shaped variety, the
-straight wall, as is almost always the case, being on the south side.
-
-
-DAVIS TOWER
-
-Mr. C. K. Davis, who lives not far from the Yellow Jacket Spring,
-conducted the author to a tower of semicircular ground plan (fig. 14)
-near his ranch. This ruin (pl. 26, _b_), is situated on a rocky ridge
-on top of the talus halfway down to the bottom of the canyon, on its
-right side.
-
-
-LION (LITTRELL) TOWER[51]
-
-This tower (pl. 29, _b_) is built on a bowlder situated in Yellow
-Jacket Canyon a mile from Mr. Littrell’s ranch and about 5 miles south
-of the Yellow Jacket post office; approximately 20 miles from Dolores,
-Colorado. Its ground plan (fig. 15) is D-shaped, the lower story being
-divided by partitions into four rooms. The wall of the middle room
-seems to be double, or to have been reenforced. It measures 40 feet on
-the straight side, the highest wall being about 25 feet above the base.
-The foundations rest on the irregular surface of a bowlder to which it
-conforms.
-
-[51] This tower is reputed to be the home of a mountain lion, hence the
-name Lion House.
-
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 14.—Ground plan of Davis Ruin.]
-
-
-M’LEAN BASIN
-
-McLean Basin is 3 miles from the Old Bluff City Road near Picket
-corral, 32 miles from Dolores. It has been a favorite wintering place
-for stock and is well known to herdsmen. One can approach the ruin
-from the road to Bluff City and the towers here referred to are easily
-reached by a trail down the mesa to the highest terrace. There are said
-to be several ruins in the McLean Basin, the two towers (pls. 26, _c_,
-27, 28, _a_, _b_) visited being placed in an exceptional position in
-reference to surrounding rooms. One of these towers is circular, the
-other D-shaped or semicircular in ground plan (fig. 16, _A_, _B_).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 15.-Ground plan of Lion House.]
-
-Previously to the author’s study of the southwestern towers two forms
-of these structures were recognized; the square or rectangular, and
-the circular or oval. It is now known that several of the towers
-previously described as circular are in reality D-shaped, and this form
-is probably more common than the circular.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 16.—Ground plan of ruin with towers in McLean
-Basin.]
-
-The rectangular building in the McLean Basin has a circular tower (pl.
-28, _b_) on the southwest angle and a D-shaped tower (pl. 28, _a_) on
-the northeast. They resemble two turrets rising above the remaining
-walls that form the sides of the rectangles. These towers average about
-12 feet high, and are well constructed, while low connecting walls
-of coarse masonry rise slightly above the surface. It would appear
-from the amount of débris that the remaining walls indicate a row
-of buildings, one story high, with circular subterranean kivas, but
-this can not be accurately determined without excavation of the ruin.
-Outside of the rectangle, however, there are at least two circular
-areas, possibly kiva pits. The rectangular building measures about 50
-feet square. The ground on which the buildings formerly stood slopes
-to the south, and back of it on the north rises a low perpendicular
-bluff which effectually shelters it in that direction. The union of a
-circular and a semicircular tower with, a rectangular ruin is a feature
-not common in the McElmo-Yellow Jacket region but appears in Hovenweep
-Castle, elsewhere described. Lower down the sides of the basin and near
-by are many indications of walls of buildings.
-
-The pottery in the neighborhood belongs to the same black and white
-types commonly found in the Hovenweep and Mesa Verde areas.
-
-Except for their peculiar relation to the rectangular building the
-McLean towers do not differ essentially from others, which leads to
-the inference that they were used contemporaneously and for the same
-purpose. There is a well-made doorway (fig. 17) in the Round Tower.
-
-
-TOWER IN SAND CANYON
-
-Sand Canyon, which opens into McElmo Canyon near Battle Rock, has
-several types of prehistoric ruins, viz, towers, cliff-houses, and
-large rim-rock pueblos. The tower type of architecture represented by
-the example here figured (pl. 5, _a_) is isolated from other forms
-of buildings. This tower is figured by Doctor Prudden, who mentions
-another in the neighborhood which the author did not visit.
-
-
-TOWERS IN ROAD (WICKYUP) CANYON
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 17.—Doorway in Round Tower, McLean Basin.]
-
-The nomenclature of the northern canyons of the McElmo has considerably
-changed in the last 40 years. What we now call the Yellow Jacket was
-formerly known through its entire course as the Hovenweep. A small
-canyon opening near its mouth, now known as Road Canyon, was formerly
-called the Wickyup. The Old Bluff City Road from Dolores, Colorado, to
-Bluff City, Utah, divides into two branches a short distance before
-it descends into the McElmo, its left branch passing through Road
-Canyon, the right bank of which follows the Yellow Jacket, which the
-traveler fords a short distance above its junction with the McElmo.
-Wickyup Canyon may be called picturesque, its cliffs being worn into
-fantastic shapes by water and sand. It has important antiquities, among
-the most striking of which are two towers (pl. 24, _b_), crowning
-the tops of low buttes or hills. The walls of these towers are well
-constructed, one being a simple structure with a single room, the other
-having appended rectangular rooms extending toward the northwest, some
-distance along a ridge of rocks. An examination of these two towers,
-which are about one-quarter of a mile apart, shows that they belong to
-the same type as the simple forms of those above mentioned, and as the
-entrance to Square Tower Canyon is not far away, they probably belong
-to the same series. The first of the towers, called “Bowlder Castle,”
-is situated a few hundred feet east of the road, from which it is
-easily seen. This ruin is rectangular in shape and rises from a basal
-mass of débris indicating broken-down walls of rooms. At a level with
-the top of this débris on its southern side stands a well-constructed
-tower with well-made doorway, the threshold and lintel of which are
-smooth stones, whose edges project slightly from the surface of the
-wall. One remarkable feature of this tower is that the doorway has been
-walled up with rude secondary masonry (pl. 25, _a_). The south wall of
-this building has tumbled over, as is usually the case, but the north
-wall rises several feet above the base. The masonry of the second tower
-is also broken down on the south side, but the standing remains of the
-north wall, which is circular, are over 10 feet high. The indications
-are that the ground plan of this building was oval in shape and that
-it inclined inward slightly from foundation to apex. Scattered over
-the surface are the remnants of fallen walls, and near it there is a
-well-marked depression, not unlike those found in unit type mounds,
-indicating kivas.
-
-
-TOWERS OF THE MANCOS
-
-The author’s examination of the towers in the region considered
-embraced likewise a few in the Mancos Canyon and valley. In all
-essential features the Mancos towers resemble those of Mesa Verde, the
-McElmo, and the Yellow Jacket Canyons, and were evidently built by the
-same people who constructed the towers on Navaho Canyon and elsewhere
-on the Mesa Verde National Park. A brief reference to two or three
-of these Mancos River towers may suffice to point out their general
-structure.
-
-
-HOLMES TOWER
-
-One of the towers figured by Holmes in 1877 is still among the best
-preserved in this region and can be visited by following up the Mancos
-Canyon from the west about 10 miles from where the Cortez road crosses
-the Mancos River before going on to Ship-rock. There is at this point a
-bridge and near the crossing an industrial farm of the Ute Reservation
-where accommodations were obtained. The Mancos Valley widens after
-leaving the canyon, the southern side of Mesa Verde appearing as a
-series of high mesas separated by canyons. In the neighborhood of the
-western end of Mesa Verde are lofty buttes, one called Chimney Rock,
-another the Ute Woman. This valley and the canyons extending into the
-Mesa Verde contain numerous piles of stone indicative of buildings of
-rectangular shape with numerous circular depressions. No cluster of
-mounds like those in Montezuma Valley was seen, but about 40 sites of
-buildings were distributed at intervals. None of these have standing
-walls above ground.
-
-Following up the Mancos Canyon is a wagon about 9 miles an arroyo was
-encountered and from there horses were taken and the river crossed to
-its south bank, above which, on the shelving terrace, is the Holmes
-Tower, visible many miles down the canyon. This tower (pl. 29, _a_) is
-in much the same condition as when sketched by Holmes over 40 years
-ago. It is circular in form, about 10 feet in diameter, and about 16
-feet high, with a broken window on the north side. The sky line is
-irregular. It is one of the best preserved towers, but not as high or
-as well constructed as some of the Hovenweep specimens.
-
-Accompanying this tower on the north there are mounds indicative of
-rooms and two circular saucer-like depressions. Excavations revealing a
-few human bones, including a well-worn human skull, have been made in a
-burial place southeast of the tower, where the surface is covered with
-fragments of pottery. Except in size Holmes Tower does not differ from
-others already described, but, like them, is connected with rectangular
-rooms. Farther up the Mancos Canyon there are other towers, one of
-which, Great Tower, is mentioned by Holmes in his report.
-
-On the way up the canyon, perhaps two-thirds of the distance from the
-bridge to the Holmes Tower, midway in the alluvial plain and on the
-right bank of Mancos Creek, stands a circular ruin which conforms to
-Holmes’s description of Great Tower but is too poorly preserved to be
-positively identified. All that now remains of this building is a large
-pile of rocks with a central depression, but no signs of radiating
-partitions, although such may have existed when it was constructed and
-for many years after it began to fall into ruin.
-
-
-TOWERS ON THE MANCOS RIVER BELOW THE BRIDGE
-
-TOWER A
-
-There are two towers situated on the south side of the Mancos below the
-bridge on the Ship-rock Road, one about 6, the other 7 miles distant.
-The walls of the first of these (pl. 30, _b_) are visible for some
-distance and are about 6 feet high, evidently very much broken down on
-the south and east sides. Its shape is round and there is a pile of
-stones indicating rooms on the east side separated from the tower by
-a depression. It would be a valuable contribution to our knowledge of
-these ruins if some one would determine the nature of these pits, which
-can hardly be regarded as reservoirs, but suggest kivas.
-
-
-TOWER B
-
-The tower (pl. 31, _a_) situated farther down the Mancos River has a
-more commanding position than Tower A and is conspicuous because it
-stands on a projecting precipice, below the rim of which are walled-up
-artificial caves. These caves have apparently never been entered by
-white men; the walls of masonry are unbroken and there are square
-openings, windows or doorways, which can be made out long before
-reaching the place.
-
-This tower (pl. 30, _a_) is almost perfectly round, about 10 feet in
-diameter, and stands at least 6 feet high. The south wall has fallen.
-In the pile of rocks on that side may be readily seen the top of a
-straight wall reaching to the edge of the cliff as if for protection,
-but no other fallen walls may now be seen in the neighborhood. The
-face of the cliff below this tower (pls. 7, _b_; 31, _b_) is almost
-perpendicular, the component strata of soft shale alternating with
-harder rocks, the former well fitted for artificial excavations.
-
-The author was not impressed with the idea that any considerable
-number of troglodytic inhabitants dwelt in the small cliff rooms (pl.
-31, _b_)[52] dug in it. Farther on there are other caves the walls of
-the entrance to which are still in sight. It is true the surface of
-the cliff may have been eroded and fallen in the time since they were
-abandoned. They appeared to be storage cists rather than inhabited
-rooms.
-
-[52] A good figure of these cavate rooms is given by Holmes, op.
-cit. Comparing the photograph with his figure it appears that their
-surrounding shale has worn away somewhat in the last four decades.
-
-Along the valley by the side of the road down the Mancos from the
-bridge to the ruins many heaps of stone were noticed in the valley but
-none of these were extensive or had walls standing above ground. Nor
-were they arranged in clusters as is common in the Montezuma Valley.
-On top of these heaps were found large fragments of slag in which was
-embedded charred corn, indicating a great fire. Similar slag also with
-burnt corn has often been found by the author on the floor of excavated
-rooms.
-
-
-MEGALITHIC AND SLAB HOUSE RUINS AT MCELMO BLUFF
-
-The ruined walls on the bluff situated at the junction of the McElmo
-and Yellow Jacket Canyons are archeologically instructive. As the mesa
-between the two canyons narrows in a promontory, about 100 feet in
-altitude, its configuration reminds one of the East Mesa of the Hopi.
-It is inaccessible on three sides, but on the fourth, where the width
-of the mesa is contracted, there are remains of a low zigzag wall,
-extending from one side to the other. At the western base of this
-promontory, on the ledge higher than the river, there are artificial
-walls built on bowlders in the sides of which shallow caves are eroded
-and near by them circular depressions. There are likewise remains of
-a small pueblo with walls much broken down and across the river the
-ruins of a community house, one of the largest in the district. The
-exceptional character of the ruins on top of this promontory has been
-mentioned or described by several visitors, as Holmes, Jackson, and
-Morley and Kidder, and various conjectures have been made as to their
-character and relation to the other ruins in this neighborhood.
-
-The ruins on this mesa are of two kinds: small inclosures made of
-slabs of stone set on edge and semicircular structures (fig. 18), also
-constructed of upright stone slabs or megaliths. Three of the latter
-have concentric surrounding walls with a “vestibule” entrance (?) at
-the south somewhat like rooms at the bases of towers. One of these is
-said by Morley and Kidder to have three concentric walls. The small
-box-like structures are numerous, and are rudely constructed, united in
-an imperfect ring about the circular rooms.
-
-In verification of the various theories that have been suggested to
-account for these rectangular structures—their interpretation as
-storage bins, burial places, and cremation rooms—we have no proof.
-Similar rooms of megaliths exist on Sandstone Canyon and at other
-places to the north and in Montezuma Canyon to the west. The rude,
-massive character of the masonry leads me to refer them to the slab
-house culture of Kidder and the imperfect masonry suggests they were
-habitations in a period antedating that of the pure pueblo culture.
-Such fragments of pottery as were found were, like the architecture,
-rude and archaic, adding weight to the interpretation that they
-belonged to a very old epoch.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 18.—Megalithic stone inclosure, McElmo Bluff.]
-
-The author regards the structures made of stones set on edge as very
-old, possibly examples of the most primitive buildings in the McElmo
-region, antedating the pueblos with horizontal masonry farther east.
-West of the mouth of the Yellow Jacket, especially on the Montezuma
-Mesa, these megalithic walls are more pretentious, as if this was the
-center of the earlier phase of house buildings. In the eastern ruins
-these slabs of stone set on edge sometimes appear as at Far View House
-with horizontal masonry, but more as a survival.
-
-Since their discovery and description by Jackson and Holmes 40 years
-ago, little has been added to our knowledge of these inclosures,
-although similar remains have been reported at various points from
-Dolores far into Utah. They are called cemeteries and crematories
-by the farmers and stockmen, but skeletons or burnt bones do not
-occur in them; the charcoal shows wood fiber, and is not bone ash.
-More knowledge must be obtained through excavations before their
-significance can be determined. Their association with circular rooms
-appears in Jackson’s account[53] of the stone structures on the
-promontory at the mouth of the Yellow Jacket. He says:
-
-[53] Tenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. (Hayden Survey) for 1876, p.
-414, 1879.
-
-“The perpendicular scarp of the mesa ran round very regularly, 50
-to 100 feet in height, the talus sloping down at a steep angle. On
-cave-like benches at the foot of the scarp is a row of rock shelters,
-much ruined, in one of which was found a very perfect polished-stone
-implement. Gaining the top of the mesa with some difficulty, we found
-a perfectly flat surface, 100 yards in width by about 200 in length,
-separated from the main plateau by a narrow neck, across which a wall
-had been thrown, but which is now nearly leveled. Almost the entire
-space fenced in by this wall was covered by an extended series of
-small squares, formed by thin slabs of sand-rock set on end. All were
-uniform in size, measuring about 3 by 5 feet, and arranged in rows, two
-and three deep, adjusted to various points of the compass. There were
-also a few circles disposed irregularly about the inclosed area, each
-about 20 feet in diameter, their circumferences being formed of similar
-rectangular spaces, leaving a circular space of 10 feet diameter in
-the center. These rectangles occur mainly in groups, and are found
-indiscriminately scattered through the whole region that has come under
-our observation upon the mesa tops and in the valleys. They all have
-the same general shape and size, and are seldom accompanied by even the
-faintest indication of a mound-like character. We have always supposed
-them to be graves, but have not as yet found any evidence that would
-prove them such. Some that we excavated to the depth of 5 and 6 feet in
-a solid earth that had never been disturbed did not reward our search
-with the faintest vestige of human remains. In nearly every case,
-however, a thin scattered layer of bits of charcoal was found from 6 to
-18 inches beneath the surface. In one instance, near the Mesa Verde,
-the upright slabs of rock which inclosed one of these rectangles were
-sunk 2 feet into the earth and projected 6 inches above it.”
-
-Holmes (op. cit., pp. 385-386) describes similar structures:
-
-“The greater portion of what are supposed to be burial places occur
-on the summits of hills or on high, barren promontories that overlook
-the valleys and cañons. In these places considerable areas, amounting
-in some cases to half an acre or more, are thickly set with rows of
-stone slabs, which are set in the ground and arranged in circles or
-parallelograms of greatly varying dimensions. At first sight the idea
-of a cemetery is suggested, although on examination it is found that
-the soil upon the solid rock surfaces is but a few inches deep, or if
-deeper, so compact that with the best implements it is very difficult
-to penetrate it.
-
-“On the west bank of the Dolores, near the second bend, I came upon a
-cluster of these standing stones on the summit of a low, rounded hill,
-and in the midst of a dense growth of full-grown piñon pines.”
-
-The rows of stones at this place, according to the same author,
-were composed of undressed slabs, many of which had fallen, the
-parallelograms averaging 3 by 8 feet in dimensions. Thin layers of bits
-of charcoal and pottery occur in the neighborhood. The date these slabs
-were placed upright was very early, for trees growing in the inclosures
-were estimated to be three or four hundred years old. These stones were
-sometimes “embedded in the sides and roots of the trees.” Holmes had
-the “impression that these places, if not actually burying grounds,
-were at least places used for the performance of funeral rites ... the
-remains of the dead being burned or left to decay in the open air.”
-
-The interiors of the inclosures were found on excavation to be filled
-to a depth of about a foot with soil mixed with ashes. There were many
-fragments of pottery, and some other objects near them, but nothing
-to indicate, as suggested by previous observations, that they were
-burial cists or even crematories for burying the dead. No charred
-human remains occur, but charcoal is abundant. It may have been that
-these places were used as ovens for roasting corn or for some culinary
-purposes, the neighboring circular rooms being possibly used for the
-same purposes as towers by the people who formerly inhabited this
-region. They are not large enough for dwellings and the soil in them is
-too shallow for burial purposes. They belong to a type which is widely
-distributed over the district visited by the author. Especially fine
-examples occur north of Sandstone Canyon district.
-
-At the base of the great cliff, on the top of which the remains in
-question are found, under the shelter of an overhanging bowlder, may be
-seen one of the finest collections of pictographs of animals and human
-beings. Not far from the last-mentioned bowlder the walls of a large
-pueblo can readily be traced along the banks of the McElmo Canyon.
-In his studies of the antiquities of this region the author did not
-penetrate west of the mouth of Yellow Jacket Canyon, but he was told
-by stockmen and sheep herders of the existence of many other ruins
-contiguous to the road all the way from this point to Bluff City. The
-most important of these have already been described in a general way.
-
-
-
-
-GRASS MESA CEMETERY
-
-
-Grass Mesa, a plateau with precipitous sides overlooking the Dolores
-River, is about 10 miles down the river from Dolores on the right
-bank of the stream. There remain few signs of former buildings at
-this place, but very many artifacts, pottery, stone implements, and
-fragments of well-worn metates occur at various places, some of which
-are among the best ever seen by the author. This bluff seems to have
-been the site of a settlement, possibly pre-Puebloan, like that on
-McElmo Bluff, with rough walls, resorted to for refuge, and later used
-as a cemetery. It is well adapted for these purposes, its top being
-almost inaccessible on the river side. There are many other similar
-sites of Indian settlements farther down the river, but this is one of
-the most typical. The scenery along the road that follows the banks
-of the river from Dolores is ever to be remembered on account of high
-cliffs on each side.
-
-
-
-
-RESERVOIRS
-
-
-Many artificial reservoirs dating to prehistoric times were observed in
-the area covered by the author’s reconnoissance. These fall into two
-well-marked types, one form being a circular depression, apparently
-excavated and sometimes walled up with earth or stones. The other
-form was not excavated by man, but the sloping surface of rock was
-surrounded on the lowest level by a bank of earth, forming a dam or
-retaining wall. Both types of reservoirs are commonly formed near some
-former center of population, but sometimes occur far from mounds,
-wherever the surface of the land has a convenient slope and the water
-can be compounded by a retaining wall. The height of the bank that
-holds back the water of these prehistoric reservoirs has been increased
-in some cases by stockmen; the walls of others still remain practically
-the same height they were when constructed by the aborigines. One of
-the best examples of the second type of reservoir, the retaining wall
-of which is shown in plate 32, _a_, is crossed by the road to Bluff
-City near the ruins in Holly Canyon, not far from Picket corral. A few
-miles north of this reservoir, at the edge of the cedars, the road
-crosses another of these ancient reservoirs, whose retaining bank
-has been considerably increased in height by stockmen. The ancient
-reservoir at Bug Mesa covers fully 4 acres, and the reservoir near
-Goodman Point Ruin is almost as large, and, although somewhat changed
-from its aboriginal condition, is still used by farmers dwelling in the
-neighborhood. The latter belongs to the first type; the former to the
-second. Reservoirs of one or the other type are generally found in the
-neighborhood of all large heaps of rocks, the so-called mounds that
-indicate the former existence of pueblos. The reservoir of the Mummy
-Lake village on the Mesa Verde belongs to the excavated type.
-
-
-
-
-PICTOGRAPHS
-
-
-At many places covered by this reconnoissance there were found
-interesting collections of engraved figures of ancient date cut on
-bowlders or vertical cliffs. These are generally situated in the
-neighborhood of ruins, but sometimes exist far from human remains. They
-generally have geometrical forms, rectangular and spiral predominating.
-Associated with these occur also representations of human beings,
-birds, and animals, and figures of bird tracks, human hands, and bear
-claws. There is a remarkable similarity in all these figures which
-sometimes occur on the stones composing the masonry of the buildings
-which indicates they were contemporaneous. They were pecked on the
-stones with rude stone chisels, but as a rule show no indication of
-paint. None of these figures could be regarded, without the wildest
-flights of the imagination, as letters or hieroglyphics, and there
-is no indication that inscriptions were intended. Their general
-character, as shown in a cluster (pl. 33), indicates rather clan
-symbols; in some instances spiral forms were probably made to indicate
-the presence of water. The incised figures on the walls of buildings
-were probably decorative in character, the first efforts of primitive
-man to embellish the walls of his dwellings, an art which reached
-a very high development in Mexico and Central America. There are,
-however, indications that these figures were covered with plaster and
-were therefore invisible, so that we might suppose them to be masons’
-signs, indicating the clan kinship of those who constructed the walls.
-Perhaps the largest group of these pictographs occurs on an eroded
-bowlder near the mouth of the Yellow Jacket Canyon, just below the
-great promontory separating it from the McElmo, on the surface of which
-are the remarkable dwellings composed of slabs of stone set on edge.
-Another large cluster, the members of which are of the same general
-style as that already mentioned, was seen in Sandstone Canyon, a few
-miles south of the road from Dolores to Monticello. There are several
-groups of pictographs in the neighborhood of the large towers elsewhere
-described. The most noteworthy of these is situated at the head of
-the south fork of Square Tower Canyon on a vertical cliff below the
-ruined Tower No. 4. The face of the cliff is very much eroded, and the
-figures are in places almost illegible. They consist of bird designs,
-accompanied with figures of snakes, rain clouds, and other designs,
-portions of which are obliterated and impossible of determination. As a
-rule, these pictographs resemble very closely those in the cliff-houses
-of the Mesa Verde and add their evidence of a uniformity of art design
-in these two regions.
-
-In addition to pictographs cut on the surface of the cliff, we also
-find in sheltered caves others not incised but with indications of
-color, showing the former existence of painted figures. Some of these,
-however, are not ascribed to the Indians who built the towers, but to
-a later tribe who camped in this region after the house builders had
-disappeared. They were probably made by wandering bands of Ute Indians,
-and are not significant in a comparison of the different kinds of
-buildings described in this article.
-
-
-
-
-MINOR ANTIQUITIES
-
-
-The preceding pages deal wholly with the immovable antiquities, as
-buildings, reservoirs, and the like. In addition to these evidences of
-a former population, there should be mentioned likewise the smaller
-antiquities, as pottery, stone objects, weapons, baskets, fabrics,
-bone and other implements. No excavation was attempted in the course
-of the reconnoissance, so that this chapter in the author’s report is
-naturally a very brief one. The few statements which follow are mainly
-based on local collections, one of which, owned by Mr. Williamson,
-of the First National Bank of Dolores, is comprehensive. The most
-suggestive of these minor antiquities are objects of burnt clay or
-pottery, which occur generally in piles of débris or accompany human
-burials. It was the custom of these people, like the cliff-dwellers,
-to deposit, near the dead, food in bowls and other household utensils,
-varying in shape, technique, decoration, and color. The most important
-fact regarding these ceramics is that they belong to the same archaic
-type as those from the ruins of the Mesa Verde. The predominating
-colors are white or gray with black figures, within and without, almost
-universally geometrical in form. There occurs also a relatively large
-number of corrugated vessels, and those made by using coils of clay,
-the figures on their exterior being indented with some implement, as a
-bone, stone, or even with the finger nail. While the majority belong to
-the black-and-white group, the red ware decorated with black figures
-is found but comparatively rarely, which is also true of the pottery
-of the cliff-dwellers. In the large variety of forms of burnt clay
-objects, the most remarkable in shape is a double water jar, connected
-by a transverse tube, the ends of which project beyond the opening into
-the jar, much in the form of an animal with a head at one end, body
-elongated, terminating in a short tail, the legs not being represented.
-While the number of unbroken mortuary bowls obtained from this region
-thus far known is comparatively small, we find in many places large
-quantities of broken fragments, all of which belong to the varieties of
-ware above enumerated.
-
-None of the bowls, vases, dippers, or other ceramic objects from the
-region of the ruins described have that significant feature commonly
-called the “life line;” the encircling lines are continuous around
-the vessel, and not broken at one point. The broken line never occurs
-on archaic pottery like black-and-white ware, and we may accept the
-hypothesis that the conception which gave rise to it was foreign to the
-people of the Mesa Verde and adjacent areas. It would be instructive
-to map out the distribution of this custom which was so prevalent
-in pottery from the Gila and Little Colorado and its tributaries,
-and absent in that from ruins on the San Juan and Mimbres. It occurs
-in ware from certain Rio Grande prehistoric ruins, as if it were a
-connecting link with the ancient culture of the Little Colorado.
-
-Of the stone implements found in this region the most characteristic is
-the celt called _tcamahia_ which is not found in regions not affected
-by the San Juan culture. These objects are found from Mesa Verde to
-the Hopi pueblos.[54] A peculiar form of prehistoric chipped chert
-implement occurs at Mesa Verde and elsewhere in the area. A flint knife
-in the Williamson collection at Dolores was purchased from a Ute woman
-who said it was found on a ruin. She wore it attached to her belt by a
-buckskin thong fastened to a bead-worked cover.
-
-[54] The use of these objects as heirlooms in the Antelope altar of the
-Hopi supports the tradition of the Snake people that their ancestors
-brought them from the San Juan.
-
-Bone objects were mainly needles, dirks, and bodkins, presenting
-in the main no essential differences from those repeatedly
-described, especially by Nordenskiöld in his important memoir on the
-cliff-dwellers of the Mesa Verde. Objects made of marine shell are
-rare. The presence of flattened slabs of stone or metates showing
-on the surface evidences of grinding occur with human bones in many
-localities, indicating either that a custom still extant among the
-Pueblos of burying the metates with the dead was observed, or that the
-burials were made under floors of these long-abandoned houses. It would
-seem, on the former hypothesis, that these objects were buried with the
-women, but as the condition of the skeletal remains is poor the sex
-could not be determined by direct observation.
-
-The unprotected nature of the sites and the condition of the ruins
-prevented the preservation of fragile articles like baskets and
-fabrics, which frequently occur in caves, in one or two instances
-buried under the floors. There is little doubt that excavations in
-cemeteries of the open-sky ruins would reveal considerable material
-of this nature, which would probably duplicate that which has been
-produced from the adjacent cliff-houses. Many parts of wooden beams,
-mainly the remains of flooring and roofs, were seen still in the
-walls, but these as a rule were fragmentary. The ends of the timbers
-still adhering to the walls show that they were cut into shape by
-stone implements, aided by live embers. They appear to have been split
-by means of wedges made of stone and often rubbed down smooth with
-polishing instruments of the same material. The majority of these
-wooden beams plainly show the action of fire, but no roof was intact.
-From the size of the logs shown in fragments of beams, it is evident
-that the roof supports had been brought there from some distance; trees
-of the magnitude they imply do not now grow in the neighborhood of some
-of the ruins where these beams occur.
-
-
-
-
-HISTORIC REMAINS
-
-
-The various objects found in the ruins or on the surface of the ground
-as a rule are characteristic of a people in the stone-age culture,
-ignorant of metals, and therefore prehistoric, but here and there on
-the surface have been picked up iron weapons which belonged to the
-historic period. The old “Spanish Trail” mentioned in preceding pages
-was the early highway from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the Great Salt
-Lake, and followed approximately an old Indian trail that was probably
-used by the prehistoric inhabitants or the builders of the towers. Not
-far from the head of Yellow Jacket Canyon a ranchman discovered on
-his farm a few years ago the blades of two Spanish iron lance heads
-or knives, still well preserved, the hilts, however, being destroyed.
-These objects, now in Mr. Williamson’s collection at Dolores, may have
-belonged to a party of Spanish soldiers who explored this region, but
-their form, in addition to the material, is so characteristic that no
-one would assign them to aboriginal manufacture. Fragments of a stirrup
-of metal, parts of the harness or saddle, also belonging to the Spanish
-epoch, have also been found. The indications are that these objects are
-historic, but their owners may have been Indians who obtained them from
-Europeans. They probably do not antedate the middle of the eighteenth
-century, when two Catholic fathers, with an escort of soldiers, made
-their trip of discovery from Santa Fe into what is now Utah. They shed
-no light on the epoch of the aborigines who constructed the castles and
-towers considered in this paper.
-
-
-
-
-CONCLUSIONS
-
-
-In the preceding pages the author has considered several different
-types of buildings, which, notwithstanding their variety in forms, have
-much in common and can be interpreted as indicating an identical phase
-of pueblo development. A comparative study of their distribution shows
-us that they occur in a well-defined geographical area. In comparison
-with stone buildings in other parts of the Southwestern States, this
-phase shows superior masonry. It is considered as chronologically
-antedating the historic epoch and post-dating an earlier, and as yet
-not clearly defined, phase out of which it sprung in the natural
-evolution from simple to complex forms.
-
-These buildings express the communal thought of the builders, since
-they were constructed by groups of people rather than by individuals.
-Architecture representing the thoughts of many minds is conservative,
-or less liable to innovation or departure from prescribed forms and
-methods. These community houses express the thought of men in groups
-at different times, and, so far as archeology teaches, are the best
-exponents of what we call contemporary social conditions, while
-pottery and other small portable objects, being products of individual
-endeavor, furnish little on social organization, or general cultural
-conditions of communities. Although determination of cultural areas
-built on identity of pottery often coincides with those determined
-by buildings, this is not always the case. Specialized culture
-areas determined by highly conventionalized designs on ceramics are
-localized, more numerous, and as a rule more modern. Hence a culture
-area determined by architectural features may include several subareas
-determined by pottery.
-
-The author has thought it possible to differentiate two distinct epochs
-or phases of house building in the upper part of the San Juan drainage,
-viz. the early and the middle stages of development. There are included
-in the early condition certain crude architectural efforts similar
-to the non-Pueblos represented in regions adjoining the Pueblo area.
-This early condition, though not clearly defined, is beginning to be
-revealed by intensive studies of the so-called slab house dwellings
-and isolated brush houses. Evidences of this stage have been found
-in several localities, as on McElmo Bluff, or combined with walls of
-what may be called true pueblo buildings. The differences between some
-of the buildings of the early stage and those of the aborigines in
-southern California, or of the Utes and Shoshonean tribes, are slight;
-resemblances which point to relations are not considered in detail.
-
-From their advance in house building, it has been commonly stated
-that the Pueblo people were either derived from Mexican tribes or, as
-was customary in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to suppose,
-their descendants had made their way south and developed into the more
-advanced Mexican culture as the Aztecs. These conclusions are not
-supported by comparison with available architectural data observed
-among these two peoples. The basal error is the mistake in considering
-the earth houses of the Gila the same as pueblos. The habitations of
-the Gila compounds were structurally different from pueblos, and their
-sanctuaries or ceremonial rooms had not the same form or relation to
-the dwellings. The Gila compounds are allied to Mexican buildings; but
-there is little in common between them and pure pueblos. The same is
-true of the type of stone dwellings on the Verde, Tonto, and Little
-Colorado. Certain likenesses exist between the Casas Grandes of the
-Gila and those of Mexico, although little relationship exists between
-the temples or ceremonial buildings of the valley of Mexico and the
-Casas Grandes of the Gila. The architecture of the Pueblos and the
-Aztecs is very different; the habitations of Mexican tribes resemble
-those of the Gila. The forms[55] of ceremonial chambers differ, one
-being rectangular mounds or pyramids, the other circular, generally
-subterranean.
-
-[55] Temples of Quetzalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent Sun God, are circular
-buildings like towers.
-
-
-Rather than seek the origin of the house builders of the San Juan,
-or the parent Pueblos, from Mexican sources, the author believes
-the custom of building stone houses in the pueblo region was not
-derived from any locality not now included in the pueblo area, but
-it developed as an autochthonous growth, the earliest stages as well
-as the most complex forms being of local origin. Incoming Indians
-may have introduced ideas of foreign birth but they did not bring
-in the mason’s craft. That custom developed in the Southwest, where
-we find the whole series from a single stone-house or a cave with
-walls closing the entrance to the most highly developed architectural
-production north of Mexico. There are cliff-dwellings in many other
-localities in the world but there are nowhere, except in the region
-here considered, cliff-dwellings with circular kivas constructed on
-this unique plan. It is generally supposed that a type of room called
-“small house” was the predecessor of the multiple community dwelling
-throughout the Southwest. This type, defined as a simple four-walled,
-one story building with a flat roof, is widely spread in New Mexico
-and Arizona. The strongest arguments in favor of its greater antiquity
-are possibly its simplicity of form and the character of accompanying
-ceramics—corrugated, black-and-white, and red pottery. Characteristic
-small houses of the Mesa Verde and McElmo Canyon belong to the same
-type of pueblo as the largest extensive villages which are more
-complicated than the so-called small house. It is what the author
-has called the pure type which is structurally different from the
-“small house,” the so-called archaic form of the mixed pueblos of the
-Rio Grande. This unit type is likewise unlike the small house of the
-Little Colorado, including those of the Zuñi Valley and the Hopi Wash,
-although the Hopi kivas show the influence of the Mesa Verde culture
-in the persistence of the ceremonial opening in the floor called the
-sipapu.
-
-A cluster of small houses or the village such as we find at Mummy
-Lake on the Mesa Verde is composed of several scattered members, each
-containing for the religious and secular life the “pure type” rooms
-constructed on the same plan. In a village like the Aztec Spring House
-several unit buildings are united, forming one community house larger
-than the rest, which was the dominant one of the village, the remaining
-houses being smaller and scattered. Aztec Spring, Mitchell Spring, and
-Mud Spring villages show a similar consolidation of units with outlying
-smaller houses, and the number of units in such a union is believed
-to be indicated by the number of circular rooms, or kivas. Thus, four
-kivas might be supposed to indicate four consolidated social units.
-
-The complete concentration of several unit pueblos into one or more
-large communal buildings[56] is also found in several cases in the
-area we have studied, but we must look to the great ruin at Aztec or
-those on the Chaco Canyon for examples of almost complete amalgamation.
-Thus these large pueblos where an almost complete consolidation has
-occurred have resulted from a fusion or condensation of what might
-have formerly been a rambling village composed of several separate
-units. This clustering of small separated houses in a village is not
-peculiar to the San Juan but exists elsewhere in the Southwest, as in
-the Rio Grande region, where, however, the structure of each component
-small house is different. These separate mounds do not indicate the
-unit type as defined, and the Rio Grande pueblo of modern date has its
-kiva separated from the house masses, which have grouped themselves
-in rectangular lines or rooms surrounding courts. There are, perhaps,
-examples in this region where a circular kiva is found embedded in
-house masses, but these are so few in number that they may possibly be
-regarded as incorporate survivals due to acculturation.
-
-In the Gila Valley compounds, as Casa Grande, and on the Little
-Colorado, the unit type is unknown. Several blocks of buildings on the
-Gila are surrounded by a rectangular wall which is wanting in ruins of
-the Little Colorado and its tributaries. Here one of the units may be
-enlarged, following in some respects the conditions at Aztec Spring
-Ruin. A surrounding wall also appears in some of the Pueblo villages
-and pueblos, but when we compare one of the units of a Casa Grande
-compound with that of a Montezuma Valley village, we find little in
-common, the main difference, so far as form is concerned, being the
-absence of a circular kiva.[57] There is nothing in a Gila Valley
-compound we can structurally call a circular kiva, and no morphological
-equivalent of the circular kiva in ruins on the tributaries of the Salt
-and Gila. On the horizon of the Gila culture area there are no circular
-kivas, due to acculturation. There are rooms analogous to kivas used
-for ceremonials at Hopi and Zuñi, but they are not true kivas as
-we have interpreted them in the San Juan area. Both Hopi and Zuñi
-are composite people and have elements derived from Gila and Pueblo
-influences, but neither belong to the pure type in the sense the author
-defines it.
-
-[56] The likeness of the Mesa Verde cliff-houses to the pueblos of
-Chaco Canyon was long ago suggested by Nordenskiöld. The excavation of
-Far View House proved that suggestion to be true.
-
-[57] This subject is treated at length in my report on Casa Grande in
-the Twenty-eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
-
-The author has attempted to show that the structure of the houses
-whose clustering composes villages in the Montezuma Valley is the
-same as that of Far View House of the Mummy Lake village on top of
-Mesa Verde; and that these architectural resemblances are close enough
-to indicate that the villages of the two localities were inhabited by
-people of the same general culture. He has proved that the pure type
-of such a village as shown in Far View House was constructed on the
-same plan as a cliff-dwelling, notwithstanding one is built in the
-open, the other in a cave. The geographic extension of this type has
-been traced into Utah. Ruined pueblos on the Chaco Canyon or at Aztec
-on the Animas, which is geographically nearer the Mesa Verde, are
-more concentrated but indicate the same culture. Renewed research is
-necessary to determine the southern and western extension of the pure
-type; the northern and eastern horizon is fairly well known.
-
-Granting that the great ruins on the Chaco Canyon belong to the same
-people as those on Mesa Verde, the question arises, Which buildings
-are the most ancient, those on the Mesa Verde or those on the Chaco?
-A correct answer to this question should reveal the cradle of the
-culture indicated by the pure or prehistoric type of pueblo. The author
-believes that the pure pueblo culture originated in the northern part
-of the area and migrated southward to the Chaco Valley in prehistoric
-times, ultimately affecting the people of the Rio Grande, where
-sedentary people no doubt lived before written history of the area
-began. The result was a mixture; the mixed population are the modern
-Pueblos.
-
-In the great cliff-houses of the Mesa Verde and the extensive pueblos
-of the McElmo we find towers combined with pure types of pueblos,
-either simple or complex. In the Chaco ruins these towers are not found
-in this combination. To this may be added the great house type of the
-McElmo, also absent in the Chaco. Here there appears to be an essential
-difference on which the author ventures a suggestion, but which future
-research must elucidate.
-
-If this pure type originated in the southern tributaries of the San
-Juan as the Chaco and migrated to the northern we would expect in the
-latter more distinctly southern objects, as shell ornaments, turquoise
-mosaics, and a great variety of pottery of a southern type.
-
-The pure or unit type is believed to be autochthonous in the San
-Juan Basin and characteristic of a middle phase of architectural
-development, the highest north of Mexico. It is self-centered and has
-preserved its characteristics over an extensive area, influencing
-regions far beyond.
-
-The evolution of this type took place in the region mentioned before
-the fifteenth century of the Christian era. Traces of its influence
-have persisted into the country of mixed pueblos down to the present
-time, but the architectural skill has deteriorated and shows evidence
-of acculturation[58] from sources outside the San Juan area where it
-originated.
-
-One word in regard to the adjectives, prehistoric and historic,
-applied to southwestern ruins. They are relative ones and obtained
-from data somewhat diverse in character. Casa Grande on the Gila was
-called a ruin when first seen by the European. It was inhabited in
-prehistoric times. From documentary evidence the historian learns
-that certain other buildings were not inhabited at the advent of the
-Spaniards, and if their statements are trustworthy these also are
-prehistoric. Legends of modern Pueblos claim that certain other ruins
-were inhabited houses of their ancestors before the coming of the white
-man. The author sees no good reason to throw this evidence out of court
-without investigation because some of the incidents in it betray late
-introduction. Many other ruins are classified as prehistoric from the
-purely negative, but not decisive, evidence that no objects of European
-make have been found in them. The ruin Sun Temple, on the Mesa Verde,
-is considered prehistoric from the fact that a tree with over 360
-annual rings of growth was found growing on top of its highest wall. We
-are justified in calling this a prehistoric ruin.
-
-The evidences that villages, cliff-dwellings, castles and towers,
-and other types considered in this article antedate the advent of
-the white man are as follows: No historian has recorded an inhabited
-building of this form in this or other regions; no objects of European
-manufacture have been found in them, and the buildings and pottery
-which characterize them are different from those of any inhabited when
-the Spanish entered the Southwest.
-
-The complex, which is thought to be the highest form of pueblo
-architecture, is composed of the following elements united: (1) Several
-“pure types”[59] representing a religio-sociological complexion of
-the inhabitants; (2) towers of various forms—round, D-shaped, and
-rectangular; (3) the great houses; (4) unit type in cave. In Cliff
-Palace these four types occur united in a pueblo built in a natural
-cave; in Mud Spring Ruin two and possibly three of these types are
-found in one open-air village, more spread out as site permits. In
-Aztec Spring and Mitchell Spring pueblos the arrangement is more
-defined. In the cluster at the head of South Fork of Square Tower
-Canyon we have all the elements united in Hovenweep House and Hovenweep
-Castle. Unit type House shows the single-unit type with tower near by;
-in Twin Towers we have the great house with cave pueblo and towers
-separated. Several other towers isolated from other types also occur.
-
-[58] These acculturation modifications due to Hispanic influences in
-modern pueblos are too well marked to need more than a mention.
-
-[59] The author uses the words “pure type” instead of “unit type” as a
-general term to denote “one-unit types,” “two-unit types,” “three-unit
-types,” etc.
-
-The Holly Canyon group shows the types separated. The great house is
-represented by Holly Castle; the towers are situated on huge bowlders.
-The unit type of this group is represented by Holly House, the
-foundation of part of which has fallen, covering the ruins of another
-pueblo of the unit type formerly in the cave below.
-
-The Hackberry group is also composed of three elemental types
-separated; the great house is represented by Hackberry House, the unit
-type by the cliff-dwelling below and by the pueblo on the opposite side
-of the gulch, and the towers by isolated towers.
-
-A similar analysis may be made of other ruins. Sometimes the component
-types are united; often one type only occurs, the others being absent.
-The union of all is best marked in the northern tributaries of the San
-Juan, as at Aztec, and in the southern tributaries, as at Chaco Canyon
-and Chelly Canyon. These pueblos, whether in the open or in caves,
-belong to the pure or concentrated multiple unit type.
-
-Some light may be shed on the probable process of consolidation of the
-individual units of a community house by a comparative study of the
-pueblos on the East Mesa of the Hopi. Hano, for instance, was settled
-by a group of Tanoan clans about 1710 A. D. The list of Hano clans that
-originally came to the East Mesa is known from legends and the present
-localization of their survivors has been indicated in the author’s
-article on “The Sun’s Influence on the Form of Hopi Pueblos.”[60]
-In 1890 Hano was composed of four blocks of rooms, each housing one
-or more clans. Earlier there were six, one of which had fallen into
-disuse, a few less than the traditional number of clans. When the
-colonists arrived, they settled near Coyote Spring, the houses of which
-are now covered with drifted sand, but when they constructed their
-village on the mesa at the head of the trail each house of a cluster
-housed a clan. Increase in population, both internal and external, led
-to the union and enlargement of these houses so that they inclosed
-a central plaza. A similar growth has taken place in Sichomovi, the
-pueblo halfway between Walpi and Hano; first single houses, then rows
-of houses with terraces on the south and east sides. Some of the
-original houses have been deserted and rebuilt nearer the others. Thus
-at Hano the Katcina clan house was north and east of the chief kiva but
-is now in the east row.
-
-[60] Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. viii, no. 1, 1906.
-
-In the same way we may suppose that in a consolidation of a community
-dwelling several units may have drawn together and united. There is
-evidence of a union of this kind in many ruins in the Southwest.
-
-The data here published should not be interpreted to mean that the
-author regards the builders of the towers and great houses here
-described as evidences of a race other than the Indians. Indeed he
-believes that in both blood and culture they have left survivals
-among the modern Pueblos. He also does not hold that as a whole
-they necessarily belonged to a radically different phase of culture,
-notwithstanding the buildings they constructed show a greater variety
-of form and masonry superior to that of their descendants.
-
-The evidences are cumulative that there existed and disappeared in
-a wide geographical area of the Southwest a people whose buildings
-differed so much from those of any other area in North America that the
-area in which they occur may be designated as a characteristic one.
-
-The variety and type of buildings have a bearing on social
-organization. A large building composed of many units is probably but
-not necessarily later in time than a single house; an isolated single
-house would probably be of earlier construction than a collection of
-several single houses of the same character compactly arranged in a
-village; a complete consolidation of several houses of such a village
-into a community house would naturally be more modern than a group of
-isolated single houses.
-
-City blocks postdate hamlets. Between a stage indicated by single
-houses and one characterized by consolidated building, there is a
-phase in which the buildings are grouped in clusters and are not
-united. We may theoretically suppose that the single house was
-inhabited by one social unit as a clan or family. As the food quest
-became more intensified and defense more urgent, social units, as
-indicated by single houses, would be brought together, and as the
-population increased the amalgamation would be more complete. This
-social organization, in the beginning loose, in the course of time
-would become more homogeneous, and as it did so the union of these
-separate social units would have been closer; and if we combine with
-that tendency the powerful stimulus of protection, we can readily see
-how a compact form of architecture characteristic of the buildings here
-described was brought about. The element of defense in the villages
-with scattered houses does not appear to have been very important,
-but might be adduced to explain the consolidation of these into large
-community houses.
-
-If the growth of the large pueblos has followed the lines above
-indicated, and if each unit type indicates a social unit as well, we
-necessarily have in this growth of the community house the story of the
-social evolution of the Pueblo people. Clans or social units at first
-isolated later joined each other, intermarriage always tending to make
-the population more homogeneous. The social result of the amalgamation
-of clans seeking common defense would in time be marked. The inevitable
-outcome would be a breaking down of clan priesthoods or clan religions
-and the formation of fraternities of priesthoods recruited from several
-clans. This in turn would lead to a corresponding reduction and
-enlargement of ceremonial rooms remaining. Two kivas suffice for the
-ceremonies of the majority of the Rio Grande pueblos; but Cliff Palace
-with a population of the same size had 23 and Spruce-tree House, a much
-smaller cliff pueblo, had 8.
-
-One can not fail to notice a similarity in sites of some of the great
-houses of the McElmo to neighboring cliff habitations and a like
-relation of Sun Temple to the cliff-dwellings in Fewkes Canyon in the
-Mesa Verde. Possibly the purpose of these great houses and Sun Temple
-was identical. Some of the great houses were probably granaries and Sun
-Temple may have been intended partly for a like use. No indications of
-remains of stored corn have been observed in any of these buildings,
-but Castañeda[61] speaks of a village of subterranean granaries
-(“silos”) in the Rio Grande country, which is instructive in this
-connection.
-
-[61] Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pt. 1, p. 523. This
-village is spoken of as “lately destroyed;” in other words it was a
-ruin in 1540.
-
-
-
-
-INDEX
-
-
-    ACMEN RUIN, described, 29
-    ANTIQUITIES, minor, 66
-    ARCHITECTURE, culture areas determined by, 69
-    ARCHITECTURE, PUEBLO—
-      elements of, 73
-      of local origin, 70
-    AZTEC ARCHITECTURE, unlike that of Pueblos, 69
-    AZTEC SPRING, ruins at, 23
-      described by Holmes, 24
-      described by Jackson, 24
-      ground plan of, 26
-
-    BEAMS, WOODEN, method of shaping, 67
-    BLANCHARD RUIN, 23
-    BONE, objects made of, 67
-    BOWLDER CASTLE, description of, 57
-    BOWLS, MORTUARY, 66
-    BUG MESA RUIN, description of, 19
-    BUG POINT RUIN, excavation of, showing unit type, 29
-    BURIAL CUSTOMS, 66, 67
-    BURIAL PLACES—
-      mentioned by Morgan, 21
-      near Holmes Tower, 59
-      on Grass Mesa, 64
-      on the Dolores, 11
-    BURKHARDT RUIN. _See_ MUD SPRING RUIN.
-    BUTTE RUIN, description of, 32
-
-    CANNONBALL RUIN—
-      description of, 30
-      structural features of, 42
-    CASTLES, structural features of, 40
-    CAVES—
-      apparently used for storage, 60
-      walled-up, 59
-    CEMETERIES. _See_ BURIAL PLACES.
-    CEREMONIAL ROOMS, Hopi and Zuñi, not true kivas, 71
-    CHACO CANYON RUINS, comparative age of, 72
-    CIRCULAR RUINS—
-      distribution of, 31
-      structural features of, 31
-    CLIFF-DWELLERS—
-      culture of, 9
-      region occupied by, 9
-    CLIFF-DWELLINGS—
-      architectural features of, 37
-      classification of, 15
-      double, 38
-      in Lost Canyon, 40
-      small, in the McElmo region, 37
-    COMMUNAL DWELLINGS, 71
-      preceded by “small house”, 70
-      social conditions indicated by, 69
-    CONSOLIDATION OF UNITS, process of, 74
-    CORN, CHARRED, found embedded in slag, 60
-
-    DAVIS TOWER—
-      ground plan, 55
-      location of, 55
-    DEPRESSIONS INDICATING KIVAS, 42
-    DOVE CREEK RUINS, 28
-
-    EIGHT MILE RUIN, masonry in, 41
-    EMERSON, J. W., description of ruin by, 34
-    EMERSON RUIN, description of, 33
-    ENTRANCES—
-      to kivas, 42
-      to towers, 42
-      walled-up, 57
-    ERODED BOWLDER HOUSE, description of, 49
-    ESCALANTE AND DOMINGUEZ, manuscript diary of, 36
-    ESCALANTE RUIN, description of, 36
-
-    FAR VIEW HOUSE, a pueblo of pure type, 15, 16
-
-    GIBRALTAR HOUSE. _See_ STRONGHOLD HOUSE.
-    GILA VALLEY COMPOUNDS, 71
-      allied to Mexican buildings, 67
-    GOODMAN POINT RUIN, description of, 17
-    GRASS MESA, cemetery on, 64
-    GREAT HOUSES—
-      date of construction undetermined, 43
-      possible use of, 42, 76
-      structural features of, 40
-
-    HACKBERRY CANYON CLIFF-HOUSE, a “unit type”, 40
-    HACKBERRY CASTLE, description of, 52
-    HACKBERRY GROUP, elements composing, 74
-    HILL CANYON RUINS, 42
-      masonry of, 42
-    HOLLY CANYON—
-      ground plan, 52
-      ruins of, 52
-    HOLLY CANYON GROUP, elements composing, 74
-    HOLLY HOUSE RUINS, description of, 53
-    HOLMES, W. H.—
-      on probable use of towers, 42
-      on tower at Mud Spring, 20
-      report of, as reference work, 11
-      report on ruins by, 10, 11
-      slab inclosures described by, 62
-    HOLMES TOWER, description of, 58
-    HOPI CEREMONIAL ROOMS, not true kivas, 71
-    HORSESHOE HOUSE—
-      compared with Sun Temple, 54
-      description of, 53
-      ground plan, 54
-      structural features of, 40
-    HOVENWEEP CASTLE—
-      description of, 47
-      ground plan of, 47
-    HOVENWEEP DISTRICT—
-      a proposed National Monument, 44
-      canyons of, containing ruins, 44
-      ruins of, 44
-    HOVENWEEP HOUSE, description of, 46
-
-    IMPLEMENTS, STONE, 67
-    INGERSOLL, ERNEST, newspaper article by, 11
-
-    JACKSON, WM. H.—
-      report of, as work of reference, 11
-      report of, on ruins, 10, 11
-      slab inclosures described by, 62
-    JOHNSON RUIN, description of, 18
-
-    KEELEY TOWERS, location of, 45
-    KIDDER, A. V. _See_ MORLEY AND KIDDER.
-    KIVA OF UNIT TYPE HOUSE, architectural features of, 51
-    KIVAS—
-      double-walled, 39
-      entrances to, 42
-      indicated by depressions, 42
-      indicative of social units, 70
-      structural features of, 37
-
-    LION TOWER—
-      description of, 55
-      ground plan of, 55
-    LITTRELL TOWER. _See_ LION TOWER.
-    LOST CANYON CLIFF-HOUSES, 40
-    “LOWER HOUSE,” of Aztec Spring Ruin, 25, 27
-
-    MCELMO BLUFF, ruins at, 60
-    MCELMO DISTRICT—
-      distinctive feature of ruins of, 15
-      investigations in, of 1917, 10
-    MCELMO RUINS, latest work on, 14
-    MCLEAN BASIN—
-      ground plan of ruins of, 56
-      pottery found in, 56
-      ruins of, described, 55
-      towers of, 56
-    MANCOS REGION, towers of, 58
-    MASONRY—
-      of Hill Canyon Ruins, 42
-      skill shown in construction, 40
-      varieties of, 41
-    MEGALITHIC RUINS, 60
-    MEGALITHS, circular structures of, 60
-    MESA VERDE—
-      cliff-dwellings and villages of, 9
-      culture of inhabitants of, 9
-    MESA VERDE RUINS, comparative age of, 72
-    METATES—
-      found at Surouaro, 17
-      with skeletal remains, 67
-    MEXICAN TRIBES AND THE PUEBLOS, relation between, 69
-    MITCHELL, H. L., notes contributed by, 11
-    MITCHELL SPRING RUIN, description of, 19
-    MITCHELL SPRING VILLAGE, origin of the name, 12
-    MONOLITHS IN WALLS, 30
-    MONTEZUMA VALLEY, distinctive feature of ruins in, 15
-    MOOREHEAD, WARREN K., ruins described by, 12
-    MORGAN, L. H.—
-      investigation of ruins by, 10, 11
-      notes of, on ruins of Mesa Verde, 11
-      on Mitchell Spring Ruin, 19
-      on Mud Creek village, 21
-    MORLEY, S. G.—
-      excavations conducted by, 30
-      work of, 13
-    MORLEY, S. G., and KIDDER, A. V., ruins described by, 14
-    MOUNDS—
-      near Mummy Lake, 15
-      of Mud Spring Ruin, 21
-    MUD SPRING RUIN, description of, 20
-    MUMMY LAKE MOUNDS, 15
-
-    NELSON, N. C., on Pueblo ruins, 17
-    NEWBERRY, J. S., on Surouaro, 17
-    NORDENSKIÖLD, BARON G., work of, 13
-
-    OAK SPRING HOUSE, description of, 29
-    OLD SPANISH TRAIL, route of, 36, 68
-    OPEN-AIR RUINS OF DOVE CREEK, 28
-
-    PARKER, GORDON, assistance of, 40
-    PICTOGRAPHS—
-      colored, 65
-      covered with plaster, 65
-      incised on stone, 65
-      near Ruin 5, 49
-      near slab inclosures, 63
-    PIERSON LAKE RUIN. _See_ SQUAW POINT RUIN.
-    PILASTERS LACKING IN TOWERS, 42
-    PLASTERING, interiors covered with, 41
-    POTTERY—
-      culture areas determined by, 69
-      description of, 66
-    PRUDDEN, T. MITCHELL—
-      articles by, on ruins of San Juan watershed, 12
-      excavations conducted by, 19
-      on towers as part of composite ruins, 44
-    PUEBLO ARCHITECTURE—
-      elements of complex, 73
-      of local origin, 70
-    PUEBLO CULTURE, direction of its migration, 72
-    PUEBLO TRIBES, origin of, 69
-    “PURE TYPE” defined, 16
-
-    RESERVOIR GROUP, named by J. Ward Emerson, 34
-    RESERVOIRS, INDIAN—
-      crossed by Old Bluff Road, 45
-      natural and artificial, 64
-    ROAD CANYON, formerly called the Wickyup, 57
-    ROOMS, with megalithic walls, 15
-    RUIN 3, description of, 48
-    RUIN 4, description of, 49
-    RUIN 5, description of, 49
-    RUIN 6, description of, 49
-    RUIN 7. _See_ ERODED BOWLDER HOUSE.
-    RUIN 8. _See_ TWIN TOWERS.
-    RUIN 9, description of, 50
-    RUIN 10. _See_ UNIT TYPE HOUSE.
-    RUIN 11. _See_ STRONGHOLD HOUSE.
-    RUIN CANYON—
-      duplication of name misleading, 45
-      ruin in, 30
-      unit type houses of, 40
-    RUINS—
-      classification of, 14
-      evidences of age of, 73
-
-    SAND CANYON—
-      cliff-dwellings in, 38
-      scaffold in, 38
-      tower in, 57
-    SCAFFOLD FOR LOOKOUT, 38
-    SEMICIRCULAR RUINS, description of, 22
-    SLAB INCLOSURES—
-      described by Jackson, 62
-      described by Holmes, 62
-    SLAB STRUCTURES—
-      box-like, 60
-      circular, 60
-      pottery found near, 61
-      theories concerning, 61
-    “SMALL HOUSE” TYPE OF ARCHITECTURE, 70
-    SOCIAL ORGANIZATION, relation between architecture and, 75
-    “SPANISH TRAIL.” _See_ OLD SPANISH TRAIL.
-    SQUARE TOWER CANYON—
-      classification of ruins in, 46
-      directions for reaching, 45
-      map of, 45
-      new name for Ruin Canyon, 45
-    SQUAW POINT RUIN, described, 28
-    STONE ARCH HOUSE, location of, 38
-    STRONGHOLD HOUSE, description of, 52
-    SUN DIAL PALACE, named by J. Ward Emerson, 34
-    SUN TEMPLE—
-      discovery of, 10
-      evidence of age of, 73
-      possible use of, 76
-      unique ground plan of, 42
-    SUROUARO—
-      description of, 16
-      named by Newberry, 12
-      signification of name, 17
-
-    TOWERS—
-      D-shaped, 44
-      date of construction undetermined, 43
-      entrance to, 42
-      entrance walled up, 57
-      forms of, 43
-      of Holly Canyon, 52
-      of McLean Basin, 56
-      of Mancos region, 58
-      of Sand Canyon, 57
-      of Wickyup Canyon, 57
-      possible use of, 42
-      structural features of, 40
-      windows absent in, 42
-    TOWERS AND GREAT HOUSES—
-      form and construction of, 15
-      situation of, 15
-    “TRIPLE-WALLED TOWER”—
-      at Mud Spring Ruin, 20
-      condition of, in 1881, 21
-      visited by Holmes, 11
-    TWIN TOWERS—
-      description of, 50
-      ground plan of, 50
-
-    UNIT TYPE—
-      defined, 16, 39
-      described by Prudden, 12
-      origin of, 72
-      unlike small house of Little Colorado, 70
-    UNIT TYPE HOUSE—
-      description of, 50
-      ground plan of, 51
-    UNIT TYPE HOUSES—
-      in cave, 39
-      in Hackberry Canyon, 40
-    “UPPER HOUSE” of Aztec Spring Ruin, 25, 26, 27
-
-    VILLAGES—
-      defined, 16
-      essential features of, 14, 16
-
-    WEAPONS, iron, 68
-    WICKYUP CANYON—
-      description of, 57
-      towers in, 57
-    WOLLEY RANCH RUIN, description of, 22
-    WOOD CANYON RUINS, description of, 32
-
-    YELLOW JACKET CANYON—
-      formerly known as Hovenweep, 57
-      investigations in, 10
-      towers of, 54
-
-    ZUÑI CEREMONIAL ROOMS NOT TRUE KIVAS, 71
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 1 a, BUTTE RUIN]
-
-[Illustration: b, AZTEC SPRING RUIN]
-
-[Illustration: c, SUROUARO, YELLOW JACKET SPRING RUIN
-
-(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 2 a, BLANCHARD RUIN]
-
-[Illustration: b, BLANCHARD RUIN, MOUND 2]
-
-[Illustration: c, SUROUARO, YELLOW JACKET SPRING RUIN
-
-(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 3 a, ACMEN RUIN
-
-(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)]
-
-[Illustration: b, MUD SPRING RUIN
-
-(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 4 a, BUILDING ON ROCK PINNACLE, NEAR STONE ARCH,
-SAND CANYON]
-
-[Illustration: b, STONE ARCH, SAND CANYON
-
-(Photographs by J. Walter Fewkes)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 5 a, TOWER IN SAND CANYON]
-
-[Illustration: b, UNIT TYPE HOUSE IN SAND CANYON
-
-(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 6 a, STONE ARCH HOUSE, SAND CANYON]
-
-[Illustration: b, CLIFF-HOUSE, SHOWING BROKEN CORNER
-
-(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 7 a, SCAFFOLD IN SAND CANYON]
-
-[Illustration: b, STORAGE CIST IN MANCOS VALLEY]
-
-[Illustration: c, PICTOGRAPHS NEAR UNIT TYPE HOUSE IN CAVE
-
-(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 8 DOUBLE CLIFF-DWELLING, SAND CANYON
-
-(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 9 a, CLIFF-DWELLING UNDER HORSESHOE RUIN]
-
-[Illustration: b, CLIFF-DWELLING, RUIN CANYON
-
-(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 10 a, KIVA OF CLIFF RUIN, LOST CANYON]
-
-[Illustration: b, CLIFF RUIN, LOST CANYON
-
-(Photographs by Gordon Parker)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 11 a, SQUARE TOWER IN SQUARE TOWER CANYON]
-
-[Illustration: b, TOWER IN McLEAN BASIN]
-
-[Illustration: c, RUIN IN HILL CANYON, UTAH
-
-(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 12 HEAD OF SOUTH FORK, SQUARE TOWER CANYON
-
-(Photograph by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & Rio Grande
-Railroad)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 13 NORTH FORK OF SQUARE TOWER CANYON, LOOKING WEST
-
-a, Hovenweep Castle. b, Hovenweep House. c, Tower No. 9. d, Tower on
-point at junction of North and South Forks. e, Twin Towers. f, Unit
-type House
-
-(Photograph by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & Rio Grande
-Railroad)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 14 a, HOVENWEEP HOUSE AND HOVENWEEP CASTLE, FROM
-THE SOUTH]
-
-[Illustration: b, HOVENWEEP CASTLE, FROM THE WEST]
-
-[Illustration: c, HOVENWEEP CASTLE, FROM THE SOUTH
-
-(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 15 a, WEST END OF TWIN TOWER, SHOWING SMALL
-CLIFF-HOUSE
-
-(Photograph by J. Walter Fewkes)]
-
-[Illustration: b, TWIN TOWERS, SQUARE TOWER CANYON, FROM THE SOUTH
-
-(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-[Illustration: c, TOWER 4, JUNCTION OF NORTH AND SOUTH FORKS, SQUARE
-TOWER CANYON
-
-(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 16 a, HOVENWEEP CASTLE, WITH SLEEPING UTE MOUNTAIN,
-SOUTH FORK, SQUARE TOWER CANYON]
-
-[Illustration: b, ENTRANCE TO SOUTH FORK, SQUARE TOWER CANYON
-
-(Photographs by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & Rio Grande
-Railroad)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 17 STRONGHOLD HOUSE, SQUARE TOWER CANYON
-
-(Photograph by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & Rio Grande
-Railroad)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 18 a, HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON]
-
-[Illustration: b, SOUTH SIDE OF HOVENWEEP CASTLE, SQUARE TOWER CANYON
-
-(Photographs by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & Rio Grande
-Railroad)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 19 a, HOLLY CANYON GROUP, FROM THE EAST
-
-(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-[Illustration: b, GREAT HOUSE AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON, FROM THE NORTH
-
-(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)]
-
-[Illustration: c, UNIT TYPE RUIN, FROM THE EAST
-
-(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 20 a, GREAT HOUSE AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON, FROM THE
-SOUTH]
-
-[Illustration: b, RUIN B AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON, FROM THE WEST]
-
-[Illustration: c, GREAT HOUSE AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON
-
-(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 21 a, GREAT HOUSE, HOLLY CANYON]
-
-[Illustration: b, STRONGHOLD HOUSE AND TWIN TOWERS, SQUARE TOWER CANYON
-
-(Photographs by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & Rio Grande
-Railroad)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 22 a, HOVENWEEP CASTLE]
-
-[Illustration: b, SOUTHERN PART OF CANNONBALL RUIN, McELMO CANYON
-
-(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 23 a, SQUARE TOWER WITH ROUNDED CORNERS, HOLLY
-CANYON
-
-(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-[Illustration: b, HOLLY TOWER IN HOLLY CANYON
-
-(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-[Illustration: c, HORSESHOE HOUSE
-
-(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 24 a, HORSESHOE RUIN
-
-(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-[Illustration: b, BOWLDER CASTLE, ROAD (WICKYUP) CANYON
-
-(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 25 a, CLOSED DOORWAY IN BOWLDER CASTLE, ROAD
-(WICKYUP) CANYON
-
-(Photograph by J. Walter Fewkes)]
-
-[Illustration: b, BROKEN-DOWN ROUND TOWER, SQUARE TOWER CANYON
-
-(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 26 a, NORTH SIDE OF TOWER, SQUARE TOWER CANYON
-
-(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-[Illustration: b, D-SHAPED TOWER NEAR DAVIS RANCH, YELLOW JACKET CANYON
-
-(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)]
-
-[Illustration: c, MODEL OF TOWERS IN McLEAN BASIN
-
-(Photograph by De Lancey Gill)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 27 ROUND TOWER AND D-SHAPED TOWER IN McLEAN BASIN
-
-(Photograph by J. Walter Fewkes)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 28 a, D-SHAPED TOWER IN McLEAN BASIN, SHOWING CROSS
-SECTION OF WALL]
-
-[Illustration: b, ROUND TOWER IN McLEAN BASIN, SHOWING STANDING STONE
-SLAB
-
-(Photographs by J. Walter Fewkes)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 29 a, HOLMES TOWER, MANCOS CANYON]
-
-[Illustration: b, LION TOWER, YELLOW JACKET CANYON
-
-(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 30 a, TOWER ABOVE CAVATE STOREHOUSES, MANCOS CANYON
-BELOW BRIDGE]
-
-[Illustration: b, TOWER ON MESA BETWEEN ERODED CLIFFS AND BRIDGE OVER
-MANCOS CANYON ON CORTEZ SHIP-ROCK ROAD
-
-(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 31 a, TOWER ABOVE CAVATE STOREHOUSES, MANCOS CANYON
-BELOW BRIDGE]
-
-[Illustration: b, ERODED SHALE FORMATION IN WHICH ARE SMALL WALLED
-CAVATE STOREHOUSES
-
-(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 32 a, RESERVOIR NEAR PICKET CORRAL, SHOWING
-RETAINING WALL]
-
-[Illustration: b, KIVA, UNIT TYPE HOUSE, SQUARE TOWER CANYON
-
-(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)]
-
-
-[Illustration: PLATE 33 PICTOGRAPHS, YELLOW JACKET CANYON]
-
-*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES,
-AND TOWERS OF SOUTHWESTERN COLORADO ***
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-<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Prehistoric villages, castles, and towers of southwestern Colorado, by Jesse Walter Fewkes</p>
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Prehistoric villages, castles, and towers of southwestern Colorado</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Jesse Walter Fewkes</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: November 9, 2022 [eBook #69319]</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
-  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p>
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND TOWERS OF SOUTHWESTERN COLORADO ***</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<p class="center">SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION<br />
-<span class="fontsize_150">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY</span><br />BULLETIN 70</p>
-
-<hr class="r10" />
-
-<h1>PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND<br />
-TOWERS OF SOUTHWESTERN<br />COLORADO</h1>
-
-<p class="f150 space-above2 space-below2"><small>BY</small><br />J. WALTER FEWKES</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img src="images/i_title.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="311" />
-</div>
-
-<p class="center space-above2">WASHINGTON<br />
-GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE<br />1919</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p class="f120">LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL</p>
-
-<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Smithsonian Institution,<span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span><br />
-Bureau of American Ethnology&emsp;&nbsp;</span>,<br /><i>Washington, D. C., January 23, 1919</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: I have the honor to transmit the
-accompanying manuscript, entitled “Prehistoric Villages, Castles, and
-Towers of Southwestern Colorado,” by J. Walter Fewkes, and to recommend
-its publication, subject to your approval, as Bulletin 70 of this Bureau.</p>
-
-<p>Very respectfully,</p>
-<p class="author"><span class="smcap">J. Walter Fewkes</span>,<br /><i>Chief</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Charles D. Walcott</span>,<br />
-&emsp;<i>Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS</h2>
-</div>
-
-<table class="fontsize_120 no-wrap" border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="TOC" cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><small>Page</small></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Introduction</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#INTRO">&nbsp;9</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Historical</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HISTORICAL">10</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Classification</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CLASSIFICATION">14</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Villages</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Rectangular ruins of the pure type</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Surouaro</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SUROU">16</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Goodman Point Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#GOODMAN">17</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Johnson Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#JOHNSON">18</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Bug Mesa Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BUG_MESA">19</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Mitchell Spring Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MITCHELL">19</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Mud Spring (Burkhardt) Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MUD_SPRING">20</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Ruin with semicircular core</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SEMI_CIRC">22</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Wolley Ranch Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#WOLLEY">22</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Blanchard Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BLANCHARD">23</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Ruins at Aztec Spring</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#AZTEC">23</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Great open-air ruins south and southwest</td>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3"><span class="ws2">of Dove Creek post office</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DOVE_CREEK">28</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Squaw Point Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SQUAW">28</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Acmen Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#ACMEN">29</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Oak Spring House</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#OAK">29</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Ruin in Ruin Canyon</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RUIN_CANYON1">30</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Cannonball Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CANNON">30</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Circular ruins with peripheral compartments</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CIRCULAR">31</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Wood Canyon Ruins</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Butte Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BUTTE">32</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Emerson Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#EMERSON">33</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Escalante Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Cliff-dwellings</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Cliff-dwellings in Sand Canyon</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CLIFF_DWELL">38</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Double cliff-house</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DOUBLE">38</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Scaffold in Sand Canyon</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SCAFFOLD">38</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Unit type houses in caves</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#UNIT_TYPE">39</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Cliff-houses in Lost Canyon</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LOST_CANYON">40</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Great houses and towers</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#GREAT_HOUSES">40</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Masonry</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MASON">40</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Structure of towers</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#STRUCTURE">42</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Hovenweep district</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOVEN_DISTR">44</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Ruin Canyon</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RUIN_CANYON2">44</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Square Tower Canyon</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SQUARE">45</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Classification of ruins in Square Tower Canyon</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SQUARE_TOWER">46</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Hovenweep House (Ruin 1)</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOVEN1">46</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Hovenweep Castle</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOVEN2">47</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws6">Western section of Hovenweep Castle</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOVEN_W">47</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws6">Eastern section of Hovenweep Castle</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOVEN_E">48</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Ruin 3</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RUIN_3">48</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Ruin 4</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RUIN_4">49</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Ruin 5</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RUIN_5">49</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Ruin 6</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RUIN_6">49</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Eroded bowlder house (Ruin 7)</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RUIN_7">49</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Twin Towers (Ruin 8)</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RUIN_8">50</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Ruin 9</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RUIN_9">50</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Unit type House (Ruin 10)</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RUIN_10">50</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Stronghold House (Ruin 11)</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RUIN_11">51</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Ruins in Holly Canyon</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws6">Ruin A, Great House, Hackberry Castle</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RUIN_A">52</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws6">Towers [C and D]</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TOWER_C">52</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws6">Holly House</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOLLY_HOUSE">53</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Ruins in Hackberry Canyon</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HACKBERRY">53</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws6">Horseshoe House</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HORSESHOE">53</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Towers in the Main Yellow Jacket Canyon</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TOWERS_YJ">54</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Davis Tower</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DAVIS">55</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Lion (Littrell) Tower</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LION">55</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">McLean Basin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MCLEAN">55</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Tower in Sand Canyon</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TOWER_SC">57</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Towers in Road (Wickyup) Canyon</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TOWER_RC">57</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Towers of the Mancos</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TOWER_MANCOS">58</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Holmes Tower</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HOLMES">58</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws5">Towers on the Mancos River below the bridge</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MANCOS_RIVER">59</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws6">Tower A</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TOWER_A">59</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws6">Tower B</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TOWER_B">59</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_ws3">Megalithic and slab house ruins at McElmo Bluff</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MEGALITHIC">60</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Grass Mesa Cemetery</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Reservoirs</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RESERVOIRS">64</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Pictographs</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Minor antiquities</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MINOR_ANTIQ">66</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Historic remains</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HISTORIC">68</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Conclusions</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CONCLUSIONS">68</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">Index</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
-   </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="nobreak">ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
-</div>
-
-<table class="fontsize_120 no-wrap" border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="LOI" cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">PLATES</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_1_A">1.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_1_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Butte Ruin.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_1_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Aztec Spring Ruin.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_1_C"><i>c</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Surouaro, Yellow Jacket Spring Ruin.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_2_A">2.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_2_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Blanchard Ruin.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_2_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Blanchard Ruin, Mound 2.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_2_C"><i>c</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Surouaro, Yellow Jacket Spring Ruin.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_3_A">3.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_3_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Acmen Ruin.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_3_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Mud Spring Ruin.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_4_A">4.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_4_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Building on rock pinnacle, near Stone Arch, Sand Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_4_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Stone Arch, Sand Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_5_A">5.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_5_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Tower in Sand Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_5_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Unit type House in Sand Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_6_A">6.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_6_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Stone Arch House, Sand Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_6_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Cliff-house, showing broken corner.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_7_A">7.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_7_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Scaffold in Sand Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_7_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Storage cist in Mancos Valley.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_7_C"><i>c</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Pictographs near Unit type House in cave.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_8">8.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;&nbsp;Double cliff-dwelling, Sand Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_9_A">9.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_9_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Cliff-dwelling under Horseshoe Ruin.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_9_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Cliff-dwelling, Ruin Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_10_A">10.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_10_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Kiva of cliff ruin, Lost Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_10_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Cliff ruin, Lost Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_11_A">11.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_11_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Square Tower in Square Tower Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_11_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Tower in McLean Basin.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_11_C"><i>c</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ruin in Hill Canyon, Utah.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_12">12.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;&nbsp;Head of South Fork, Square Tower Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_13">13.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;&nbsp;North Fork of Square Tower Canyon, looking west.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_14_A">14.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_14_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Hovenweep House and Hovenweep Castle, from the south.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_14_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Hovenweep Castle, from the west.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_14_C"><i>c</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Hovenweep Castle, from the south.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_15_A">15.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_15_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">West end of Twin Tower, showing small cliff-house.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_15_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Twin Towers, Square Tower Canyon, from the south.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_15_C"><i>c</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Tower 4, junction of North and South Forks, Square Tower Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_16_A">16.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_16_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Hovenweep Castle, with Sleeping Ute Mountain, South Fork, Square Tower Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_16_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Entrance to South Fork, Square Tower Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_17">17.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;&nbsp;Stronghold House, Square Tower Canyon.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_18_A">18.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_18_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Head of Holly Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_18_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">South side of Hovenweep Castle, Square Tower Canyon.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_19_A">19.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_19_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Holly Canyon group, from the east.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_19_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Great House at head of Holly Canyon, from the north.</td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_19_C"><i>c</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Unit type Ruin, from the east.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_20_A">20.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_20_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Great House at head of Holly Canyon, from the south.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_20_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ruin B at head of Holly Canyon, from the west.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_20_C"><i>c</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Great House at head of Holly Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_21_A">21.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_21_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Great House, Holly Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_21_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Stronghold House and Twin Towers, Square Tower Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_22_A">22.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_22_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Hovenweep Castle.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_22_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Southern part of Cannonball Ruin, McElmo Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_23_A">23.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_23_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Square tower with rounded corners, Holly Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_23_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Holly Tower in Holly Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_23_C"><i>c</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Horseshoe House.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_24_A">24.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_24_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Horseshoe Ruin.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_24_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Bowlder Castle, Road (Wickyup) Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_25_A">25.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_25_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Closed doorway in Bowlder Castle, Road (Wickyup) Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_25_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Broken-down round tower, Square Tower Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_26_A">26.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_26_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">North side of tower, Square Tower Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_26_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><big><b>D</b></big>-shaped tower near Davis ranch, Yellow Jacket Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_26_C"><i>c</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Model of towers in McLean Basin.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_27">27.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;&nbsp;Round tower and <big><b>D</b></big>-shaped tower in McLean Basin.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_28_A">28.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_28_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1"><big><b>D</b></big>-shaped tower in McLean Basin, showing cross section of wall.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_28_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Round tower in McLean Basin, showing standing stone slab.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_29_A">29.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_29_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Holmes Tower, Mancos Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_29_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Lion Tower, Yellow Jacket Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_30_A">30.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_30_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Tower above cavate storehouses, Mancos Canyon, below bridge.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_30_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Tower on mesa between eroded cliffs and bridge over Mancos Canyon, on Cortez Ship-rock Road.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_31_A">31.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_31_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Tower above cavate storehouses, Mancos Canyon, below bridge.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_31_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Eroded shale formation in which are small walled cavate storehouses.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_32_A">32.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_32_A">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Reservoir near Picket corral, showing retaining wall.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_32_B"><i>b</i></a>,</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Kiva, Unit type House, Square Tower Canyon.</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLATE_33">33.</a></td>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Pictographs, Yellow Jacket Canyon.</td>
-  </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<table class="fontsize_120 no-wrap" border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="LOI" cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc" colspan="3">TEXT FIGURES</td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr" colspan="3"><small>Page</small></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">1.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ground plan of Aztec Spring Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;&emsp;<a href="#FIG_1">26</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">2.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ground plan of Wood Canyon Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_2">32</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">3.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Metes and bounds of Emerson Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_3">34</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">4.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Schematic ground plan of Emerson Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_4">35</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">5.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ground plan of Unit type House in cave</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_5">39</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">6.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Square Tower Canyon</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_6">45</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">7.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ground plan of Hovenweep House</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_7">46</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">8.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ground plan of Hovenweep Castle</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_8">47</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">9.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ground plan of Twin Towers</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_9">50</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">10.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ground plan of Unit type House</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_10">51</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">11.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Holly Canyon Ruins</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_11">52</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">12.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Horseshoe (Hackberry) Canyon</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_12">53</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">13.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ground plan of Horseshoe House</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_13">54</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">14.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ground plan of Davis Ruin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_14">55</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">15.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ground plan of Lion House</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_15">55</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">16.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Ground plan of ruin with towers in McLean Basin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_16">56</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">17.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Doorway in Round Tower, McLean Basin</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_17">57</a></td>
-   </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdr">18.</td>
-      <td class="tdl_ws1">Megalithic stone inclosure, McElmo Bluff</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_18">61</a></td>
-  </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p>
-<p class="f150"><b>PREHISTORIC VILLAGES, CASTLES, AND<br />
-TOWERS OF SOUTHWESTERN<br /> COLORADO</b></p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r10" />
-<p class="f120 space-above1 space-below1">By <span class="smcap">J. Walter Fewkes</span></p>
-<hr class="r10" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="nobreak space-above2" id="INTRO">INTRODUCTION</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>The science of archeology has contributed to our knowledge some of
-the most fascinating chapters in culture history, for it has brought
-to light, from the night of the past, periods of human development
-hitherto unrecorded. As the paleontologist through his method has
-revealed faunas whose like were formerly unknown to the naturalist, the
-archeologist by the use of the same method of research has resurrected
-extinct phases of culture that have attained a high development and
-declined before recorded history began. No achievements in American
-anthropology are more striking than those that, from a study of human
-buildings and artifacts antedating the historic period, reveal the
-existence of an advanced prehistoric culture of man in America.</p>
-
-<p>The evidences of a phase of culture that had developed and was on the
-decline before the interior of North America was explored by Europeans
-are nowhere better shown than in southwestern Colorado, New Mexico,
-Arizona, and Utah, the domain of the Cliff-dwellers, or the cradle of
-the Pueblos. There flourished on what is now called the Mesa Verde
-National Park, in prehistoric times, a characteristic culture unlike
-that of any region in the United States. This culture reached its
-apogee and declined before the historic epoch, but did not perish
-before it had left an influence extending over a wide territory, which
-persisted into modern times. Through the researches of archeologists
-the nature of this culture is now emerging into full view; but much
-material yet remains awaiting investigation before it can be adequately
-understood. The purpose of this article is to call attention to new
-observations bearing upon its interpretation made by the author, under
-the auspices of the Bureau of American Ethnology, on brief trips to
-Colorado and Utah in 1917 and 1918.</p>
-
-<p>The peculiar cliff-dwellings and open-air villages of the Mesa Verde
-are here shown to be typical of those found over a region many miles
-in extent. They indicate a distinct culture area, which is easily
-distinguished from others where similar buildings do not exist, but not
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span>
-as readily separated from that of adjacent regions where the buildings
-are superficially similar but structurally different. In order to
-distinguish it from its neighbors and determine its horizon, we must
-become familiar with certain architectural characteristics. As our
-knowledge of the character of buildings in this area is incomplete, the
-intention of the author is to define the several different types of
-buildings that characterize it.</p>
-
-<p>When, in 1915, there was brought to light on the Mesa Verde National
-Park, Colorado, the mysterious structure, Sun Temple, the author
-recalled well-known descriptions of towers and other related buildings
-that have been recorded from other localities in southwestern Colorado
-and Utah. The published descriptions of these structures did not seem
-to him adequate for comparisons, and he planned an examination of these
-great houses and towers, hoping to gather new data that would shed some
-light on his interpretation of Sun Temple. During the field work in
-1917, thanks to an allotment from the Bureau of American Ethnology for
-that purpose, he undertook a reconnoissance in the McElmo district,
-where similar buildings are found and where he believed cultural
-relatives of the former inhabitants of Mesa Verde once lived. In 1918
-he extended his field work still farther. He investigated ruins as far
-as the western tributaries of the Yellow Jacket Canyon, penetrating a
-short distance beyond the Colorado border into Utah. The object of the
-following pages is to make known the more important results of this
-visit, and interpret the evidence they present as a contribution to
-our knowledge of the extension in prehistoric times of the Mesa Verde
-culture area.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="HISTORICAL">HISTORICAL</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>Attention was first publicly called, about 40 years ago (1875-1877),
-by Messrs. Jackson,<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
-Holmes, Morgan, and others, to some of the ruins here considered. It is
-difficult to identify all of the ruins mentioned or described by these
-pioneers. Their “Hovenweep Castle” is supposed to lie in about the
-center of the district here considered, possibly on Square Tower (Ruin)
-Canyon, although the large castellated building<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
-in Holly Canyon would also fulfill conditions equally well.
-Their “Pueblo” may have been situated on the McElmo near the mouth of
-Yellow Jacket Canyon. Early writers rather vaguely refer to a cluster
-of castles and towers as situated some distance from the “Burial
-Place,” which is readily identified on the promontory at the mouth of
-the McElmo, as probably those in Square Tower (Ruin) Canyon, but the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span>
-cluster may be either at Square Tower or Holly Canyon, both of which
-are about the same distance from this site. As “Pueblo” is not
-indicated on the map accompanying the Hayden report, the sites of rock
-shelters “some 7 miles from ‘Pueblo’ and 3 miles from the McElmo”
-remain doubtful. The author retains the name “Hovenweep Castle” for the
-ruin in Square Tower Canyon.</p>
-
-<p>In his account of ruins in the region visited, Prof. W. H. Holmes<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
-considers several other ruins, as “the triple-walled tower” (here
-called Mud Spring village, <a href="#Page_20">p. 20</a>), ruins at
-Aztec Spring (<a href="#Page_23">p. 23</a>), cliff-dwellings and towers
-of the San Juan and Mancos, the “slab cysts” or burial places on the
-Dolores, and the promontory at the junction of the Hovenweep and
-McElmo (<a href="#Page_60">p. 60</a>). The best preserved towers and
-castellated buildings which his article considers occur on the San Juan
-and Mancos Canyons, districts on the periphery of the region covered by
-this account.</p>
-
-<p>These pioneer reports of Jackson and Holmes not only called attention
-to a new archeological field, but also introduced to the archeologist
-several new types of prehistoric American architecture of which nothing
-was previously known. They have been repeatedly quoted and are still
-constantly referred to by writers on southwestern archeology.</p>
-
-<p>Although Jackson made many photographs of the castles and towers of
-the Hovenweep, none of these were published in his reports, possibly
-because halftone methods of reproduction were then unknown. The
-illustrations that appear in the text of early reports are mainly
-reproductions of sketches. These reports, in which the discovery of
-the tower type of architecture and its adjacent cliff-dwellings were
-announced, should thus rightly rank as the first important steps in the
-scientific investigations of the stone-house builders of this district
-of our Southwest; although the allied “Casas Grandes” or great houses
-of the Chaco had been described a few years before by Gregg, Stimpson,
-and others.</p>
-
-<p>We have, in addition to these pioneer reports, several magazine
-articles of about the same date, the material for which was largely
-drawn from them. One of the most important newspaper articles of that
-date was written by Mr. Ernest Ingersoll, published in the New York
-Tribune, and another, of anonymous authorship, is to be found in the
-Century Magazine for the year 1877. New forms of towers and castellated
-buildings were added in these accounts to those of the earlier authors.</p>
-
-<p>One of the most important contributions to the antiquities of the
-region about Mesa Verde was made by the veteran ethnologist, Morgan,
-who published notes contributed by Mr. Mitchell on a cluster of mounds
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span>
-near his ranch. As no name was given this village it is here called
-the Mitchell Spring Village. Morgan likewise mentions the ruin at Mud
-Spring and a tower in the ruin near his spring. Professor Newberry was
-the first author to affix the name Surouaro to a ruin situated at the
-head of the Yellow Jacket Canyon.</p>
-
-<p>Several of these ruins were described and figured by Mr. Warren K.
-Moorehead as “The Great Ruins of Upper McElmo Creek” in the Illustrated
-American for July 9, 1892, the sixth of a series of articles under a
-general title “In search of a Lost Race.” He gives descriptions of a
-“cave shelter” found near Twin Towers, Square Tower in “Ruin Canyon,”
-a building (Hovenweep Castle), and the tower at the junction of the
-North and South Forks of Ruin Canyon. This paper is accompanied by a
-map of Ruin Canyon by Mr. Cowen. In Moorehead’s discussion of these
-remains, individual towers and other ruins are designated by capital
-letters, A-V, to some of which are also affixed the names “Hollow
-Boulder,” “Twin Towers,” “Square Tower,” etc. Details of structure and
-measurements of the more striking buildings and a discussion of certain
-features of structure, some of which will be considered later under
-individual ruins, are likewise given.</p>
-
-<p>The most important general article yet published on the prehistoric
-remains of the region here considered is by Dr. T. Mitchell
-Prudden,<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
-who also mentions several of the ruins here treated. His most important
-contribution is a description of what he calls the “unit type,” which
-he recognized as a fundamental structural feature in the pueblos of
-this region. He also showed that the kiva in Montezuma Valley villages
-is identical with that of cliff-dwellings in the Mesa Verde, and
-emphasized, as an important feature, the union of the tower and the
-pueblo, a characteristic of the highest form of pueblo architecture.</p>
-
-<p>Doctor Prudden has followed his comprehensive paper above mentioned
-with an account<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
-of the excavation of one of the mounds at Mitchell Spring in which he
-adds to our knowledge of the structure of his “unit type.”</p>
-
-<p>In “A Further Study of Prehistoric Small House Ruins in the San Juan
-Watershed,”<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>
-Doctor Prudden has furnished important additional data which shows the
-uniformity of the unit type over a large area of the San Juan drainage.</p>
-
-<p>The following among other prehistoric remains in the district mentioned
-or described by Doctor Prudden are covered by the author’s reconnoissance:
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span></p>
-
-<ul class="fontsize_110 index no-wrap">
-<li class="isub1">1. Ruins at Dolores Bend (Escalante Ruin).</li>
-<li class="isub1">2. Wolley Ranch Ruin.</li>
-<li class="isub1">3. Burkhardt Ruin (Mud Spring Village).</li>
-<li class="isub1">4. Goodman Point Ruin.</li>
-<li class="isub1">5. Unnamed ruin west of Goodman Lake.</li>
-<li class="isub1">6. Ruin at junction of McElmo and Yellow Jacket.</li>
-<li class="isub1">7. Group on Yellow Jacket nearly opposite mouth of Dawson Canyon</li>
-<li class="isub3">(Davis or Littrell Tower).</li>
-<li class="isub1">8. Surouaro.</li>
-<li class="isub1">9. Cannonball Ruin.</li>
-<li class="isub1">10. Towers and buildings of Ruin and Bridge Canyons.</li>
-<li class="isub1">11. Pierson Spring Ruin.</li>
-<li class="isub1">12. Bug Spring Ruins.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>The following towers can be identified from his figures:<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot fontsize_110">
-<p class="neg-indent">1. “Square building opposite mouth of Dawson
-Creek.” Prudden, pl. xviii, fig. 2. (This building
-is not square, but semicircular.)</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent">2. Cannonball Ruin. Prudden, pl. xxi [xxii].</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent">3. “Small tower-like structure ... at the head of
-Ruin Canyon, in the Yellow Jacket group.” Prudden, pl. xxiii, fig. 2.
-(This building is not in Ruin Canyon, but in Holly Canyon.)</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent">4. “Tower ... about the head of Ruin Canyon.”
-Prudden, pl. xxiii, fig. 1. (This is the most eastern of the Twin
-Towers, but not about the head of the canyon.)</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent">5. Sand Canyon Tower. Prudden, pl. xxiv, fig.
-2.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Although mainly devoted to descriptions of the cliff-houses of the
-Mesa Verde, Baron G. Nordenskiöld’s “Cliff-Dwellers of the Mesa Verde”
-discusses in so broad a manner the relationship of pueblo ruins and
-cliff-houses that no student can overlook this epoch-making work. In
-fact, Nordenskiöld laid the foundations for subsequent students of
-pueblo morphology, although some of his comparisons and generalizations
-were premature because based on imperfect observations which have been
-superseded by later investigations.</p>
-
-<p>The partial excavation of the excellent ruin at the head of Cannonball
-Canyon by S. G. Morley<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>
-sheds considerable light on the morphology of prehistoric buildings in
-the McElmo district. Unfortunately no attempt was made by him to repair
-the walls of this ruin for permanent preservation, but it is not too
-late still to prevent their further destruction and preserve them for
-future students and visitors. Morley’s description of the buildings is
-accompanied by good photographs and a ground plan. He brought to light
-in this ruin examples of the characteristic unit type kiva.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span></p>
-
-<p>The latest work on the McElmo Ruins, one part of which has already
-appeared, is a joint contribution by Morley and Kidder.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>
-In this publication accurate dimensions and sites of ruins in the McElmo
-and Square Ruin Canyons are given, with other instructive data. Morley
-and Kidder have designated the ruins by Arabic numbers, and in a few
-instances by names. The author has preserved these numbers so far as
-possible in his account.</p>
-
-<p>The following ruins in Ruin Canyon and neighboring district covered by
-this reconnoissance are described by Morley and Kidder:</p>
-
-<ul class="fontsize_110 index no-wrap">
-<li class="isub1">No. &nbsp;1. Wickyup Canyon, Ruin 1 and Ruin 2, “Boulder Castle.”</li>
-<li class="isub1">No. &nbsp;2. Two towers in Ruin Canyon: 1ᵃ, near the mouth; 1ᵇ,</li>
-<li class="isub4">Towers on or near forks, No. 1 [Hovenweep Pueblo],</li>
-<li class="isub4">No. 2 [Hovenweep Castle.]</li>
-<li class="isub1">No. &nbsp;3. [Square Tower.]</li>
-<li class="isub1">No. &nbsp;4. [Oval Tower.]</li>
-<li class="isub1">No. &nbsp;5. [Tower.]</li>
-<li class="isub1">No. &nbsp;6. [6.]</li>
-<li class="isub1">No. &nbsp;7. [Boulder Cliff-house.]</li>
-<li class="isub1">No. &nbsp;8. Twin Towers.</li>
-<li class="isub1">No. &nbsp;9. [9.]</li>
-<li class="isub1">No. 10. [Unit type House.]</li>
-<li class="isub1">No. 11. Gibraltar House and ruin. [Stronghold House.]</li>
-<li class="isub1">No. 12. [12.]</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>The pueblos and cave dwellings of the “Pivotal group” (those on or near
-the promontory at the junction of the McElmo and Yellow Jacket Canyons)
-were also studied by the authors.</p>
-
-<p>Almost the whole article by Morley and Kidder, which the editor
-announces will be completed in a future number of “El Palacio,” is
-devoted to descriptions of buildings<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>
-in Ruin and Road (Wickyup) Canyons and the ruins of the “Pivotal group”
-at the base of a promontory between the junction of the Yellow Jacket
-and McElmo.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="CLASSIFICATION">CLASSIFICATION</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the classification by Morley and Kidder and the majority of writers,
-sites rather than structural features are adopted as a basis although
-all recognized that large cliff-dwellings like Cliff Palace are
-practically pueblos built in caves. In the following classification
-more attention is directed to differences in structure than to situation,
-notwithstanding the latter is convenient for descriptive purposes.</p>
-
-<p>1. Villages or clusters of houses, each having the form of the pure
-pueblo type. The essential feature of the pure type is a compact pueblo,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span>
-containing one or more unit types, circular kivas of characteristic
-form, surrounded by rectangular rooms. These units, single or
-consolidated, may be grouped in clusters, as Mitchell Spring or Aztec
-Spring Ruins; the clusters may be fused into a large building, as at
-Aztec or in the community buildings on Chaco Canyon.</p>
-
-<p>2. Cliff-houses. These morphologically belong to the same pure type as
-pueblos; their sites in natural caves are insufficient to separate them
-from open-sky buildings.</p>
-
-<p>3. Towers and great houses. These buildings occur united to
-cliff-dwellings or pueblos, but more often they are isolated.</p>
-
-<p>4. Rooms with walls made of megaliths or small stone slabs set on edge.</p>
-
-<p>In reports on the excavation of Far View House<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
-on the Mesa Verde, the author called attention to clusters of mounds
-indicating ruined buildings in the neighborhood of Mummy Lake, a little
-more than 4 miles from Spruce-tree House. This cluster he considers a
-village; Far View House, excavated from one of the mounds, is regarded
-as a prehistoric pueblo of the pure type. The forms of other buildings
-covered by the remaining mounds of the Mummy Lake site are unknown, but
-it is probable that they will be found to resemble Far View House, or
-that all members of the village have similar forms.</p>
-
-<p>This grouping of small pueblos into villages at Mummy Lake on the Mesa
-Verde is also a distinctive feature of ruins in the Montezuma Valley
-and McElmo district. In these villages one or more of the component
-houses may be larger and more conspicuous, dominating all the others,
-as at Goodman Point, or at Aztec Spring. The houses composing the
-village at Mud Spring were about the same size, but at Wolley Ranch
-Ruin only one mound remains, evidently the largest, the smaller having
-disappeared.</p>
-
-<p>The third group, towers and great houses, includes buildings of oval,
-circular, semicircular, and rectangular shapes. Morphologically
-speaking, they do not present structural features of pueblos, for they
-are not terraced, neither have they specialized circular ceremonial
-rooms, kivas with vaulted roofs surrounded by rectangular rooms,
-or other essential features of the pueblo type. The group contains
-buildings which are sometimes consolidated with cliff-houses and
-pueblos, but are often independent of them. In this type are included
-castellated buildings in the Mancos, Yellow Jacket, McElmo, and the
-numerous northern tributary canyons of the San Juan.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span></p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Villages</span></h3>
-
-<h4>RECTANGULAR RUINS OF<br /> THE PURE TYPE</h4>
-
-<p>As the word is used in this report, a village is a cluster of houses
-separated from each other, each building constructed on the same plan,
-viz, a circular ceremonial room or kiva with mural banquettes and
-pilasters for the support of a vaulted roof, inclosed in rectangular
-rooms. When there is one kiva and surrounding angular rooms we adopt
-the name “unit type.” When, as in the larger mounds, there are
-indications of several kivas or unit types consolidated—the size
-being in direct proportion to the number—we speak of the building as
-belonging to the “pure type.” Doctor Prudden, who first pointed out the
-characteristics of the “unit type,”<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>
-has shown its wide distribution in the McElmo district. The Mummy Lake
-village has 16 mounds indicating houses. Far View House, one of these
-houses, is made up of an aggregation of four unit types and hence
-belongs to the author’s “pure type.”</p>
-
-<p>While villages similar to the Mummy Lake group, in the valleys near
-Mesa Verde, have individual variations, the essential features are
-the same, as will appear in the following descriptions of Surouaro,
-and ruins at Goodman Point, Mud Spring, Aztec Spring, and Mitchell
-Spring. Commonly, in these villages, one mound predominates in size
-over the others, and while rectangular in form, has generally circular
-depressions on the surface, recalling conditions at Far View mound
-before excavation. These mounds indicate large buildings in blocks,
-made up of many unit forms of the pure type, united into compact
-structures. One large dominant member of the village recalls those
-ruins where the village is consolidated into one community pueblo.
-The separation of mounds in the village and their concentration in
-the community house may be of chronological importance, although the
-relative age of the simple and composite forms can not at present
-be determined; but it is important to recognize that the units of
-construction in villages and community buildings are identical.</p>
-
-<h5 id="SUROU"><span class="smcap">Surouaro</span></h5>
-
-<p>The cluster of mounds formerly called Surouaro, now known as Yellow
-Jacket Spring Ruin, is situated near the head of the canyon of the same
-name to the left of the Monticello road, 14 miles west of Dolores. This
-village (<a href="#PLATE_1_C">pls. 1, <i>c</i></a>; <a href="#PLATE_2_C">2, <i>c</i></a>)
-contains both large and small houses of the pure pueblo type, covering an area somewhat
-less than the Mummy Lake group, on the Mesa Verde. The arrangement of mounds in
-clusters naturally recalls the Galisteo and Jemez districts, New Mexico,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span>
-where, however, the arrangement of the mounds and the structure of each
-is different. The individual houses in a Mesa Verde or Yellow Jacket
-village were not so grouped as to inclose a rectangular court, but were
-irregularly distributed with intervals of considerable size between
-them.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
-
-<p>The largest mound in the Surouaro village, shown in <a href="#PLATE_1_C">plate 1, <i>c</i></a>,
-corresponds with the so-called “Upper House” of Aztec Spring Ruin, but
-is much larger than Far View or any other single mound in the Mummy
-Lake village.</p>
-
-<p>Surouaro was one of the first ruins in this region described by
-American explorers, attention having been first called to it by
-Professor Newberry,<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
-whose description follows: “Surouaro is the name of a ruined town
-which must have once contained a population of several thousands. The
-name is said to be of Indian (Utah) origin, and to signify desolation,
-and certainly no better could have been selected.... The houses are,
-many of them, large, and all built of stone, hammer dressed on the
-exposed faces. Fragments of pottery are exceedingly common, though like
-the buildings, showing great age.... The remains of <i>metates</i>
-(corn mills) are abundant about the ruins. The ruins of several large
-reservoirs, built of masonry, may be seen at Surouaro, and there are
-traces of acequias which led to them, through which water was brought,
-perhaps from a great distance.”</p>
-
-<h5 id="GOODMAN"><span class="smcap">Goodman Point Ruin</span></h5>
-
-<p>This ruin is a cluster of small mounds surrounding larger ones,
-recalling the arrangement at Aztec Spring. They naturally fall
-into two groups which from their direction or relation to the adjacent
-spring may be called the south and north sections.</p>
-
-<p>The most important mound of the south section, Block A, measures
-74 feet on the north, 79 feet on the south, and 76 feet on the
-west side. This large mound corresponds morphologically to the
-“Upper House” at Aztec Spring (<a href="#FIG_1">fig. 1, <i>A</i></a>). About
-it there are arranged at intervals, mainly on the north and east sides, other
-smaller mounds generally indicating rectangular buildings. The
-southeast angle of the largest is connected by a low wall with one
-of the smaller mounds, forming an enclosure called a court, whose
-northern border is the rim of the canyon just above the spring. A
-determination of the detailed architectural features of the building
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span>
-buried under Block A is not possible, as none of its walls stand above
-the mass of fallen stones, but it is evident, from circular depressions
-and fragments of straight walls that appear over the surface of
-the mound, that the rooms were of two kinds, rectangular forms, or
-dwellings, and circular chambers, or kivas. This mound resembles Far
-View House on the Mesa Verde before excavation.</p>
-
-<p>A large circular depression, 56 feet in diameter, is situated in the
-midst of the largest mounds. A unique feature of this depression,
-recognized and described by Doctor Prudden, are four piles of stones,
-regularly arranged on the floor. The author adopts the suggestion
-that this area was once roofed and served as a central circular kiva,
-necessitating a roof of such dimensions that four masonry pillars
-served for its support. The mound measures about 15 feet in height,
-and has large trees growing on its surface, offering evidence of
-a considerable age. Several other rooms are indicated by circular
-surface depressions, but their relation to the rectangular rooms can be
-determined only by excavation.</p>
-
-<h5 id="JOHNSON"><span class="smcap">Johnson Ruin</span></h5>
-
-<p>This ruin, to which the author was conducted by Mr. C. K. Davis, is
-about 4 miles west of the Goodman Point Ruin near Mr. Johnson’s ranch
-house, in section 12, township 36, range 18. It is said to be situated
-at the head of Sand Canyon, a tributary of the McElmo, and is one of
-the largest ruins visited. The remains of former houses skirt the rim
-of the canyon head for fully half a mile, forming a continuous series
-of mounds in which can be traced towers, great houses, and other types
-of buildings, and numerous depressions indicating sunken kivas. The
-walls of these buildings were, however, so tumbled down that little
-now remains above ground save piles of stones in which tops of buried
-walls may still be detected, but not without some difficulty. In a cave
-under the “mesa rim” there is a small cliff-house in the walls of which
-extremities of the original wooden rafters still remain in place.</p>
-
-<p>In an open clearing, about 3 miles south and west of Mr. J. W. Fulk’s
-house, Renaraye post office, there is a small ruin of rectangular form,
-the ground plan of which shows two rectangular sections of different
-sizes, joined at one angle. The largest section measures approximately
-20 by 50 feet. It consists of low rooms surrounding two circular
-depressions, possibly kivas. Although constructed on a small scale,
-this section reminds one of the Upper House of Aztec Spring Ruin. The
-smaller section, which also has a rectangular form, has remains of
-high rooms on opposite sides and low walls on the remaining sides.
-In the enclosed area there is a circular depression or reservoir,
-corresponding with the reservoir of the Lower House at Aztec Spring Ruin.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span></p>
-
-<h5 id="BUG_MESA"><span class="smcap">Bug Mesa Ruin</span></h5>
-
-<p>The author was guided by Mr. H. S. Merchant to a village ruin, one of
-the largest visited, situated a few miles from his ranch house. This
-village is about 10 miles due south of the store at the head of Dove
-Creek, and consists of several large mounds, each about 500 feet long,
-arranged parallel to each other, and numerous isolated smaller mounds.
-Not far from this large ruin there is a prehistoric reservoir estimated
-as covering about 4 acres. Many circular depressions, indicated
-kivas, and lines of stones showed tops of buried rectangular rooms.
-Excavations in a small mound near this ruin were conducted by Doctor
-Prudden.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
-
-<p>The canyon which heads near the corral on the road to Merchant’s house
-revealed no evidence of prehistoric dwellings.</p>
-
-<h5 id="MITCHELL"><span class="smcap">Mitchell Spring Ruin</span></h5>
-
-<p>This ruin takes its name from the earliest known description of it by
-Morgan,<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
-which was compiled from notes by Mr. Mitchell, one of the early settlers
-in Montezuma Valley. Morgan’s account is as follows:</p>
-
-<p>“Near Mr. Mitchell’s ranch, and within a space of less than a mile
-square, are the ruins of nine pueblo houses of moderate size. They are
-built of sandstone intermixed with cobblestone and adobe mortar. They
-are now in a very ruinous condition, without standing walls in any
-part of them above the rubbish. The largest of the number is marked
-No. 1 in the plan, figure 44, of which the outline of the original
-structure is still discernible. It is 94 feet in length and 47 feet
-in depth, and shows the remains of a stone wall in front inclosing a
-small court about 15 feet wide. The mass of material over some parts of
-this structure is 10 or 12 feet deep. There are, no doubt, rooms with a
-portion of the walls still standing covered with rubbish, the removal
-of which would reveal a considerable portion of the original ground plan.”</p>
-
-<p>The author paid a short visit to the Mitchell Spring village and by
-means of Morgan’s sketch map was able to identify without difficulty
-the nine mounds and tower he represents. The village at Mitchell Spring
-differs from that at Mud Spring and at Aztec Spring mainly in the small
-size and diffuse distribution of the component mounds and an absence
-of any one mound larger than the remainder. It had, however, a round
-tower, but unlike that at Mud Spring village, this structure is not
-united to one of the houses. The addition of towers to pueblos, as
-pointed out by Doctor Prudden<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
-several years ago, marks the highest development of pueblo architecture
-as shown not only in open-air villages but also in some of the large
-cliff pueblos, like Cliff Palace. Isolated towers are as a rule earlier
-in construction.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span></p>
-
-<p>The unit type mound uncovered by Doctor Prudden is one of the most
-instructive examples of this type in Montezuma Canyon, but the author
-in subsequent pages will call attention to the existence of the same
-type in Square Tower Canyon. All of these pueblos probably have kivas
-of the pure type, practically the same in structure as Far View House
-on the Mesa Verde National Park.</p>
-
-<h5 id="MUD_SPRING"><span class="smcap">Mud Spring (Burkhardt) Ruin</span></h5>
-
-<p>The collection of mounds (<a href="#PLATE_3_B">pl. 3, <i>b</i></a>), sometimes
-called Burkhardt Ruin, situated at Mud Spring, belongs to the McElmo series. This
-ruin, in which is the “triple-walled tower” of Holmes, for uniformity
-with Mitchell Spring Ruin and Aztec Spring Ruin, is named after a
-neighboring spring. Like these, it is a cluster of mounds forming a
-village which covers a considerable area. The arroyo on which it is
-situated opens into the McElmo, and is about 7 miles southwest from
-Cortez, at a point where the road enters the McElmo Canyon.</p>
-
-<p>The extension of the area covered by the Mud Spring mounds is
-east-west, the largest mounds being those on the east. These latter
-are separated from the remainder, or those on the west, by a shallow,
-narrow gulch. There are two towers united to the western section
-overlooking the spring, the following description of one of which, with
-a sketch of the ground plan, is given by Holmes.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
-
-<p>“The circular structures or towers have been built, in the usual
-manner, of roughly hewn stone, and rank among the very best specimens
-of this ancient architecture. The great tower is especially
-noticeable.... In dimensions it is almost identical with the great
-tower of the Rio Mancos. The walls are traceable nearly all the way
-round, and the space between the two outer ones, which is about 5 feet
-in width, contains 14 apartments or cells. The walls about one of these
-cells are still standing to the height of 12 feet; but the interior
-can not be examined on account of the rubbish which fills it to the
-top. No openings are noticeable in the circular walls, but doorways
-seem to have been made to communicate between the apartments; one is
-preserved at <i>d</i>.... This tower stands back about 100 feet from
-the edge of the mesa near the border of the village. The smaller tower,
-<i>b</i>, stands forward on a point that overlooks the shallow gulch;
-it is 15 feet in diameter; the walls are 3½ feet thick and 5 feet high
-on the outside. Beneath this ruin, in a little side gulch, are the
-remains of a wall 12 feet high and 20 inches thick.... The apartments
-number nearly a hundred, and seem, generally, to have been rectangular.
-They are not, however, of uniform size, and certainly not arranged in
-regular order.”
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span></p>
-
-<p>Morgan<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
-gives the following description of the same ruin which seems
-to the author to be the Mud Creek village:</p>
-
-<p>“Four miles westerly [from Mitchell ranch], near the ranch of Mr.
-Shirt, are the ruins of another large stone pueblo, together with an
-Indian cemetery, where each grave is marked by a border of flat stones
-set level with the ground in the form of a parallelogram 8 feet by 4
-feet. Near the cluster of nine pueblos shown in the figure are found
-strewn on the ground numerous fragments of pottery of high grade in the
-ornamentation, and small arrowheads of flint, quartz, and chalcedony
-delicately formed, and small knife blades with convex and serrated
-edges in considerable numbers.</p>
-
-<p>“This is an immense ruin with small portions of the walls still
-standing, particularly of the round tower of stone of three concentric
-walls, incorporated in the structure, and a few chambers in the north
-end of the main building. The round tower is still standing nearly
-to the height of the first story. In its present condition it was
-impossible to make a ground plan showing the several chambers, or to
-determine with certainty which side was the front of the structure,
-assuming that it was constructed in the terraced form.... The Round
-Tower is the most singular feature in this structure. While it
-resembles the ordinary <i>estufa</i>, common to all these structures,
-it differs from them in having three concentric walls. No doorways are
-visible in the portion still standing, consequently it must have been
-entered through the roof, in which respect it agrees with the ordinary
-<i>estufa</i>. The inner chamber is about 20 feet in diameter, and the
-spaces between the encircling walls are about 2 feet each; the walls
-are about 2 feet in thickness, and were laid up mainly with stones
-about 4 inches square, and, for the most part, in courses. There is a
-similar round tower, having but two concentric walls, at the head of
-the McElmo Canyon, and near the ranch of Mr. Mitchell [Mitchell Ruin].”</p>
-
-<p>As the name Mud Spring is locally known to the natives, especially
-to employees of livery stables and garages, the ruin is here called
-Mud Spring. The tower and the other circular buildings are united to
-other rooms as in similar groups of mounds. The presence of surface
-depressions, thought to indicate circular kivas,<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>
-shows that the Mud Spring mounds are remains of a village of the same
-type as the Mummy Lake group, but with towers united to the largest mounds.</p>
-
-<p>The time the author could give to his visit to the Mud Spring Ruin (<a href="#PLATE_3_B">pl. 3, <i>b</i></a>) was too limited to survey it, but he noticed in addition
-to the two circular buildings already recorded, a large mound situated
-on the west side of the gulch, and numerous small mounds on the east
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span>
-side of the same, each apparently with a central depression like
-a kiva. All these mounds have been more or less mutilated by
-indiscriminate digging, but many mounds, still untouched, remain to
-be excavated before we can form an adequate conception of the group.
-The “triple-walled tower” is now in such a condition that the author
-could not determine whether it was formerly circular or <big><b>D</b></big>-shaped;
-the “small tower” is in even worse condition and its previous form could
-not be made out. The Mud Spring mounds cover a much larger area than
-descriptions or ground plans thus far published would indicate.</p>
-
-<p>Originally Mud Spring Ruin consisted of a cluster of pueblos of various
-sizes, each probably with a circular kiva and rectangular rooms,
-combined with one or more towers at present too much dilapidated to
-determine architectural details without excavations. Like the other
-clusters of pueblos in the McElmo and Montezuma Valley, the cemetery
-near Mud Spring Ruin has suffered considerably from pothunters, but
-there still remain many standing walls that are well preserved.</p>
-
-<h5 id="SEMI_CIRC"><span class="smcap">Ruin with Semicircular Core</span></h5>
-
-<p>This ruin is situated on the San Juan about 3 miles below the sandy bed
-of the mouth of the Montezuma, on a bluff 50 feet above the river. The
-ground plan by Jackson<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
-indicates a building shaped like a trapezoid, 158 feet on the northeast
-side, 120 on the southeast, and 32 on the northwest side. The southwest
-side is broken midway by a reentering area at the rim of the bluff over
-the river.</p>
-
-<p>In the center of this trapezoidal structure there is represented a
-series of rooms arranged like those of Horseshoe House, but composed
-of a half-circular chamber surrounded by seven rooms between two
-concentric circular walls. Thus far the homology to Horseshoe House is
-close but beyond this series of rooms, following out the trapezoidal
-form, at least five other rooms appear on the ground plan. The position
-of these recalls the walls arranged around the tower at Mud Spring
-village. In other words, the ruin resembles Horseshoe House, but has
-in addition rectangular rooms added on three sides, forming an angular
-building. So far as the author’s information goes, no other ruin of
-exactly this type, which recalls Sun Temple, has been described by
-other observers.</p>
-
-<h5 id="WOLLEY"><span class="smcap">Wolley Ranch Ruin</span></h5>
-
-<p>Wolley Ranch Ruin, situated 10 miles south of Dolores, is one of the
-largest mounds near Cortez. There are evidences of the former existence
-of a cluster of mounds at this place, only one of which now remains.
-This is covered with bushes, rendering it difficult to trace the
-bounding walls.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span></p>
-
-<h5 id="BLANCHARD"><span class="smcap">Blanchard Ruin</span></h5>
-
-<p>Several years ago private parties constructed at Manitou, near Colorado
-Springs, a cliff-dwelling on the combined plan of Spruce-tree House and
-Cliff Palace. The rocks used for that purpose were transported from
-a large mound on the Blanchard ranch near Lebanon, in the Montezuma
-Valley, at the head of Hartman’s draw, about 6 miles south of Dolores.
-Two mounds (<a href="#PLATE_2_A">pl. 2, <i>a</i></a>, <a href="#PLATE_2_B"><i>b</i></a>),
-about three-quarters of a mile apart, are all that now remain of a
-considerable village; the other smaller mounds, reported by pioneer
-settlers, have long since been leveled by cultivation. As both of these
-mounds have been extensively dug into to obtain stones, the walls that
-remain standing show much mutilation. The present condition of the
-largest Blanchard mound, as seen from its southwest angle, is shown in
-<a href="#PLATE_2_B">plate 2, <i>b</i></a>. About half of the mound, now covered
-with a growth of bushes, still remains entire, exposing walls of fine masonry,
-on its south side. The rooms in the buried buildings are hard to make out on
-account of this covering of vegetation and accumulated débris; but the
-central depressions, supposed to be kivas, almost always present in the
-middle of mounds in this district, show that the structure of Blanchard
-Ruin follows the pure type.</p>
-
-<h5 id="AZTEC"><span class="smcap">Ruins at Aztec Spring</span></h5>
-
-<p>The mounds at Aztec Spring (<a href="#PLATE_1_B">pl. 1, <i>b</i></a>),
-situated on the eastern flank of Ute Mountain, at a site looking across the valley to the
-west end of Mesa Verde, were described forty years ago by W. W. Jackson<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
-and Prof. W. H. Holmes.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>
-The descriptions given by both these pioneers are quoted at length
-for the reason that subsequent authors have added little from direct
-observation since that time, notwithstanding they have been constantly
-referred to and the illustrations reproduced.</p>
-
-<p>As a result of a short visit, the author is able to add the few
-following notes on the Aztec Spring mounds. The ruin is a village
-consisting of a cluster of unit pueblos of the pure type in various
-stages of consolidation. No excavations were made, but the surface
-indications point to the conclusion that the different mounds indicate
-that these pueblos have different shapes and sizes.</p>
-
-<p>The author’s observations differ in several unimportant particulars
-from those of previous writers, and while it is not his intention to
-describe in detail the Aztec Spring village he will call attention to
-certain features it shares with other villages in the Montezuma Valley.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span></p>
-
-<p>The best, almost the only accounts of this village are the following
-taken from the descriptions by Jackson and Holmes published in 1877.
-Mr. Jackson gives the following description:<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
-
-<p class="blockquot">“Immediately adjoining the spring, on the right,
-as we face it from below, is the ruin of a great massive structure
-[Upper House?] of some kind, about 100 feet square in exterior
-dimensions; a portion only of the wall upon the northern face
-remaining in its original position. The <i>débris</i> of the ruin now
-forms a great mound of crumbling rock, from 12 to 20 feet in height,
-overgrown with artemisia, but showing clearly, however, its rectangular
-structure, adjusted approximately to the four points of the compass.
-Inside this square is a circle, about 60 feet in diameter, deeply
-depressed in the center. The space between the square and the circle
-appeared, upon a hasty examination, to have been filled in solidly
-with a sort of rubble-masonry. Cross-walls were noticed in two places;
-but whether they were to strengthen the walls or divided apartments
-could only be conjectured. That portion of the outer wall remaining
-standing is some 40 feet in length and 15 in height. The stones were
-dressed to a uniform size and finish. Upon the same level as this
-ruin, and extending back some distance, were grouped line after line
-of foundations and mounds, the great mass of which is of stone but not
-one remaining upon another.... Below the above group, some 200 yards
-distant, and communicating by indistinct lines of <i>débris</i>, is
-another great wall, inclosing a space of about 200 feet square [Lower
-House?].... This better preserved portion is some 50 feet in length,
-7 or 8 feet in height, and 20 feet thick, the two exterior surfaces
-of well-dressed and evenly laid courses, and the center packed in
-solidly with rubble-masonry, looking entirely different from those
-rooms which had been filled with <i>débris</i>, though it is difficult
-to assign any reason for its being so massively constructed.... The
-town built about this spring is nearly a square mile in extent, the
-larger and more enduring buildings in the center, while all about are
-scattered and grouped the remnants of smaller structures, comprising
-the suburbs.”</p>
-
-<p>The description by Professor Holmes<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
-is more detailed and accompanied by a ground plan, and is quoted below:</p>
-
-<p>“The site of the spring I found, but without the least appearance of
-water. The depression formerly occupied by it is near the center of a
-large mass of ruins, similar to the group [Mud Spring village] last
-described, but having a rectangular instead of a circular building
-as the chief and central structure. This I have called the <i>upper
-house</i> in the plate, and a large walled enclosure a little lower on
-the slope I have for the sake of distinction called the <i>lower house</i>.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span></p>
-
-<p>“These ruins form the most imposing pile of masonry yet [1875] found
-in Colorado. The whole group covers an area about 480,000 square
-feet, and has an average depth of from 3 to 4 feet. This would give
-in the vicinity of 1,500,000 solid feet of stonework. The stone used
-is chiefly of the fossiliferous limestone that outcrop along the base
-of the Mesa Verde a mile or more away, and its transportation to this
-place has doubtless been a great work for a people so totally without
-facilities.</p>
-
-<p>“The upper house is rectangular, measuring 80 feet by 100 feet, and is
-built with the cardinal points to within a few degrees. The pile is
-from 12 to 15 feet in height, and its massiveness suggests an original
-height at least twice as great. The plan is somewhat difficult to make
-out on account of the very great quantity of <i>débris</i>.</p>
-
-<p>“The walls seem to have been double, with a space 7 feet between; a
-number of cross-walls at regular intervals indicate that this space has
-been divided into apartments, as seen in the plan.</p>
-
-<p>“The walls are 26 inches thick, and are built of roughly dressed
-stones, which were probably laid in mortar, as in other cases.</p>
-
-<p>“The enclosed space, which is somewhat depressed, has two lines of
-<i>débris</i>, probably the remains of partition-walls, separating it
-into three apartments, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> [note]. Enclosing
-this great house is a network of fallen walls, so completely reduced
-that none of the stones seem to remain in place; and I am at a loss
-to determine whether they mark the site of a cluster of irregular
-apartments, having low, loosely built walls, or whether they are the
-remains of some imposing adobe structure built after the manner of the
-ruined pueblos of the Rio Chaco.</p>
-
-<p>“Two well-defined circular enclosures or <i>estufas</i> [kivas] are
-situated in the midst of the southern wing of the ruin. The upper one,
-A, is on the opposite side of the spring from the great house, is 60
-feet in diameter, and is surrounded by a low stone wall. West of the
-house is a small open court, which seems to have had a gateway opening
-out to the west, through the surrounding walls.</p>
-
-<p>“The lower house is 200 feet in length by 180 in width, and its walls
-vary 15 degrees from the cardinal points. The northern wall, <i>a</i>,
-is double and contains a row of eight apartments about 7 feet in width
-by 24 in length. The walls of the other sides are low, and seem to have
-served simply to enclose the great court, near the center of which is a
-large walled depression (<i>estufa</i> B).”</p>
-
-<p>The number of buildings that composed the Aztec Spring village (<a href="#FIG_1">fig. 1</a>)
-when it was inhabited can not be exactly estimated, but as indicated
-by the largest mound, the most important block of rooms exceeds in
-size any at Mitchell Spring Ruin. While this village also covered more
-ground than that at Mud Spring, it shows no evidence of added towers, a
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span>
-prominent feature of the largest mound of the latter. Two sections
-(<a href="#FIG_1">fig. 1, <i>A</i>, <i>B</i></a>) may be distinguished
-in the arrangement of mounds in the village; one may be known as the
-western and the other as the eastern division.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_1" src="images/i026.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="554" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span></b>—Ground
-         plan of Aztec Spring Ruin.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The highest and most conspicuous mound of the western section
-(<i>A</i>) is referred to by Professor Holmes as the “Upper House.”
-Surface characteristics now indicate that this is the remains of a
-compact rectangular building, with circular kivas and domiciliary rooms
-of different shapes, the arrangement of which can not be determined
-without extensive excavations. The plan of this pueblo published
-by Holmes<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>
-shows two large and one small depression, indicating peripheral
-rectangular chambers surrounded by walls of rectangular rooms.</p>
-
-<p>The author interprets the depressions, <i>K</i>, as kivas, but supposes
-that they were not rectangular as figured by Holmes, but circular,
-surrounded on all four sides by square secular chambers, the “Upper
-House” being formed by the consolidation of several units of the pure
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span>
-pueblo type. Although Aztec Spring Ruin is now much mutilated and its
-walls difficult to trace, the surface indications, aided by comparative
-studies of the rooms, show that Holmes’ “<i>a</i>,” “<i>b</i>,” and
-“<i>c</i>,” now shown by depressions, are circular, subterranean kivas.
-They are the same kind of chambers as the circular depressions in the
-mounds on the south side of the spring. The height of the mound called
-“Upper House” indicates that the building had more than one story on
-the west and north sides, and that a series of rooms one story high
-with accompanying circular depressions existed on the east side.</p>
-
-<p>The “Upper House” is only one of several pueblos composing the western
-cluster of the Aztec Spring village. Its proximity to the source of
-water may in part account for its predominant size, but there are
-evidences of several other mounds (<i>E-H</i>) in its neighborhood,
-also remains of pueblos. Those on the north (<i>C</i>) and west sides
-(<i>E-H</i>) are small and separated from it by intervals sometimes
-called courts. The most extensive accumulation of rooms next the “Upper
-House” is situated across the draw in which the spring lies, south of
-the “Upper House” cluster already considered. The aggregation of houses
-near the “Upper House” is mainly composed of low rectangular buildings
-among which are recognized scattered circular depressions indicating
-kivas. The largest of these buildings is indicated by the mound on
-the south rim of the draw, where we can make out remains of a number
-of circular depressions or kivas (<i>K</i>), as if several unit forms
-fused together; on the north and west sides of the spring there are
-small, low mounds, unconnected, also suggesting several similar unit
-forms. The most densely populated part of the village at Aztec Spring,
-as indicated by the size of the mounds clustered on the rim around the
-head of the draw, is above the spring, on the northwest and south sides.</p>
-
-<p>There remains to be mentioned the eastern annex (<i>B</i>) of the Aztec
-Spring village, the most striking remains of which is a rectangular
-inclosure called “Lower House,” situated east of the spring and lower
-down the draw, or at a lower level than the section already considered.
-The type of this structure, which undoubtedly belonged to the same
-village, is different from that already described. It resembles a
-reservoir rather than a kiva, inclosed by a low rectangular wall,
-with rows of rooms on the north side. The court of the “Lower House”
-measures 218 feet. The wall on the east, south, and west sides is only
-a few feet high and is narrow; that on the north is broader and higher,
-evidently the remains of rooms, overlooking the inclosed area.</p>
-
-<p>Perhaps the most enigmatical structures in the vicinity of Aztec Spring
-village are situated on a low mesa south of the mounds, a few hundred
-feet away. These are circular depressions without accompanying mounds,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span>
-one of which was excavated a few years ago to the depth of 12 feet; on
-the south there was discovered a well-made wall of a circular opening,
-now visible, by which there was a communication through a horizontal
-tunnel with the open air. The author was informed that this tunnel
-is artificial and that one of the workmen crawled through it to its
-opening in the side of a bank many yards distant.</p>
-
-<p>No attempt was made to get the exact dimensions of the component
-houses at Aztec Spring, as the walls are now concealed in the mounds,
-and measurements can only be approximations if obtained from surface
-indications without excavation. The sketch plan here introduced (<a href="#FIG_1">fig. 1</a>)
-is schematic, but although not claimed as accurate, may serve to
-convey a better idea of the relation of the two great structures and
-their annexed buildings than any previously advanced.</p>
-
-<p>The author saw no ruined prehistoric village in the Montezuma Valley
-that so stirred his enthusiasm to properly excavate and repair as that
-at Aztec Spring,<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>
-notwithstanding it has been considerably dug over for commercial purposes.</p>
-
-<h5 id="DOVE_CREEK"><span class="smcap">Great Open-Air Ruins South and<br />
-Southwest of Dove Creek<br /> Post Office</span></h5>
-
-<p>In the region south and southwest of Dove Creek there are several large
-pueblo ruins, indicated by mounds formed of trimmed stone, eolean sand,
-and clay from plastering, which have certain characters in common.
-Each mound is a large heap of stones (<a href="#PLATE_3_A">pl. 3, <i>a</i></a>) near
-which is a depression or reservoir, with smaller heaps which in different ruins
-show the small buildings of the unit type. These clusters or villages
-are somewhat modified in form by the configuration of the mesa surface.
-The larger have rectangular forms regularly disposed in blocks with
-passageways between them or are without any definite arrangement.</p>
-
-<h5 id="SQUAW"><span class="smcap">Squaw Point Ruin</span></h5>
-
-<p>This large ruin, which has been described by Doctor Prudden as Squaw
-Point Ruin and as Pierson Lake Ruin, was visited by the author, who has
-little to add to this description. One of the small heaps of stone or
-mounds has been excavated and its structure found to conform with the
-definition of the unit type. The subterranean communication between one
-of the rectangular rooms and the kiva could be well seen at the time of
-the author’s visit and recalls the feature pointed out by him in some
-of the kivas of Spruce-tree House. The large reservoir and the great
-ruin are noteworthy features of the Squaw Point settlement.</p>
-
-<p>It seems to the author that the large block of buildings is simply a
-congeries of unit types the structure of one of which is indicated by
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span>
-the small buildings excavated by Doctor Prudden, and that structurally
-there is the same condition in it as in the pueblo ruins of Montezuma
-Valley, a conclusion to which the several artifacts mentioned and
-figured by Doctor Prudden also point.</p>
-
-<p>The same holds true of Bug Point Ruin, a few miles away, also excavated
-and described by Doctor Prudden. Here also excavation of a small mound
-shows the unit type, and while no one has yet opened the larger mound
-or pueblo, superficial evidences indicate that it also is a complex of
-many unit types joined together. Until more facts are available the
-relative age of the small unit types as compared to the large pueblo
-can not be definitely stated, but there is little reason to doubt that
-they are contemporaneous, and nothing to support the belief that they
-do not indicate the same culture.</p>
-
-<h5 id="ACMEN"><span class="smcap">Acmen Ruin</span></h5>
-
-<p>Following the Old Bluff Road and leaving it about 5 miles west of
-Acmen post office, one comes to a low canyon beyond Pigge ranch. The
-heaps of stone or large mounds cover an area of about 10 acres, the
-largest being about 15 feet high. East of this is a circular depression
-surrounded by stones, indicating either a reservoir or a ruined
-building.</p>
-
-<p>The top of the highest mound (<a href="#PLATE_3_A">pl. 3, <i>a</i></a>)—no walls
-stand above the surface—is depressed like mounds of the Mummy Lake group on
-the Mesa Verde. This depression probably indicates a circular kiva
-embedded in square walls, the masonry of which so far as can be judged
-superficially is not very fine. There are many smaller mounds in the
-vicinity and evidences of cemeteries on the south, east, and west
-sides, where there are evidences of desultory digging; fragments of
-pottery are numerous.</p>
-
-<p>These mounds indicate a considerable village which would well repay
-excavation, as shown by the numerous specimens of corrugated, black and
-white, and red pottery in the Pigge collection, made in a small mound
-near the Pigge ranch.</p>
-
-<p>The specimens in this collection present few features different from
-those indicated by the fragments of pottery picked up on the larger
-mounds a mile west of the site where they were excavated. They are the
-same as shards from the mounds in the McElmo region.</p>
-
-<h5 id="OAK"><span class="smcap">Oak Spring House</span></h5>
-
-<p>About 15 miles southwest of Dove Creek on Monument Canyon there is a
-good spring called Oak Spring, near which are several piles of stones
-indicating former buildings, the largest of which, about a quarter of a
-mile away, has a central depression with surrounding walls now covered
-with rock or buried in soil or blown sand. Very large piñon trees grow
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span>
-on top of the highest walls of this ruin, the general features of which
-recall those at Bug Spring, though their size is considerably less. In
-the surface of rock above the spring there are numerous potholes of
-small size. One of these, 4 feet deep and about 18 feet in diameter, is
-almost perfectly circular and has some signs of having been deepened
-artificially. It holds water much of the time and was undoubtedly a
-source of water supply to the aborigines, as it now is to stock in that
-neighborhood.</p>
-
-<h5 id="RUIN_CANYON1"><span class="smcap">Ruin in Ruin Canyon</span></h5>
-
-<p>One of the large rim-rock ruins may be seen on the left bank of Ruin
-Canyon in full view from the Old Bluff Road. The ruin is an immense
-pile of stones perched on the very edge of the rim, with no walls
-standing above the surface. The most striking feature of this ruin is
-the cliff-house below, the walls and entrance into which are visible
-from the road (<a href="#PLATE_9_B">pl. 9, <i>b</i></a>). It is readily accessible
-and one of the largest in the country. On either side of the Old Bluff Road from
-Ruin Canyon to the “Aztec Reservoir” small piles of stone mark the
-sites of many former buildings of the one-house type which can readily
-be seen, especially in the sagebrush clearings as the road descends to
-the Picket corral, the reservoirs, and the McElmo Canyon.</p>
-
-<h5 id="CANNON"><span class="smcap">Cannonball Ruin</span></h5>
-
-<p>One of the most instructive ruins of the McElmo Canyon region is
-situated at the head of Cannonball Canyon, a short distance across the
-mesa north of the McElmo, at a point nearly opposite the store. This
-ruin is made up of two separate pueblos facing each other, one of which
-is known as the northern, the other as the southern pueblo (<a href="#PLATE_22_B">pl. 22, <i>b</i></a>).
-Both show castellated chambers and towers, one of which is situated at
-the bottom of the canyon. The southern pueblo was excavated a few years
-ago by Mr. S. G. Morley, who published an excellent plan and a good
-description of it, and made several suggestions regarding additions of
-new rooms to the kivas which are valuable. Its walls were not protected
-and are rapidly deteriorating.</p>
-
-<p>This pueblo, as pointed out by Mr. Morley,<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>
-has 29 secular rooms arranged with little regularity, and 7 circular
-kivas, belonging to the vaulted-roofed variety. It is a fine example of
-a composite pueblo of the pure type, in which there are several large
-kivas. Morley has pointed out a possible sequence in the addition of
-the different kivas to a preexisting tower and offers an explanation
-of the chronological steps by which he thinks the aggregation of rooms
-was brought about. Occasionally we find inserted in the walls of these
-houses large artificially worked or uncut flat stones, such as the
-author has mentioned as existing in the walls of the northwest corner
-of the court of Far View House. This Cyclopean form of masonry is
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span>
-primitive and may be looked upon as a survival of a ruder and more
-archaic condition best shown in the Montezuma Mesa ruins farther west,
-a good example of which was described by Jackson.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
-
-<h4 id="CIRCULAR">CIRCULAR RUINS WITH<br /> PERIPHERAL COMPARTMENTS</h4>
-
-<p>It has long been recognized that circular ruins in the Southwest differ
-from rectangular ruins, not only in shape but also in structural
-features, as relative position and character of kivas. The relation
-of the ceremonial chambers to the houses, no less than the external
-forms of the two, at first sight appear to separate them from the pure
-type.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
- They are more numerous and probably more ancient, as their relative
-abundance implies.</p>
-
-<p>These circular ruins, in which group is included certain modifications
-where the curve of one side is replaced (generally on the south) by a
-straight wall or chord, have several concentric walls; again, they take
-the form of simple towers with one row of encircling compartments, or
-they may have a double wall with inclosed compartments.</p>
-
-<p>Many representations of semicircular ruins were found in the region
-here considered, some of which are of considerable size. The simplest
-form is well illustrated by the <big><b>D</b></big>-shaped building, Horseshoe
-House, in Hackberry Canyon, a ruin which will be considered later in this
-article. Other examples occur in the Yellow Jacket, and there
-are several, as Butte Ruin, Emerson, and Escalante Ruins, in the
-neighborhood of Dolores.</p>
-
-<p>In contrast to the village type consisting of a number of pueblos
-clustered together, but separated from each other, where the growth
-takes place mainly through the union of components, the circular
-ruin in enlarging its size apparently did so by the addition of new
-compartments peripherally or like additional rings in exogenous trees.
-Judging from their frequency, the center of distribution of the
-circular type lies somewhere in the San Juan culture area. This type
-does not occur in the Gila Valley or its tributaries, where we have an
-architectural zone denoting that a people somewhat different in culture
-from the Pueblos exists, but occurs throughout the “Central Zone,” so
-called, extending across New Mexico from Colorado as far south as Zuñi.
-Many additional observations remain to be made before we can adequately
-define the group known as the circular type and the extent of the area
-over which it is distributed.</p>
-
-<p>The following examples of this type have been studied by the author:
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span></p>
-
-<h5><span class="smcap">Wood Canyon Ruins</span></h5>
-
-<p>Reports were brought to the author of large ruins on the rim of Wood
-Canyon, about 4 miles south of Yellow Jacket post office, in October,
-1918, when he had almost finished the season’s work. Two ruins of size
-were examined, one of which, situated in the open sagebrush clearing,
-belongs to the village type composed of large and small rectangular
-mounds. The other is composed of small circular or semicircular
-buildings with a surrounding wall. The form of this latter (<a href="#FIG_2">fig. 2</a>)
-would seem to place it in a subgroup or village type. Approach to the
-inclosed circular mounds was debarred by a high bluff of a canyon on
-one side and by a low defensive curved wall (<i>E</i>), some of the
-stones of which are large, almost megaliths, on the side of the mesa.
-From fragmentary sections of the buried walls of one of these circular
-mounds (<i>A</i>, <i>B</i>), which appear on the surface, it would seem
-that the buildings were like towers (<i>C</i>, <i>D</i>). This is one
-of the few known examples of circular buildings in an area protected by
-a curved wall. In the cliffs below Wood Canyon Ruin is a cliff-dwelling
-(<i>G</i>, <i>H</i>, <i>J</i>) remarkable mainly in its site.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_2" src="images/i032.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="429" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span></b>—Ground
-           plan of Wood Canyon Ruin.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h5 id="BUTTE"><span class="smcap">Butte Ruin</span></h5>
-
-<p>The so-called Butte Ruin, situated in Lost Canyon, 5 miles east of
-Dolores, belongs to the circular type. It crowns a low elevation, steep
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span>
-on the west side, sloping more gradually on the east, and surrounded by
-cultivated fields. The view from its top looking toward Ute Mountain
-and the Mesa Verde plateau is particularly extensive. The butte is
-forested by a few spruces growing at the base and extending up the
-sides, which are replaced at the summit by a thick growth of sage and
-other bushes which cover the mound, rendering it difficult to make out
-the ground plan of the ruin on its top.</p>
-
-<p>From what appears on the surface it would seem that this ruin was
-a circular or semicircular building about 60 feet in diameter, the
-walls rising about 10 feet high. Like other circular mounds it shows
-a well-marked depression in the middle, from which radiate walls or
-indications of walled compartments. Like the majority of the buildings
-of the circular form, the walls on one side have fallen, suggesting
-that a low straight wall, possibly with rectangular rooms, was annexed
-to this side.</p>
-
-<p>In the neighborhood of Butte Ruin there is another hill crowned with a
-pile of stones, probably a round building of smaller size and with more
-dilapidated walls. Old cedar beams project in places out of the mounds.</p>
-
-<p>The cliff-houses below the largest of these mounds show well-made walls
-with a few rafters and beams. There are pictographs on the cliff a
-short distance away.</p>
-
-<h5 id="EMERSON"><span class="smcap">Emerson Ruin</span></h5>
-
-<p>This ruin crowns a low hill about 3 miles south of Dolores (<a href="#FIG_3">fig. 3</a>).
-The form of the mound is semicircular with a depression in the
-middle around which can be traced radiating partitions suggesting
-compartments. Its outer wall on the south side, as in so many other
-examples of this type, has fallen, and the indications are that here
-the wall was straight, or like that on the south side of Horseshoe Ruin.</p>
-
-<p>The author’s attention was first called to this ruin by Mr. Gordon
-Parker, supervisor of the Montezuma Forest Reserve, it having been
-discovered by Mr. J. W. Emerson, one of his rangers. The circular or
-semicircular form (<a href="#FIG_4">fig. 4</a>) of the mound indicates at once
-that it does not belong to the same type as Far View House; the central depression
-is surrounded by a series of compartments separated by radiating
-walls like the circular ruins in the pueblo region to the south. Mr.
-Emerson’s report, which follows, points out the main features of this
-remarkable ruin.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_3" src="images/i034.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="591" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below2"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span></b>—Metes
-          and bounds of Emerson Ruin. (After Emerson.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Dolores, Colorado</span>,
-<i>July 7, 1917</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In August, 1916, I visited Mesa Verde National Park. While there
-Doctor Fewkes inquired in regard to ruins in the vicinity of the Big
-Bend of the Dolores River. He informed me that the log of two old
-Spanish explorers of 1775 described a ruin near the bend of the Dolores
-River as of great value.</p>
-
-<p>Later, during October, 1916, I visited a number of ruins in this
-vicinity, including the one which (for the want of a better name)
-I have mapped and named Sun Dial Palace. Later, last fall, I again
-visited these ruins with Mr. R. W. Williamson, of Dolores, Colorado.</p>
-
-<p>On July 5, 1917, I again visited these ruins, which I have
-designated as Reservoir Group and Sun Dial Palace.<a id="FNanchor_32"
-href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> For location and status
-of land on which they lie see map of sec. 17, T. 37 N., R. 15 W., N. M.
-P. M. (<a href="#FIG_3">fig. 3</a>).</p>
-
-<p>While examining Sun Dial Palace I noted the
-“<big><b>D</b></big>-shaped construction, also that the south wall of
-the building ran due east and west.” Also please note the regularity
-of wall bearings from the approximate center of the elliptical center
-chamber. I also noted that a shadow cast by the sun apparently
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span>
-coincides with some of these walls at different hours during the day.
-This last gave suggestion to the name. Also please note that the first
-tier of rooms around the middle chamber does not show a complete set of
-bearings but seems to suggest that these regular bearings were obtained
-from observation and study of a master builder. The result of his study
-was built as the next circular room tier was added. The two missing
-rooms on the western side of the building seem to suggest that this
-building was never completed, and also bear out my theory of an outward
-building of room tiers from the middle chamber.</p>
-
-<p>On the ground this building is fully completed on the south side
-and forms a due east and west line. An error in mapping the elliptical
-middle chamber has given the south side an incomplete appearance.</p>
-
-<p>I believe that the excavation and study of this ruin will recall
-something of value, as Father Escalante wrote in his log in 1775.</p>
-
-<p>Respectfully submitted.</p>
-
-<p class="author">(Signed) <span class="smcap">J. Ward Emerson</span>,<br />
-<i>Forest Ranger</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_4" src="images/i035.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="500" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span></b>—Schematic
-            ground plan of Emerson Ruin. (After Emerson.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A personal examination of the remains of this building leads the author
-to the conclusion that while it belongs to the circular group, with a
-ground plan resembling Horseshoe House, and while the central part had
-a wall completely circular, the outer concentric curved walls did not
-complete their course on the south side, but ended in straight walls
-comparable with the partitions separating compartments. The author
-identifies another ruin as that mentioned by the Catholic fathers in 1775.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span></p>
-
-<h5><span class="smcap">Escalante Ruin</span></h5>
-
-<p>The name Escalante Ruin, given to the first ruin recorded by a white
-man in Colorado, is situated about 3 miles from Dolores on top of a low
-hill to the right of the Monticello Road, just beyond where it diverges
-from the road to Cortez. The outline of the pile of stones suggests a
-<big><b>D</b></big>-shaped or semicircular house with a central depression
-surrounded by rooms separated by radiating partitions. The wall on
-the south or east sides was probably straight, rendering the form not
-greatly unlike the other ruins on hilltops in the neighborhood of
-Dolores.</p>
-
-<p>This is supposed to be the ruin to which reference is made in the
-following quotation from an article in Science:<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
-
-<p>“There is in the Congressional Library, among the documents collected
-by Peter Force, a manuscript diary of early exploration in New Mexico,
-Colorado, and Utah, dated 1776, written by two Catholic priests, Father
-Silvester Velez Escalante and Father Francisco Atanacio Dominguez. This
-diary is valuable to students of archeology, as it contains the first
-reference to a prehistoric ruin in the confines of the present State of
-Colorado, although the mention is too brief for positive identification
-of the ruin.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>
-While the context indicates its approximate site, there are at this
-place at least two large ruins, either of which might be that referred
-to. I have no doubt which one of these two ruins was indicated by these
-early explorers, but my interest in this ruin is both archeological and
-historical. Our knowledge of the structure of these ruins is at the
-present day almost as imperfect as it was a century and a half ago.</p>
-
-<p>“The route followed by the writers of the diary was possibly an Indian
-pathway, and is now called the Old Spanish Trail. After entering
-Colorado it ran from near the present site of Mancos to the Dolores.
-On the fourteenth day from Santa Fe, we find the following entry: ‘En
-la vanda austral del Vio [Rio] sobre un alto, huvo anti-quam (te) una
-Poblacion pequeña, de la misma forma qᵉ las de los Indios el Nuevo
-Mexico, segun manifieran las Ruinas qᵉ de invento registramos.’</p>
-
-<p>“By tracing the trip day by day, up to that time, it appears that
-the ruin referred to by these early fathers was situated somewhere
-near the bend of the Dolores River, or not far from the present town
-Dolores, Colo. The above quotation indicates that the ruin was a small
-settlement, and situated on a hill, on the south side of the river or
-trail, but it did not differ greatly from the ruined settlements of the
-Indians of New Mexico with which the writers were familiar, and had
-already described.”
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span></p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Cliff-Dwellings</span></h3>
-
-<p>There are numerous cliff-houses in this district, but while, as a
-rule, they are much smaller than the magnificent examples in the Mesa
-Verde, they are built on the same architectural lines as their more
-pretentious relatives. Both large and small have circular subterranean
-kivas, similarly constructed to those of Spruce-tree House, and
-have mural pilasters (to support a vaulted roof, now destroyed),
-ventilators, and deflectors.</p>
-
-<p>There are also many rooms in cliffs, possibly used for storage or for
-some other unknown purposes, but too small for habitations. It is
-significant that these are identical so far as their size is concerned
-with the “ledge houses,” near Spruce-tree House, indicating similar or
-identical uses.</p>
-
-<p>The kivas of cliff-dwellings of size in the region considered have the
-same structural features as those of adjacent ruins, but very little
-resemblance, save in site, to those of cliff-dwellings in southern
-Arizona, as in the Sierra Ancha or Verde Valley, the structure of which
-resembles adjacent pueblos.</p>
-
-<p>The absence in the McElmo region of very large cliff-houses is due
-partly but not wholly to geological conditions, the immense caves of
-the Mesa Verde not being duplicated in the tributaries of the McElmo;
-but wherever caverns do occur, as in Sand Canyon, we commonly find
-diminutive representatives. While differences in geological features
-may account for the size of these prehistoric buildings, the nature of
-the site or its size is not all important.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
-
-<p>Here and there one sees from the road through the McElmo Canyon a few
-small cliff-houses, and if he penetrates some of the tributaries, he
-finds many others. The canyon is dominated by the Ute Mountain on the
-south, but on the north are numerous eroded cliffs in which are many
-caves affording good opportunities for the construction of cliff-houses.</p>
-
-<p>These buildings do not differ save in size from the cliff-houses of the
-Mesa Verde. Their kivas resemble the vaulted variety and the masonry is
-identical.</p>
-
-<p>Although the existence of cliff-dwellings in the tributaries of the
-McElmo has long been known, the characteristic circular kivas which occur
-in the Mesa Verde had not been recognized previous to the present report.</p>
-
-<p>The relative age of the pueblos and great towers and the same
-structures in caves can not be decided by the data at hand, but the
-indications are that they were contemporary.</p>
-
-<p>On account of the similarity in structure of the McElmo cliff-dwellings
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span>
-to those on Mesa Verde, only a few examples from the former region
-are here considered. It may be worthy of note that while McElmo
-cliff-dwellings are generally accompanied by large open-air pueblos
-and towers or great houses on the cliffs above, in the Mesa Verde
-open-air buildings<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>
-are generally situated some distance from the
-cliff-dwellings.</p>
-
-<h4 id="CLIFF_DWELL">CLIFF-DWELLINGS IN SAND CANYON</h4>
-
-<p>Several small cliff-houses occur in Sand Canyon, one of the northern
-tributaries of the McElmo. Stone Arch House, here figured (<a href="#PLATE_6_A">pl. 6, <i>a</i></a>),
-so-called from the eroded cliff (<a href="#PLATE_4_B">pl. 4, <i>b</i></a>)
-near by. It is situated in the cliff, about a mile from where the canyon enters
-the McElmo Canyon near Battle Rock. Abundant piñon trees and a few
-scrubby cedars grow in the low mounds of the talus below the ruin,
-near which, on top of a neighboring rock pinnacle, still stand the
-well-constructed walls of a small house (<a href="#PLATE_4_A">pl. 4, <i>a</i></a>).</p>
-
-<h4 id="DOUBLE">DOUBLE CLIFF-HOUSE</h4>
-
-<p>The formerly unnamed cliff-house shown in <a href="#PLATE_8">plate 8</a><a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>
-is one of the best preserved in Sand Canyon. It consists of an upper
-and a lower house, the former situated far back in the cave, the
-latter on a projecting terrace below. Unfortunately it is impossible
-to introduce an extended description of this building as it was not
-entered by the author’s party, but from a distance the walls exhibit
-fine masonry. It is unique in having double buildings on different
-levels, an arrangement not rare in a few examples of cliff-dwellings on
-the Mesa Verde. As shown in <a href="#PLATE_8">plate 8</a>, the character of the rock
-on which the lower house stands is harder than that above in which the cave has
-been eroded. The upper house is wholly protected by the roof<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>
-of the cave and occupies its entire floor. The lower house shows from a
-distance at least two rooms, the front wall of one having fallen.</p>
-
-<p>From a distance the walls of both the lower and the upper house seem to
-be well preserved, although many of the component stones have fallen to
-the base of the cliff.</p>
-
-<h4 id="SCAFFOLD">SCAFFOLD IN SAND CANYON</h4>
-
-<p>One of the cliffs bordering Sand Canyon has an inaccessible cave in
-which is an artificial platform or lookout shown in <a href="#PLATE_7_A">plate 7, <i>a</i></a>.
-Although this structure is not as well preserved as the scaffold in the
-neighborhood of Scaffold House in Laguna (Sosi) Canyon, on the Navaho
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span>
-National Monument, it seems to have had a similar purpose. It is
-constructed of logs reaching from one side of the cave to the other
-supporting a floor of flat stones and adobe. Its elevated situation
-would necessitate for entrance either holes cut in the cliffs or
-ladders.</p>
-
-<h4 id="UNIT_TYPE">UNIT TYPE HOUSES IN CAVES</h4>
-
-<p>In subsequent pages the author will describe a ruin called the
-Unit type House, situated in the open on the north rim of Square
-Tower Canyon. A similar type of unit type house is found in a cave
-in Sand Canyon. The reader’s attention may first be called to the
-definition of a unit type, which is a building composed of a circular
-kiva, with mural banquettes and pedestals supporting a vaulted roof,
-with ventilator, reflector, and generally a ceremonial opening near
-a central fire hole in the floor. This kiva (<a href="#FIG_5">fig. 5</a>) is
-generally embedded in or surrounded by rectangular rooms. The single-unit type
-has one kiva with several surrounding rooms; the so-called pure type is
-composed of these units united.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_5" src="images/i039.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="298" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span></b>—Ground
-          plan of Unit type House in cave.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In an almost inaccessible cave (<a href="#PLATE_5_B">pl. 5, <i>b</i></a>) in Sand
-Canyon a few miles from the McElmo road near the scaffold already mentioned there is
-a cliff ruin, so far as known the first described single-unit house in
-a cave. It covers the whole floor of the cave (<a href="#FIG_5">fig. 5</a>) and
-its walls are considerably dilapidated, but the kiva shows this instructive
-condition: The walls are double, one inside the other, with two sets
-of pedestals, the outer of which are very much blackened with smoke
-of constant fires; the inner fresh and untarnished, evidently of late
-construction. A similar double-walled kiva known as “Kiva A” exists
-in Spruce-tree House, as described in the author’s account of that
-ruin.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a>
-On the perpendicular wall of the precipice at the right hand of the
-ruin in the cave above mentioned are several pictographs shown in <a href="#PLATE_7_C">plate 7, <i>c</i></a>.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p>
-
-<p>The rectangular rooms about the kiva are in places excavated out of the
-cliffs, but show standing walls on the front. These were not, however,
-constructed with the same care as those of the kiva.</p>
-
-<p>The cliff-house in Hackberry Canyon (<a href="#PLATE_9_A">pl. 9, <i>a</i></a>)
-is one of the most instructive. It lies below Horseshoe House and appears to be a
-second example of a unit type kiva and surrounding rooms.</p>
-
-<p>The cliff-dwelling in Ruin Canyon<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
-visible across the canyon from the Old Bluff City Road is well
-preserved. On the rim of the canyon are piles of stone indicating a
-very large pueblo, with surface circular depressions indicating unit
-type houses.</p>
-
-<h4 id="LOST_CANYON">CLIFF-HOUSES IN LOST CANYON</h4>
-
-<p>Lost Canyon, a southern tributary of the Dolores River, contains
-instructive cliff-houses to which my attention was called by Mr. Gordon
-Parker, superintendent of the Montezuma Forest Reserve, who has kindly
-allowed me to use the accompanying photographs. This cliff-house
-(<a href="#PLATE_10_A">pl. 10, <i>a</i></a>, <a href="#PLATE_10_B"><i>b</i>)</a>
-belongs to the true Mesa Verde type and shows comparatively good
-preservation of its walls, some of the beams being in place. It is most
-easily approached from Mancos.</p>
-
-<p>There are small cliff-houses in the same canyon not far from Dolores,
-but these are smaller and their walls very poorly preserved.</p>
-
-<p>An interesting feature of these cliff-houses in Lost Canyon is that
-they mark the northern horizon of cliff-dwellings of the Mesa Verde
-type, having kivas similarly constructed.</p>
-
-<h3 id="GREAT_HOUSES"><span class="smcap">Great Houses and Towers</span></h3>
-
-<p>Great houses and towers differ from pueblos of the pure type but may
-often be combined with them, forming composite houses arranged in
-clusters called villages. Castles and towers may be isolated structures
-without additional chambers, or may have many annexed rooms which
-are rectangular, round, or semicircular in form. Semicircular towers
-surrounded by concentric curved walls connected by radial partitions
-forming compartments are shown in Horseshoe Ruin, to which attention
-has been called in preceding pages, and possibly in the circular or
-semicircular ruins on hilltops near Dolores.</p>
-
-<h4 id="MASON">MASONRY</h4>
-
-<p>The masonry of the great house and tower type (<a href="#PLATE_11_A">pl. 11, <i>a</i></a>,
-<a href="#PLATE_11_B"><i>b</i></a>) varies in excellence, not only in different examples
-but also in different portions of the same building. Some of the walls contain
-some of the best-constructed masonry north of Mexico; others (<a href="#PLATE_6_B">see pl. 6, <i>b</i></a>)
-are crudely made. In the Great House of the Holly group,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span>
-where the walls show superior construction, the lowest courses of rock
-are larger than those above, but in Hovenweep Castle small stones are
-found below those of larger size; the Round Tower in McLean Basin shows
-small and large stones introduced for ornamentation.</p>
-
-<p>The ambitious constructors of several towers have built the foundations
-of these towers on bowlders sloping at a considerable angle, and it
-is a source of wonder that these walls have stood for so many years
-without sliding from their bases. Although so well constructed in many
-instances, the courses were weak from their want of binding to the
-remaining wall. As a consequence many corners have fallen, leaving
-the remaining walls intact. The builders often failed to tie in the
-partitions to the outer walls, by which failure they lost a brace and
-have sprung away from their attachment.</p>
-
-<p>In a general way we may recognize masonry of two varieties.</p>
-
-<p>1. That in which horizontal courses are obscure or absent. This has
-resulted from the use of stones of different sizes, the intervals
-between which are filled in with masses of adobe. These stones are
-little fashioned, or dressed only on one side, that forming the face of
-the wall.</p>
-
-<p>2. That constructed of horizontal courses, constituting by far the
-larger number of these buildings. Each course of this masonry is made
-of well-dressed stones, carefully pecked, and of the same size. In this
-horizontal masonry the thickness of stones used may vary in different
-courses (<a href="#PLATE_11_B">pl. 11, <i>b</i></a>). They may be alternately narrow
-or thick, or layers of thick stones may be separated by one or more layers of
-tabular or thin stones. This method of alternation may be so regular
-as to please the eye and thus become decorative, a mode of decoration
-that reached a high development in the Chaco Ruins. The stones in the
-horizontal style of masonry are equal in size throughout the whole
-building in some cases, and show not only care in choice of stones but
-also in dressing them to the same regulation size. In these cases the
-joints fit so accurately that chinking has not been found necessary and
-a minimum use of adobe was required.</p>
-
-<p>The inner walls of kivas are much better constructed than the outer
-walls of the same or of the walls about them. The masonry here is
-regular horizontal. The sides, lintels, and thresholds of doorways
-are among the finest examples of construction. With the exception of
-walls sheltered by overhanging cliffs, the plastering has completely
-disappeared, but there is no reason to doubt that the interiors of all
-the great houses and towers were formerly plastered.</p>
-
-<p>It is instructive to compare the masonry of the great houses and towers
-of the Mancos with that of the towers in Hill Canyon (<a href="#PLATE_1_C">pl. 11, <i>c</i></a>)
-in Utah, the most northern extension of these two types. In Eight Mile
-Ruin, one of the largest of these buildings in Hill Canyon, we have a
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span>
-circular tower with annexed great houses, all constructed of
-well-dressed stones, the masonry in the walls showing on one side of
-the tower. No excavations, however, have yet been undertaken in Hill
-Canyon Ruins, and it is not known whether the unit type of kiva is
-found there, but the combination of great houses and towers is evident
-from the ground plans elsewhere published.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
-
-<p>The feature of the towers in Hill Canyon is the clustering into groups,
-somewhat recalling the condition in Cannonball Ruin, where, however,
-they are united. In the Eight Mile Ruin one of the towers is separated
-from the remaining houses.</p>
-
-<p>Several towers have accompanying circular depressions with surrounding
-mounds. This association can well be seen in Holmes Tower on the
-Mancos Canyon and in Davis Tower and one or two others on the Yellow
-Jacket. These depressions, sometimes called reservoirs, have never been
-excavated, but from what is known of rooms accompanying towers in the
-western section of Hovenweep Castle it may be that they indicate kivas.
-Some towers have no sunken area in the immediate vicinity, especially
-those mounted on rocky points or perched on bowlders. At Cannonball
-Ruin there are several kivas side by side in one section and towering
-above them is a massive walled tower and other rooms.</p>
-
-<h4 id="STRUCTURE">STRUCTURE OF TOWERS</h4>
-
-<p>None of the towers examined have evidences of mural pilasters to
-support a roof or recesses in the walls as in vaulted-roofed kivas.
-They are sometimes two stories high, the rafters and flooring resting
-on ledges of the inner wall. Lateral entrances are common and windows
-are absent.<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p>
-
-<p>While the author has found no ruin of the same ground plan as Sun
-Temple on the Mesa Verde, <big><b>D</b></big>-shaped towers or great houses from
-several localities distantly recall this mysterious building, and there may be
-an identity in use between Sun Temple and the massive walled structures
-of the McElmo and Yellow Jacket; what that use was has not thus far
-been determined.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a>
-If they were constructed for observatories we can not account for the
-square tower in the South Fork of Square Tower Canyon, from which one
-can not even look down the canyon, much less in other directions,
-hemmed in as it is by cliffs. Isolated towers are often too small for
-defense; and they show no signs of habitation.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span></p>
-
-<p>Are they granaries for storage of corn or places for rites and
-ceremonies? Do they combine several functions—observation, defense,
-and storage of food? Thus far in studies of more than 30 towers and
-great houses not one has been found so well preserved that enough
-remains to determine its use, and yet their walls are among the best
-in all southwestern ruins. Some future archeologist may find objects
-in towers that will demonstrate their function, but from our present
-knowledge no theory of their use yet suggested is satisfactory.</p>
-
-<p>It is impossible from the data available to determine the century in
-which the towers and great houses of the region were constructed. Thus
-far a few were seen with great trees growing in them, but none with
-roofs; the state of preservation of the walls does not point to a great
-age. Several writers have regarded them as occupied subsequently to
-the Spanish conquest, while others have ascribed to them a very remote
-antiquity. It can hardly be questioned that the cliff-dwellers, and by
-inference their kindred, the tower builders, were superior in their
-arts to modern Pueblos.</p>
-
-<p>It is important to determine first of all the forms of these towers;
-whether their ground plans are circular, oval, square, rectangular, or
-semicircular. The northern wall of many is uniformly curved and the
-last to fall, which might lead to the belief that the southern side,
-generally straight, was poorly made, but one can not determine that by
-direct observation, since the latter has fallen. As a matter of fact
-the south wall was generally low and straight, over 50 per cent of
-the “round” towers being semicircular, <big><b>D</b></big>-shaped,
-or some modification of that form; but we also have square and
-rectangular towers. It is also important to determine whether these
-had single or multiple chambers and the arrangement of the rooms
-in relation to them. This is especially desirable in towers with
-concentric compartments.</p>
-
-<p>It is also instructive to know more of the association of towers with
-pueblos and cliff-dwellings or to analyze component architectural
-features. The tower type often occurs without appended rooms. At Cliff
-Palace and Square Tower House it is united with a pueblo village under
-cliffs; in Mud Spring Ruin it has a like relation to rooms of a pueblo
-in the open. Has its function changed by that union? What use did the
-tower serve when isolated and had it the same use when united with
-other kinds of rooms in cliff-dwellings and pueblos?</p>
-
-<p>No writer on the prehistoric towers of Colorado and Utah has emphasized
-the fact that a large number of these buildings are semicircular or
-<big><b>D</b></big>-shaped, but it has been taken for granted that the fallen wall on the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span>
-south side was curved, rendering the tower circular or oval.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a>
-In most cases this wall was the straight side of a <big><b>D</b></big>-shaped tower.
-Doctor Prudden, who first recognized the importance of a union of towers with
-other types of architecture in the McElmo district, says:<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a>
-“Towers of various forms and heights occasionally form a part of composite ruins
-of various types.” He says also: “Several of the houses are modified by
-the introduction of a round tower.” And again: “At the head of a short
-canyon north of the Alkali, which I have called Jackson Canyon ... each
-building consists of an irregular mass of rooms about 200 feet long,
-with low towers among them.”</p>
-
-<p>As our studies are morphological, dealing with forms rather than
-sites of towers, little attention need be paid to their situation on
-bowlders, in cliffs, or at the bottoms of canyons. The majority of the
-castellated ruins considered in the following pages are in the proposed
-Hovenweep National Monument, but there are others in the main Yellow
-Jacket and its other tributaries.</p>
-
-<h4 id="HOVEN_DISTR">HOVENWEEP DISTRICT</h4>
-
-<p>The name Hovenweep (“Deserted Valley”) is an old one in the
-nomenclature of the canyons of southwestern Colorado and formerly
-(1877) was applied to the canyon now called the Yellow Jacket, but at
-present is limited to one of the tributaries. The name is here used to
-designate an area situated just over the Colorado State line, in Utah,
-part of which it is hoped will later be reserved from the public domain
-and made a monument to be called Hovenweep National Monument.</p>
-
-<p>The ruined castles and towers in this district are marvelously well
-preserved, considering their age and imperfect masonry. We can
-determine their original appearance with no difficulty and use them
-in reconstructing the possible forms of more dilapidated ruins, now
-piles of débris. The best castles and towers known to the author are
-localized in three canyons: (1) Square Tower Canyon, (2) Holly Canyon,
-(3) Hackberry Canyon. There are, of course, other castles and towers in
-the Yellow Jacket-McElmo region, but there is no locality where so many
-different forms appear in equal numbers in a small area.</p>
-
-<h5 id="RUIN_CANYON2"><span class="smcap">Ruin Canyon</span></h5>
-
-<p>The Old Bluff Road from Dolores diverges southward from that to
-Monticello at Sandstone post office and passes a pile of rocks visible
-from the road on the Ruin Canyon long before it reaches Square Tower
-Canyon (<a href="#FIG_6">fig. 6</a>). This large ruin is situated on the east
-rim and under it in the side of the cliff are fairly well-preserved cliff-houses.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span>
-Other ruins with high standing walls were reported in Ruin Canyon but
-were not visited.</p>
-
-<p>The duplication of names of canyons in this district is misleading.
-Names like Ruin Canyon are naturally applied to canyons in which
-there are ruins. When the author learned at Dolores of Ruin Canyon,
-he supposed it was a tributary of the Yellow Jacket or McElmo, but
-while the canyon known to cowboys at Dolores by this name has large
-ruins on its rim, it is not the “Ruin Canyon” to which attention is
-now directed. The duplication of names has led me to retain the name Ruin
-Canyon for one and to suggest the name Square Tower Canyon for the other.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_6" src="images/i045.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="238" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span></b>—Square
-                         Tower Canyon.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>After leaving Ruin Canyon the Old Bluff Road takes a southerly course,
-passing through the cedars until a sagebrush clearing replaces the
-“timber,” where it crosses two well-preserved Indian reservoirs, or
-bare surfaces of rock, dipping south, the southern border having as
-a retaining wall a low ridge of earth to hold back the water. The
-retaining wall of the second reservoir has been built up by stockmen
-and, when the author was there, contained considerable water. Crossing
-the second reservoir a trail turns east or to the left and follows the
-road to Keeley Camp, near which are the “Keeley Towers.”</p>
-
-<p>At present an automobile can approach within a mile of these ruins.</p>
-
-<h5 id="SQUARE"><span class="smcap">Square Tower Canyon</span></h5>
-
-<p>To reach the Square Tower Canyon (<a href="#PLATE_11_A">pls. 11-17</a>) one returns
-to the reservoir on the Bluff Road and continues east about 3 miles farther,
-where a signboard on the left hand indicates the turn off to Square
-Tower Canyon. Following the new direction about southeast the great
-buildings are visible a mile away. An automobile can go to the very
-head of this canyon and a camp can be made within a few feet of
-Hovenweep House. If the visitor approaches Square Tower Canyon from the
-McElmo, he passes through Wickyup Canyon, where there are two towers on
-the summits of elevated buttes, not far from the junction of the canyon
-and the Yellow Jacket.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span></p>
-
-<p>The castles and towers in Square Tower Canyon have been known for many
-years and have been repeatedly photographed.<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
-
-<p>Several descriptions of these ruins have been printed, but no
-satisfactory studies of their structure have been published. They
-are recognized as prehistoric and are generally thought to have been
-inhabited contemporaneously with the cliff-dwellers of the Mesa Verde,
-being built in the same style of architecture.</p>
-
-<h5 id="SQUARE_TOWER"><span class="smcap">Classification of Ruins in<br />
-Square Tower Canyon</span></h5>
-
-<p>The ruins in Square Tower Canyon are classified for convenience in
-description as follows:</p>
-
-<p>(1) Ruins which have indications of inclosed circular kivas, with
-mural pilasters and banquettes, and closely approximated surrounding
-rooms. To this class belong ruins 1, 2, and 10. Of these, Unit type
-Ruin (No. 10) has only one kiva and belongs to the simplest or unit
-form of the pure type. Ruins 1 and 2 have two or more kivas and are
-formed by a union of several units, combined with towers and great
-houses. (2) Ruins, the main feature of which is absence of a circular
-kiva. The Twin Towers belong to this second or “great house” type. The
-few cliff-dwellings in this canyon are small, generally without kivas,
-resembling storage cists rather than domiciles.</p>
-
-<h5 id="HOVEN1"><span class="smcap">Hovenweep House (Ruin 1)</span></h5>
-
-<p>This ruin (<a href="#FIG_7">fig. 7</a>), the largest in the canyon, is situated
-at the head of the South Fork. Although many of its walls have fallen, there still
-remains a semicircular great house (<i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>)
-with high walls conspicuous for some distance. The ruin is a pueblo
-of rectangular form belonging to the pure type, showing circular
-depressions identified as kivas (<i>K</i>), embedded in collections of
-square and rectangular rooms, and massive walled buildings (<i>E</i>)
-on the south side.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_7" src="images/i046.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="480" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span></b>—Ground
-             plan of Hovenweep House.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The standing walls of the ruin are remains of a conspicuous <big><b>D</b></big>-shaped
-tower (<i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>), which is multichambered. Its
-straight wall measures 23 feet, the curved wall 56 feet, and its
-highest wall, which is on the northeast corner, is 15 feet high. At the
-northwest angle of the ruin (A) there stand remains of high walls which
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span>
-indicate that corner of a rectangular pueblo. Hovenweep House (<a href="#PLATE_14_A">pl. 14, <i>a</i></a>)
-was the largest building in this canyon, but with the exception of
-the addition of a semicircular tower or great house, does not differ
-greatly from a pueblo like Far View House on the Mesa Verde. The piles
-of stone and earth indicating rooms below justify the conjecture that
-when the fallen débris is removed the unfallen walls will still rise
-several feet above their rocky foundations. If properly excavated,
-Hovenweep House would be an instructive building, but in its present
-condition, while very picturesque, its structure is difficult to determine.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_8" src="images/i047.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="455" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below2"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span></b>—Ground
-          plan of Hovenweep Castle.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h5 id="HOVEN2"><span class="smcap">Hovenweep Castle</span></h5>
-
-<p>This ruin (<a href="#PLATE_14_B">pls. 14, <i>b</i></a>, <a href="#PLATE_14_C"><i>c</i></a>;
-<a href="#PLATE_18_B">18, <i>b</i></a>), like the
-preceding, has circular kivas compactly embedded in rectangular
-rooms arranged about them, indicating the pure type of pueblos. The
-massive walled semicircular towers and great houses are combined with
-square rooms and kivas, indicating that it is distinguished by two
-sections, an eastern and a western, which, united, impart to the whole
-the shape of a letter L (<a href="#FIG_8">fig. 8</a>).</p>
-
-<h6 id="HOVEN_W">WESTERN SECTION OF<br /> HOVENWEEP CASTLE</h6>
-
-<p>The western section (<a href="#FIG_8">fig. 8, <i>A-D</i>, <i>M</i></a>) of Hovenweep
-Castle is made up of five rooms, the most western of which, <i>M</i>, is
-semicircular, while <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, and <i>D</i> are
-rectangular. Room <i>A</i> is almost square, one of its walls forming
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span>
-the straight wall of the south side of the semicircular tower,
-<i>M</i>. At the union its walls are not tied into the masonry of the
-circular wall of the tower, as may be seen in the illustration, <a href="#PLATE_14_B">plate 14, <i>b</i></a>,
-implying that it was constructed later. There is an
-entrance into <i>A</i> from the south or cliff side, and a passageway
-from <i>A</i> to Room <i>B</i>, which latter opens by a doorway into
-Room <i>C</i>. All rectangular rooms of the western section communicate
-with each other, but none except A seem to have had an external
-entrance. The photograph of the south wall of the west section of the
-ruin (<a href="#PLATE_14_C">pl. 14, <i>c</i></a>) shows small portholes in the
-second story and narrow slits in the tower walls. The lower courses of masonry
-are formed of thinner stones than the rows above, but smaller stones
-compose the courses at the top of the wall. A view of the north wall of
-the western section (<a href="#PLATE_22_A">pl. 22, <i>a</i></a>) shows the
-tower and rooms united to it. There is no kiva in the western section.</p>
-
-<h6 id="HOVEN_E">EASTERN SECTION OF<br /> HOVENWEEP CASTLE</h6>
-
-<p>The longest dimension of the western section (<a href="#PLATE_12">pls. 12</a>,
-<a href="#PLATE_14_C">14, <i>c</i></a>)
-is approximately east-west; that of the eastern is nearly north-south.
-The eastern section (<a href="#FIG_8">fig. 8, <i>E-L</i></a>), like the western, has
-a tower (<i>L</i>), which is situated between two circular depressions or kivas
-(<i>K</i>). On the north and south ends the eastern section is flanked
-by rectangular rooms. Those at the north end were better constructed,
-and even now stand as high as the walls of the western tower. The views
-show that their corners are not as well preserved as their faces, which
-is due to defects in masonry, as lack of bonding. Although much débris
-has accumulated around the kivas, especially in their cavities, it is
-evident that these ceremonial rooms were formerly one storied, and
-practically subterranean on account of the surrounding rooms. Several
-fragments of walls projecting above the accumulated débris indicate
-rooms at the junction of the eastern and western sections of the ruin,
-but their form and arrangement at that point are not evident and can be
-determined only by excavation. The inner kiva walls show evidences of
-mural pilasters and banquettes like those of cliff-dwellings and other
-pure pueblo types.</p>
-
-<h5 id="RUIN_3"><span class="smcap">Ruin 3</span></h5>
-
-<p>The square tower (<a href="#PLATE_11_A">pl. 11, <i>a</i></a>), standing on
-a large angular rock in the canyon below Hovenweep Castle, is a remarkable example
-of prehistoric masonry so situated that it is shut in by cliffs, rendering
-the outlook limited. Several published photographs of this tower give
-the impression that it stands in the open and was an outlook, but that
-this is hardly the case will be seen from a general view looking west
-up the South Fork.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span></p>
-
-<h5 id="RUIN_4"><span class="smcap">Ruin 4</span></h5>
-
-<p>This ruin is a small tower situated in a commanding position on the
-point of the mesa where the canyon forks. The section of the wall still
-standing indicates a circular form, the north side of which has fallen;
-the part still intact, or that on the south side, exhibits good masonry
-about 8 feet high (<a href="#PLATE_15_C">pl. 15, <i>c</i></a>).</p>
-
-<h5 id="RUIN_5"><span class="smcap">Ruin 5</span></h5>
-
-<p>The walls of the north segment of a tower stand on a large angular
-block of stone rising from a ledge above the arroyo, or bed of the
-canyon, below Ruin 4, on the South Fork. What appears to have been a
-doorway opens on its north side; this opening is defended by a wall,
-remains of a former protected passageway into the tower.</p>
-
-<p>On the perpendicular cliff of the precipice near Ruin 5 and below
-the point on which Ruin 4 stands there are several almost illegible
-pictographs, below which are rather obscure evidences of a building,
-the features of which can be determined only by excavation.</p>
-
-<p>Instructive features of Tower No. 5 are two parallel walls, one
-on each side of the doorway, like those of the circular towers on
-the promontory at the junction of the Yellow Jacket and McElmo.
-Other towers on the canyon rim show defensive walls, as in Ruin 9,
-constructed about their entrances from corners of the buildings to
-the mesa rim, effectually preventing passage. Morley and Kidder have
-suggested that the walled recess in the cliff below Ruin 9 was probably
-built to prevent access from below. This feature is found in the floor
-entrances of a building near the Great House of the Holly group.</p>
-
-<h5 id="RUIN_6"><span class="smcap">Ruin 6</span></h5>
-
-<p>This ruin is a small tower whose curved walls are so broken down that
-the form is not evident. It is situated in the base of the talus at the
-head of the South Fork (<a href="#PLATE_26_A">pl. 26, <i>a</i></a>).</p>
-
-<h5 id="RUIN_7"><span class="smcap">Eroded Bowlder House<br /> (Ruin 7)</span></h5>
-
-<p>This house, more remarkable from its site than its structure, was
-constructed in an eroded cave of a bowlder halfway down the talus of
-the cliff. The front walls are somewhat broken down, but others built
-in the rear of the cave still remain intact. On the top of the bowlder
-is the débris of fallen walls, suggesting a former tower, but not
-much remains in place to determine its outlines. Where the walls are
-protected the mortar shows impressions of human hands and at one place
-there are the indentations of a corncob used by the plasterers to press
-the mortar between the layers of stone. There were formerly at least
-two rooms in the rear of the cave, the front walls of which have fallen
-and are strewn down the talus to the bottom of the canyon.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span></p>
-
-<h5 id="RUIN_8"><span class="smcap">Twin Towers<br /> (Ruin 8)</span></h5>
-
-<p>The so-called Twin Towers, which seen together from certain points
-appear as one ruin (<a href="#PLATE_15_A">pl. 15, <i>a</i></a>,
-<a href="#PLATE_15_B"><i>b</i></a>), rank among the most
-impressive buildings in Square Tower Canyon. They stand on the south
-side of the canyon on a rock isolated by a cleft from the adjoining
-cliff. The larger (<a href="#FIG_9">fig. 9, <i>A-E</i></a>) has an oval ground
-plan and a doorway in the southwest corner; the smaller (<i>F</i>, <i>G</i>,
-<i>H</i>, <i>I</i>) is horseshoe shaped with a doorway in the east
-wall, which is straight. The arrangement of rooms is seen in <a href="#FIG_9">figure 9</a>.
-Small walled-up caves are found below the foundation on the northwest
-base of the larger room.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_9" src="images/i050.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="241" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below2"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span></b>—Ground
-             plan of Twin Towers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h5 id="RUIN_9"><span class="smcap">Ruin 9</span></h5>
-
-<p>The ground plan of this ruin is rectangular in form, 19 feet 6 inches
-long by 10 feet wide. The standing walls measure 11 feet in altitude.
-It is situated on the south rim at the mouth of the South Fork, just
-above Ruin 7, a few feet back from the cliff. A doorway opening in the
-middle of its north wall was formerly made difficult of entrance by
-walls, now fallen, extending from the northeast and northwest angles to
-the edge of the cliff. The masonry throughout is rough; projecting ends
-of rafters indicate a building two stories high. There are peepholes
-with plastered surfaces through the southeast and west walls, which
-suggest ports. A short distance east of the building is a circle of
-stones reminding the author of a shrine.</p>
-
-<h5 id="RUIN_10"><span class="smcap">Unit Type House<br /> (Ruin 10)</span></h5>
-
-<p>This pueblo (<a href="#PLATE_19_C">pl. 19, <i>c</i></a>), from a comparative point
-of view, is one of the most interesting ruins in the Hovenweep, and is situated on
-the very edge of the canyon on the North Fork not far from where it
-begins. It is the simplest form of prehistoric pueblo, or the
-unit<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>
-of a pure type, made up of a centrally placed circular ceremonial
-room (<a href="#FIG_10">fig. 10, <i>K</i></a>) embedded in rectangular rooms,
-six in number (<i>A-F</i>). The resulting or external form is rectangular, oriented
-about due north and south; the southern side, which formerly rose
-from the edge of the canyon, being much broken down and its masonry
-precipitated over the cliff.</p>
-
-<p>The central kiva (<a href="#FIG_10">fig. 10</a>) is made of exceptionally fine
-masonry and shows by what remains that it had mural banquettes, and pilasters to
-support the roof, with other features like a typical kiva of the Mesa
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span>
-Verde cliff-houses. A side entrance opens in one corner into a small
-room (<a href="#FIG_10">fig. 10, <i>G</i></a>) in which ceremonial objects
-may have been formerly stored (<a href="#PLATE_32_B">pl. 32, <i>b</i></a>).</p>
-
-<p>The kiva of Unit type House is architecturally the same as those with
-vaulted roofs at Spruce-tree House, Cliff Palace, and Far View House on
-the Mesa Verde. A similar structure, according to Prudden,<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>
-occurs at Mitchell Spring Ruin in the Montezuma Valley, and near the Picket
-corral. The same type was found by Morley<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a>
-at the Cannonball Ruin and by Kidder<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>
-in a kiva on Montezuma Creek in Utah, where clusters of mounds would
-appear to be composed of single or composite ruins of this type. This
-small pueblo was probably inhabited by one social unit, and may be
-regarded as the first stage of a compound pueblo.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_10" src="images/i051.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="339" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below2"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span></b>—Ground
-               plan of Unit type House.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h5 id="RUIN_11"><span class="smcap">Stronghold House<br /> (Ruin 11)</span></h5>
-
-<p>Ruin 11 is composed of a cluster of several small buildings, one of
-which is situated on the north edge of the mesa somewhat east of Ruin
-10 (<a href="#PLATE_25_B">pl. 25, <i>b</i></a>); another, called by Morley and Kidder
-Gibraltar House, formerly of considerable size, was built on the sloping surface
-of an angular bowlder (<a href="#PLATE_17">pl. 17</a>, <a href="#PLATE_21_B">21, <i>b</i></a>).
-Although many walls have fallen, enough remains to render it a
-picturesque ruin, attractive to the visitor and instructive to the
-archeologist, by whom it has been classed as a tower. This building
-from the east appears to be a square tower, but it is in reality
-composed of several rooms perched on an inaccessible rock.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span></p>
-
-<h5><span class="smcap">Ruins in Holly Canyon</span></h5>
-
-<p>The towers in Holly Canyon (<a href="#FIG_11">fig. 11</a>) are in about the
-same condition of preservation as those in Square Tower Canyon. They cluster about
-the head of a small canyon (<a href="#PLATE_18_A">pl. 18, <i>a</i></a>) and may be
-approached on foot along the mesa above Keeley Camp, about a mile distant. Two of
-the Holly ruins belong to the tower type and were built on fallen bowlders.
-One of these has two rooms on the ground floor. (<a href="#PLATE_19_A">Pls. 19, <i>a</i></a>,
-<a href="#PLATE_19_B"><i>b</i></a>; <a href="#PLATE_20_A">20, <i>a</i></a>,
-<a href="#PLATE_20_C"><i>c</i></a>.)</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_11" src="images/i052.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="323" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below2"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span></b>—Holly
-               Canyon Ruins.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h6 id="RUIN_A">RUIN A, GREAT HOUSE,<br /> HACKBERRY CASTLE</h6>
-
-<p>Ruin A (<a href="#PLATE_21_A">pl. 21, <i>a</i></a>), the largest building of
-the group, which stands on the edge of the canyon, is rectangular in form, measuring
-31 by 9 feet, and is 20 feet high (<a href="#FIG_11">fig. 11, <i>A</i></a>).
-Evidences of two rooms appear on the ground plan, one of which is
-14 feet long, the other 12 feet inside measurement. The partition
-separating the two rooms is not tied into the outer walls, an almost
-constant feature in ancient masonry. The ends of the rafters are still
-seen in the wall at a level 12 feet above the base. Fallen stones have
-accumulated in the rooms to a considerable depth, and the tops of the
-remaining wall, where the mortar is washed out, will tumble in a short
-time.</p>
-
-<p>Ruin B (<a href="#PLATE_20_B">pl. 20, <i>b</i></a>),
-situated a short distance north of Ruin A, also stands on the canyon
-rim. The north wall is entire, but the south wall has fallen. What
-remains indicates that the ruin was about square, with corners on the
-north side rounded, imparting to it a semicircular form. The entrance
-into this room may have been through the floor.</p>
-
-<h6 id="TOWER_C">TOWERS [C AND D]</h6>
-
-<p>These towers (<a href="#PLATE_23_A">pl. 23, <i>a</i></a>, <a href="#PLATE_23_B"><i>b</i></a>)
-show some of the finest masonry known in this region, being constructed on fallen bowlders
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span>
-which their foundations almost completely cover. Holly Tower (<a href="#PLATE_23_B">pl. 23, <i>b</i></a>)
-measures 16 feet high and 21 feet in diameter. It is 7
-feet wide, its top rising to a height level with that of the mesa on
-which stand buildings already considered. One of the two rooms of this
-tower is narrower and wider than the other, shown in an offset as if
-constructed at a different time. Its foundations are 17 feet long by
-8 feet wide, the highest wall measuring, at the southeast corner, 12
-feet 8 inches. There is a fine doorway, wide above and narrow below,
-in the north wall. The approach at present is difficult on account of
-the height of the rock on which it stands, but there are evidences of
-former footholes.</p>
-
-<h6 id="HOLLY_HOUSE">HOLLY HOUSE</h6>
-
-<p>Several broken-down walls, some of which are over 6 feet high, situated
-east of Ruin A, appear to belong to a pueblo of considerable size
-(<a href="#FIG_11">fig. 11, <i>E</i>, <i>F</i></a>), but the large
-foundation rock on which it is situated has settled, its top having
-separated from the edge of the canyon, so that the corner of the
-building (<i>F</i>) is out of plumb. The walls on the adjoining cliff
-are also much broken down, although several sections of them rise a few
-feet above the general surface. The cause of this change in level of
-the base may have been an earthquake or the settling or sliding of the
-bowlder on the talus down the hill. The united building appears to have
-been a pueblo of rectangular form. Its walls are so broken down that it
-was not possible to determine its exact dimensions.</p>
-
-<h5 id="HACKBERRY"><span class="smcap">Ruins in Hackberry Canyon</span></h5>
-
-<h6 id="HORSESHOE">HORSESHOE HOUSE</h6>
-
-<p>The large building in Hackberry Canyon, one of the terminal spurs of
-Bridge Canyon, a mile northeast of the cluster in Holly Canyon, is
-particularly instructive from the fact that surrounding the remains of
-a circular tower, for two-thirds of its circumference, is a concentric
-wall with compartments separated by radial partitions (<a href="#FIG_12">fig. 12, 1</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_12" src="images/i053.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="517" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below2"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span></b>—Horseshoe
-          (Hackberry) Canyon.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Horseshoe House (<a href="#PLATE_23_C">pl. 23, <i>c</i></a>) stands on the north edge
-of the canyon (<a href="#FIG_12">fig. 12, 1</a>), having its straight wall on the south
-side, as is usually the case, the well-preserved north side being curved. The
-northeastern corner still stands several feet high. The southeastern
-corner formerly rested on a projecting rock, which recalls the
-cornerstone of Sun Temple. The masonry of most of the southern segment
-of the enclosed circular room or tower has fallen down the cliff. There
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span>
-does not appear to have been a doorway on the south side, and there is
-not space for rooms on this side on account of the nearness to the edge
-of the cliff. While the form (<a href="#FIG_13">fig. 13</a>) of Horseshoe Ruin
-recalls that of Sun Temple, in details of room structure it is widely divergent.
-The length of the south wall, or that connecting the two ends of the
-horseshoe, is 30 feet, its width 27 feet; the highest wall on the
-northwest side is 12 feet. <a href="#FIG_13">Figure 13</a> shows the arrangement
-of the rooms and the mutilation of the south wall of the ruin. The distance between
-the outer and inner concentric walls averages 4 feet; the circular room
-is 17 feet in diameter.</p>
-
-<p>In the same cluster as Horseshoe Ruin (<a href="#PLATE_24_A">pl. 24, <i>a</i></a>) there
-is another well-made tower (<a href="#FIG_12">fig. 12, 4</a>), constructed on a point
-at the entrance to the canyon, and below it in a cave are well-preserved walls
-of a cliff-dwelling.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_13" src="images/i054.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="388" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below2"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span></b>—Ground
-            plan of Horseshoe House.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A short distance due north of Horseshoe House, at the head of a small
-canyon, a tributary of Bridge Canyon, there are two large pueblos and a
-round tower. The pueblos are mentioned by Prudden, who gives a ground
-plan which indicates an extensive settlement.</p>
-
-<h4 id="TOWERS_YJ">TOWERS IN THE MAIN<br /> YELLOW JACKET CANYON</h4>
-
-<p>Of the several towers and great houses of the main Yellow Jacket Canyon
-two may suffice to show their resemblance to those in Square Tower
-Canyon. The two towers considered belong to the <big><b>D</b></big>-shaped variety,
-the straight wall, as is almost always the case, being on the south side.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span></p>
-
-<h5 id="DAVIS"><span class="smcap">Davis Tower</span></h5>
-
-<p>Mr. C. K. Davis, who lives not far from the Yellow Jacket Spring,
-conducted the author to a tower of semicircular ground plan (<a href="#FIG_14">fig. 14</a>)
-near his ranch. This ruin (<a href="#PLATE_26_B">pl. 26, <i>b</i></a>), is situated
-on a rocky ridge on top of the talus halfway down to the bottom of the canyon, on
-its right side.</p>
-
-<h5 id="LION"><span class="smcap">Lion (Littrell) Tower</span><a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></h5>
-
-<p>This tower (<a href="#PLATE_29_B">pl. 29, <i>b</i></a>) is built on a bowlder situated
-in Yellow Jacket Canyon a mile from Mr. Littrell’s ranch and about 5 miles south
-of the Yellow Jacket post office; approximately 20 miles from Dolores,
-Colorado. Its ground plan (<a href="#FIG_15">fig. 15</a>) is <big><b>D</b></big>-shaped,
-the lower story being divided by partitions into four rooms. The wall
-of the middle room seems to be double, or to have been reenforced. It
-measures 40 feet on the straight side, the highest wall being about 25
-feet above the base. The foundations rest on the irregular surface of a
-bowlder to which it conforms.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_14" src="images/i055a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="429" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below2"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span></b>—Ground
-         plan of Davis Ruin.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4 id="MCLEAN">M’LEAN BASIN</h4>
-
-<p>McLean Basin is 3 miles from the Old Bluff City Road near Picket
-corral, 32 miles from Dolores. It has been a favorite wintering place
-for stock and is well known to herdsmen. One can approach the ruin
-from the road to Bluff City and the towers here referred to are easily
-reached by a trail down the mesa to the highest terrace. There are
-said to be several ruins in the McLean Basin, the two towers (<a href="#PLATE_26_C">pls. 26, <i>c</i></a>,
-<a href="#PLATE_27">27</a>, <a href="#PLATE_28_A">28, <i>a</i></a>,
-<a href="#PLATE_28_B"><i>b</i></a>) visited being placed in an
-exceptional position in reference to surrounding rooms. One of these
-towers is circular, the other <big><b>D</b></big>-shaped or semicircular in ground plan
-(<a href="#FIG_16">fig. 16, <i>A</i>, <i>B</i></a>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_15" src="images/i055b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="297" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below2"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span></b>-Ground
-         plan of Lion House.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Previously to the author’s study of the southwestern towers two forms
-of these structures were recognized; the square or rectangular, and the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span>
-circular or oval. It is now known that several of the towers previously
-described as circular are in reality <big><b>D</b></big>-shaped, and this form is
-probably more common than the circular.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_16" src="images/i056.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="377" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below2"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span></b>—Ground
-         plan of ruin with towers in McLean Basin.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The rectangular building in the McLean Basin has a circular tower (<a href="#PLATE_28_B">pl. 28, <i>b</i></a>)
-on the southwest angle and a <big><b>D</b></big>-shaped tower (<a href="#PLATE_28_A">pl. 28, <i>a</i></a>)
-on the northeast. They resemble two turrets rising above
-the remaining walls that form the sides of the rectangles. These
-towers average about 12 feet high, and are well constructed, while low
-connecting walls of coarse masonry rise slightly above the surface.
-It would appear from the amount of débris that the remaining walls
-indicate a row of buildings, one story high, with circular subterranean
-kivas, but this can not be accurately determined without excavation of
-the ruin. Outside of the rectangle, however, there are at least two
-circular areas, possibly kiva pits. The rectangular building measures
-about 50 feet square. The ground on which the buildings formerly
-stood slopes to the south, and back of it on the north rises a low
-perpendicular bluff which effectually shelters it in that direction.
-The union of a circular and a semicircular tower with, a rectangular
-ruin is a feature not common in the McElmo-Yellow Jacket region but
-appears in Hovenweep Castle, elsewhere described. Lower down the sides
-of the basin and near by are many indications of walls of buildings.</p>
-
-<p>The pottery in the neighborhood belongs to the same black and white
-types commonly found in the Hovenweep and Mesa Verde areas.</p>
-
-<p>Except for their peculiar relation to the rectangular building the
-McLean towers do not differ essentially from others, which leads to the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span>
-inference that they were used contemporaneously and for the same
-purpose. There is a well-made doorway (<a href="#FIG_17">fig. 17</a>)
-in the Round Tower.</p>
-
-<h4 id="TOWER_SC">TOWER IN SAND CANYON</h4>
-
-<p>Sand Canyon, which opens into McElmo Canyon near Battle Rock, has
-several types of prehistoric ruins, viz, towers, cliff-houses, and
-large rim-rock pueblos. The tower type of architecture represented by
-the example here figured (<a href="#PLATE_5_A">pl. 5, <i>a</i></a>) is isolated
-from other forms of buildings. This tower is figured by Doctor Prudden, who mentions
-another in the neighborhood which the author did not visit.</p>
-
-<h4 id="TOWER_RC">TOWERS IN ROAD (WICKYUP) CANYON</h4>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_17" src="images/i057.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="386" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below2"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span></b>—Doorway
-          in Round Tower, McLean Basin.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The nomenclature of the northern canyons of the McElmo has considerably
-changed in the last 40 years. What we now call the Yellow Jacket was
-formerly known through its entire course as the Hovenweep. A small
-canyon opening near its mouth, now known as Road Canyon, was formerly
-called the Wickyup. The Old Bluff City Road from Dolores, Colorado, to
-Bluff City, Utah, divides into two branches a short distance before
-it descends into the McElmo, its left branch passing through Road
-Canyon, the right bank of which follows the Yellow Jacket, which the
-traveler fords a short distance above its junction with the McElmo.
-Wickyup Canyon may be called picturesque, its cliffs being worn into
-fantastic shapes by water and sand. It has important antiquities, among
-the most striking of which are two towers (<a href="#PLATE_24_B">pl. 24, <i>b</i></a>),
-crowning the tops of low buttes or hills. The walls of these towers are well
-constructed, one being a simple structure with a single room, the other
-having appended rectangular rooms extending toward the northwest, some
-distance along a ridge of rocks. An examination of these two towers,
-which are about one-quarter of a mile apart, shows that they belong to
-the same type as the simple forms of those above mentioned, and as the
-entrance to Square Tower Canyon is not far away, they probably belong
-to the same series. The first of the towers, called “Bowlder Castle,”
-is situated a few hundred feet east of the road, from which it is
-easily seen. This ruin is rectangular in shape and rises from a basal
-mass of débris indicating broken-down walls of rooms. At a level with
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span>
-the top of this débris on its southern side stands a well-constructed
-tower with well-made doorway, the threshold and lintel of which are
-smooth stones, whose edges project slightly from the surface of the
-wall. One remarkable feature of this tower is that the doorway has been
-walled up with rude secondary masonry (<a href="#PLATE_25_A">pl. 25, <i>a</i></a>).
-The south wall of this building has tumbled over, as is usually the case, but the
-north wall rises several feet above the base. The masonry of the second
-tower is also broken down on the south side, but the standing remains
-of the north wall, which is circular, are over 10 feet high. The
-indications are that the ground plan of this building was oval in shape
-and that it inclined inward slightly from foundation to apex. Scattered
-over the surface are the remnants of fallen walls, and near it there is
-a well-marked depression, not unlike those found in unit type mounds,
-indicating kivas.</p>
-
-<h4 id="TOWER_MANCOS">TOWERS OF THE MANCOS</h4>
-
-<p>The author’s examination of the towers in the region considered
-embraced likewise a few in the Mancos Canyon and valley. In all
-essential features the Mancos towers resemble those of Mesa Verde, the
-McElmo, and the Yellow Jacket Canyons, and were evidently built by the
-same people who constructed the towers on Navaho Canyon and elsewhere
-on the Mesa Verde National Park. A brief reference to two or three
-of these Mancos River towers may suffice to point out their general
-structure.</p>
-
-<h5 id="HOLMES"><span class="smcap">Holmes Tower</span></h5>
-
-<p>One of the towers figured by Holmes in 1877 is still among the best
-preserved in this region and can be visited by following up the Mancos
-Canyon from the west about 10 miles from where the Cortez road crosses
-the Mancos River before going on to Ship-rock. There is at this point a
-bridge and near the crossing an industrial farm of the Ute Reservation
-where accommodations were obtained. The Mancos Valley widens after
-leaving the canyon, the southern side of Mesa Verde appearing as a
-series of high mesas separated by canyons. In the neighborhood of the
-western end of Mesa Verde are lofty buttes, one called Chimney Rock,
-another the Ute Woman. This valley and the canyons extending into the
-Mesa Verde contain numerous piles of stone indicative of buildings of
-rectangular shape with numerous circular depressions. No cluster of
-mounds like those in Montezuma Valley was seen, but about 40 sites of
-buildings were distributed at intervals. None of these have standing
-walls above ground.</p>
-
-<p>Following up the Mancos Canyon is a wagon about 9 miles an arroyo was
-encountered and from there horses were taken and the river crossed to
-its south bank, above which, on the shelving terrace, is the Holmes
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span>
-Tower, visible many miles down the canyon. This tower (<a href="#PLATE_29_A">pl. 29, <i>a</i></a>)
-is in much the same condition as when sketched by Holmes over
-40 years ago. It is circular in form, about 10 feet in diameter, and
-about 16 feet high, with a broken window on the north side. The sky
-line is irregular. It is one of the best preserved towers, but not as
-high or as well constructed as some of the Hovenweep specimens.</p>
-
-<p>Accompanying this tower on the north there are mounds indicative of
-rooms and two circular saucer-like depressions. Excavations revealing a
-few human bones, including a well-worn human skull, have been made in a
-burial place southeast of the tower, where the surface is covered with
-fragments of pottery. Except in size Holmes Tower does not differ from
-others already described, but, like them, is connected with rectangular
-rooms. Farther up the Mancos Canyon there are other towers, one of
-which, Great Tower, is mentioned by Holmes in his report.</p>
-
-<p>On the way up the canyon, perhaps two-thirds of the distance from the
-bridge to the Holmes Tower, midway in the alluvial plain and on the
-right bank of Mancos Creek, stands a circular ruin which conforms to
-Holmes’s description of Great Tower but is too poorly preserved to be
-positively identified. All that now remains of this building is a large
-pile of rocks with a central depression, but no signs of radiating
-partitions, although such may have existed when it was constructed and
-for many years after it began to fall into ruin.</p>
-
-<h5 id="MANCOS_RIVER"><span class="smcap">Towers on the Mancos River<br /> Below the Bridge</span></h5>
-
-<h6 id="TOWER_A">TOWER A</h6>
-
-<p>There are two towers situated on the south side of the Mancos below the
-bridge on the Ship-rock Road, one about 6, the other 7 miles distant.
-The walls of the first of these (<a href="#PLATE_30_B">pl. 30, <i>b</i></a>) are
-visible for some distance and are about 6 feet high, evidently very much broken
-down on the south and east sides. Its shape is round and there is a pile of
-stones indicating rooms on the east side separated from the tower by
-a depression. It would be a valuable contribution to our knowledge of
-these ruins if some one would determine the nature of these pits, which
-can hardly be regarded as reservoirs, but suggest kivas.</p>
-
-<h6 id="TOWER_B">TOWER B</h6>
-
-<p>The tower (<a href="#PLATE_31_A">pl. 31, <i>a</i></a>) situated farther down the
-Mancos River has a more commanding position than Tower A and is conspicuous because
-it stands on a projecting precipice, below the rim of which are walled-up
-artificial caves. These caves have apparently never been entered by
-white men; the walls of masonry are unbroken and there are square
-openings, windows or doorways, which can be made out long before
-reaching the place.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span></p>
-
-<p>This tower (<a href="#PLATE_30_A">pl. 30, <i>a</i></a>) is almost perfectly round,
-about 10 feet in diameter, and stands at least 6 feet high. The south wall
-has fallen. In the pile of rocks on that side may be readily seen
-the top of a straight wall reaching to the edge of the cliff as if
-for protection, but no other fallen walls may now be seen in the
-neighborhood. The face of the cliff below this tower (<a href="#PLATE_7_B">pls. 7, <i>b</i></a>;
-<a href="#PLATE_31_B">31, <i>b</i></a>) is almost perpendicular, the component strata of soft
-shale alternating with harder rocks, the former well fitted for
-artificial excavations.</p>
-
-<p>The author was not impressed with the idea that any considerable number
-of troglodytic inhabitants dwelt in the small cliff rooms (<a href="#PLATE_31_B">pl. 31, <i>b</i></a>)<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a>
-dug in it. Farther on there are other caves the walls of the entrance
-to which are still in sight. It is true the surface of the cliff may
-have been eroded and fallen in the time since they were abandoned. They
-appeared to be storage cists rather than inhabited rooms.</p>
-
-<p>Along the valley by the side of the road down the Mancos from the
-bridge to the ruins many heaps of stone were noticed in the valley but
-none of these were extensive or had walls standing above ground. Nor
-were they arranged in clusters as is common in the Montezuma Valley.
-On top of these heaps were found large fragments of slag in which was
-embedded charred corn, indicating a great fire. Similar slag also with burnt
-corn has often been found by the author on the floor of excavated rooms.</p>
-
-<h3 id="MEGALITHIC"><span class="smcap">Megalithic and Slab House Ruins<br /> at McElmo Bluff</span></h3>
-
-<p>The ruined walls on the bluff situated at the junction of the McElmo
-and Yellow Jacket Canyons are archeologically instructive. As the mesa
-between the two canyons narrows in a promontory, about 100 feet in
-altitude, its configuration reminds one of the East Mesa of the Hopi.
-It is inaccessible on three sides, but on the fourth, where the width
-of the mesa is contracted, there are remains of a low zigzag wall,
-extending from one side to the other. At the western base of this
-promontory, on the ledge higher than the river, there are artificial
-walls built on bowlders in the sides of which shallow caves are eroded
-and near by them circular depressions. There are likewise remains of
-a small pueblo with walls much broken down and across the river the
-ruins of a community house, one of the largest in the district. The
-exceptional character of the ruins on top of this promontory has been
-mentioned or described by several visitors, as Holmes, Jackson, and
-Morley and Kidder, and various conjectures have been made as to their
-character and relation to the other ruins in this neighborhood.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span></p>
-
-<p>The ruins on this mesa are of two kinds: small inclosures made of
-slabs of stone set on edge and semicircular structures (<a href="#FIG_18">fig. 18</a>),
-also constructed of upright stone slabs or megaliths. Three of the latter
-have concentric surrounding walls with a “vestibule” entrance (?) at
-the south somewhat like rooms at the bases of towers. One of these is
-said by Morley and Kidder to have three concentric walls. The small
-box-like structures are numerous, and are rudely constructed, united in
-an imperfect ring about the circular rooms.</p>
-
-<p>In verification of the various theories that have been suggested
-to account for these rectangular structures—their interpretation
-as storage bins, burial places, and cremation rooms—we have no
-proof. Similar rooms of megaliths exist on Sandstone Canyon and at
-other places to the north and in Montezuma Canyon to the west. The
-rude, massive character of the masonry leads me to refer them to
-the slab house culture of Kidder and the imperfect masonry suggests
-they were habitations in a period antedating that of the pure pueblo
-culture. Such fragments of pottery as were found were, like the
-architecture, rude and archaic, adding weight to the interpretation
-that they belonged to a very old epoch.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <img id="FIG_18" src="images/i061.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="532" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below2"><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span></b>—Megalithic
-            stone inclosure, McElmo Bluff.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The author regards the structures made of stones set on edge as very
-old, possibly examples of the most primitive buildings in the McElmo
-region, antedating the pueblos with horizontal masonry farther east.
-West of the mouth of the Yellow Jacket, especially on the Montezuma
-Mesa, these megalithic walls are more pretentious, as if this was the
-center of the earlier phase of house buildings. In the eastern ruins
-these slabs of stone set on edge sometimes appear as at Far View House
-with horizontal masonry, but more as a survival.</p>
-
-<p>Since their discovery and description by Jackson and Holmes 40 years
-ago, little has been added to our knowledge of these inclosures,
-although similar remains have been reported at various points from
-Dolores far into Utah. They are called cemeteries and crematories by
-the farmers and stockmen, but skeletons or burnt bones do not occur
-in them; the charcoal shows wood fiber, and is not bone ash. More
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span>
-knowledge must be obtained through excavations before their
-significance can be determined. Their association with circular
-rooms appears in Jackson’s account<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a>
-of the stone structures on the promontory at the mouth of the
-Yellow Jacket. He says:</p>
-
-<p>“The perpendicular scarp of the mesa ran round very regularly, 50
-to 100 feet in height, the talus sloping down at a steep angle. On
-cave-like benches at the foot of the scarp is a row of rock shelters,
-much ruined, in one of which was found a very perfect polished-stone
-implement. Gaining the top of the mesa with some difficulty, we found
-a perfectly flat surface, 100 yards in width by about 200 in length,
-separated from the main plateau by a narrow neck, across which a wall
-had been thrown, but which is now nearly leveled. Almost the entire
-space fenced in by this wall was covered by an extended series of
-small squares, formed by thin slabs of sand-rock set on end. All were
-uniform in size, measuring about 3 by 5 feet, and arranged in rows, two
-and three deep, adjusted to various points of the compass. There were
-also a few circles disposed irregularly about the inclosed area, each
-about 20 feet in diameter, their circumferences being formed of similar
-rectangular spaces, leaving a circular space of 10 feet diameter in
-the center. These rectangles occur mainly in groups, and are found
-indiscriminately scattered through the whole region that has come under
-our observation upon the mesa tops and in the valleys. They all have
-the same general shape and size, and are seldom accompanied by even the
-faintest indication of a mound-like character. We have always supposed
-them to be graves, but have not as yet found any evidence that would
-prove them such. Some that we excavated to the depth of 5 and 6 feet in
-a solid earth that had never been disturbed did not reward our search
-with the faintest vestige of human remains. In nearly every case,
-however, a thin scattered layer of bits of charcoal was found from 6 to
-18 inches beneath the surface. In one instance, near the Mesa Verde,
-the upright slabs of rock which inclosed one of these rectangles were
-sunk 2 feet into the earth and projected 6 inches above it.”</p>
-
-<p>Holmes (op. cit., pp. 385-386) describes similar structures:</p>
-
-<p>“The greater portion of what are supposed to be burial places occur
-on the summits of hills or on high, barren promontories that overlook
-the valleys and cañons. In these places considerable areas, amounting
-in some cases to half an acre or more, are thickly set with rows of
-stone slabs, which are set in the ground and arranged in circles or
-parallelograms of greatly varying dimensions. At first sight the idea
-of a cemetery is suggested, although on examination it is found that
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span>
-the soil upon the solid rock surfaces is but a few inches deep, or if
-deeper, so compact that with the best implements it is very difficult
-to penetrate it.</p>
-
-<p>“On the west bank of the Dolores, near the second bend, I came upon a
-cluster of these standing stones on the summit of a low, rounded hill,
-and in the midst of a dense growth of full-grown piñon pines.”</p>
-
-<p>The rows of stones at this place, according to the same author,
-were composed of undressed slabs, many of which had fallen, the
-parallelograms averaging 3 by 8 feet in dimensions. Thin layers of bits
-of charcoal and pottery occur in the neighborhood. The date these slabs
-were placed upright was very early, for trees growing in the inclosures
-were estimated to be three or four hundred years old. These stones were
-sometimes “embedded in the sides and roots of the trees.” Holmes had
-the “impression that these places, if not actually burying grounds,
-were at least places used for the performance of funeral rites ... the
-remains of the dead being burned or left to decay in the open air.”</p>
-
-<p>The interiors of the inclosures were found on excavation to be filled
-to a depth of about a foot with soil mixed with ashes. There were many
-fragments of pottery, and some other objects near them, but nothing
-to indicate, as suggested by previous observations, that they were
-burial cists or even crematories for burying the dead. No charred
-human remains occur, but charcoal is abundant. It may have been that
-these places were used as ovens for roasting corn or for some culinary
-purposes, the neighboring circular rooms being possibly used for the
-same purposes as towers by the people who formerly inhabited this
-region. They are not large enough for dwellings and the soil in them is
-too shallow for burial purposes. They belong to a type which is widely
-distributed over the district visited by the author. Especially fine
-examples occur north of Sandstone Canyon district.</p>
-
-<p>At the base of the great cliff, on the top of which the remains in
-question are found, under the shelter of an overhanging bowlder, may be
-seen one of the finest collections of pictographs of animals and human
-beings. Not far from the last-mentioned bowlder the walls of a large
-pueblo can readily be traced along the banks of the McElmo Canyon.
-In his studies of the antiquities of this region the author did not
-penetrate west of the mouth of Yellow Jacket Canyon, but he was told
-by stockmen and sheep herders of the existence of many other ruins
-contiguous to the road all the way from this point to Bluff City. The
-most important of these have already been described in a general way.</p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span></p>
-<h2 class="nobreak">GRASS MESA CEMETERY</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>Grass Mesa, a plateau with precipitous sides overlooking the Dolores
-River, is about 10 miles down the river from Dolores on the right
-bank of the stream. There remain few signs of former buildings at
-this place, but very many artifacts, pottery, stone implements, and
-fragments of well-worn metates occur at various places, some of which
-are among the best ever seen by the author. This bluff seems to have
-been the site of a settlement, possibly pre-Puebloan, like that on
-McElmo Bluff, with rough walls, resorted to for refuge, and later used
-as a cemetery. It is well adapted for these purposes, its top being
-almost inaccessible on the river side. There are many other similar
-sites of Indian settlements farther down the river, but this is one of
-the most typical. The scenery along the road that follows the banks
-of the river from Dolores is ever to be remembered on account of high
-cliffs on each side.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="RESERVOIRS">RESERVOIRS</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>Many artificial reservoirs dating to prehistoric times were observed
-in the area covered by the author’s reconnoissance. These fall into two
-well-marked types, one form being a circular depression, apparently
-excavated and sometimes walled up with earth or stones. The other
-form was not excavated by man, but the sloping surface of rock was
-surrounded on the lowest level by a bank of earth, forming a dam or
-retaining wall. Both types of reservoirs are commonly formed near some
-former center of population, but sometimes occur far from mounds,
-wherever the surface of the land has a convenient slope and the water
-can be compounded by a retaining wall. The height of the bank that
-holds back the water of these prehistoric reservoirs has been increased
-in some cases by stockmen; the walls of others still remain practically
-the same height they were when constructed by the aborigines. One of
-the best examples of the second type of reservoir, the retaining wall
-of which is shown in <a href="#PLATE_32_A">plate 32, <i>a</i></a>, is crossed by
-the road to Bluff City near the ruins in Holly Canyon, not far from Picket corral.
-A few miles north of this reservoir, at the edge of the cedars, the
-road crosses another of these ancient reservoirs, whose retaining bank
-has been considerably increased in height by stockmen. The ancient
-reservoir at Bug Mesa covers fully 4 acres, and the reservoir near
-Goodman Point Ruin is almost as large, and, although somewhat changed
-from its aboriginal condition, is still used by farmers dwelling in the
-neighborhood. The latter belongs to the first type; the former to the
-second. Reservoirs of one or the other type are generally found in the
-neighborhood of all large heaps of rocks, the so-called mounds that
-indicate the former existence of pueblos. The reservoir of the Mummy
-Lake village on the Mesa Verde belongs to the excavated type.</p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span></p>
-<h2 class="nobreak">PICTOGRAPHS</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>At many places covered by this reconnoissance there were found
-interesting collections of engraved figures of ancient date cut on
-bowlders or vertical cliffs. These are generally situated in the
-neighborhood of ruins, but sometimes exist far from human remains. They
-generally have geometrical forms, rectangular and spiral predominating.
-Associated with these occur also representations of human beings,
-birds, and animals, and figures of bird tracks, human hands, and bear
-claws. There is a remarkable similarity in all these figures which
-sometimes occur on the stones composing the masonry of the buildings
-which indicates they were contemporaneous. They were pecked on the
-stones with rude stone chisels, but as a rule show no indication of
-paint. None of these figures could be regarded, without the wildest
-flights of the imagination, as letters or hieroglyphics, and there
-is no indication that inscriptions were intended. Their general
-character, as shown in a cluster (<a href="#PLATE_33">pl. 33</a>), indicates rather
-clan symbols; in some instances spiral forms were probably made to indicate
-the presence of water. The incised figures on the walls of buildings
-were probably decorative in character, the first efforts of primitive
-man to embellish the walls of his dwellings, an art which reached
-a very high development in Mexico and Central America. There are,
-however, indications that these figures were covered with plaster and
-were therefore invisible, so that we might suppose them to be masons’
-signs, indicating the clan kinship of those who constructed the walls.
-Perhaps the largest group of these pictographs occurs on an eroded
-bowlder near the mouth of the Yellow Jacket Canyon, just below the
-great promontory separating it from the McElmo, on the surface of which
-are the remarkable dwellings composed of slabs of stone set on edge.
-Another large cluster, the members of which are of the same general
-style as that already mentioned, was seen in Sandstone Canyon, a few
-miles south of the road from Dolores to Monticello. There are several
-groups of pictographs in the neighborhood of the large towers elsewhere
-described. The most noteworthy of these is situated at the head of
-the south fork of Square Tower Canyon on a vertical cliff below the
-ruined Tower No. 4. The face of the cliff is very much eroded, and the
-figures are in places almost illegible. They consist of bird designs,
-accompanied with figures of snakes, rain clouds, and other designs,
-portions of which are obliterated and impossible of determination. As a
-rule, these pictographs resemble very closely those in the cliff-houses
-of the Mesa Verde and add their evidence of a uniformity of art design
-in these two regions.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to pictographs cut on the surface of the cliff, we also
-find in sheltered caves others not incised but with indications of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span>
-color, showing the former existence of painted figures. Some of these,
-however, are not ascribed to the Indians who built the towers, but to
-a later tribe who camped in this region after the house builders had
-disappeared. They were probably made by wandering bands of Ute Indians,
-and are not significant in a comparison of the different kinds of
-buildings described in this article.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="MINOR_ANTIQ">MINOR ANTIQUITIES</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>The preceding pages deal wholly with the immovable antiquities, as
-buildings, reservoirs, and the like. In addition to these evidences of
-a former population, there should be mentioned likewise the smaller
-antiquities, as pottery, stone objects, weapons, baskets, fabrics,
-bone and other implements. No excavation was attempted in the course
-of the reconnoissance, so that this chapter in the author’s report is
-naturally a very brief one. The few statements which follow are mainly
-based on local collections, one of which, owned by Mr. Williamson,
-of the First National Bank of Dolores, is comprehensive. The most
-suggestive of these minor antiquities are objects of burnt clay or
-pottery, which occur generally in piles of débris or accompany human
-burials. It was the custom of these people, like the cliff-dwellers,
-to deposit, near the dead, food in bowls and other household utensils,
-varying in shape, technique, decoration, and color. The most important
-fact regarding these ceramics is that they belong to the same archaic
-type as those from the ruins of the Mesa Verde. The predominating
-colors are white or gray with black figures, within and without, almost
-universally geometrical in form. There occurs also a relatively large
-number of corrugated vessels, and those made by using coils of clay,
-the figures on their exterior being indented with some implement, as a
-bone, stone, or even with the finger nail. While the majority belong to
-the black-and-white group, the red ware decorated with black figures
-is found but comparatively rarely, which is also true of the pottery
-of the cliff-dwellers. In the large variety of forms of burnt clay
-objects, the most remarkable in shape is a double water jar, connected
-by a transverse tube, the ends of which project beyond the opening into
-the jar, much in the form of an animal with a head at one end, body
-elongated, terminating in a short tail, the legs not being represented.
-While the number of unbroken mortuary bowls obtained from this region
-thus far known is comparatively small, we find in many places large
-quantities of broken fragments, all of which belong to the varieties of
-ware above enumerated.</p>
-
-<p>None of the bowls, vases, dippers, or other ceramic objects from the
-region of the ruins described have that significant feature commonly
-called the “life line;” the encircling lines are continuous around the
-vessel, and not broken at one point. The broken line never occurs on
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span>
-archaic pottery like black-and-white ware, and we may accept the
-hypothesis that the conception which gave rise to it was foreign to the
-people of the Mesa Verde and adjacent areas. It would be instructive
-to map out the distribution of this custom which was so prevalent
-in pottery from the Gila and Little Colorado and its tributaries,
-and absent in that from ruins on the San Juan and Mimbres. It occurs
-in ware from certain Rio Grande prehistoric ruins, as if it were a
-connecting link with the ancient culture of the Little Colorado.</p>
-
-<p>Of the stone implements found in this region the most characteristic
-is the celt called <i>tcamahia</i> which is not found in regions not
-affected by the San Juan culture. These objects are found from Mesa
-Verde to the Hopi pueblos.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>
-A peculiar form of prehistoric chipped chert implement occurs at Mesa
-Verde and elsewhere in the area. A flint knife in the Williamson
-collection at Dolores was purchased from a Ute woman who said it was
-found on a ruin. She wore it attached to her belt by a buckskin thong
-fastened to a bead-worked cover.</p>
-
-<p>Bone objects were mainly needles, dirks, and bodkins, presenting
-in the main no essential differences from those repeatedly
-described, especially by Nordenskiöld in his important memoir on the
-cliff-dwellers of the Mesa Verde. Objects made of marine shell are
-rare. The presence of flattened slabs of stone or metates showing
-on the surface evidences of grinding occur with human bones in many
-localities, indicating either that a custom still extant among the
-Pueblos of burying the metates with the dead was observed, or that the
-burials were made under floors of these long-abandoned houses. It would
-seem, on the former hypothesis, that these objects were buried with the
-women, but as the condition of the skeletal remains is poor the sex
-could not be determined by direct observation.</p>
-
-<p>The unprotected nature of the sites and the condition of the ruins
-prevented the preservation of fragile articles like baskets and
-fabrics, which frequently occur in caves, in one or two instances
-buried under the floors. There is little doubt that excavations in
-cemeteries of the open-sky ruins would reveal considerable material
-of this nature, which would probably duplicate that which has been
-produced from the adjacent cliff-houses. Many parts of wooden beams,
-mainly the remains of flooring and roofs, were seen still in the
-walls, but these as a rule were fragmentary. The ends of the timbers
-still adhering to the walls show that they were cut into shape by
-stone implements, aided by live embers. They appear to have been split
-by means of wedges made of stone and often rubbed down smooth with
-polishing instruments of the same material. The majority of these
-wooden beams plainly show the action of fire, but no roof was intact.
-From the size of the logs shown in fragments of beams, it is evident
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span>
-that the roof supports had been brought there from some distance; trees
-of the magnitude they imply do not now grow in the neighborhood of some
-of the ruins where these beams occur.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="HISTORIC">HISTORIC REMAINS</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>The various objects found in the ruins or on the surface of the ground
-as a rule are characteristic of a people in the stone-age culture,
-ignorant of metals, and therefore prehistoric, but here and there on
-the surface have been picked up iron weapons which belonged to the
-historic period. The old “Spanish Trail” mentioned in preceding pages
-was the early highway from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the Great Salt
-Lake, and followed approximately an old Indian trail that was probably
-used by the prehistoric inhabitants or the builders of the towers. Not
-far from the head of Yellow Jacket Canyon a ranchman discovered on
-his farm a few years ago the blades of two Spanish iron lance heads
-or knives, still well preserved, the hilts, however, being destroyed.
-These objects, now in Mr. Williamson’s collection at Dolores, may have
-belonged to a party of Spanish soldiers who explored this region, but
-their form, in addition to the material, is so characteristic that no
-one would assign them to aboriginal manufacture. Fragments of a stirrup
-of metal, parts of the harness or saddle, also belonging to the Spanish
-epoch, have also been found. The indications are that these objects are
-historic, but their owners may have been Indians who obtained them from
-Europeans. They probably do not antedate the middle of the eighteenth
-century, when two Catholic fathers, with an escort of soldiers, made
-their trip of discovery from Santa Fe into what is now Utah. They shed
-no light on the epoch of the aborigines who constructed the castles and
-towers considered in this paper.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONCLUSIONS">CONCLUSIONS</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the preceding pages the author has considered several different
-types of buildings, which, notwithstanding their variety in forms, have
-much in common and can be interpreted as indicating an identical phase
-of pueblo development. A comparative study of their distribution shows
-us that they occur in a well-defined geographical area. In comparison
-with stone buildings in other parts of the Southwestern States, this
-phase shows superior masonry. It is considered as chronologically
-antedating the historic epoch and post-dating an earlier, and as yet
-not clearly defined, phase out of which it sprung in the natural
-evolution from simple to complex forms.</p>
-
-<p>These buildings express the communal thought of the builders, since
-they were constructed by groups of people rather than by individuals.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span>
-Architecture representing the thoughts of many minds is conservative,
-or less liable to innovation or departure from prescribed forms and
-methods. These community houses express the thought of men in groups
-at different times, and, so far as archeology teaches, are the best
-exponents of what we call contemporary social conditions, while
-pottery and other small portable objects, being products of individual
-endeavor, furnish little on social organization, or general cultural
-conditions of communities. Although determination of cultural areas
-built on identity of pottery often coincides with those determined
-by buildings, this is not always the case. Specialized culture
-areas determined by highly conventionalized designs on ceramics are
-localized, more numerous, and as a rule more modern. Hence a culture
-area determined by architectural features may include several subareas
-determined by pottery.</p>
-
-<p>The author has thought it possible to differentiate two distinct epochs
-or phases of house building in the upper part of the San Juan drainage,
-viz. the early and the middle stages of development. There are included
-in the early condition certain crude architectural efforts similar
-to the non-Pueblos represented in regions adjoining the Pueblo area.
-This early condition, though not clearly defined, is beginning to be
-revealed by intensive studies of the so-called slab house dwellings
-and isolated brush houses. Evidences of this stage have been found
-in several localities, as on McElmo Bluff, or combined with walls of
-what may be called true pueblo buildings. The differences between some
-of the buildings of the early stage and those of the aborigines in
-southern California, or of the Utes and Shoshonean tribes, are slight;
-resemblances which point to relations are not considered in detail.</p>
-
-<p>From their advance in house building, it has been commonly stated
-that the Pueblo people were either derived from Mexican tribes or, as
-was customary in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to suppose,
-their descendants had made their way south and developed into the more
-advanced Mexican culture as the Aztecs. These conclusions are not
-supported by comparison with available architectural data observed
-among these two peoples. The basal error is the mistake in considering
-the earth houses of the Gila the same as pueblos. The habitations of
-the Gila compounds were structurally different from pueblos, and their
-sanctuaries or ceremonial rooms had not the same form or relation to
-the dwellings. The Gila compounds are allied to Mexican buildings; but
-there is little in common between them and pure pueblos. The same is
-true of the type of stone dwellings on the Verde, Tonto, and Little
-Colorado. Certain likenesses exist between the Casas Grandes of the
-Gila and those of Mexico, although little relationship exists between
-the temples or ceremonial buildings of the valley of Mexico and the
-Casas Grandes of the Gila. The architecture of the Pueblos and the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span>
-Aztecs is very different; the habitations of Mexican tribes resemble
-those of the Gila. The forms<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> of ceremonial chambers differ, one
-being rectangular mounds or pyramids, the other circular, generally
-subterranean.</p>
-
-<p>Rather than seek the origin of the house builders of the San Juan,
-or the parent Pueblos, from Mexican sources, the author believes
-the custom of building stone houses in the pueblo region was not
-derived from any locality not now included in the pueblo area, but
-it developed as an autochthonous growth, the earliest stages as well
-as the most complex forms being of local origin. Incoming Indians
-may have introduced ideas of foreign birth but they did not bring
-in the mason’s craft. That custom developed in the Southwest, where
-we find the whole series from a single stone-house or a cave with
-walls closing the entrance to the most highly developed architectural
-production north of Mexico. There are cliff-dwellings in many other
-localities in the world but there are nowhere, except in the region
-here considered, cliff-dwellings with circular kivas constructed on
-this unique plan. It is generally supposed that a type of room called
-“small house” was the predecessor of the multiple community dwelling
-throughout the Southwest. This type, defined as a simple four-walled,
-one story building with a flat roof, is widely spread in New Mexico
-and Arizona. The strongest arguments in favor of its greater antiquity
-are possibly its simplicity of form and the character of accompanying
-ceramics—corrugated, black-and-white, and red pottery. Characteristic
-small houses of the Mesa Verde and McElmo Canyon belong to the same
-type of pueblo as the largest extensive villages which are more
-complicated than the so-called small house. It is what the author
-has called the pure type which is structurally different from the
-“small house,” the so-called archaic form of the mixed pueblos of the
-Rio Grande. This unit type is likewise unlike the small house of the
-Little Colorado, including those of the Zuñi Valley and the Hopi Wash,
-although the Hopi kivas show the influence of the Mesa Verde culture
-in the persistence of the ceremonial opening in the floor called the
-sipapu.</p>
-
-<p>A cluster of small houses or the village such as we find at Mummy
-Lake on the Mesa Verde is composed of several scattered members, each
-containing for the religious and secular life the “pure type” rooms
-constructed on the same plan. In a village like the Aztec Spring House
-several unit buildings are united, forming one community house larger
-than the rest, which was the dominant one of the village, the remaining
-houses being smaller and scattered. Aztec Spring, Mitchell Spring, and
-Mud Spring villages show a similar consolidation of units with outlying
-smaller houses, and the number of units in such a union is believed to
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span>
-be indicated by the number of circular rooms, or kivas. Thus, four
-kivas might be supposed to indicate four consolidated social units.</p>
-
-<p>The complete concentration of several unit pueblos into one or more
-large communal buildings<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>
-is also found in several cases in the area we have studied, but we
-must look to the great ruin at Aztec or those on the Chaco Canyon for
-examples of almost complete amalgamation. Thus these large pueblos
-where an almost complete consolidation has occurred have resulted from
-a fusion or condensation of what might have formerly been a rambling
-village composed of several separate units. This clustering of small
-separated houses in a village is not peculiar to the San Juan but
-exists elsewhere in the Southwest, as in the Rio Grande region, where,
-however, the structure of each component small house is different.
-These separate mounds do not indicate the unit type as defined, and the
-Rio Grande pueblo of modern date has its kiva separated from the house
-masses, which have grouped themselves in rectangular lines or rooms
-surrounding courts. There are, perhaps, examples in this region where a
-circular kiva is found embedded in house masses, but these are so few
-in number that they may possibly be regarded as incorporate survivals
-due to acculturation.</p>
-
-<p>In the Gila Valley compounds, as Casa Grande, and on the Little
-Colorado, the unit type is unknown. Several blocks of buildings on the
-Gila are surrounded by a rectangular wall which is wanting in ruins of
-the Little Colorado and its tributaries. Here one of the units may be
-enlarged, following in some respects the conditions at Aztec Spring
-Ruin. A surrounding wall also appears in some of the Pueblo villages
-and pueblos, but when we compare one of the units of a Casa Grande
-compound with that of a Montezuma Valley village, we find little in
-common, the main difference, so far as form is concerned, being the
-absence of a circular kiva.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>
-There is nothing in a Gila Valley compound we can structurally call a
-circular kiva, and no morphological equivalent of the circular kiva in
-ruins on the tributaries of the Salt and Gila. On the horizon of the
-Gila culture area there are no circular kivas, due to acculturation.
-There are rooms analogous to kivas used for ceremonials at Hopi and
-Zuñi, but they are not true kivas as we have interpreted them in
-the San Juan area. Both Hopi and Zuñi are composite people and have
-elements derived from Gila and Pueblo influences, but neither belong to
-the pure type in the sense the author defines it.</p>
-
-<p>The author has attempted to show that the structure of the houses whose
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span>
-clustering composes villages in the Montezuma Valley is the same as
-that of Far View House of the Mummy Lake village on top of Mesa Verde;
-and that these architectural resemblances are close enough to indicate
-that the villages of the two localities were inhabited by people of
-the same general culture. He has proved that the pure type of such a
-village as shown in Far View House was constructed on the same plan as
-a cliff-dwelling, notwithstanding one is built in the open, the other
-in a cave. The geographic extension of this type has been traced into
-Utah. Ruined pueblos on the Chaco Canyon or at Aztec on the Animas,
-which is geographically nearer the Mesa Verde, are more concentrated
-but indicate the same culture. Renewed research is necessary to
-determine the southern and western extension of the pure type; the
-northern and eastern horizon is fairly well known.</p>
-
-<p>Granting that the great ruins on the Chaco Canyon belong to the same
-people as those on Mesa Verde, the question arises, Which buildings
-are the most ancient, those on the Mesa Verde or those on the Chaco?
-A correct answer to this question should reveal the cradle of the
-culture indicated by the pure or prehistoric type of pueblo. The author
-believes that the pure pueblo culture originated in the northern part
-of the area and migrated southward to the Chaco Valley in prehistoric
-times, ultimately affecting the people of the Rio Grande, where sedentary
-people no doubt lived before written history of the area began. The
-result was a mixture; the mixed population are the modern Pueblos.</p>
-
-<p>In the great cliff-houses of the Mesa Verde and the extensive pueblos
-of the McElmo we find towers combined with pure types of pueblos,
-either simple or complex. In the Chaco ruins these towers are not found
-in this combination. To this may be added the great house type of the
-McElmo, also absent in the Chaco. Here there appears to be an essential
-difference on which the author ventures a suggestion, but which future
-research must elucidate.</p>
-
-<p>If this pure type originated in the southern tributaries of the San
-Juan as the Chaco and migrated to the northern we would expect in the
-latter more distinctly southern objects, as shell ornaments, turquoise
-mosaics, and a great variety of pottery of a southern type.</p>
-
-<p>The pure or unit type is believed to be autochthonous in the San
-Juan Basin and characteristic of a middle phase of architectural
-development, the highest north of Mexico. It is self-centered and has
-preserved its characteristics over an extensive area, influencing
-regions far beyond.</p>
-
-<p>The evolution of this type took place in the region mentioned before
-the fifteenth century of the Christian era. Traces of its influence
-have persisted into the country of mixed pueblos down to the present
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span>
-time, but the architectural skill has deteriorated and shows evidence
-of acculturation<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a>
-from sources outside the San Juan area where it originated.</p>
-
-<p>One word in regard to the adjectives, prehistoric and historic,
-applied to southwestern ruins. They are relative ones and obtained
-from data somewhat diverse in character. Casa Grande on the Gila was
-called a ruin when first seen by the European. It was inhabited in
-prehistoric times. From documentary evidence the historian learns
-that certain other buildings were not inhabited at the advent of the
-Spaniards, and if their statements are trustworthy these also are
-prehistoric. Legends of modern Pueblos claim that certain other ruins
-were inhabited houses of their ancestors before the coming of the white
-man. The author sees no good reason to throw this evidence out of court
-without investigation because some of the incidents in it betray late
-introduction. Many other ruins are classified as prehistoric from the
-purely negative, but not decisive, evidence that no objects of European
-make have been found in them. The ruin Sun Temple, on the Mesa Verde,
-is considered prehistoric from the fact that a tree with over 360
-annual rings of growth was found growing on top of its highest wall.
-We are justified in calling this a prehistoric ruin.</p>
-
-<p>The evidences that villages, cliff-dwellings, castles and towers,
-and other types considered in this article antedate the advent of
-the white man are as follows: No historian has recorded an inhabited
-building of this form in this or other regions; no objects of European
-manufacture have been found in them, and the buildings and pottery
-which characterize them are different from those of any inhabited when
-the Spanish entered the Southwest.</p>
-
-<p>The complex, which is thought to be the highest form of pueblo
-architecture, is composed of the following elements united: (1) Several
-“pure types”<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>
-representing a religio-sociological complexion of the inhabitants;
-(2) towers of various forms—round, <big><b>D</b></big>-shaped, and
-rectangular; (3) the great houses; (4) unit type in cave. In Cliff
-Palace these four types occur united in a pueblo built in a natural
-cave; in Mud Spring Ruin two and possibly three of these types are
-found in one open-air village, more spread out as site permits. In
-Aztec Spring and Mitchell Spring pueblos the arrangement is more
-defined. In the cluster at the head of South Fork of Square Tower
-Canyon we have all the elements united in Hovenweep House and Hovenweep
-Castle. Unit type House shows the single-unit type with tower near
-by; in Twin Towers we have the great house with cave pueblo and towers
-separated. Several other towers isolated from other types also occur.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span></p>
-
-<p>The Holly Canyon group shows the types separated. The great house is
-represented by Holly Castle; the towers are situated on huge bowlders.
-The unit type of this group is represented by Holly House, the
-foundation of part of which has fallen, covering the ruins of another
-pueblo of the unit type formerly in the cave below.</p>
-
-<p>The Hackberry group is also composed of three elemental types
-separated; the great house is represented by Hackberry House, the unit
-type by the cliff-dwelling below and by the pueblo on the opposite side
-of the gulch, and the towers by isolated towers.</p>
-
-<p>A similar analysis may be made of other ruins. Sometimes the component
-types are united; often one type only occurs, the others being absent.
-The union of all is best marked in the northern tributaries of the San
-Juan, as at Aztec, and in the southern tributaries, as at Chaco Canyon
-and Chelly Canyon. These pueblos, whether in the open or in caves,
-belong to the pure or concentrated multiple unit type.</p>
-
-<p>Some light may be shed on the probable process of consolidation of the
-individual units of a community house by a comparative study of the
-pueblos on the East Mesa of the Hopi. Hano, for instance, was settled
-by a group of Tanoan clans about 1710 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> The
-list of Hano clans that originally came to the East Mesa is known from
-legends and the present localization of their survivors has been indicated
-in the author’s article on “The Sun’s Influence on the Form of Hopi
-Pueblos.”<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a>
-In 1890 Hano was composed of four blocks of rooms, each housing one
-or more clans. Earlier there were six, one of which had fallen into
-disuse, a few less than the traditional number of clans. When the
-colonists arrived, they settled near Coyote Spring, the houses of which
-are now covered with drifted sand, but when they constructed their
-village on the mesa at the head of the trail each house of a cluster
-housed a clan. Increase in population, both internal and external, led
-to the union and enlargement of these houses so that they inclosed
-a central plaza. A similar growth has taken place in Sichomovi, the
-pueblo halfway between Walpi and Hano; first single houses, then rows
-of houses with terraces on the south and east sides. Some of the
-original houses have been deserted and rebuilt nearer the others. Thus
-at Hano the Katcina clan house was north and east of the chief kiva but
-is now in the east row.</p>
-
-<p>In the same way we may suppose that in a consolidation of a community
-dwelling several units may have drawn together and united. There is
-evidence of a union of this kind in many ruins in the Southwest.</p>
-
-<p>The data here published should not be interpreted to mean that the
-author regards the builders of the towers and great houses here
-described as evidences of a race other than the Indians. Indeed he
-believes that in both blood and culture they have left survivals among
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span>
-the modern Pueblos. He also does not hold that as a whole they
-necessarily belonged to a radically different phase of culture,
-notwithstanding the buildings they constructed show a greater variety
-of form and masonry superior to that of their descendants.</p>
-
-<p>The evidences are cumulative that there existed and disappeared in
-a wide geographical area of the Southwest a people whose buildings
-differed so much from those of any other area in North America that the
-area in which they occur may be designated as a characteristic one.</p>
-
-<p>The variety and type of buildings have a bearing on social
-organization. A large building composed of many units is probably but
-not necessarily later in time than a single house; an isolated single
-house would probably be of earlier construction than a collection of
-several single houses of the same character compactly arranged in a
-village; a complete consolidation of several houses of such a village
-into a community house would naturally be more modern than a group of
-isolated single houses.</p>
-
-<p>City blocks postdate hamlets. Between a stage indicated by single
-houses and one characterized by consolidated building, there is a
-phase in which the buildings are grouped in clusters and are not
-united. We may theoretically suppose that the single house was
-inhabited by one social unit as a clan or family. As the food quest
-became more intensified and defense more urgent, social units, as
-indicated by single houses, would be brought together, and as the
-population increased the amalgamation would be more complete. This
-social organization, in the beginning loose, in the course of time
-would become more homogeneous, and as it did so the union of these
-separate social units would have been closer; and if we combine with
-that tendency the powerful stimulus of protection, we can readily see
-how a compact form of architecture characteristic of the buildings here
-described was brought about. The element of defense in the villages
-with scattered houses does not appear to have been very important,
-but might be adduced to explain the consolidation of these into large
-community houses.</p>
-
-<p>If the growth of the large pueblos has followed the lines above
-indicated, and if each unit type indicates a social unit as well, we
-necessarily have in this growth of the community house the story of the
-social evolution of the Pueblo people. Clans or social units at first
-isolated later joined each other, intermarriage always tending to make
-the population more homogeneous. The social result of the amalgamation
-of clans seeking common defense would in time be marked. The inevitable
-outcome would be a breaking down of clan priesthoods or clan religions
-and the formation of fraternities of priesthoods recruited from several
-clans. This in turn would lead to a corresponding reduction and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span>
-enlargement of ceremonial rooms remaining. Two kivas suffice for the
-ceremonies of the majority of the Rio Grande pueblos; but Cliff Palace
-with a population of the same size had 23 and Spruce-tree House, a much
-smaller cliff pueblo, had 8.</p>
-
-<p>One can not fail to notice a similarity in sites of some of the great
-houses of the McElmo to neighboring cliff habitations and a like
-relation of Sun Temple to the cliff-dwellings in Fewkes Canyon in the
-Mesa Verde. Possibly the purpose of these great houses and Sun Temple
-was identical. Some of the great houses were probably granaries and Sun
-Temple may have been intended partly for a like use. No indications of
-remains of stored corn have been observed in any of these buildings,
-but Castañeda<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a>
-speaks of a village of subterranean granaries (“silos”) in the Rio
-Grande country, which is instructive in this connection.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span></p>
-<h2 class="nobreak">INDEX</h2>
-</div>
-
-<ul class="index no-wrap">
-<li class="isub11">Page</li>
-<li class="isub1">&nbsp;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Acmen Ruin</span>, described, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Antiquities</span>, minor, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Architecture</span>, culture areas determined by, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Architecture, Pueblo</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">elements of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">of local origin, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Aztec architecture</span>, unlike that of Pueblos, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Aztec Spring</span>, ruins at, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">described by Holmes, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">described by Jackson, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">ground plan of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Beams, wooden</span>, method of shaping, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Blanchard Ruin</span>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Bone</span>, objects made of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Bowlder Castle</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Bowls, mortuary</span>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Bug Mesa Ruin</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Bug Point Ruin</span>, excavation of, showing unit type, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Burial customs</span>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Burial places</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">mentioned by Morgan, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">near Holmes Tower, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">on Grass Mesa, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">on the Dolores, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Burkhardt Ruin.</span> <i>See</i> <span class="smcap">Mud Spring Ruin</span>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Butte Ruin</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Cannonball Ruin</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">description of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">structural features of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Castles</span>, structural features of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Caves</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">apparently used for storage, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">walled-up, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Cemeteries.</span> <i>See</i> <span class="smcap">Burial places</span>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Ceremonial rooms</span>, Hopi and Zuñi, not true kivas, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Chaco Canyon Ruins</span>, comparative age of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Circular Ruins</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">distribution of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">structural features of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Cliff-dwellers</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">culture of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">region occupied by, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Cliff-dwellings</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">architectural features of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">classification of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">double, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">in Lost Canyon, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">small, in the McElmo region, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Communal dwellings</span>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">preceded by “small house”, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">social conditions indicated by, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Consolidation of units</span>, process of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Corn, charred</span>, found embedded in slag, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Davis Tower</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">ground plan, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">location of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Depressions indicating kivas</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Dove Creek Ruins</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Eight Mile Ruin</span>, masonry in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Emerson, J. W.</span>, description of ruin by, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Emerson Ruin</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Entrances</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">to kivas, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">to towers, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">walled-up, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Eroded Bowlder House</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Escalante and Dominguez</span>, manuscript diary of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Escalante Ruin</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Far View House</span>, a pueblo of pure type, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Gibraltar House.</span> <i>See</i> <span class="smcap">Stronghold House</span>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Gila Valley compounds</span>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">allied to Mexican buildings, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Goodman Point Ruin</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Grass Mesa</span>, cemetery on, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Great houses</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">date of construction undetermined, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">possible use of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">structural features of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Hackberry Canyon cliff-house</span>, a “unit type”, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Hackberry Castle</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Hackberry group</span>, elements composing, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Hill Canyon Ruins</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">masonry of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Holly Canyon</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">ground plan, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">ruins of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Holly Canyon group</span>, elements composing, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Holly House Ruins</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Holmes, W. H.</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">on probable use of towers, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">on tower at Mud Spring, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">report of, as reference work, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">report on ruins by, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">slab inclosures described by, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Holmes Tower</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Hopi ceremonial rooms</span>, not true kivas, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Horseshoe House</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">compared with Sun Temple, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">description of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">ground plan, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">structural features of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Hovenweep Castle</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">description of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">ground plan of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Hovenweep district</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">a proposed National Monument, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">canyons of, containing ruins, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">ruins of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Hovenweep House</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Implements, stone</span>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Ingersoll, Ernest</span>, newspaper article by, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Jackson, Wm. H.</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">report of, as work of reference, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">report of, on ruins, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">slab inclosures described by, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Johnson Ruin</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Keeley Towers</span>, location of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Kidder, A. V.</span> <i>See</i> <span class="smcap">Morley and Kidder</span>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Kiva of Unit type House</span>, architectural features of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Kivas</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">double-walled, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">entrances to, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">indicated by depressions, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">indicative of social units, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">structural features of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Lion Tower</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">description of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">ground plan of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Littrell Tower.</span> <i>See</i> <span class="smcap">Lion Tower</span>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Lost Canyon cliff-houses</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">“<span class="smcap">Lower House</span>,” of Aztec Spring Ruin, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">McElmo Bluff</span>, ruins at, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">McElmo district</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">distinctive feature of ruins of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">investigations in, of 19<a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">McElmo Ruins</span>, latest work on, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">McLean Basin</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">ground plan of ruins of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">pottery found in, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">ruins of, described, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">towers of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Mancos region</span>, towers of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Masonry</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">of Hill Canyon Ruins, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">skill shown in construction, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">varieties of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Megalithic ruins</span>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Megaliths</span>, circular structures of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Mesa Verde</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">cliff-dwellings and villages of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">culture of inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Mesa Verde Ruins</span>, comparative age of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Metates</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">found at Surouaro, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">with skeletal remains, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Mexican tribes and the Pueblos</span>, relation between, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Mitchell, H. L.</span>, notes contributed by, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Mitchell Spring Ruin</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Mitchell Spring village</span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Monoliths in walls</span>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Montezuma Valley</span>, distinctive feature of ruins in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Moorehead, Warren K.</span>, ruins described by, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Morgan, L. H.</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">investigation of ruins by, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">notes of, on ruins of Mesa Verde, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">on Mitchell Spring Ruin, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">on Mud Creek village, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Morley, S. G.</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">excavations conducted by, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">work of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Morley, S. G.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Kidder, A. V.</span>, ruins described by, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Mounds</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">near Mummy Lake, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">of Mud Spring Ruin, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Mud Spring Ruin</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Mummy Lake mounds</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Nelson, N. C.</span>, on Pueblo ruins, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Newberry, J. S.</span>, on Surouaro, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Nordenskiöld, Baron G.</span>, work of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Oak Spring House</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Old Spanish Trail</span>, route of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Open-air ruins of Dove Creek</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Parker, Gordon</span>, assistance of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Pictographs</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">colored, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">covered with plaster, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">incised on stone, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">near Ruin 5, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">near slab inclosures, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Pierson Lake Ruin.</span> <i>See</i> <span class="smcap">Squaw Point Ruin</span>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Pilasters lacking in towers</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Plastering</span>, interiors covered with, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Pottery</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">culture areas determined by, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">description of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Prudden, T. Mitchell</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">articles by, on ruins of San Juan watershed, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">excavations conducted by, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">on towers as part of composite ruins, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Pueblo architecture</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">elements of complex, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">of local origin, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Pueblo culture</span>, direction of its migration, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Pueblo tribes</span>, origin of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">“<span class="smcap">Pure type</span>” defined, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Reservoir Group</span>, named by J. Ward Emerson, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Reservoirs, Indian</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">crossed by Old Bluff Road, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">natural and artificial, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Road Canyon</span>, formerly called the Wickyup, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Rooms</span>, with megalithic walls, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Ruin 3</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Ruin 4</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Ruin 5</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Ruin 6</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Ruin 7.</span> <i>See</i> <span class="smcap">Eroded Bowlder House</span>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Ruin 8.</span> <i>See</i> <span class="smcap">Twin Towers</span>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Ruin 9</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Ruin <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</span> <i>See</i> <span class="smcap">Unit type House</span>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Ruin <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span> <i>See</i> <span class="smcap">Stronghold House</span>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Ruin Canyon</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">duplication of name misleading, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">ruin in, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">unit type houses of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Ruins</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">classification of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">evidences of age of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Sand Canyon</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">cliff-dwellings in, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">scaffold in, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">tower in, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Scaffold for lookout</span>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Semicircular ruins</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Slab inclosures</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">described by Jackson, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">described by Holmes, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Slab structures</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">box-like, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>
-           <span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span></li>
-<li class="isub3">circular, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">pottery found near, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">theories concerning, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">“Small house” type of architecture</span>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Social organization</span>, relation between architecture and, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">“<span class="smcap">Spanish Trail.</span>” <i>See</i> <span class="smcap">Old Spanish Trail</span>.</li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Square Tower Canyon</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">classification of ruins in, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">directions for reaching, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">map of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">new name for Ruin Canyon, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Squaw Point Ruin</span>, described, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Stone Arch House</span>, location of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Stronghold House</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Sun Dial Palace</span>, named by J. Ward Emerson, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Sun Temple</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">discovery of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">evidence of age of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">possible use of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">unique ground plan of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Surouaro</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">description of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">named by Newberry, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">signification of name, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Towers</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3"><big><b>D</b></big>-shaped, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">date of construction undetermined, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">entrance to, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">entrance walled up, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">forms of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">of Holly Canyon, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">of McLean Basin, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">of Mancos region, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">of Sand Canyon, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">of Wickyup Canyon, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">possible use of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">structural features of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">windows absent in, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Towers and great houses</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">form and construction of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">situation of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">“<span class="smcap">Triple-walled tower</span>”—</li>
-<li class="isub3">at Mud Spring Ruin, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">condition of, in 1881, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">visited by Holmes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Twin Towers</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">description of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">ground plan of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Unit type</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">defined, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">described by Prudden, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">origin of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">unlike small house of Little Colorado, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Unit type House</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">description of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">ground plan of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Unit type houses</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">in cave, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">in Hackberry Canyon, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-<li class="isub1">“<span class="smcap">Upper House</span>” of Aztec Spring Ruin, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Villages</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">defined, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">essential features of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Weapons</span>, iron, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Wickyup Canyon</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">description of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">towers in, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Wolley Ranch Ruin</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
-<li class="isub1"><span class="smcap">Wood Canyon Ruins</span>, description of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Yellow Jacket Canyon</span>—</li>
-<li class="isub3">formerly known as Hovenweep, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">investigations in, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
-<li class="isub3">towers of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">Zuñi ceremonial rooms not true kivas</span>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
-</ul>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 1</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_1_A" src="images/i081a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="316" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">a, BUTTE RUIN</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_1_B" src="images/i081b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="308" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">b, AZTEC SPRING RUIN</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_1_C" src="images/i081c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="306" />
-   <p class="f120">c, SUROUARO,<br /> YELLOW JACKET SPRING RUIN</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 2</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_2_A" src="images/i082a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="314" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">a, BLANCHARD RUIN</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_2_B" src="images/i082b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="313" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">b, BLANCHARD RUIN,<br /> MOUND 2</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_2_C" src="images/i082c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="314" />
-   <p class="f120">c, SUROUARO,<br /> YELLOW JACKET SPRING RUIN</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 3</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_3_A" src="images/i083a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="414" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">a, ACMEN RUIN</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_3_B" src="images/i083b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="377" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">b, MUD SPRING RUIN</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 4</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_4_A" src="images/i084a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="572" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">a, BUILDING ON ROCK PINNACLE,<br />
-                NEAR STONE ARCH,<br /> SAND CANYON</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_4_B" src="images/i084b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="570" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">b, STONE ARCH,<br /> SAND CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by J. Walter Fewkes)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 5</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_5_A" src="images/i085a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="574" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">a, TOWER IN SAND CANYON</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_5_B" src="images/i085b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="450" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">b, UNIT TYPE HOUSE<br /> IN SAND CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 6</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_6_A" src="images/i086a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="364" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">a, STONE ARCH HOUSE,<br /> SAND CANYON</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_6_B" src="images/i086b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="363" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">b, CLIFF-HOUSE,<br /> SHOWING BROKEN CORNER</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 7</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_7_A" src="images/i087a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="590" />
-   <p class="center">a, SCAFFOLD IN SAND CANYON</p>
-</div>
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <img id="PLATE_7_B" src="images/i087b.jpg" alt="" width="200" height="369" />
-   <p class="center">b, STORAGE CIST<br /> IN MANCOS VALLEY</p>
-  </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <img  id="PLATE_7_C" src="images/i087c.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="365" />
-   <p class="center">c, PICTOGRAPHS NEAR<br /> UNIT TYPE HOUSE IN CAVE</p>
-   </div>
-<p class="center">(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 8</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_8" src="images/i088.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="415" />
-   <p class="f120">DOUBLE CLIFF-DWELLING,<br /> SAND CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 9</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_9_A" src="images/i089a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="365" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">a, CLIFF-DWELLING<br /> UNDER HORSESHOE RUIN</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_9_B" src="images/i089b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="366" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">b, CLIFF-DWELLING,<br /> RUIN CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 10</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_10_A" src="images/i090a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="559" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">a, KIVA OF CLIFF RUIN,<br /> LOST CANYON</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_10_B" src="images/i090b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="428" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">b, CLIFF RUIN,<br /> LOST CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by Gordon Parker)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 11</b></p>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <img id="PLATE_11_A" src="images/i091a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="479" />
-   <p class="center">a, SQUARE TOWER IN<br /> SQUARE TOWER CANYON</p>
-  </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <img  id="PLATE_11_B" src="images/i091b.jpg" alt="" width="280" height="468" />
-   <p class="center">b, TOWER IN McLEAN BASIN</p>
-  </div>
-  <img id="PLATE_11_C" src="images/i091c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="367" />
-   <p class="f120">c, RUIN IN HILL CANYON,<br /> UTAH</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 12</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_12" src="images/i092.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="366" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">HEAD OF SOUTH FORK,<br /> SQUARE TOWER CANYON</p>
-
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by Geo. L. Beam.
-           Courtesy of the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 13</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_13" src="images/i093.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="379" />
-   <p class="f120">NORTH FORK OF SQUARE TOWER CANYON,<br /> LOOKING WEST</p>
-   <p class="center">a, Hovenweep Castle.&emsp;b, Hovenweep House.<br />
-                   c, Tower No. 9.&emsp;d, Tower on point at junction<br />
-                      of North and South Forks.<br />
-                   e, Twin Towers.&emsp;f, Unit type House</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by Geo. L. Beam.
-           Courtesy of the Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 14</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_14_A" src="images/i094a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="348" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">a, HOVENWEEP HOUSE AND HOVENWEEP CASTLE,<br /> FROM THE SOUTH</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_14_B" src="images/i094b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="308" />
-   <p class="f120 space-below1">b, HOVENWEEP CASTLE,<br /> FROM THE WEST</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_14_C" src="images/i094c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="310" />
-   <p class="f120">c, HOVENWEEP CASTLE,<br /> FROM THE SOUTH</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 15</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_15_A" src="images/i095a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="512" />
-   <p class="f120">a, WEST END OF TWIN TOWER,<br /> SHOWING SMALL CLIFF-HOUSE</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by J. Walter Fewkes)</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_15_B" src="images/i095b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="296" />
-   <p class="f120">b, TWIN TOWERS,<br /> SQUARE TOWER CANYON,<br /> FROM THE SOUTH</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_15_C" src="images/i095c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="288" />
-   <p class="f120">c, TOWER 4,<br /> JUNCTION OF NORTH AND SOUTH FORKS,<br /> SQUARE TOWER CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 16</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_16_A" src="images/i096a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="418" />
-   <p class="f120">a, HOVENWEEP CASTLE, WITH SLEEPING UTE MOUNTAIN,<br />
-                   SOUTH FORK, SQUARE TOWER CANYON</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_16_B" src="images/i096b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="486" />
-   <p class="f120">b, ENTRANCE TO SOUTH FORK,<br /> SQUARE TOWER CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver &amp;
-                    Rio Grande Railroad)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 17</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_17" src="images/i097.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="505" />
-   <p class="f120">STRONGHOLD HOUSE,<br /> SQUARE TOWER CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver &amp;
-                      Rio Grande Railroad)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 18</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_18_A" src="images/i098a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="464" />
-   <p class="f120">a, HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_18_B" src="images/i098b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="466" />
-   <p class="f120">b, SOUTH SIDE OF HOVENWEEP CASTLE,<br /> SQUARE TOWER CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver &amp;
-                    Rio Grande Railroad)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 19</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_19_A" src="images/i099a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="307" />
-   <p class="f120">a, HOLLY CANYON GROUP,<br /> FROM THE EAST</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_19_B" src="images/i099b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="428" />
-   <p class="f120">b, GREAT HOUSE AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON,<br /> FROM THE NORTH</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_19_C" src="images/i099c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="419" />
-   <p class="f120">c, UNIT TYPE RUIN,<br /> FROM THE EAST</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 20</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_20_A" src="images/i100a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="304" />
-   <p class="f120">a, GREAT HOUSE AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON,<br /> FROM THE SOUTH</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_20_B" src="images/i100b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="313" />
-   <p class="f120">b, RUIN B AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON,<br /> FROM THE WEST</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_20_C" src="images/i100c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="331" />
-   <p class="f120">c, GREAT HOUSE<br /> AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 21</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_21_A" src="images/i101a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="373" />
-   <p class="f120">a, GREAT HOUSE,<br /> HOLLY CANYON</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_21_B" src="images/i101b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="477" />
-   <p class="f120">b, STRONGHOLD HOUSE AND TWIN TOWERS,<br /> SQUARE TOWER CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver &amp;
-                      Rio Grande Railroad)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 22</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_22_A" src="images/i102a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="421" />
-   <p class="f120">a, HOVENWEEP CASTLE</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_22_B" src="images/i102b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="412" />
-   <p class="f120">b, SOUTHERN PART OF CANNONBALL RUIN,<br /> McELMO CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 23</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_23_A" src="images/i103a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="307" />
-   <p class="f120">a, SQUARE TOWER WITH ROUNDED CORNERS,<br /> HOLLY CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_23_B" src="images/i103b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="308" />
-   <p class="f120">b, HOLLY TOWER<br /> IN HOLLY CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_23_C" src="images/i103c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="363" />
-   <p class="f120">c, HORSESHOE HOUSE</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 24</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_24_A" src="images/i104a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="376" />
-   <p class="f120">a, HORSESHOE RUIN</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_24_B" src="images/i104b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="401" />
-   <p class="f120">b, BOWLDER CASTLE,<br /> ROAD (WICKYUP) CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 25</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_25_A" src="images/i105a.jpg" alt="" width="350" height="537" />
-   <p class="f120">a, CLOSED DOORWAY<br /> IN BOWLDER CASTLE,<br /> ROAD (WICKYUP) CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by J. Walter Fewkes)</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_25_B" src="images/i105b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="311" />
-   <p class="f120">b, BROKEN-DOWN ROUND TOWER,<br /> SQUARE TOWER CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 26</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_26_A" src="images/i106a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="355" />
-   <p class="f120">a, NORTH SIDE OF TOWER,<br /> SQUARE TOWER CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_26_B" src="images/i106b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="321" />
-   <p class="f120">b, <b>D</b>-SHAPED TOWER NEAR DAVIS RANCH,<br /> YELLOW JACKET CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center space-below1">(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_26_C" src="images/i106c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="199" />
-   <p class="f120">c, MODEL OF TOWERS IN McLEAN BASIN</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by De Lancey Gill)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 27</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_27" src="images/i107.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="393" />
-   <p class="f120">ROUND TOWER AND <b>D</b>-SHAPED TOWER<br /> IN McLEAN BASIN</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photograph by J. Walter Fewkes)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 28</b></p>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <img id="PLATE_28_A" src="images/i108a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="372" />
-   <p class="center">a, <b>D</b>-SHAPED TOWER<br /> IN McLEAN BASIN,<br /> SHOWING CROSS SECTION OF WALL</p>
-  </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <img  id="PLATE_28_B" src="images/i108b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="368" />
-   <p class="center">b, ROUND TOWER<br /> IN McLEAN BASIN,<br /> SHOWING STANDING STONE SLAB</p>
-  </div>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by J. Walter Fewkes)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 29</b></p>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <img id="PLATE_29_A" src="images/i109a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="391" />
-   <p class="center">a, HOLMES TOWER,<br /> MANCOS CANYON</p>
-  </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <img  id="PLATE_29_B" src="images/i109b.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="390" />
-   <p class="center">b, LION TOWER,<br /> YELLOW JACKET CANYON</p>
-  </div>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 30</b></p>
-  <img id="PLATE_30_A" src="images/i110a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="437" />
-   <p class="f120">a, TOWER ABOVE CAVATE STOREHOUSES,<br /> MANCOS CANYON BELOW BRIDGE</p>
-  <img id="PLATE_30_B" src="images/i110b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="448" />
-   <p class="f120">b, TOWER ON MESA BETWEEN ERODED CLIFFS<br /> AND BRIDGE OVER
-                    MANCOS CANYON<br /> ON CORTEZ SHIP-ROCK ROAD</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 31</b></p>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <img id="PLATE_31_A" src="images/i111a.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="348" />
-   <p class="center">a, TOWER ABOVE CAVATE STOREHOUSES,<br /> MANCOS CANYON BELOW BRIDGE</p>
-  </div>
-  <div class="figsub">
-   <img  id="PLATE_31_B" src="images/i111b.jpg" alt="" width="285" height="346" />
-   <p class="center">b, ERODED SHALE FORMATION<br /> IN WHICH ARE SMALL WALLED<br /> CAVATE STOREHOUSES</p>
-  </div>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 32</b></p>
-   <img id="PLATE_32_A" src="images/i112a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="435" />
-   <p class="center">a, RESERVOIR NEAR PICKET CORRAL,<br /> SHOWING RETAINING WALL</p>
-   <img  id="PLATE_32_B" src="images/i112b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="516" />
-   <p class="center">b, KIVA, UNIT TYPE HOUSE,<br /> SQUARE TOWER CANYON</p>
-   <p class="center">(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r10" />
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="figcontainer">
-  <p class="f150"><b>PLATE 33</b></p>
-   <img id="PLATE_33" src="images/i113.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="359" />
-   <p class="center space-below2">PICTOGRAPHS,<br /> YELLOW JACKET CANYON</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r10" />
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="footnotes">
-<p class="f150"><b>Footnotes:</b></p>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a>
-Ancient Ruins in Southwestern Colorado. Rept. U.S. Geol.
-Surv. Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1874, Washington, 1876.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a>
-The situation of a spring near Hovenweep Castle indicates that
-the Great House may be the Hovenweep Castle of early writers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a>
-Report on the ancient ruins of Southwestern Colorado. Tenth Ann. Rept.
-U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1876, Washington, 1879.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a>
-The Prehistoric Ruins of the San Juan Watershed in Utah, Arizona,
-Colorado, and New Mexico., Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. v, no. 2, 1903.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a>
-The Circular Kivas of Small Ruins in the San Juan
-Watershed. Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. xvi, no. 1, 1914.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a>
-Memoirs Amer. Anthrop. Asso., vol. v, no. 1, 1918.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a>
-Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. v, no. 2, 1903.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a>
-The Excavation of the Cannonball Ruins in Southwestern
-Colorado. Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. x, no. 4, 1908.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a>
-The Archaeology of McElmo Canyon, Colorado. El Palacio,
-vol. iv, no. 4, Santa Fe, 1917.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a>
-The dimensions of buildings and towers given in this
-article are welcome additions to our knowledge, but from lack of ground
-plans one can not fully determine the arrangement of rooms designated
-in individual ruins.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a>
-A Prehistoric Mesa Verde Pueblo and its People. Smithson.
-Rept. for 1916, pp. 461-488, 1917. Far View House—a Pure Type of
-Pueblo Ruin. Art and Archaeology, vol. vi, no. 3, 1917.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a>
-The situation of the cemetery, one of the characters of Prudden’s “unit
-type,” appears constant in one kiva buildings, but is variable in the
-pure type, and, as shown in the author’s application of the unit type
-to the crowded condition in Spruce-tree House and other cliff-houses,
-does not occur in the same position as in pueblos of the pure type open
-to the sky.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a>
-In his valuable study, Pueblo Ruins of the Galisteo Basin, New
-Mexico (Anthrop. Papers of the Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. <span
-class="smcap">Xv</span>, pt. 1, 1914), Mr. Nelson figures (Plan I,
-<i>B</i>) an embedded circular kiva in what he calls the “historic
-part” of the Galisteo Ruin, but does not state how he distinguishes the
-historic from the prehistoric part of this building. The other kivas at
-Galisteo are few in number and not embedded, but situated outside the
-house masses as in historic pueblos.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a>
-Report of the exploring expedition from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to
-the Junction of the Grand and Green Rivers of the Great Colorado of
-the West in 1859, under the command of Capt. J. N. Macomb, p. 88,
-Washington, 1876.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a>
-Memoirs Amer. Anthrop. Asso., vol. <span class="allsmcap">V</span>,
-no. 1, 1918.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a>
-Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines. Cont. N.
-Amer. Ethn., vol. <span class="allsmcap">IV</span>, pp. 189-190, 1831.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a>
-Prudden excavated a unit type ruin from one of the Mitchell Spring mounds.
-(Amer. Anthrop., vol. <span class="allsmcap">XVI</span>, no. 1, 1914.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a>
-Op. cit., pp. 398-399.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a>
-Op. cit., p. 190.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a>
-Although the kivas of Mud Spring Ruin have not been excavated there is
-little doubt from surface indications that they belong to the unit type.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a>
-Tenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr. (Hayden Survey)
-for 1876, pl. xlviii, fig. 2, 1879.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a>
-Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1874,
-Washington, 1876.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a>
-Op. cit.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a>
-Op. cit., pp. 377-378.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a>
-Op. cit., p. 400.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a>
-Op. cit., pl. xl.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a>
-Mr. Van Kleeck, of Denver, has offered this ruin to the Public Parks
-Service for permanent preservation. It is proposed to rename it the
-Yucca House National Monument.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a>
-Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. x, no. 4, pp. 596-610, 1908.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a>
-Op. cit., pp. 428-429.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a>
-It is premature to declare that the kivas in circular ruins do not
-belong to the vaulted-roofed type simply from want of observation to
-that effect. In Penasco Blanco and other ruins of the Chaco Canyon
-group, as shown in ground plans, they appear to be embedded in secular
-rooms. Additional studies of the architectural features of circular
-pueblos are desirable.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a>
-The letter referring to the circular ruin near Dolores was prepared by
-Mr. Emerson, the discoverer of this ruin, and was transmitted to the
-Smithsonian Institution as part of a phase of cooperative work with the
-Forest Service, by Mr. Gordon Parker, superintendent of the Montezuma
-Forest Reserve.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a>
-Also see detailed map of construction of Sun Dial Palace (<a href="#FIG_4">fig. 4</a>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a>
-Fewkes, J. W., The First Pueblo Ruin in Colorado Mentioned
-in Spanish Documents. Science, vol. xlvi, Sept. 14, 1917.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a>
-Diario y Dereotero de las nuevas descubrimientos de tierras a los r’bos
-N. N. OE. OE. del Nuevo Mexico por los R. R. P. P. Fr. Silvester Velez
-Escalante, Fr. Francisco Atanacio Dominguez, 1776. (Vide Sen. Ex. Doc.
-33d Congress, No. 78, pt. 3, pp. 119-127.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a>
-Attention may be called to the fact that often we find very commodious
-caves without correspondingly large cliff-houses, even in the Mesa Verde.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a>
-Sun Temple, however, is a seeming exception and follows the McElmo rule
-of proximity; several large cliff-dwellings occur under the cliff on
-which this mysterious building stands.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a>
-Taken from a point across the canyon, the only one from
-which both houses can be included in the same photograph.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a>
-For a good example of cliff-houses at different levels,
-see Cliff-Dwellings in Fewkes Canyon, Mesa Verde National Park, Holmes
-Anniversary Volume.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a>
-Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Spruce-tree
-House. Bull. 41, Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1909.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a>
-The name Ruin Canyon, often applied also to Square Tower
-Canyon, is retained for this canyon.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a>
-Smithson. Misc. Colls., vol. 68, no. 1, 1917.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a>
-Our knowledge of the entrances into kivas of the vaulted-roofed type
-is not all that could be desired. Kiva D of Spruce-tree House has a
-passageway opening through the floor of an adjacent room, and Kiva A
-of Cliff Palace has the same feature. Doctor Prudden has found lateral
-entrances from kivas into adjoining rooms in his unit type pueblo.
-The majority of cliff-dwellers’ kivas show no evidence of lateral
-entrances.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a>
-Mr. Jackson, op. cit., p. 415, regarded it likely that the towers were
-“lookouts or places of refuge for the sheep herders who brought their
-sheep or goats up here to graze, just as the Navajos used to and as the
-Utes do at the present time.” This explanation is impossible, for there
-is no evidence that the builders of the towers had either sheep or
-goats, the Navajos and the Utes obtaining both from the Spaniards.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a>
-The tower figured by Prudden (Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol.
-v, no. 2, pl. xviii, fig. 2) as a “round tower” is really semicircular,
-as shown in the ground plan (<a href="#FIG_14">fig. 14</a>) here published.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a>
-Ibid., pp. 241, 263, 273.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a>
-Among the older photographs seen by the author are those of W. H.
-Jackson, prints of which are on exhibition in the State Historical
-Museum at Denver, Colo.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a>
-The “unit type” was first recognized by Doctor Prudden in his
-illuminating studies of the pueblos of the San Juan Basin. The author
-was the first to point out its existence in cliff-houses of the same area.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a>
-Circular Kivas in San Juan Watershed.
-Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. 16, no. 1, 1914.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a>
-Excavation of the Cannonball Ruins in southwestern Colorado.
-Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. x, no. 4, 1908.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a>
-Explorations in southeastern Utah.
-Amer. Journ. Archæol., 2d ser., vol. xiv, no. 3, 1910.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a>
-This tower is reputed to be the home of a mountain lion,
-hence the name Lion House.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a>
-A good figure of these cavate rooms is given by Holmes, op. cit.
-Comparing the photograph with his figure it appears that their
-surrounding shale has worn away somewhat in the last four decades.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a>
-Tenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. (Hayden Survey) for 1876, p. 414, 1879.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a>
-The use of these objects as heirlooms in the Antelope altar of the Hopi
-supports the tradition of the Snake people that their ancestors brought
-them from the San Juan.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a>
-Temples of Quetzalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent Sun God, are
-circular buildings like towers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a>
-The likeness of the Mesa Verde cliff-houses to the pueblos of Chaco
-Canyon was long ago suggested by Nordenskiöld. The excavation of Far
-View House proved that suggestion to be true.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a>
-This subject is treated at length in my report on Casa Grande in the
-Twenty-eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a>
-These acculturation modifications due to Hispanic influences in modern
-pueblos are too well marked to need more than a mention.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a>
-The author uses the words “pure type” instead of “unit type” as a
-general term to denote “one-unit types,” “two-unit types,” “three-unit
-types,” etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a>
-Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. viii, no. 1, 1906.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a>
-Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pt. 1, p. 523. This village
-is spoken of as “lately destroyed;” in other words it was a ruin in 1540.</p>
-</div></div>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<div class="transnote bbox space-above2">
-<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber’s Notes:</p>
-<hr class="r10" />
-<p>The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up
-                  paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p>
-<p>Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.</p>
-</div></div>
-
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