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} - .x-ebookmaker p.dropcap:first-letter { float: left; } - /* ]]> */ </style> - </head> - <body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The high school course in English, by Willard G. Bleyer</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The high school course in English</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Willard G. Bleyer</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: October 25, 2022 [eBook #69236]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN ENGLISH ***</div> - -<div class='tnotes covernote'> - -<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber’s Note:</strong></p> - -<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class='chapter ph1'> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div>HIGH SCHOOL SERIES</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<p class='c002'>1. <span class='sc'>The High School Course in English</span>, by Willard G. -Bleyer, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of English. 1906. 1907.</p> - -<p class='c003'>2. <span class='sc'>The High School Course in German</span>, by M. Blakemore -Evans, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of German. 1907.</p> - -<p class='c003'>3. <span class='sc'>Report on the Entrance Examination in English -Composition</span>, by Willard G. Bleyer, Ph. D., Assistant Professor -of English. [<i>In Preparation.</i>]</p> - -<p class='c003'>4. <span class='sc'>The High School Course in Mathematics</span>, by Ernest -B. Skinner, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Mathematics. [<i>In -Preparation.</i>]</p> - -<p class='c003'>5. <span class='sc'>The High School Course in Latin</span>, by a committee of -the Wisconsin Latin Teachers Association. [<i>In Preparation.</i>]</p> - -<p class='c003'>6. <span class='sc'>The High School Course in French</span>, by Hugh A. -Smith, M. A., Professor of Romance Languages. [<i>In Preparation.</i>]</p> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div><span class='small'>Issued bi-monthly, and entered at the postoffice, at Madison, as second-class matter.</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='titlepage'> - -<div> - <h1 class='c005'><span class='sc'>The High school Course in English</span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c0'> -<div class='nf-center c004'> - <div>BY</div> - <div><span class='xlarge'>WILLARD G. BLEYER, Ph. D.</span></div> - <div>Assistant Professor of English</div> - <div>University of Wisconsin</div> - <div class='c004'>REVISED EDITION</div> - <div class='c004'>UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN</div> - <div>MADISON</div> - <div>1907</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span> - <h2 class='c006'>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table0'> - <tr> - <th class='c007'></th> - <th class='c008'> </th> - <th class='c008'> </th> - <th class='c009'><span class='small'>Page</span></th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008' colspan='2'>INTRODUCTION</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>I.</td> - <td class='c008' colspan='2'>PURPOSE OF THE COURSE</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>II.</td> - <td class='c008' colspan='2'>ORGANIZATION OF ENGLISH WORK</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>1. Length of Course</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_9'>9</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>2. Plan of Course</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>3. Arrangement of Classes</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_11'>11</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>4. Conferences of Teachers</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>III.</td> - <td class='c008' colspan='2'>COMPOSITION</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>1. Theme Writing</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>2. Correction of Themes</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_17'>17</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>3. Filing of Themes</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_19'>19</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>4. Conferences on Written Work</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>5. Oral Composition</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>6. Principles of Composition</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_21'>21</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>7. Use of Text-book</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_22'>22</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>IV.</td> - <td class='c008' colspan='2'>READING</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>1. Methods of Teaching</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>2. Reading Aloud</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>3. Choice of Reading</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_28'>28</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>4. Library Reading</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_29'>29</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>V.</td> - <td class='c008' colspan='2'>FIRST YEAR ENGLISH</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_30'>30</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>1. Composition</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_31'>31</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>2. Grammar</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_32'>32</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>3. Rhetorical Principles</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_33'>33</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>4. Theme writing</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_34'>34</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>5. Reading</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_35'>35</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>VI.</td> - <td class='c008' colspan='2'>SECOND YEAR ENGLISH</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_37'>37</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>1. Composition</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_37'>37</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>2. Reading</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_39'>39</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>VII.</td> - <td class='c008' colspan='2'>THIRD YEAR ENGLISH</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>1. Reading and History of Literature</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>2. Composition</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_41'>41</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'><span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>VIII.</td> - <td class='c008' colspan='2'>FOURTH YEAR ENGLISH</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>1. Reading</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>2. The Novel</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>3. The Drama</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>4. The Lyric</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>5. The Essay</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>6. Library Reading</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_44'>44</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>7. Composition</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_45'>45</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>8. Writing of Verse</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>IX.</td> - <td class='c008' colspan='2'>OUTLINE OF HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN ENGLISH</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_47'>47</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>X.</td> - <td class='c008' colspan='2'>LIST OF READINGS FOR FOUR YEARS</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>XI.</td> - <td class='c008' colspan='2'>OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION AND STYLE</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>1. Whole Composition</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>2. Paragraphs</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>3. Sentences</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>4. Words</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>5. Figures of Speech</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>6. Qualities of Style</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>7. Forms of Discourse</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c009'> </td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'>XII.</td> - <td class='c008' colspan='2'>BIBLIOGRAPHY</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>1. The Teaching of English</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>2. Literature</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>3. Language and Grammar</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c007'> </td> - <td class='c008'> </td> - <td class='c008'>4. Rhetoric and Composition</td> - <td class='c009'><a href='#Page_68'>68</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span> - <h2 class='c006'>INTRODUCTION</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c002'>This bulletin has been prepared with the purpose of offering -some practical suggestions in regard to the organization -of the high school course in English and to the methods of -teaching English. As it is designed for the principals and -teachers of Wisconsin schools, the plan and methods conform -to the courses of study and conditions required of free high -schools in this state. The aim has not been to discuss theories -or to offer novel solutions for the problems of teaching, -but rather to present ways and means of accomplishing the -generally accepted purposes of the study of English in secondary -schools. All the methods and plans suggested have been -shown by experience to be practical, and are adapted to present -conditions in both large and small high schools.</p> - -<p class='c003'>While the plan of the work has been made as flexible as -possible in order to adapt it to different schools, it has seemed -desirable to indicate definitely how all of the details of the -course should be organized and what methods should be used -to bring about the required results. The object has been to -consider the purpose of each part of the English work, and to -show as specifically as possible what must be done and to -some extent how it must be done to accomplish this purpose. -By having a definite aim for each year’s work and by seeing -clearly what is to be accomplished in each part of the subject, -the teacher of English feels responsible for the successful -completion of a specific part of the course. At the same time -the originality and ability of the teacher need not be hampered -by a definite plan but may be exercised in adapting the -work to different conditions in different schools and classes.</p> - -<p class='c003'>In discussing the course in English, the general aim and -methods in teaching the important elements, composition and -reading, are taken up first, and then the particular phases -of each subject to be presented in each year, are considered. -What is presented under the general topics, reading and composition, -therefore, applies to the work of each year unless -otherwise stated, and usually is not repeated in considering -each year of the course.</p> - -<p class='c003'><span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>A second edition of this bulletin has made possible some -revision. No essential changes have been made, but considerable -new material has been added. Some parts have been -developed at greater length in order to explain the methods -more fully. The most important addition is the outline for the -study of composition and style, which has been included for -those teachers who desire to review the various phases of -rhetorical theory in preparation for teaching composition or -reading. The bibliography has been extended to include a -number of standard reference books on various phases of the -English work. The books have been selected on the basis of -their practical value to the teacher in the work actually required -in the high school course in English, and of the possibility -of assisting the teacher to build up for himself, at reasonable -cost, a good working library. In order to accomplish -the latter purpose the less expensive reference books have, as -far as possible, been chosen, and the price and the publisher -of each have been given.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span> - <h2 class='c006'>I<br /> <span class='large'>PURPOSE OF THE COURSE</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c002'>The main objects of the teaching of English as presented -in the Report of the Committee of Ten<a id='r1'></a><a href='#f1' class='c010'><sup>[1]</sup></a>, are (1) “to enable -the pupil to understand the expressed thoughts of others;” -(2) to enable him “to give expression to thoughts of his own;” -(3) “to cultivate a taste for reading, to give the pupil some -acquaintance with good literature, and to furnish him the -means of extending that acquaintance.” Other subsidiary objects -may be accomplished by the study of English, the Report -points out, but these should never be permitted to encroach -upon the main purposes. While these purposes are -considered separately, and are apparently separated in arranging -the course of study, the Report continues, their mutual -dependence must constantly be kept in mind. By studying -the thoughts of others as expressed in the literature read -in or out of the class room, the pupil can be led to see how to -express his own thoughts more effectively. All reading of -good literature should tend to cultivate a taste for reading, -and all study of good literature should lead to a better appreciation -of what is best in expression. The survey of the history -of English and American literature accompanied by the -reading and study of characteristic selections of every period, -will open up to the pupil the whole field of literature in English -and will furnish him the means of judging intelligently -of what he reads. This interdependence of the main purposes -of the study of English requires the closest correlation of -every phase of the English work.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c003'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. Report of Committee on Secondary School Studies, p. 86.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c003'>Since the English work is divided into two principal parts, -reading and composition, it may be well to consider briefly -the purpose of each in relation to the main objects just considered.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The first object of the work in reading must always be to -have the pupil understand the thought expressed on the printed -page. However thorough has been his training in the -grades, the average pupil on entering high school needs to be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>taught how to read. Generally he gets but a hazy, general -idea from reading a paragraph, either because he fails to grasp -the meaning of each sentence, or because he does not combine -the sentence-thoughts in their relation to the topic. The -aim of the reading must be to enable the pupil to understand -each idea as it is presented, to combine these ideas to get -the thought of the sentence, and to follow the chain of thought -from sentence to sentence until he grasps the meaning of the -paragraph, essay, story, or poem, as a whole. As rapidly as -the maturity of the pupil permits, other elements that aid in -the better understanding of a piece of literature may be considered -in connection with the reading. The study of the structure, -the form, the author’s purpose, his style, the revelation -of the author’s personality, the relation of the piece of literature -to the age in which it was written, and a comparison -with other pieces of the same type, all give a clearer understanding -of literature. The other purpose of the reading is -to stimulate the pupils’ interest in good literature, and to lead -them to read what is worth while, on their own initiative. If -interest is aroused by the reading and study in class, of one -work of an author, it is easy to create a desire to read other -works by the same author, outside of the class room. By -suggestions and advice the teacher can do much toward directing -the pupils in their outside reading. To lead pupils to -read, understand, and appreciate the best of English literature -is certainly an aim that is worth striving to accomplish.</p> - -<p class='c003'>To enable the pupil to give clear and effective expression -to his own thoughts, is the end and aim of the other important -part of the English work—composition. That composition is -the expression of his own thoughts is the first principle that -must constantly be impressed upon the pupils’ minds. The -misconception that the only ideas worth expressing in writing -themes are those derived from books, must be corrected at -once. While reproductions and paraphrases of the expressed -thoughts of others may sometimes be used as exercises, the -fact must be made clear to the pupils that these are not original -compositions, in as much as they are not the expression of -their own ideas.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The relation of clear thinking to clear expression is another -factor to be considered in teaching composition. Much of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span>the instruction in theme writing is really concerned with -training the pupils to think logically and to arrange their -thoughts in an orderly manner. Pupils must be taught that -as they can give clear expression only to those thoughts that -are clear in their own minds, the first process in theme writing -is the clarifying and arranging of their ideas. The mental -training given by such systematic preparation for theme writing -as the making of outlines or other devices for grouping -thoughts in a logical plan, is invaluable, since, unlike that -given by other studies, it is concerned largely with the pupil’s -own thoughts rather than with those acquired from books.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The third important element in composition is the style or -form of expression. The first aim of teaching composition, -whether written or oral, must be to give the pupils sufficient -command of simple, idiomatic English for the needs of everyday -life. If the average pupil can be taught to express his -ideas in clear, correct English, much will have been accomplished -by the four years’ training. Those pupils who show -natural ability in expression can be encouraged to develop -their talent for writing or speaking in connection with class -work or with the various outside activities of the school, and -may be given considerable assistance in their efforts by the -teacher of English. It is much more important, however, to -enable the majority of high school pupils to express themselves -simply, naturally, and correctly, than to attempt to -develop literary style where there is little natural ability.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c006'>II<br /> <span class='large'>ORGANIZATION OF ENGLISH WORK</span></h2> -</div> -<h3 class='c011'>1. Length of Course</h3> - -<p class='c012'>All high schools provide four years of instruction in English, -and most of the schools devote five periods a week to -the subject in each year. The course of study outlined in -this bulletin, therefore, is arranged on the basis of five periods -a week for four years. The successful completion of at least -two years’ work in English, one-half of which shall be devoted -to composition and rhetoric, and one-half to the study of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>English classics, is required of all students for graduation -from Wisconsin high schools, and for entrance to the University -of Wisconsin. The first two years of English are always -required of all high school pupils whether they pursue an -elective or a prescribed course of study. In some high schools -four years’ study of English is required of all pupils, and in -most of the Wisconsin high schools the curriculum provides -for three years of English in all courses. When the course of -study is partly elective, pupils are usually advised to continue -with a third and often a fourth year of English after completing -the two years of required work. Thus practically all -high school pupils pursue the course in English for at least -three years.</p> - -<p class='c003'>Whether pupils who study English for three years take -up the work in the third or the fourth year of their course, is -generally determined by the arrangement of the other subjects -in the curriculum. When a choice may be made by -either third or fourth year pupils between third and fourth -year English, the principal and teacher of English can often -decide for the pupil, basing their decision in each case upon -what they know of the pupil and his plans. For some pupils -the survey of English and American literature in the third -year will be most valuable since it furnishes them the means -of extending their acquaintance with literature by independent -reading. Other pupils will doubtless derive more benefit -from the intensive study of a few classics outlined for the -fourth year.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>2. Plan of Course</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The arrangement of the several phases of the English work -in the course, and the amount of time that is to be devoted -to each is as follows<a id='r2'></a><a href='#f2' class='c010'><sup>[2]</sup></a>:</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c003'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. For a complete outline of the course see p. <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c003'>First year—5 periods a week; one-half of the time to be -given to composition, and one-half to the reading and study -of literature.</p> - -<p class='c003'>Second year—5 periods a week; one-half of the time to -be given to composition, and one-half to the reading and study -of literature.</p> - -<p class='c003'><span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>Third year—5 periods a week; from one-tenth to one-fifth -of the time to be given to the history of English literature -during the first three-quarters of the year and to the history -of American literature during the last quarter of the year; -four-fifths of the time to be devoted to the study of the works -of representative authors in each period of the history of English -and American literature; and from one-tenth to one-fifth -of the time to be given to composition.</p> - -<p class='c003'>Fourth year—5 periods a week; four-fifths of the time to -be devoted to the study of typical examples of each of the following -forms of literature: the novel, the drama, the lyric, -and the essay; one-fifth of the time to be given to composition.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The reading and study of literature in class in each year -is to be supplemented by library reading of literature, the -amount of which will be determined by library facilities and -other local conditions.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>3. Arrangement of Classes</h3> - -<p class='c012'>If the English work is being taught by several teachers, -the distribution of classes among the teachers deserves careful -consideration. No English work should be entrusted to a -teacher who is not interested in the subject and who is not -adequately prepared to teach it. It is particularly important -that the first year classes should be in charge of the best -teachers of English that the school has in its corps. The not -infrequent practice of having the thoroughly prepared and -experienced teachers take charge of third and fourth year English, -and of assigning the first year classes to the young and -inexperienced English teacher, or even to teachers of other -subjects who have little or no interest in the work and who -are compelled to take classes in first year English because -their time is not completely occupied by their own subjects, -generally proves extremely unsatisfactory. If the pupils in -the high schools are to have the right attitude toward the -study of English, and are to begin the subject in the right -way, the best teachers must be provided for the first year -work, since much of the success of the whole high school -course in English depends upon the manner in which the introductory -work is taught.</p> - -<p class='c003'><span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>The number of classes in English to be assigned to the -teacher and the size of these classes must also be considered. -The teaching of English requires an unusual amount of work -outside of class. First, the preparation for each day’s teaching -whether the work is in composition or reading demands -much time and energy if it is to be done as it should be. Second, -the correction of themes is a daily task that must be done -carefully and accurately and that requires the best effort of the -teacher when his mind is most keen and active. Third, personal -conferences with each pupil on his written work are now -generally conceded to be essential for successful training in -writing. All these elements must be considered in arranging -the programme of classes for teachers of English. Teachers -cannot do satisfactory work if they must prepare for five or -six classes a day, teach these classes, correct twenty-five or -thirty themes daily, and hold conferences with pupils before -and after school. The teaching of many classes exhausts the -energy of the teacher and makes accurate correction after -school or in the evening, as well as the careful preparation for -the next day’s classes, extremely difficult if not impossible. -Conferences on written work should be provided for in the -regular programme and should not interfere with the teacher’s -other duties before and after school. Four classes a day, two -periods daily for conference with pupils, and not more than a -hundred pupils in all classes, a number which requires the -correction of one hundred themes a week, is an arrangement -of work that makes possible effective teaching.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>4. Conference of Teachers</h3> - -<p class='c012'>To give unity to the four years’ work in English, it is essential -that all the teachers of English in each high school -meet at frequent intervals to discuss organization, methods, -and progress of the work. Each teacher will thus familiarize -himself with the English work of the whole school, and -can do his particular part of it more intelligently and more -effectively. As the success of high school English also depends -in no small degree upon the character of the instruction -which the pupils have received in the grades, and particularly -in the seventh and eighth grades, it will be found very -profitable to have similar conferences occasionally between -<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>the seventh and eighth grade teachers and the high school -teachers of English. A closer relation ought to exist between -the English work of the last two grades and the high -school, and there seems to be no better way to accomplish -this than to bring about cooperation between the teachers -through the medium of these conferences. The benefit to the -teachers and the great advantage that results to the English -work of the school repay many fold the time and effort devoted -to these conferences. If local conditions make these -meetings of grade and high school teachers impracticable, the -high school teacher of English should make every effort to -familiarize himself with the amount and character of the -training which the pupils have had before entering the high -school, by visiting the schools and conferring with the teachers -in the seventh and eighth grades. The knowledge thus acquired -of the earlier training of the pupils will be of great -service to the high school teacher in planning his work both -in reading and composition.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c006'>III<br /> <span class='large'>COMPOSITION</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c002'>The ability to write clearly and accurately can generally -be acquired only by practice. If this practice is to be really -effective it can not be confined to one semester or one year, -but must extend through the whole course in English. Training -in composition naturally includes a study of the principles -of the art; and since these principles are of different degrees -of difficulty, all can not be presented in one year, but must -be developed from year to year as the ability and maturity -of the pupil makes possible the comprehension and application -of them. Practice in writing and instruction in the -principles of composition, therefore, must form a part of all -instruction in English throughout the four years.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>1. Theme Writing</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Since it is only by constant practice that the average -pupil can learn to write good English, it naturally follows -that the essential part of the composition work is the writing -<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>of themes. The methods by which the pupil is given this -practice are of the greatest importance. In the first place, -as has already been indicated, it should be made clear to the -pupil what original composition is, and what it is not. The belief, -all too prevalent among pupils, that ideas for compositions -are to be obtained largely if not entirely from books, -should be promptly eradicated from their minds. They must -be constantly impressed with the fact that the expression of -their own ideas is the important factor in all original composition.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The direction of the pupils to a right choice of subject for -their compositions is the first important consideration. The -possibility of writing interesting themes on the everyday incidents -in the life of the pupils and the school must be made -clear to them at the beginning of the course. After the pupils -have once been made to see the inexhaustible supply of material -which their own experience affords, there will be no -temptation to turn to books for inspiration. Throughout the -course in composition it is necessary for a teacher of English -to have a large supply of good subjects for themes. To secure -these subjects the teacher must familiarize himself with -local conditions, particularly as they affect the life and interests -of his pupils. It is an essential part of the teacher’s preparation -for teaching composition that he inform himself fully -upon the subjects of local interest upon which he encourages -the pupils to write. By his interest in the various activities -of the pupils and by his sympathy in their efforts, the teacher -not only comes to know what subjects to suggest for composition, -but gains the pupils’ confidence, and arouses in them -a desire to tell him of these activities in their written work. -With proper encouragement and interest on the part of the -teacher, pupils will soon come to take pleasure in writing of -their everyday experiences, and the themes will become a -source of greater pleasure and satisfaction to both teacher and -pupils.</p> - -<p class='c003'>It is frequently desirable that the same subject be assigned -to all pupils, so that the results may be compared and presented -to the class as part of the regular instruction. At -other times it is necessary to give the class a number of subjects -from which each pupil may select the one that suits -<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>him best; and at still others, to suggest general topics from -which the pupil may frame his own subject. In announcing -and assigning a subject for compositions the teacher can be -of much assistance to the pupils by discussing with the class -the subject under consideration. These discussions will stimulate -interest in the subject, and will arouse a desire on the -part of the pupils to write upon it. The teacher can direct -the discussion so that the pupils will be led to consider the -best method of treating the subject and can thus prevent waste -of effort. It is necessary, however, to guard against giving -the pupil so many suggestions that little original thought -and observation will be required in writing the theme.</p> - -<p class='c003'>That clear, logical thinking is prerequisite for clear expression -should also be constantly emphasized in teaching composition. -Pupils must be made to realize, as has already been -said, that unless thoughts are clear in their own minds, they -cannot expect to make these thoughts clear to others. They -should be taught, therefore, to get before their minds clearly -what they desire to express before they undertake to express -it. The first step can be taken early in the course when the -pupils are writing narratives, by urging upon them the necessity -of accuracy in observing what happens and how it happens, -since the degree of completeness of the remembrance of -the event depends upon the character of the impression. In -description, likewise, careful observation of what is to be portrayed -must be emphasized as the only means of obtaining a -complete mental picture that can be described to others. The -methods of exposition and argumentation presented in the -third and fourth years naturally involve a discussion of the -methods of reasoning and as much logic as the pupils can -comprehend. So closely related are thinking and the expression -of thought that, as has been pointed out before, much of -the work of teaching pupils to express their thoughts clearly -and accurately is really concerned with teaching them to think -clearly and logically.</p> - -<p class='c003'>In all work of this kind the outline is of great value. An -outline of a paragraph analyzed in connection with the reading -will make clear the manner of arranging the subtopics -and details in an orderly form. A similar outline of the subject -of a theme, made in class by the cooperation of teacher -<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>and pupils, will indicate the method of grouping the pupil’s -own ideas in a logical manner. After the process has been -illustrated by such class exercises, the pupils should be required -to make outlines of their themes, without assistance -from the teacher. While it is not necessary to require that a -complete outline be prepared by the pupils for every theme -that is assigned, frequent exercises in outlining the material -of the theme before it is written are desirable throughout the -course. Like all formal devices, the outline, if made mechanically, -may tend to curb the spontaneous expression of the -pupils; but rightly employed by the teacher and pupils, it will -readily become a valuable aid to clear thinking and expression.</p> - -<p class='c003'>From the beginning to the end of the course in English, -the fact must be impressed upon the pupils’ minds that the -only acceptable themes are those that are the result of -thought and careful effort. Hastily and carelessly prepared -compositions and those handed in after the appointed time, -should not be accepted by the teacher. Promptness, neatness, -and earnest effort are essentials for successful theme writing -that pupils should never be permitted to neglect. While it -may seem very exacting to require that all themes be written -in black ink, on paper of uniform size, and that they be numbered -or dated and indorsed in a prescribed form, experience -has shown that these details in the organization of the work -are important for economy of time and effort on the part of -teacher and pupils.</p> - -<p class='c003'>Although most of the themes will be prepared by the pupils -before coming to the class room, it is desirable to have some -of them written during the recitation period in order to give -the pupils practice in thinking and writing rapidly. At the -beginning of the course the subject may be assigned at the -preceding recitation so that the pupils may consider it carefully -and come prepared to write. After the pupils have -gained some fluency of expression, impromptu themes will -prove interesting and valuable class room exercises. Considerable -importance should be attached to these impromptu -themes and exercises as tests of the pupils’ ability to write -rapidly and accurately.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span> - <h3 class='c013'>2. Correction of Themes</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c012'>Of equal importance to the writing of themes is the prompt -and careful correction of them by the teacher, and the revision -or rewriting by the pupil. While doubtless the pupil -will gain some facility in expression by writing frequently, he -is not likely to learn how to write clear, accurate, forcible English -unless his work is carefully corrected and returned to -him promptly so that it may be revised or rewritten. In correcting -themes the purpose should be to indicate to the pupil -the errors and weaknesses of his style, in order that he may -correct these faults. The teacher, therefore, should not correct -the pupil’s errors, but should use some sign or abbreviation -to indicate the character of the fault. Much if not all -of the benefit derived by the pupil from the teacher’s correction -is lost if he does not have the opportunity to correct his -own errors in revising or rewriting the composition. Not only -is this correction of the pupil’s mistakes by the teacher bad -pedagogically, but it takes a needless amount of the teacher’s -time. It is desirable to have a simple but complete system -of signs and abbreviations indicating the exact character of -the error. In this connection attention may be called to the -value of having each school adopt some system of correction -signs and abbreviations, so that the same marks may be used -not only by all of the teachers of English, but by the teachers -of all other subjects in correcting note-books, topics, examination -papers, and all other written exercises. It is only by insisting -that high school pupils be as careful of their English -in all written work as in compositions prepared for English -classes that the best results can be accomplished.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The following sign and abbreviations used in the English -department of the University of Wisconsin for the correction -of themes may serve to indicate the character and scope of -a system of correction marks:</p> - -<table class='table1'> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>amb</td> - <td class='c014'>ambiguous.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>ant</td> - <td class='c014'>antecedent.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>bal</td> - <td class='c014'>make elements balance.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>ch</td> - <td class='c014'>coherence.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>cst</td> - <td class='c014'>construction.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>∥cst.</td> - <td class='c014'>parallel construction.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>D</td> - <td class='c014'>see dictionary.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>E</td> - <td class='c014'>poor English.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>emp</td> - <td class='c014'>emphasis.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>F. W.</td> - <td class='c014'>fine writing.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>fig</td> - <td class='c014'>figure of speech.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>gr</td> - <td class='c014'>grammar.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'><span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>H</td> - <td class='c014'>hackneyed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>K</td> - <td class='c014'>awkward.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>L</td> - <td class='c014'>loose.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>MS</td> - <td class='c014'>manuscript.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>p</td> - <td class='c014'>punctuation.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>pc</td> - <td class='c014'>comma fault.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>per</td> - <td class='c014'>make periodic.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>rep</td> - <td class='c014'>repetition.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>red</td> - <td class='c014'>redundant.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>S</td> - <td class='c014'>sentence.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>sp</td> - <td class='c014'>spelling</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>Th</td> - <td class='c014'>theme.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>tr</td> - <td class='c014'>transpose.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>U</td> - <td class='c014'>unity.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>V</td> - <td class='c014'>vague.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>W</td> - <td class='c014'>weak.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>W. W.</td> - <td class='c014'>wrong word.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>¶</td> - <td class='c014'>paragraph.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>[ ]</td> - <td class='c014'>omit.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>]</td> - <td class='c014'>indention.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>x</td> - <td class='c014'>obvious error.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>│</td> - <td class='c014'>divide.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>╱</td> - <td class='c014'>small letter.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>≡</td> - <td class='c014'>capital letter.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>⁐</td> - <td class='c014'>unite.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p class='c003'>Besides indicating all the errors in every theme, the teacher -should write a concise comment on each, pointing out the -faults and merits of the theme. He should aim to make these -comments as stimulating and suggestive as possible for judicious -criticism must be constructive, encouraging the pupil in -that which is praiseworthy in his efforts, as well as aiding -him to eliminate that which is undesirable. These comments -to be most helpful should be based on the teacher’s knowledge -of the pupil’s personality and of the character of his -other themes, for each piece of written work must be regarded -as a step in the individual pupil’s progress toward -the more effective expression of his thoughts. The teacher -should also remember that firm insistence from the beginning -to the end of the course on correctness in the fundamentals -of expression such as grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, -is quite as necessary as the stimulating criticism -that aims at developing more original and spontaneous thought -and expression.</p> - -<p class='c003'>In order that the pupil may get the greatest benefit from -the teacher’s correction of his themes, these should be returned -for revision or rewriting as soon as possible. If the -pupil does not receive his theme until a week or more after he -has written it, the corrections and the revision and rewriting -are much less interesting and valuable than if it is returned to -him promptly. It is also easier for the teacher to correct -themes as soon as they are received rather than to allow them -<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>to accumulate until their number makes the correction of them -an exhausting task.</p> - -<p class='c003'>In addition to the careful correction of compositions by the -teacher, other methods may be used to call attention to the -merits and faults of the pupils’ themes. The teacher may -have the pupils copy on the blackboard the themes which they -have prepared before coming to class, and the recitation period -may be devoted to the criticism of these compositions by -teacher and pupils. The pupils may occasionally be required -to correct each other’s written work, either in or out of the -class room. A recitation period can sometimes be used to advantage -for the rewriting by the pupils of themes corrected -by the teacher, who by passing from one pupil to another -during this exercise can assist each in correcting and improving -his work. While these methods often prove interesting -and valuable, they should not be regarded as an adequate substitute -for the prompt and accurate correction of themes by -the teacher.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>3. Filing of Themes</h3> - -<p class='c012'>After themes have been either rewritten or revised by pupils, -they should be returned to the teacher, who must glance -over them to be sure that the pupils have made the necessary -changes. If the themes are rewritten, the original as well as -the rewritten form should be returned to the teacher for the -purpose of this comparison. It is also desirable to have some -method of filing themes after they have been returned to the -teacher. A simple method of keeping them is to use looseleaf -note-books similar to the laboratory note-books in science. -With this system the themes are first handed in on separate -sheets of uniform size, and, after they have been corrected -by the teacher and revised or rewritten by the pupil, are fastened -in the note-book. If the themes are rewritten or corrected -on the blank page of the note-book facing the original -copy, the teacher can readily compare the two forms and can -determine the character of the revision. Another plan adopted -by a number of schools is to have a large filing case with a -compartment for the themes of each pupil in the school. All -the themes should be preserved until the end of the year, -when they may be returned to the pupils.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span> - <h3 class='c013'>4. Conferences on Written Work</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c012'>In order to accomplish the best results in theme writing -and correcting, it is desirable that the teacher talk over the -written work with each pupil as frequently as his time permits. -If the English teacher’s programme of recitations is -properly arranged, he should have sufficient time to have -conferences with all his pupils once a month. Regular appointments -should be made with each pupil for holding these -conferences during those periods in which both pupil and -teacher have no recitation. At the conference the teacher -can go over with the pupil the written work of the month, -can answer questions, and give helpful suggestions for improving -the pupil’s composition and class work.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>5. Oral Composition</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Although the term “composition” as used in connection -with English work usually refers only to written expression, -it is evident that the oral expression of the pupils’ thoughts -is worthy of consideration. Generally no particular provision -is made in high school work for so-called oral composition, -nor does it seem necessary to provide a distinct place for it -in the outline of the course. The importance of the form of -the recitation in every subject is emphasized by all good -teachers. The topical recitation now so frequently required -in all high school studies, if properly conducted, is the most -effective kind of oral composition that can be given. A teacher -of English, of course, should give especial attention to the -form of recitation in English classes. Pupils, after some encouragement, -will express their ideas freely in the course of -the discussions which inevitably arise in connection with the -reading and composition. Their attention should be directed -to the fact that the same principles govern the clear and -forcible expression in spoken, as in written language. The -correction of common faults in recitation, such as the “and”, -“and then” habit, will assist in eliminating these errors from -the written work as well as in improving greatly the oral expression. -During the first year the pupils may be assigned -simple topics in connection with the reading and should be -taught how to collect the material and arrange it in an outline -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>form from which to present it in the class room. After -they have acquired the ability to present topics with the aid -of notes, they should be encouraged to speak without any of -these aids. The same method may be applied to the daily -recitation. In fact, it is often best to begin by having the pupils -outline the subject matter of the lesson and come to class -prepared to recite upon any topic in the outline. In this -manner the recitations in English and in practically all of the -other subjects of the high school course may be used to give -the pupils the necessary training in oral composition.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>6. Principles of Composition</h3> - -<p class='c012'>In connection with the writing and correction of themes -must be studied the principles of composition and their application. -These rhetorical principles may be presented either -inductively or deductively. The pupil may either learn them -from a definite statement in the text-book, which illustrates -their application by selected examples, or he may be led to -discover the principles of effective expression from the literature -that he is studying in class as a part of the work in -reading. While much may be said for the merits of each of -these methods, the inductive plan seems to commend itself -particularly, since it makes possible a close and effective correlation -of the two elements of the English work—composition -and reading.</p> - -<p class='c003'>During the first two years, when particular attention is -given to the principles of sentence and paragraph construction -in the composition work, these principles can be developed -and their application readily illustrated from the selections -that are read and studied in class. The object of the -work in reading, as has already been stated, is to teach the -pupil to get the thought clearly from the printed page. In -order to do this effectively, it is necessary to study with some -degree of care the sentence and paragraph structure of the -selection which he is reading. To get the thought of each sentence -it is necessary to understand clearly the relation of all -its parts. By noting the separate ideas as expressed in words, -phrases, and clauses, and by determining their relation in the -sentence as the expression of the whole thought, the pupil is -taught the principles of sentence unity and coherence. If -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>his attention is properly drawn to these principles as they are -exemplified in the literature before him, the importance and -application of them may be clearly demonstrated without -spoiling the masterpiece of literature. In fact the appreciation -of the skill of the literary artist is thereby increased, -provided the teaching is done in a proper manner.</p> - -<p class='c003'>To follow the chain of thought in the paragraph, it is necessary -to see clearly the relation of each thought as expressed -in the sentence to the preceding and succeeding thoughts in -order that the development of the topic may be clear, and that -the pupil may grasp the subject in its entirety. In teaching -the pupil to get the whole thought in the paragraph, it -is necessary to consider the whole topic treated in the paragraph; -that is, to study the unity of the paragraph; and also -to consider the relation of each thought to the one central -topic; that is, the principle of paragraph coherence. Thus, -in the effort to teach the pupil how to get the thoughts of others -by reading, the essential principles of composition are absolutely -necessary. In a similar manner all the principles of -narration, description, exposition, and argumentation may be -developed inductively from the reading. By seeing the application -of the rhetorical principles in literature, the pupil -comes to realize their importance in effective writing, and is -impressed by the varied forms of their application as he is -not likely to be by selected examples isolated from their -context, in text-books.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>7. Use of Text-book</h3> - -<p class='c012'>If the principles of composition may be developed from -the masterpieces that are studied in class, the question naturally -suggests itself, “Is it necessary to have a text-book at -all in studying the principles of rhetoric and composition?” -It is entirely possible to teach composition successfully without -a text-book, but owing to difficulties in the organization -of the schools, and the not infrequent change of teachers, -it is often desirable for the sake of uniformity of work to -make use of a text-book. It is also convenient, even where -these difficulties do not exist, to have a good text-book to -which the teacher may direct the pupil for a detailed statement -of the principles after they have been developed and exemplified -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>in the reading; that is, to use it as a reference book. -In order that it may be used thus for reference, the text-book -selected should take up the principles of composition and -the forms of discourse in a logical manner, treating each -fully and systematically in a separate division. Text-books of -this character can be used throughout the first two years at -least, and some of them are sufficiently complete to supply -all the material needed for four years’ study of composition.</p> - -<p class='c003'>It is generally conceded that text-books in rhetoric and -composition have very often been used to poor advantage by -having the pupils memorize the definitions and statements of -principles, and by devoting much of the period set aside for -composition to recitation upon the subject matter of the text -book. The principles of rhetoric and composition, of course, -have little value except as the pupil is able to apply them in -his own work or to recognize the application of them in the -work of others. The real test of his knowledge of the subject -matter of the text-book therefore is not made by having him -recite what the book contains, but by requiring him to apply -it in his own work and to perceive examples of it in that of -others.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c006'>IV<br /> <span class='large'>READING</span></h2> -</div> -<h3 class='c011'>1. Methods of Teaching</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The purposes already indicated for the reading are “to -enable the pupil to understand the expressed thoughts of -others,” “to cultivate an acquaintance with good literature, -and to furnish him with a means of extending that acquaintance.” -It is evident that the only way to teach the pupil to understand -the expressed thoughts of others is to have him -understand each unit of that expression. The meanings of -words, allusions, and figures of speech, as the expressions of -the idea, must be clearly understood. The intelligent use of -the dictionary and the usual books of reference should therefore -be taught at the very beginning of the course of reading. -Whenever the origin and history of a word are helpful for a -better understanding of its meaning, these may be called to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>the pupil’s attention, and he should be encouraged to observe -in the dictionary the etymology of words as he looks for their -meaning. While the importance of knowing the significance -of proper names, allusions, etc., is to be impressed on the -pupil’s mind, the preparation of the reading lesson must not -be allowed to degenerate into a mere searching for the meaning -of all unknown terms in the assignment. Pupils should be -warned against the practice of making a list of all the unknown -words in the lesson and of consulting the dictionary -and other books of reference for information, without considering -the context in which the words are used.</p> - -<p class='c003'>From the very beginning of the course in reading, the -teacher should make sure that each pupil gets a clear conception -of the thought expressed in each sentence. Without -undue emphasis on grammatical analysis, the pupil should -be encouraged to note the form in which the principal proposition -is expressed, and the manner in which it is modified by -the subordinate elements, for it is only by the careful consideration -of the syntactical relations that the pupil can get -accurately the thought expressed. The development of the -thought through a series of sentences constituting a paragraph -must be analyzed with equal care, so that the pupil may see -clearly the development of the thought and the relation of -each sentence to the preceding and succeeding ones and to the -paragraph topic. The amount and character of analysis in -each assignment of reading should be carefully determined -by the teacher as he prepares his work for each day, and he -must beware of having the reading lesson become merely a -formal analysis of sentence and paragraph structure, for nothing -more effectively kills the pupil’s interest in reading than -too much of this formal analytical drill on detail.</p> - -<p class='c003'>Various methods may be used to assist the pupil in grasping -the thought expressed in the literature. In narration, -the retelling of the story, paragraph by paragraph, from -memory, will lead the pupils to get the details of the story -in logical groups. In description, the pupils should be required -to visualize the scene, object, or person portrayed in -words. Boys and girls can readily be interested in exercises -of this kind and will respond eagerly when asked to describe -the mental pictures which they obtain from a given piece of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>description. Sketches on the blackboard to make clear the -position of the details in the description and other devices -tend to emphasize to the pupil the importance of reading -carefully and accurately in order to get the whole thought of -the author.</p> - -<p class='c003'>After the pupil has been taught to get the thought accurately, -the analysis may be extended to the forms of discourse -and the qualities of style. In short stories, novels, and -dramas the analysis of plot, the delineation of character, and -similar consideration of the principles of narration and description -will naturally receive due attention. In essays and -orations the study of corresponding principles of exposition -and argumentation gives the pupil a clearer conception and -better appreciation of the writer’s purpose and the means that -he uses to accomplish it. A study of metre and verse form is -necessary for an appreciation of the poetry read and studied -in class. The study of all these details, designed as it is to -help the pupils to understand the author’s thought, part by -part, ought always to lead to a better understanding and appreciation -of the meaning and purpose of the whole. A study -of literature that emphasizes details to such an extent that -the theme and significance of the story, the drama, or the -poem, as a whole, is neglected, fails to bring out the vital -element.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The value of the ideas and ideals which find expression in -the literature must not be overlooked in planning the work -in reading. As a portrayal of life in its various activities, -literature presents to the pupil many types of character and -action, and thus gives the boys and girls a broader view of -life than their own experience affords. The analysis of character, -motives, and actions forms an interesting and valuable -part of the study of literature. Since good literature is also -an interpretation or “criticism” of life, it presents life in -its true relations and shows their significance. The author’s -interpretation of life, his judgment upon its various phases, -and the emotional coloring which he gives it, are all to be -considered in a manner best adapted to the maturity and -understanding of the pupils. The formative influence exerted -upon the character of the boys and girls by the characters -and actions portrayed in their reading, as well as by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>the emotional element of literature is undoubtedly of importance, -and by some teachers is emphasized in all their -work. The ideals of conduct presented in good literature, -and the close relation between conduct and the emotions -aroused by the reading, are often factors in the ethical training -of the pupils, but the indirect and unconscious influence -of these elements is generally much more effective than many -efforts to teach lessons in ethics based on literature.</p> - -<p class='c003'>Since the study of literature involves the consideration of -all these various elements, the result accomplished in reading -will depend largely upon the methods of the teacher in preparing -his work for each day’s reading. Before beginning the -reading and study of a piece of literature with a class, the -teacher should make a careful study of the whole, analyzing -and outlining it, so that the relation of each part to the expression -and development of the theme may be clearly determined. -With this outline before him the teacher can plan -each day’s reading more readily and intelligently. Every -recitation in reading should be carefully planned by the -teacher in order that each part of the work may receive -emphasis proportionate to its importance and that something -definite may be accomplished toward a better appreciation of -the whole.</p> - -<p class='c003'>Owing to the fact that the study of literature is radically -different from any other subject which the high school pupils -pursue, much attention must be given to teaching them how -to read and study a piece of literature. In assigning the lesson -in reading, the teacher should indicate clearly to the pupils -what they are to do, and as far as possible, how they are -to do it. Failure of the pupils to understand clearly what is -desired of them, is the cause of many a poorly prepared recitation -in English. A well planned outline with the important -points to be considered in studying the day’s lesson, or a series -of questions concerning these points, will serve to give -direction to the pupils’ preparation from day to day, and in -the end will teach them how to read and study literature.</p> - -<p class='c003'>In connection with the reading, pupils should be encouraged -to memorize the whole or parts of many of the pieces of -literature studied in class. In every year of the course the -teacher should select passages from the reading that are worth -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>memorizing, and should urge the pupils to learn them. To -make a task of this memorizing is not desirable, nor is it at -all necessary, for pupils will usually respond willingly to the -teacher’s suggestion as to the value of learning choice selections -of prose and poetry. The value of knowing and being -able to quote many of the finest passages in English and -American literature cannot be overestimated.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>2. Reading Aloud</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Some attention should generally be given to reading aloud -intelligently. A part of each recitation may be devoted to giving -the pupils practice in distinct, accurate pronunciation, -and in reading with sufficient expression to interpret the -meaning. The teacher can do much toward showing the pupils -how to read by reading to them from time to time, and -then having them read the same selection. The frequent -practice of devoting a considerable part of the recitation -period to reading aloud in class by the pupils without individual -correction or helpful suggestion by the teacher is a -waste of time. As few high school pupils, particularly in the -first two years of their course, read sufficiently well to interpret -a piece of literature for their classmates continued reading -aloud in class by the pupils is an uninteresting exercise -that is more likely to decrease than increase the pupils’ interest, -pleasure, or appreciation. If the assignment has been read -and studied carefully by the pupils in preparation for the recitation, -the only purpose of having any portion of it read -aloud in class must be to give the pupils practice in reading -clearly, accurately, and intelligently. To be of value this -practice must be systematic and must be regarded as an exercise -in expression. Careful preparation by the pupils including -practice in reading aloud at home, and helpful criticism -by the teacher, are as essential for success in exercises in -reading aloud as in other forms of expression. Since training -in reading aloud is neither the primary nor the secondary -aim of the study of literature, the time to be devoted to these -exercises in the class room must necessarily be very limited.</p> - -<p class='c003'>As the ability to read well depends in part upon the management -of the voice, some attention may be given from time -to time to the fundamental principles of vocal expression. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>Occasional instruction in class in correct breathing, the control -of the voice, the position of the vocal organs in the formation -of the different sounds, and the care of the voice, supplemented -by exercises for individual practice, will aid materially -in improving the character of the vocal expression not -only in reading but also in recitation and conversation.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>3. Choice of Reading</h3> - -<p class='c012'>To carry out effectively the plan for the correlation of the -reading and composition work, and to provide a well graded -course of reading adapted to the maturity and ability of the -pupils, the greatest care must be exercised in the selection of -masterpieces of literature to be read and studied in class. -Beginning with the simple prose narrative in the form of short -stories, tales, and sketches in the first year, the work should -proceed by regular gradations to more difficult types. For -the first two years of the course, during which one-half of the -time allotted to English is devoted to work in composition, -the reading should be chosen with regard to the principles of -composition and forms of discourse that are to be considered, -so that a close correlation may be made between the two elements -of the course. In the third year the study of the history -of English literature will determine the order in which -the authors are to be taken up, but the character and maturity -of the pupils must be considered in the choice of authors -and selections for reading and study in class. Again in -the fourth year the same elements must determine the choice. -It is impossible to prescribe certain books to be read in each -year, since the character of the pupils in different schools and -in different classes in the same school, makes necessary a selection -of reading adapted to local conditions.</p> - -<p class='c003'>Although in the number and variety of the books the list of -college entrance requirements in English is now sufficiently -large to meet the needs of the average school, it is not necessary -to confine the selection of material for study in class to -this list. On page <a href='#Page_50'>50</a> of this bulletin is given a list of the -selections adapted for reading and study, together with suggestions -as to the years in the course in which they can be read -to the best advantage.</p> - -<p class='c003'><span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>In selecting editions of the masterpieces for reading in -class, the purpose and methods of the reading should not be -forgotten. If the pupil is to be taught to work out the meaning -of unfamiliar words, figures, and allusions, it is undesirable -to give him this information on every page in the form -of foot-notes explanatory of many things that with a little effort -he might find in reference books. Elaborate introductions -in which the structure and style of the masterpiece are -fully discussed are equally undesirable, since they tend to -make unnecessary any original thought or analysis on the part -of the pupils. The text of the masterpiece with a few notes -explanatory of unusual difficulties is all that is necessary in -order to carry on successfully the study of any selection.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>4. Library Reading</h3> - -<p class='c012'>Throughout the course in English, the pupils ought to be -urged, if not actually required, to read considerable good literature -in addition to that read and studied in class. A list -of standard books as large and as wide in range of subjects -as the library facilities of the school make possible, should be -prepared each year, and the pupils should be encouraged to -read as many of these books as their time permits. Reading -that is done on the pupil’s own initiative is many times more -valuable than that which he does simply because of a formal -requirement. If the plan is followed of requiring that a certain -number of books be read, precaution must be taken -against making the outside reading a formal task rather than -a pleasure. The teacher can do much toward interesting the -pupils in the library reading. By reading aloud to the class -a chapter or two of a book, he may lead many of the pupils to -read the whole book. By referring in the class work to the -characters, plots, and other details of the books on the reading -list, or by quoting from them, he will often arouse the pupils’ -curiosity and create a desire to read the books. By considering -the tastes and needs of the individual pupils, he can suggest -to each the books most likely to be of the greatest interest -and value. To create and develop the desire to read -good literature outside of the class room, is one of the greatest -privileges of the teacher of English.</p> - -<p class='c003'><span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>In general the plan of having a written review, outline, or -summary of these books, either as a part of the composition -or the reading work, is to be discouraged. Since the writing -of a book review is a difficult task for a man or woman of -broad education, it is too much to expect that the immature -high school pupil will be able to do it with any degree of intelligence -or interest. The fact constantly emphasized by -such a method, that every book which he reads must serve -as material for a book review, a summary, or an examination, -often defeats the purpose of his outside reading, since it tends -to create a dislike rather than a love for reading. The -books read by pupils may sometimes be discussed in class, -however, as a means of arousing interest in the outside reading, -and frequently pupils may be led to express their opinions -freely, and spontaneously concerning the books under discussion. -If the pupils can be turned from an oral to a written discussion -of the book more or less spontaneously, there is less -danger in having an occasional written exercise based on the -library reading.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c006'>V<br /> <span class='large'>FIRST YEAR ENGLISH</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c002'>In outlining the work of the first year, it is assumed that -English will be pursued for five periods a week throughout -the year. Of this time one-half should be devoted to composition, -and one-half to reading. These two phases of the first -year English, as has already been indicated, should be closely -correlated, and must, of course, be taught by the same teacher. -By suggesting that one-half of the time be devoted to -each phase of the subject, it is not intended, as has already -been said, that the time should be formally divided. Instead -of setting aside two or three periods a week for composition -it is frequently more satisfactory to devote a portion of each -period to a study of the principles of composition as exemplified -in the reading or to a discussion of subjects for composition, -and thus not to interrupt the continuity of the reading.</p> - -<p class='c003'>In Wisconsin high schools the present course of study for -one course, generally called the English course, presents one -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>serious difficulty in connection with first year English; i. e., -the arrangement by which grammar and composition for five -periods a week and reading and composition for five periods -a week are required of all pupils in this course. It is manifestly -undesirable for any pupils in the first year to pursue -two courses in English for ten periods a week throughout the -year. This arrangement gives the pupils in this course seven -and one-half periods of composition work during the second -semester if the course in grammar and composition is divided -so that grammar is required in the first semester and composition -in the second. It also divides the composition work between -two separate classes, part of the instruction in composition -being given in the course in grammar and composition -and part in the course in reading and composition. Since -instruction in the principles of composition without practice -is of little value especially for the immature pupils in the -first year, and since from five to seven and a half periods -is too much time to devote to composition when the amount -of practice that is possible or even desirable is necessarily -limited, the best solution of the problem seems to be to devote -the time to additional reading and not to attempt to give more -than two and a half periods, the amount assigned for other -courses, to composition work. The question of teaching grammar -is considered on page <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>1. Composition</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The object of the first year in composition should be to -encourage pupils to express freely their own ideas and impressions. -Fluency of expression is to be encouraged by every -possible means. The most effective method of developing -this free and fluent expression is to have the pupils write -on subjects in which they are most interested. It is sometimes -said that the difficulty in writing themes in the first -year lies in the fact that the pupils have nothing to write -about from their own experience, and that therefore subjects -must be drawn largely from the reading; that is, pupils must -reproduce others’ thoughts rather than express their own. -It seems doubtful whether this paucity of ideas really exists, -for it is indeed a stupid girl or boy in the first year at high -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>school who is not interested in many things in active everyday -life, and who does not talk constantly of these things to -schoolmates and friends. It is doubtless true that the pupil -often does not consider his simple experiences of sufficient -importance to be the subjects of his compositions and must -therefore be led by the teacher to see the possibilities which -they contain. It is the duty of the teacher of composition, -as has been said, to familiarize himself with the surroundings -of his pupils, and to interest himself in their various activities -in and out of school. It is only by such sympathy and -interest that he can get his pupils to express themselves -freely in their themes. Experience has shown that the daily -life of the individual pupil, and the varied activities of the -school can be made to furnish practically all of the theme -subjects not only for first year composition, but also for that -of the other three years.</p> - -<p class='c003'>While fluency and spontaneity of expression should be encouraged -in every way possible, the teacher must also insist -on accuracy in details of expression. The common errors in -grammar, spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and other matters -of form should be corrected constantly, and by the end -of the first year all such mistakes should be fairly well eliminated -from the average pupil’s work. In connection with -the correction of errors in the themes, the rules of spelling, -capitalization, punctuation, and grammar may be reviewed to -advantage from time to time.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>2. English Grammar</h3> - -<p class='c012'>It is not desirable to take up formally the study of English, -grammar as a regular part of first year English. Whenever -the plan of devoting a semester or a term to English grammar -has been tried, it has been conceded that the course has not -been very successful. The cause of this is not far to seek. -Since the pupils have been drilled in grammar in the seventh -and eighth grades, a repetition of the subject at the beginning -of the high school course invariably proves distasteful, and it -is extremely difficult if not practically impossible to arouse -any interest in the subject. High school pupils in the first -year are too immature to take up the subject from a point of -view materially different from that from which it was studied -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>in the grades. The work, consequently, is done in a perfunctory -manner, and seems to have little practical result in the -pupils’ written or spoken English. It is the general experience, -nevertheless, that a number of pupils entering the high -school are deficient in their knowledge of the most elementary -principles of English grammar, and that they are therefore -somewhat handicapped in taking up the study of composition. -If the present system of promotion permits some pupils to enter -the high school without a sufficient knowledge of the elements -of English grammar to make possible an intelligent -study of high school English, it seems very doubtful whether -the high school course in English should be planned to provide -for pupils whose preparation is deficient. If provision must be -made for the deficient ones, a special class in grammar should -be organized for their benefit, and well-prepared pupils should -not be compelled to repeat this grade work. This special review -of grammar for poorly prepared pupils should not form a part -of the regular English work of the first year, and it may be -questioned whether it should be credited for graduation from -high school. For pupils of required preparation the only study -of grammar necessary in the first year may be taken up in -connection with the correction of errors made by the pupils in -composition. Syntax must be studied in connection with the -construction of sentences in composition work. A consideration -of the grammatical construction of sentences required for -effective work in reading and composition, with such review -of grammar as is made necessary by the actual errors of the -pupils, will generally be sufficient training in grammar for -the first year.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>3. Rhetorical Principles</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The study of rhetorical principles in the first year should -be confined to the consideration of the simpler principles of -sentence and paragraph construction. In connection with the -study of grammatical construction of sentences, the violation -of the principles of sentence unity and sentence coherence -in the pupils’ written work will offer opportunity for enlarging -upon the application of these principles. If, in the first -year, pupils can be taught to express simple ideas in sentences -the parts of which are logically connected, much will have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>been accomplished. In paragraph construction unity and coherence -must also be emphasized; that is, the pupils should -be taught that the paragraph consists of a series of closely -related sentences developing a single topic. The unity of -the paragraph as emphasized by the part of the definition referring -to the single topic, and the principle of coherence, as -brought out by the idea of a series of related sentences, constitute -the important points regarding paragraph construction -to be developed in the first year.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The simplest principles of narration, such as the choice, -order, and connection of incidents, may be emphasized and developed -in the pupils’ composition work. Examples of the application -of these principles will be noted constantly in the -short stories read in class. During the second semester the -elementary principles of description can be developed from -the reading, and pupils can be led to add a descriptive element -to their narrative themes, or even to write short descriptive -themes. After studying the descriptive methods -used in the portrayal of a character or scene in the story -read in class, the pupils may very naturally be encouraged to -write descriptions of persons or places with which they are -familiar. The knowledge and application of these principles -of composition, thoroughly mastered, is all the rhetoric that -is necessary for the first year.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>4. Theme Writing</h3> - -<p class='c012'>In the first year one or two short themes a week will give -sufficient practice in composition. A short theme should consist -of one well-rounded paragraph of about 150 words. The -one-paragraph theme of this length has several advantages. -First, the pupil is taught from the beginning of his high -school composition work to regard the paragraph as a unit -of some length, which may be complete in itself. Second, the -pupil usually has enough ideas for a short theme, and can -present them simply and directly without writing to fill space, -as he sometimes must do when longer themes are required. -Third, a teacher can correct these short single page themes in -less time, and yet see clearly the pupil’s faults, for he is -likely to make the characteristic errors as evident in one page -as in three or four. If the teacher has time to correct carefully -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>two short themes a week, one of these may be prepared -outside the class room, and the other may be written during -part of one of the recitation periods. This plan gives the -pupil practice in carefully prepared written work for the -writing of which he has plenty of time, and also in writing -rapidly in class when he has time to prepare but a single -draft of his theme.</p> - -<p class='c003'>As in all composition work, these themes must be promptly -and carefully corrected by the teacher; and the errors, as -has already been pointed out, should be indicated by signs and -abbreviations so that the pupil may have the benefit of correcting -his mistakes. This correction by the pupil may be -done either by rewriting the theme or by revising it and making -corrections neatly between the lines, or in some other convenient -place. In either case, the work should be returned to -the teacher so that he may glance over the original and rewritten -forms, or the original as revised, and may see whether -the errors have been corrected and the changes properly made.</p> - -<p class='c003'>In the first year the conferences of teacher and pupil on -composition work are of great importance. By talking over -the work, the teacher can do much towards encouraging a pupil -who becomes disheartened because of the difficulties in expressing -his ideas in writing. In these conferences, also, the -teacher can learn much concerning the pupil’s interests and -character, and by sympathy and insight can be as helpful to -the excellent pupil as to the mediocre or poor one.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>5. Reading</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The selection of suitable masterpieces for reading and -study in the first year must be made with particular care, -since the pupils’ attitude toward the reading and study of -literature is often influenced for some time by their first impressions. -As the purpose of the reading is not only to have -the pupils understand what they read by teaching them to -read carefully and accurately, but also to interest them in -reading good literature, it is desirable to begin on material -that does not present too many difficulties. The length of -the selection is also an important element. The piece of literature -must not be so long that interest in it flags or that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>the pupil can not grasp it in its entirety and study it as a -unit. Short stories, tales, and narrative and descriptive -sketches combine more of the desired elements than other -forms of literature. Prose narratives of this type also make -possible the close and effective correlation of the reading and -composition, the importance of which has already been emphasized. -Among the short stories and sketches that have -been used successfully in the first year and that may be taken -as typical are Hawthorne’s “Twice Told Tales”, Irving’s “Rip -Van Winkle” and “Legend of Sleepy Hollow”, Holmes’ “My -Hunt After the Captain”, Warner’s “A-Hunting of the Deer”, -Dickens’ “A Christmas Carol”. Mythology and folk tales have -also been tried with considerable success in the first semester -of the first year; the available selections include Hawthorne’s -“Wonder Book”, Church’s “The Story of the Iliad” and “The -Story of the Odyssey”, Peabody’s “Old Greek Folk Stories”, -Bryant’s translations of the “Iliad” and the “Odyssey” and -Palmer’s translation of the “Odyssey”.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The advantages of using prose for reading and study in -the first year in preference to poetry or the poetical drama, -are important ones. In the first place since it is desirable to -teach pupils to get the whole thought contained in what they -read, it is undoubtedly best to begin with those forms in which -ideas are expressed in the usual order, which, of course, is that -of prose rather than that of poetry or the poetical drama. The -training in following and grasping in their entirety the expressed -thoughts of others as they appear in the simplest logical -order of prose should be one of the first aims of the first -year reading. In the second place poetic inversions and figurative -expressions increase so greatly the pupils’ difficulties -in understanding what they read, that at the beginning of the -course it makes too great a task of that which should be a -source of interest and pleasure. To pass over these difficulties -and emphasize simply the story or description in the study of -poetry is to encourage the bad habit of careless, inaccurate -reading. If the pupil is taught to understand fully the prose -that he reads in the first year, his progress in reading poetry -in the following years will be much more rapid. These advantages -together with close correlation possible between the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>study of prose and the theory and practice of composition -should determine the choice of reading for the first year.</p> - -<p class='c003'>What has already been said in regard to the reading in -general (p. <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>) applies particularly to the first year work.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c006'>VI<br /> <span class='large'>SECOND YEAR ENGLISH</span></h2> -</div> -<h3 class='c011'>1. Composition</h3> - -<p class='c012'>In the second year the composition and the reading which -have been begun in the first year may be continued in about -the same proportion, that is, about one-half of the five periods -a week may be devoted to each. The work should be -largely a development and expansion of that of the first year. -In the study of the rhetorical principles the consideration of -sentence construction should be continued, and the principle -of emphasis and its application should be studied. The several -types of sentences, such as long, short, loose, periodic, -and balanced, and their uses should receive considerable attention, -and the importance of variety in sentence structure -may be emphasized. In the discussion of paragraph structure -more study may be given to the details of its construction -by developing the importance of the principles of emphasis, -as well as by considering again the principles of -unity and coherence. The methods of developing the paragraph -topic will naturally form a part of the work of paragraph -construction, particularly in the second semester, when -the principles of exposition are studied. The application of -the same principles of unity, emphasis, and coherence to the -whole theme, where it consists of a number of paragraphs, -may also be developed, for in the second year it is desirable -to have the students write longer themes, as well as the short -ones.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The forms of discourse, narration and description, studied -in the first year, will also be developed and expanded during -the second year, and more emphasis can be placed upon the -several forms of description. From description the pupil can -be led by gradual steps to the study of exposition, and this -subject may be developed as fully as the maturity of the pupils -<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>will permit. It is also possible in some schools to undertake -the elementary forms of argumentation toward the end of the -second year, particularly if there is considerable interest and -activity in the school debating society, but it is not desirable -to undertake much of this work with immature pupils.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The reading of the second year will also furnish material -for a study of words and figures of speech. In the analysis -and writing of description it is natural to note the effects of -different kinds of words, and to discriminate between the -general, colorless term and the specific, picture-making expression. -In description, likewise, the effectiveness of contrast, -or of a comparison in the form of a simile or metaphor -may be pointed out. In exposition emphasis must be given to -the importance of using the exact term to make clear the -idea, and to the dependence of clearness upon this accurate -choice and use of words. The use of comparisons, contrast, -and other figures of speech, may also be studied in relation to -exposition.</p> - -<p class='c003'>In the second year, as in the first, the subjects for composition -should be drawn largely if not entirely, from the pupil’s -own experiences. In narrative and descriptive themes the -pupil, after his practice in the first year, will find little difficulty -in choosing the right kind of subjects. In exposition -he can be encouraged to write explanations of those subjects -with which he is thoroughly familiar. Simple manufacturing -processes, the operation of machinery or of mechanical devices -generally, methods of doing any kind of work, directions -for playing games, and many other similar subjects -that the pupil understands thoroughly, furnish excellent material -for simpler expository themes. If argumentation is undertaken, -the pupil may be led to discuss questions constantly -arising in connection with the life of the school and the community, -and thus he can obtain most of his material from -his own experiences.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The plan of having one or two paragraph themes of from -150 to 200 words each week should be continued throughout -the second year. Every month or six weeks pupils should -write a longer theme of from 600 to 800 words, that is, a theme -of four or five paragraphs. Both the short and the long theme -should be promptly and carefully corrected by the teacher and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>revised or rewritten by the pupil. In the second year a careful -revision of the corrected themes by the pupils is usually -sufficient, but all themes that can be sufficiently improved to -make rewriting worth while, should be rewritten.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>2. Reading</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The general purpose and the character of the reading in the -second year are the same as in the first. During the first part -of the year narrative and descriptive material should be read, -and during the second semester some of the simpler types of -essays may be used as a basis of a study of exposition. As has -already been indicated in connection with the composition, the -pupils’ attention should be directed to the use of words and -figures of speech in the masterpieces. The plot and its development, -and the form in which the story is told can be studied in -more detail than in the first year.</p> - -<p class='c003'>Methods of describing persons and places and of delineating -character, taken up in connection with description, will -frequently be exemplified in the reading. Direction may be -given to the study of essays by considering them as examples -of exposition. All this analytical work ought to be carried on -with a view not only to developing inductively or illustrating -the principles of composition which it is desired to have the -pupils apply in their own writing, but also to having the pupils -understand the author’s purpose and the methods which he -uses to accomplish it; that is, to understand fully what they -are reading.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The following may be taken as typical of the character of -the reading best adapted for the purposes outlined: Irving’s -“Sketch Book” and “Tales of the Alhambra”, Poe’s “Gold Bug”, -Thoreau’s “The Succession of Forest Trees”, Burroughs’ “Birds -and Bees” and “Sharp Eyes”, Macaulay’s “Lord Clive” and -“Life of Samuel Johnson”, Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Speech.” If -at the end of the first semester the pupils have learned to -read prose of average difficulty, it is often advantageous during -the second semester to study a play of Shakespeare’s, and -“Merchant of Venice” or “Julius Caesar” is well adapted for -this purpose. Narrative poetry such as Tennyson’s “Idylls of -the King”, Arnold’s “Sohrab and Rustum”, Coleridge’s “Ancient -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>Mariner”, or Scott’s “Lady of the Lake” may also be used -successfully during the second semester.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c006'>VII<br /> <span class='large'>THIRD YEAR ENGLISH</span></h2> -</div> -<h3 class='c011'>1. Reading and History of Literature</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The plan for the third year reading provides for a survey -of English and American literature, in which about three-fourths -of the time is to be devoted to English literature, and -one-fourth to American literature. In designating the reading -as a study of English and American literature, it is not intended -that the history of literature, as such, should occupy -any considerable portion of the time. It is not desirable to -devote more than one-tenth to one-fifth of the time, that is, -from one-half to one period a week, to text-book work in the -history of literature. The greater part of the time (about four -periods a week) should be spent in the reading of selections -from representative authors. In the study of the history of -literature, emphasis should be placed upon general movements -and tendencies in literature, and their relation to national conditions -and ideals. In each period one or two typical authors -should be selected whose works are to be studied in the class -room. Selections from writers contemporary with these authors -may be read by the pupils as library reading. In a -course of this kind it is much more important to have the -pupils read the literature than to have them read about literature. -It is also much more important to lead the pupils to perceive -the characteristics of the author in a selection read in or -out of the class room than to have these characteristics called -to their attention by the teacher or by reading criticism. In -connection with the course in the history of literature, a list of -books for outside reading should be prepared, and the pupils -should be encouraged to supplement the class room study by -reading other works of the authors studied in class. It seems -desirable to follow as far as possible the chronological order -in the reading done in and out of the class room so that the -pupil may be led to see the development of English and American -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>literature and the relation of the work of one author to -that of those preceding and succeeding him.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The detailed study of selections from the most important -English and American authors, is a large task for one year’s -work, but experience has shown that much can be accomplished -toward widening the pupils’ knowledge and appreciation -of literature by a course of this kind. After two years of -intensive study of the elements of expression, the average -pupil will be able to comprehend more readily what he reads, -and less time will have to be spent on the details. The selections -studied may also be regarded from a somewhat different -point of view from that taken during the first two years. The -piece of literature may be considered in relation to the author’s -personality and the age in which it was written, as -well as in comparison with other literature that has been read -by the pupils.</p> - -<p class='c003'>In the history of English literature characteristic selections -from most of the following authors should be studied in -class: Chaucer, Shakespeare, Bacon, Milton, Pope, Addison, -Goldsmith, Gray, Burns, Scott, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats, -Shelley, Tennyson, Browning, Lamb, George Eliot, Dickens, -and Thackeray.</p> - -<p class='c003'>In the survey of American literature the same general -method should be followed. As the pupils have generally read -considerable of the poetry of Longfellow, Whittier, Bryant, -and Holmes, as well as selections from the prose of Irving, -Hawthorne, and Thoreau, a brief review of these will be sufficient. -The class work should therefore consist largely of the -reading and study of works of authors not previously read in -class, such as the poems and short stories of Poe, essays of -Emerson, Lowell, and Holmes, and novels of Hawthorne and -Cooper.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>2. Composition</h3> - -<p class='c012'>During the third year about one-fifth of the time, or one -period a week, should be devoted to English composition. One -short theme a week, and one long composition once in six -weeks will furnish the necessary practice in writing. While -the narrative and descriptive work of the first two years may -be continued, more emphasis should be placed upon expository -<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>composition, in continuation of the study of exposition begun -in the second semester of the second year. Besides explaining -the various processes and simple mechanical devices with -which he is familiar, the pupil may be encouraged to express -his own opinions in regard to what he reads in literature. If -the conditions are favorable, the kind of elementary argumentation -suggested for the second year, may also be used in -theme work.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c006'>VIII<br /> <span class='large'>FOURTH YEAR ENGLISH</span></h2> -</div> -<h3 class='c011'>1. Reading</h3> - -<p class='c012'>In the fourth year about four-fifths of the time should be -allotted to reading and about one-fifth to composition. The -time assigned to the reading may most profitably be devoted to -an extensive study of a few typical examples of the most important -forms of literature. The novel, the drama, the lyric, -and the essay, may be taken as the types to be studied. The -maturity of the pupils in the fourth year will make possible -a detailed analysis of the essential elements of these forms, -which cannot be undertaken earlier in the course. By a careful -study of a few of the best examples of each form to be -found in English literature, the pupils not only come to know -and appreciate some of the best literature in our language -but are given some canons by which to judge what they read -independently after they leave school.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>2. The Novel</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The novel is a convenient form with which to begin the -fourth year work. George Eliot’s “Silas Marner” is one of -the novels which lends itself admirably to intensive study. -The kind of novel, the theme, the author’s point of view, the -plot, the characters, the setting, and other important elements -are all to be carefully studied. In the detailed analysis of plot, -the introduction, the situation, the development of the plot, the -secondary plots, the interweaving of principal and subordinate -plots, the means of sustaining interest and suspense, the climax -of the action, the unraveling, the denouement and the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>probability and plausibility of action, should receive consideration. -The study of character presented in the novel will include -the interaction of plot and character, the types of character, -the grouping of characters, the methods of delineation, -the truth to life, and similar points. It is also important to -consider the novel as the expression of the author’s personality, -of his attitude toward life, and of his interpretation, or -“criticism,” of life.</p> - -<p class='c003'>Since time will permit of the detailed analysis, in class, -of but one novel, use for comparison may be made of other -novels which the pupils have read or are reading as a part of -their library work. Novels of such different types as Goldsmith’s -“Vicar of Wakefield,” Dickens’ “Tale of Two Cities,” -Scott’s “Ivanhoe,” and “Talisman,” Thackeray’s “Henry Esmond,” -Hawthorne’s “House of Seven Gables,” and George -Eliot’s “Romola,” will furnish ample supplementary material.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>3. The Drama</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The consideration of plot, character, etc., in the novel will -prepare the way for a similar study of the drama. Shakespeare’s -“Macbeth” offers excellent opportunity for thoughtful -study. The important elements in the technique of dramatic -construction may be brought out inductively in the course of -the reading. The indirect and suggestive method of describing -character of the drama will give rise to much discussion, for -pupils will naturally differ in their estimates of the characters -as a result of different interpretations which they give to the -words and actions of the characters. To give a better conception -of the drama as it is to be acted, important scenes may be -presented in the class room by the pupils. The greater appreciation -of the drama and dramatic action which comes from -the preparation for an informal presentation of this kind, -makes it well worth undertaking.</p> - -<p class='c003'>Some attention should also be given to the style and the -versification in so far as these are necessary for a better understanding -of the author’s methods.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>4. The Lyric</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The study of lyric poetry, although often difficult alike to -teacher and pupils, should be undertaken during the second -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>semester of the fourth year. Much of the success will depend -upon the character of the lyrics selected for reading and study. -Palgrave’s “Golden Treasury of Songs and Lyrics,” containing -as it does much of the best English poetry of this type, is the -most convenient book to use. While interpretative reading -and the memorizing of these poems often lead to a real appreciation -of their music, and the emotions which they express, -a judicious analysis of metrical structure and poetic expression -will result in a better understanding of the essentials of -good poetry.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>5. The Essay</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The expository essay, as the most difficult form of literature -for high school pupils, may well be left until the last part -of the fourth year. The analysis of the logical development of -the subject of the essay is of particular value at this stage of -the course. The outlining of the plan of the essay with its -divisions into sections, sub-sections, topics, subtopics, and details -is excellent practice. Macaulay’s essays, Burke’s “Speech -on Conciliation,” and Webster’s “First Bunker Hill Oration” -although, of course, the latter two are orations rather than -essays, afford material for this kind of study. Burke’s “Speech -on Conciliation,” although difficult for young pupils, is particularly -well adapted for analysis of logical structure, and may be -used to study methods of exposition and argumentation.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The elements and qualities of prose style illustrated in -the essays should also be considered. Balance, parallelism, -antithesis, hyperbole, climax, terse and epigrammatic expression, -methods of transition and connection, and similar elements -of Macaulay’s style are sufficiently obvious to be readily -recognized by the high school pupil after his attention has -once been called to them. The rhetorical qualities of Burke’s -or Webster’s style are also evident enough to make possible -the study of them by high school pupils.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>6. Library Reading</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The library reading for the fourth year can be arranged to -supplement the work done in class. Several standard novels, -two or three plays of Shakespeare, considerable lyric poetry, -and a number of essays may be assigned from time to time so -<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>that the library and class room reading will run parallel. Reference -by teacher and pupils to these pieces of literature by -way of comparison with those under consideration, will lead -to a close correlation of these two phases of the reading.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>7. Composition</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The fourth year is in some respects the most important for -the work in composition. The ability to write good English -fluently, acquired by most of the pupils from several years of -constant practice; the maturity of the pupils; their larger -stock of knowledge and wider experience; and the possibility -of making practical application of their ability to write in preparing -orations and debates, reporting for local newspapers, or -editing the school publications; all tend to make composition a -more attractive and significant subject in the fourth year than -it seems to be at any other period of the course. The emphasis -will naturally be shifted from the mechanical details of expression -which necessarily occupy the greater portion of the -time in the earlier years of the course, to the larger and more -interesting problems of expression. The study of the principles -of exposition and argumentation, and of the development -of the theme, as they appear in the plan and outline of the -essay, take on new significance when their application to the -writing of a debate or a commencement oration is made clear. -The pupil discovers that the periodic sentence, parallel construction, -climax, and other rhetorical devices, are effective -means that he may use to accomplish his ends. For those -with literary inclinations the study of plot, characterization, -and poetic form and expression furnishes new inspiration for -their own work. The teacher who fails to take advantage of -this new interest in writing for practical purposes, by correlating -it closely with all the English work of the fourth year, is -losing the best opportunity of the course to teach the art of -effective expression.</p> - -<p class='c003'>The amount of written work should be about the same as in -the third year; that is, a weekly theme of about 250 words, or -a fortnightly one of from 400 to 500 words; and a long theme -of from 800 to 1200 words at intervals of six weeks. The subjects -chosen for both long and short themes, in the course of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>the year should give practice in all the forms of discourse, -narration, description, exposition, and argumentation, especially -in combinations as they are found in the literature that is -read in and out of the class room. The writing of a short story -or of a chapter of a novel proves an interesting form of composition -when fiction is being studied. The consideration of -problems of character in the novels and dramas read and -studied, permits pupils to express their opinions in essay form, -while debates on questions growing out of class room discussions -will give practice in argumentation. The preparation of -commencement essays and orations, as has already been suggested, -can readily be made a part of theme writing during the -second semester.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>8. Writing of Verse</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The writing of verse has frequently been tried in the fourth -year, and has generally proved an interesting and valuable -exercise. The reading of poetry in the third and fourth years -makes necessary some study of metre and verse forms, and -with the information thus obtained as a basis, many pupils, -it has been found, can write creditable verse. Exercises beginning -with blank verse, octosyllabic and heroic couplets, and -continuing with the quatrain, the triolet, the rondeau, the -Spenserian stanza, and possibly the sonnet, can be given from -time to time in place of weekly themes and will usually arouse -considerable interest. Efforts to write verse, whether entirely -successful or not, give the pupils a keener feeling for rhyme -and rhythm, a better understanding of metrical forms, and -of the nature of poetical composition; and to that extent -should heighten their appreciation of poetry.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span> - <h2 class='c006'>IX<br /> <span class='large'>OUTLINE OF HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN ENGLISH</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c002'>The following outline is designed to show in general the -amount and character of each part of the English work to be -considered in each year of the course. The order in which the -details are arranged in each year is not intended to be the -order in which these parts of the subject are to be taken up in -the class room.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>First Year</h3> - -<p class='c012'>A. COMPOSITION (one-half of the time).</p> - -<p class='c015'>I. Grammar, Punctuation, Capitalization.</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. Work based on errors in pupils’ written -work.</p> - -<p class='c016'>2. Occasional review of general principles.</p> - -<p class='c017'>II. Sentence.</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. Grammatical construction.</p> - -<p class='c016'>2. Unity.</p> - -<p class='c016'>3. Coherence.</p> - -<p class='c017'>III. Paragraph.</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. Length.</p> - -<p class='c016'>2. Unity (topic, selection of material).</p> - -<p class='c016'>3. Coherence (order, connection).</p> - -<p class='c017'>IV. Forms of Discourse.</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. Narration.</p> - -<p class='c016'>2. Description.</p> - -<p class='c017'>V. Theme Writing.</p> - -<p class='c016'>At least one and not more than two, one-paragraph -themes of from 150–200 words, -every week; to be carefully corrected by -teacher and to be rewritten by pupil.</p> - -<p class='c003'>B. READING (one-half of the time).</p> - -<p class='c015'>Short stories and descriptive sketches.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span> - <h3 class='c013'>Second Year</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c012'>A. COMPOSITION (one-half of the time).</p> - -<p class='c015'>I. Sentence.</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. Length (long, medium, short).</p> - -<p class='c016'>2. Rhetorical form (loose, periodic, balanced).</p> - -<p class='c016'>3. Unity.</p> - -<p class='c016'>4. Coherence.</p> - -<p class='c016'>5. Emphasis.</p> - -<p class='c017'>II. Paragraph.</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. Unity.</p> - -<p class='c016'>2. Coherence (subtopics, order, and connection).</p> - -<p class='c016'>3. Emphasis (selection, proportion, position).</p> - -<p class='c016'>4. Methods of developing topic.</p> - -<p class='c017'>III. Whole Composition—Unity, Coherence, Emphasis.</p> - -<p class='c017'>IV. Words.</p> - -<p class='c017'>V. Figures of Speech.</p> - -<p class='c017'>VI. Forms of Discourse.</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. Narration.</p> - -<p class='c016'>2. Description.</p> - -<p class='c016'>3. Exposition.</p> - -<p class='c017'>VII. Theme Writing.</p> - -<p class='c016'>At least one and not more than two, one-paragraph -themes of from 150–200 words, -every week; and one four or five paragraph -theme of from 600–800 words, every six -weeks; both long and short themes to be -carefully corrected by teacher and to be -revised or rewritten by pupil.</p> - -<p class='c003'>B. READING (one-half). Descriptive and expository essays.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>Third Year</h3> - -<p class='c012'>A. READING (four-fifths).</p> - -<p class='c015'>1. History of English Literature (one-fifth to one-tenth -for ¾ of year).</p> - -<p class='c015'>2. History of American Literature (one-fifth to one-tenth -for ¼ of year).</p> - -<p class='c015'>3. Study of selections from representative English and -American authors (three-fifths to four-fifths).</p> - -<p class='c003'><span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>B. COMPOSITION (one-fifth to one-tenth).</p> - -<p class='c015'>I. Exposition.</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. Kinds.</p> - -<p class='c016'>2. Methods.</p> - -<p class='c017'>II. Structure of Whole Composition.</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. Unity.</p> - -<p class='c016'>2. Coherence (transition, connection).</p> - -<p class='c016'>3. Emphasis (proportion, position).</p> - -<p class='c017'>III. Words, figures of speech, sentences, and paragraphs.</p> - -<p class='c017'>IV. Theme Writing.</p> - -<p class='c016'>One short theme not exceeding 500 words every -week; and one long theme of from 700–1000 -words every six weeks; to be carefully corrected -by teacher and to be rewritten or revised -by pupil.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>Fourth Year</h3> - -<p class='c012'>A. READING (four-fifths).</p> - -<p class='c015'>Study of typical examples of the novel, the drama, the -lyric, and the essay.</p> - -<p class='c003'>B. COMPOSITION (one-fifth).</p> - -<p class='c015'>I. Narration, Description, and Exposition.</p> - -<p class='c015'>II. Argumentation.</p> - -<p class='c016'>Methods.</p> - -<p class='c017'>III. Words, figures of speech, sentences, paragraphs, and -whole composition.</p> - -<p class='c017'>IV. Verse writing.</p> - -<p class='c017'>V. Theme writing.</p> - -<p class='c016'>One short theme not exceeding 500 words, every -week; and one long theme of from 800–1200 -words every eight weeks; to be carefully -corrected by teacher and revised or rewritten -by pupil.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span> - <h2 class='c006'>X<br /> <span class='large'>LIST OF READINGS FOR FOUR YEARS</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c002'>The following list contains the college entrance requirements -in English for the years 1906 to 1911, and other selections -adapted for reading and study in high school English -classes. The Roman numerals following the titles indicate the -year or years of the course herein outlined, in which the books -may most profitably be read:</p> - -<p class='c018'>Addison’s De Coverley Papers. II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Addison and Steele’s Spectator. II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Arnold’s Sohrab and Rustum. II.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Bacon’s Essays. III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Blackmore’s Lorna Doone. IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress, Part One. I, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Byron’s The Prisoner of Chillon, and Mazeppa. III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Browning’s Cavalier Tunes, The Lost Leader, How They -Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix, Evelyn -Hope, Home Thoughts From Abroad, Home Thoughts -from the Sea, Incident of the French Camp, The Boy -and the Angel, One Word More, Hervé Riel, Pheidippides. -III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Bryant’s Translation of the Iliad and Odyssey (selections). -I, II.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Burrough’s Birds and Bees, Sharp Eyes, A Bunch of Herbs, -etc. I, II.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Burke’s Conciliation With America. IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Carlyle’s Essay on Burns. III, IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Carlyle’s Heroes and Hero Worship. III, IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Chaucer’s Prologue. III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner. II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Cooper’s Last of the Mohicans. II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>De Quincey’s Joan of Arc, and The English Mail Coach. -III, IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities. II, IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Dickens’ Christmas Carol. I.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Emerson’s Essays (selected). III, IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Franklin’s Autobiography. I, II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'><span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>Mrs. Gaskell’s Cranford. III, IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>George Eliot’s Silas Marner. IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Goldsmith’s The Deserted Village. II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Goldsmith’s The Vicar of Wakefield. II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Hawthorne’s House of the Seven Gables. II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Hawthorne’s Twice Told Tales. I.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Irving’s Life of Goldsmith. II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Irving’s Tales of a Traveler. I, II.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Irving’s Alhambra. II.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Irving’s Sketch Book. I, II.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Lamb’s Essays of Elia. II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Lincoln’s Gettysburg Speech, etc. II, IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Longfellow’s The Courtship of Miles Standish. I, II.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Lowell’s Vision of Sir Launfal. II.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Macaulay’s Lays of Ancient Rome. II.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Macaulay’s Essay on Addison. III, IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Macaulay’s Lord Clive. II, IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Macaulay’s Life of Johnson. II, IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Milton’s Lycidas, Comus, L’Allegro, and II Penseroso. III, -IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Palgrave’s Golden Treasury (First Series) Books II and III -with special attention to Dryden, Collins, Gray, Cowper, -and Burns. III, IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Palgrave’s Golden Treasury (First Series) Book IV with -special attention to Wordsworth, Keats, and Shelley. -III, IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Poe’s Poems. III, IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Poe’s Short Stories. II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Pope’s The Rape of the Lock. III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Pope’s Essay on Man and Essay on Criticism. III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Ruskin’s Sesame and Lilies. II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Scott’s Ivanhoe, Lady of the Lake, and Quentin Durward. -II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Shakespere’s Julius Caesar. II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Shakespere’s Macbeth. IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Shakespere’s As You Like It, Henry V., Twelfth Night, and -Midsummer Night’s Dream. III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Shakespere’s Merchant of Venice. II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Spenser’s Faerie Queene (selections). III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Stevenson’s Treasure Island. I, II.</p> - -<p class='c019'><span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>Thoreau’s Succession of Forest Trees. I, II.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Tennyson’s Gareth and Lynette, Lancelot and Elaine, The -Passing of Arthur. II, III.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Thackeray’s Henry Esmond. IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Warner’s A-Hunting of the Deer. I.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Washington’s Farewell Address. II, IV.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Webster’s First Bunker Hill Oration. II, IV.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span> - <h2 class='c006'>XI<br /> <span class='large'>OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION AND STYLE</span></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c002'>The following is a fairly complete outline of the essential -elements of rhetorical theory as applied in composition work -and in a study of structure and style. As such, it is designed -primarily for the teacher who desires to review any part of the -subject in preparation for teaching composition. Many portions -may be used in the class room in a simplified form, to -supplement or summarize parts of the text-books in rhetoric -and composition. The books to which references are given are -in general the most convenient and comprehensive manuals -for the particular parts of the subject with which each deals.</p> - -<p class='c002'>The references as abbreviated in the outline are as follows:</p> - -<p class='c003'>(P), Pearson, Principles of Composition. Heath, Boston -($.50).</p> - -<p class='c003'>(W), Barrett Wendell, English Composition. Scribner, -New York. ($1.50).</p> - -<p class='c003'>(M), Minto, Manual of English Prose Literature. Ginn, -New York. ($1.50).</p> - -<p class='c003'>(C), Cairns, Forms of Discourse. Ginn, New York. ($1.15).</p> - -<p class='c003'>(BI, BII), Bain, English Composition and Rhetoric, 2 Vols. -American Book Co., New York. ($1.20 a vol.).</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>1. Whole Composition</h3> - -<p class='c020'>I. SUBJECT. 1. What is it? 2. Is it indicated by title? -3. Is it stated at the beginning? 4. Is it proportionate -to the length of the composition? P. 11–12.</p> - -<p class='c015'>II. PURPOSE. 1. What is it? 2. Is it stated? 3. Is it -accomplished?</p> - -<p class='c015'>III. INTEREST. 1. Is it an interesting subject? 2. Is it -made interesting? 3. How is it made interesting?</p> - -<p class='c015'>IV. KIND OF COMPOSITION. 1. Narration, Description, -Exposition, Argumentation, or Persuasion? 2. A combination -of forms?</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>V. PLAN. 1. What are the main divisions of the composition? -2. How is the subject introduced? 3. What -are the subdivisions in the body of the composition? -4. How is the composition concluded?</p> - -<p class='c015'>VI. TITLE. 1. Accurate? 2. Concise? 3. Attractive? -P. 12–13.</p> - -<p class='c016'>A. UNITY. P. 15–25. W. 155–162.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Selection of Material.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Subject and Purpose?</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>Violations of unity of selection.</i></p> - -<p class='c023'>(1) <i>False Introduction.</i> P. 18.</p> - -<p class='c023'>(2) <i>Tag Conclusion.</i> P. 42.</p> - -<p class='c023'>(3) <i>Digressions.</i> P. 20.</p> - -<p class='c024'>2. Unity of Expression.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Point of View? P. 25.</p> - -<p class='c023'><i>a′.</i> Point of view evident? P. 25.</p> - -<p class='c025'>B. COHERENCE. P. 26–33. W. 162–178.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Arrangement. W. 162–166.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Order of parts of composition. P. 26.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>b.</i> Arrangement evident? P. 29.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>c.</i> Announcement. P. 31.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>d.</i> Summary. P. 30. cf. P. 44.</p> - -<p class='c024'>2. Connection. W. 173–178.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Devices for Transition and Connection.</p> - -<p class='c023'>(1) Transition words, phrases, and sentences.</p> - -<p class='c023'>(2) Transition paragraphs. P. 30.</p> - -<p class='c023'>(3) Repetition.</p> - -<p class='c023'>(4) Parallel construction. W. 174.</p> - -<p class='c023'>(5) Retrospective and prospective reference.</p> - -<p class='c025'>C. EMPHASIS. P. 34–45. W. 166–172.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Selection of Material. P. 34.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Important details chosen?</p> - -<p class='c024'>2. Proportion. P. 34.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Parts given space proportionate to their importance?</p> - -<p class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>3. Arrangement. P. 38–43.</p> - -<p class='c016'><i>a.</i> Important parts in emphatic positions?</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>a′.</i> At end.</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>b′.</i> At beginning.</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>c′.</i> Summary.</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>d′.</i> Climax.</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>e′.</i> Antithesis.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>2. Paragraphs</h3> - -<p class='c012'>P. 53–60. W. 114–149. M. 11; 53–55; 89–97; 152. BI, 91–134.</p> - -<p class='c015'>A. FORM.</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. Related Paragraph.</p> - -<p class='c016'>2. Independent Paragraph.</p> - -<p class='c016'>3. Transition Paragraph.</p> - -<p class='c016'>4. Paragraph in Conversation.</p> - -<p class='c017'>B. LENGTH. W. 121–126.</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. Short—100 words or less.</p> - -<p class='c016'>2. Medium—100–300 words.</p> - -<p class='c016'>3. Long—300 words or more.</p> - -<p class='c017'>C. UNITY. P. 53–60. W. 122–126.</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Topic.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Definition of Topic (i. e. determination of -its limits).</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Division of Topic (i. e. subtopics).</p> - -<p class='c021'>3. Topic Sentence. P. 57. W. 124.</p> - -<p class='c021'>4. Do first and last sentences give substance -of the paragraph? P. 71–75. W. 128.</p> - -<p class='c025'>II. Selection of Material.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Topic and subtopics?</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Point of View?</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>Violations of unity of selection.</i></p> - -<p class='c022'>(1) <i>False Beginning.</i> cf. P. 18.</p> - -<p class='c022'>(2) <i>Tag Conclusion.</i> cf. P. 42.</p> - -<p class='c022'>(3) <i>Digressions.</i> P. 56–57.</p> - -<p class='c025'>III. Unity of Expression (cf. Paragraph Coherence).</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Uniformity of Construction.</p> - -<p class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span><i>Violations.</i></p> - -<p class='c016'>(1) <i>Needless change of voice or tense of -verbs.</i></p> - -<p class='c016'>(2) <i>Needless change of subject of sentences.</i></p> - -<p class='c017'>D. COHERENCE. P. 61–70. W. 133–146.</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Arrangement. P. 61–65. BI, 114–120.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Order of Parts.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Related ideas brought together? W. -135.</p> - -<p class='c024'>2. Arrangement evident?</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Subtopic and transition sentences.</p> - -<p class='c025'>II. Connection. P. 65–70. W. 142–146. BI, 94–108.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Devices for Coherence.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Connective words, phrases, and -clauses.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>b.</i> Transition sentences.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>c.</i> Repetition.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>d.</i> Parallel construction. W. 137–142.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>e.</i> Retrospective and prospective reference.</p> - -<p class='c024'>2. Position of Connectives. W. 144.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> At beginning of sentences.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>b.</i> Imbedded in midst of sentences.</p> - -<p class='c017'>E. EMPHASIS. P. 71. W. 126–133. BI, 121–134.</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Selection of Material.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Most important parts chosen? cf. P. 34.</p> - -<p class='c025'>II. Proportion. W. 131. cf. P. 34.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Parts given space proportionate to their importance?</p> - -<p class='c025'>III. Arrangement. P. 71–78. W. 126–131.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Position of parts.</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Position of important parts.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> At end.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>b.</i> At beginning.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>c.</i> Climax.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>d.</i> Summary.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>e.</i> Antithesis.</p> - -<p class='c017'><span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>F. VARIETY.</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. In sentence construction.</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>a.</i> Grammatical.</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>b.</i> Rhetorical.</p> - -<p class='c025'>2. In sentence beginnings.</p> - -<p class='c025'>3. In devices for coherence.</p> - -<p class='c025'>4. In devices for emphasis.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>3. Sentences</h3> - -<p class='c012'>P. 83–116. W. 76–113. M. 3–11; 50–53; 87–89; 149–152. BI, -55–90.</p> - -<p class='c015'>A. LENGTH. W. 84; 89–94. M. 7. BI, 84–85.</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Short Sentence—15 words or less.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Use; <i>e. g.</i>:—</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Single short sentence.</p> - -<p class='c023'><i>a′.</i> Topic sentence.</p> - -<p class='c023'><i>b′.</i> Subtopic sentence.</p> - -<p class='c023'><i>c′.</i> Conclusion.</p> - -<p class='c023'><i>d′.</i> Transition sentence.</p> - -<p class='c023'><i>e′.</i> For emphasis.</p> - -<p class='c026'><i>b.</i> Series of short sentences; <i>e. g.</i>:—</p> - -<p class='c023'><i>a′.</i> Rapidity.</p> - -<p class='c023'><i>b′.</i> Excitement and suspense.</p> - -<p class='c023'><i>c′.</i> Abruptness; staccato effect.</p> - -<p class='c025'>II. Medium Sentence—15–30 words.</p> - -<p class='c025'>III. Long Sentence—30 words or more.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Use; <i>e. g.</i>:—</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> To group minor details.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>b.</i> Climax.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>c.</i> Rhythmical effect.</p> - -<p class='c017'>B. CONSTRUCTION.</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Grammatical.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Simple. 2. Complex. 3. Compound.</p> - -<p class='c025'>II. Rhetorical.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Loose Sentence. P. 86–89. W. 84–89. BI, -55–63.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Effect and use of loose sentence.</p> - -<p class='c025'><span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>2. Periodic Sentence. P. 86; 106–112. W. 84–89. -M. 4.</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>a.</i> Means for securing periodic effect.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a′.</i> Essential parts at end of sentence.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>b′.</i> Phrases and dependent clauses -at beginning.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>c′.</i> Use of correlatives.</p> - -<p class='c024'><i>b.</i> Effect and use of periodic sentences.</p> - -<p class='c025'>3. Balanced Sentence. P. 112. W. 95. M. 8. -BI, 66–74.</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>a.</i> Means for securing balanced effect.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a′.</i> Parallelism.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>b′.</i> Use of correlatives.</p> - -<p class='c024'><i>b.</i> Effect and use of balanced sentences; -e. g.:—</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a′.</i> Antithesis.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>b′.</i> Epigrammatic expression.</p> - -<p class='c003'>C. UNITY. P. 83–93. W. 96–99. M. 10. BI, 85–90.</p> - -<p class='c015'>I. Unity of Thought.</p> - -<p class='c016'><i>Violations.</i></p> - -<p class='c021'>(1) <i>Digression.</i></p> - -<p class='c021'>(2) <i>Separation of parts of thought into independent -sentences.</i> P. 89–92.</p> - -<p class='c017'>II. Unity of Expression. (cf. Sentence Coherence).</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. Relation of Parts.</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>a.</i> Grammatical construction evident?</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>b.</i> Parallelism of construction. P. 102–3.</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>c.</i> Subordination in predication. P. 86. -W. 108–9.</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>d.</i> Implied predicate (no sentence).</p> - -<p class='c003'>D. COHERENCE. P. 94–104. W. 105–110.</p> - -<p class='c015'>I. Order. W. 105–106.</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. Collocation accurate? (i.e. words closely -related in thought placed together).</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>a.</i> Modifiers in accurate relation to modified -elements?</p> - -<p class='c025'><span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span><i>Violations.</i></p> - -<p class='c021'>(1) <i>Squinting construction.</i></p> - -<p class='c021'>(2) <i>Participle in false relation.</i></p> - -<p class='c021'>(3) <i>Misplaced adverbial -modifier.</i></p> - -<p class='c025'><i>b.</i> Reference exact? P. 94–96.</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>Violations.</i></p> - -<p class='c022'>(1) <i>Ambiguous reference.</i></p> - -<p class='c022'>(2) <i>No antecedent.</i></p> - -<p class='c022'>(3) <i>Disagreement.</i></p> - -<p class='c025'><i>c.</i> Correlatives properly placed? P. 100–101.</p> - -<p class='c025'><i>d.</i> Collocation close?</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>Violation.</i></p> - -<p class='c022'>(1) <i>Awkward separation of -essential parts.</i></p> - -<p class='c017'>II. Construction (i. e. elements similar in significance -similar in form). P. 102–104.</p> - -<p class='c016'><i>a.</i> Balance.</p> - -<p class='c016'><i>b.</i> Parallel construction.</p> - -<p class='c016'><i>Violations.</i></p> - -<p class='c021'>(1) <i>Needless change of voice or tense -of verbs.</i></p> - -<p class='c021'>(2) <i>Needless change of grammatical -subject.</i></p> - -<p class='c017'>III. Connection. W. 108–110.</p> - -<p class='c016'><i>a.</i> Accurate expression of relation of parts by -connectives.</p> - -<p class='c021'>(1) Subordination indicated? (cf. subordination -in predication under -sentence unity. P. 86).</p> - -<p class='c021'>(2) Co-ordination accurately expressed?</p> - -<p class='c003'>E. EMPHASIS. P. 105–115. W. 99–103. BI, 74–84.</p> - -<p class='c015'>I. Arrangement of Parts.</p> - -<p class='c016'>1. Important parts in emphatic positions?</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>a.</i> At beginning.</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>b.</i> At end.</p> - -<p class='c021'><i>c.</i> In other positions more emphatic.</p> - -<p class='c025'><span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>2. Suspense—periodic effect.</p> - -<p class='c025'>3. Antithesis—balanced construction.</p> - -<p class='c025'>4. Climax. P. 113.</p> - -<p class='c017'>II. Subordination in Predication, (cf. Sentence Unity. -P. 86.)</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>4. Words</h3> - -<p class='c012'>P. 119–129. W. 50–75. M. 1–3; 49–50; 87; 147–149. BI, 27–54.</p> - -<p class='c015'>A. VOCABULARY.</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Size.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Actual?</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Relative? W. 50–52.</p> - -<p class='c025'>II. Range.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Narrow or wide? (cf. Kinds of words.)</p> - -<p class='c025'>III. Character.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. General classes of words.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Long or short? W. 57–58.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>b.</i> Anglo-Saxon or classical? W. 52–57.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>c.</i> Common or learned?</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>d.</i> General or specific? P. 121–129. W. 58–60.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>e.</i> Connotative or denotative? W. 71–75.</p> - -<p class='c024'>2. Kinds of words.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Literary.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>b.</i> Scientific.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>c.</i> Technical.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>d.</i> Colloquial.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>e.</i> Cant.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>f.</i> Slang.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>g.</i> Coined.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>h.</i> Archaic.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>i.</i> Foreign.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>5. Figures of Speech</h3> - -<p class='c012'>M. 11–14; 55–60; 97–104; 152–159. BI, 135–233.</p> - -<p class='c003'>(See Bradley, Classification of Rhetorical Figures, Modern -Language Notes, Vol. I, pp. 280–284.)</p> - -<p class='c015'><span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>A. TERM FIGURES (accentuated designation of object of -thought).</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Figure of Contrast.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Antithesis.</p> - -<p class='c025'>II. Figures of Resemblance.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Simile (resemblance affirmed).</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Metaphor (resemblance assumed).</p> - -<p class='c021'>3. Personification (resemblance of inanimate -to animate).</p> - -<p class='c025'>III. Figures of Contiguity and Association.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Synecdoche (part and whole, genus and -species).</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Antonomasia (individual with type of its -class).</p> - -<p class='c021'>3. Metonymy (sign or symbol, cause and -effect).</p> - -<p class='c021'>4. Transferred epithet (fancied sympathy or -participation).</p> - -<p class='c017'>B. MODAL FIGURES (accentuated statement of proposition).</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Interrogation.</p> - -<p class='c016'>II. Exclamation.</p> - -<p class='c016'>III. Apostrophe (absent addressed as if present).</p> - -<p class='c016'>IV. Vision (absent represented as if present).</p> - -<p class='c016'>V. Hyperbole (statement stronger than intent).</p> - -<p class='c016'>VI. Innuendo (statement weaker than intent).</p> - -<p class='c016'>VII. Irony (statement negatory to intent).</p> - -<p class='c017'>C. SENTENCE AND PARAGRAPH FIGURES (Co-ordination -and gradation of terms or propositions):</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Figures of Co-ordination.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Balance.</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Parallelism.</p> - -<p class='c025'>II. Figures of Gradation.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Climax (ascending series).</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Anticlimax (descending series).</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span> - <h3 class='c013'>6. Qualities of Style</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c020'>A. INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES. M. 15–19; 60–68; 104–109; -159–161. W. 193–233. BI, 233–257.</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Simplicity. Relation to elements of style.</p> - -<p class='c016'>II. Clearness. Relation to elements of style.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Perspicuity (general clearness).</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Precision (minute clearness).</p> - -<p class='c017'>B. EMOTIONAL QUALITIES. M. 19–23; 64–81; 109–115; -162–167. W. 234.</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Strength. Relation to elements of style.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Animation, vivacity, liveliness, rapidity.</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Nerve, vigor, force, energy, fervor.</p> - -<p class='c021'>3. Dignity, stateliness, splendor, grandeur, -magnificence, loftiness, sublimity.</p> - -<p class='c025'>II. Pathos. M. 20.</p> - -<p class='c025'>III. The Ludicrous. M. 23. BII, 236–279.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Humor.</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Wit.</p> - -<p class='c021'>3. Satire.</p> - -<p class='c017'>C. AESTHETIC QUALITIES. M. 23–26; 71–72; 115; 167–169. -BII, 280–294. W. 272–307.</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Melody (sound or modulation).</p> - -<p class='c016'>II. Harmony (sound expressive of sense).</p> - -<p class='c016'>III. Taste.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>7. Forms of Discourse</h3> - -<p class='c020'>A. NARRATION. C. 58–112.</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Kind.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Narration without plot. C. 58–67.</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Narration with plot. C. 67–93.</p> - -<p class='c025'>II. Form. C. 59; 78–88.</p> - -<p class='c025'>III. Purpose. C. 59; 68.</p> - -<p class='c025'>IV. Interest. C. 65–68; 69–71.</p> - -<p class='c025'>V. Methods.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Number and choice of details. C. 63–64; -89–90. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>2. Order of details. C. 65; 88–89.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Beginning. C. 65; 86–88.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>b.</i> Development. C. 65–66; 74–78.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>c.</i> Culmination. C. 67.</p> - -<p class='c024'>3. Diction. C. 66–67; 91.</p> - -<p class='c017'>B. DESCRIPTION. C. 113–169.</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Kind.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Circumstantial. C. 142.</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Dynamic. C. 143.</p> - -<p class='c021'>3. Suggestive. C. 144.</p> - -<p class='c021'>4. Objective. C. 148.</p> - -<p class='c021'>5. Subjective. C. 149.</p> - -<p class='c025'>II. Subject. C. 123–142.</p> - -<p class='c025'>III. Purpose. C. 113; 147.</p> - -<p class='c025'>IV. Methods.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Point of view.</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Number and choice of details. C. 147–149.</p> - -<p class='c021'>3. Arrangement of details. C. 151.</p> - -<p class='c021'>4. Diction. C. 153.</p> - -<p class='c017'>C. EXPOSITION. C. 170–226.</p> - -<p class='c016'>I. Kind.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Subject.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Scientific or technical.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>b.</i> Popular.</p> - -<p class='c024'>2. Treatment.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Scientific or technical.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>b.</i> Popular.</p> - -<p class='c025'>II. Form. C. 170; 194–207.</p> - -<p class='c025'>III. Purpose. C. 170–171.</p> - -<p class='c025'>IV. Methods for Term. C. 172.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Definition. C. 172–174.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Logical definition. C. 174–178.</p> - -<p class='c023'>(1) Complete logical definition.</p> - -<p class='c023'>(2) Incomplete logical definition. -C. 182.</p> - -<p class='c024'><span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span><i>b.</i> Incomplete definition. C. 178–186.</p> - -<p class='c022'>(1) Repetition (synonyms). C. 179.</p> - -<p class='c022'>(2) Exclusion (what not).</p> - -<p class='c022'>(3) Comparison. C. 180–182.</p> - -<p class='c022'>(4) Contrast. C. 180–182.</p> - -<p class='c022'>(5) Example. C. 179.</p> - -<p class='c022'>(6) Logical description (particulars and details). C. 185–186.</p> - -<p class='c024'>2. Division. C. 186–191.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>a.</i> Classification. C. 187–190.</p> - -<p class='c022'><i>b.</i> Partition. C. 190–191.</p> - -<p class='c025'>V. Methods for Proposition. C. 191–194.</p> - -<p class='c021'>1. Exposition of terms (cf. Methods for term).</p> - -<p class='c021'>2. Repetition.</p> - -<p class='c021'>3. Obverse.</p> - -<p class='c021'>4. Example.</p> - -<p class='c021'>5. Analogy.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span> - <h2 class='c006'>XII<br /> <span class='large'>BIBLIOGRAPHY</span></h2> -</div> -<h3 class='c011'>1. The Teaching of English</h3> - -<p class='c012'>A bibliography of some thirty pages consisting of all the -important books, pamphlets, and magazine articles published -before 1903, that treat of the different phases of English work -in elementary and secondary schools is appended to Carpenter, -Baker, and Scott’s “The Teaching of English”, and will be of -great assistance to those who desire material on any part of -the work since the references are classified under such heads as, -rhetoric and composition, literature, grammar, spelling, college -entrance requirements, etc. The volumes of the educational -periodicals such as “Education”, “Educational Review”, -“School Review”, etc., that have appeared since 1903, also contain -many articles on English work. The following are the -most important books on the teaching of English in the high -school:</p> - -<p class='c018'>Carpenter, G. R., Baker, F. T., and Scott, F. N. The Teaching -of English, Longmans, Green and Co., New York, -1903. ($1.50). The best discussion of every phase of -English work in elementary and secondary schools, with -excellent bibliographies.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Chubb, Percival. The Teaching of English, Macmillan, -New York, 1902. ($1.00). A valuable discussion of the -aims, ideals, and methods in teaching English in elementary -and secondary schools.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Hinsdale, B. A. Teaching the Language-Arts: Speech, -Reading, Composition. Appleton, New York, 1896. -($1.00). A comprehensive treatment of all the elements -in the study of language.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Laurie, S. S. Lectures on Language and Linguistic Method -in the School. 2d edition, revised. Macmillan, New -York, 1893. ($1.00). An excellent presentation of the -value, the purposes, and the methods of language study.</p> - -<p class='c019'><span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>Report of Committee on Secondary School Studies (The -Committee of Ten) U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, -1893. This report has been the basis of most of -the present courses in English for secondary schools.</p> - -<p class='c012'>Other books bearing more or less directly on the teaching -of parts of the English work are:</p> - -<p class='c018'>Bates, Arlo. Talks on Teaching Literature. Houghton, -Mifflin Co. ($1.50). Practical methods are given for -teaching literature in the high school.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Bates, Arlo. Talks on the Study of Literature. Houghton, -Mifflin Co. ($1.50).</p> - -<p class='c019'>Bates, Arlo. Talks on Writing English. First and Second -Series. Houghton, Mifflin Co. ($1.50 a vol.).</p> - -<p class='c019'>Corson, H. Aims of Literary Study. Macmillan. ($.75).</p> - -<p class='c019'>Corson, H. Voice and Spiritual Education. Macmillan. -($.75).</p> - -<p class='c019'>Copeland and Rideout. Freshman English and Theme Correction -at Harvard College. Silver, Burdett & Co. -($1.00). Some of the suggestions for theme writing and -theme correcting can be adapted to high school composition.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Palmer, G. H. Self-cultivation in English. Crowell. ($.35).</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>2. Literature</h3> - -<p class='c012'>The following list contains the standard histories of English -and American literature, the biographical and critical -works on some of the writers to whom especially attention is -generally given, and volumes on the history and development -of the various types of literature.</p> - -<p class='c018'>Brooke, Stopford. English Literature to the Norman Conquest. -Macmillan. ($1.50). A review of Anglo-Saxon -literature with translations of many Anglo-Saxon poems.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Cook, A. S. and Tinker, C. Translations of Old English -Poetry. Ginn. ($1.00). Translations of parts of Beowulf -and of all the important Anglo-Saxon poems.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Schofield, W. H. English Literature from the Norman -Conquest to Chaucer. Macmillan. ($1.50).</p> - -<p class='c019'><span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>Saintsbury, G. History of Elizabethan Literature. (1557–1660). -Macmillan. ($1.50).</p> - -<p class='c019'>Gosse, E. Eighteenth Century Literature. (1660–1780). -Macmillan. ($1.50).</p> - -<p class='c019'>Saintsbury, G. History of Nineteenth Century Literature. -(1780–1895). Macmillan. ($1.50).</p> - -<p class='c019'>Ward, H. English Poets, 4 vols. Macmillan. (Students’ -edition $4.00). Brief biographies, good criticisms, and -representative selections of all the English poets from -Chaucer to Tennyson.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Bronson, W. C. History of American Literature. Heath. -($.90). A good handbook for American literature.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Wendell, B. and Greenough, C. N. History of Literature in -America. Scribner. ($1.40.) A good short history of -American literature.</p> - -<p class='c027'>Pollard, A. W. Chaucer Primer. Macmillan. ($.35). A -convenient little handbook on Chaucer’s life and work.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Sweet, H. Second Middle English Primer. Oxford Univ. -Press. ($.50). A very good handbook for the pronunciation -of Chaucer with a phonetic transcription of -the Prologue to the Canterbury Tales.</p> - -<p class='c027'>Dowden, E. Shakespeare Primer. American Book Co. -($.35). A very useful little manual of Shakespearean -criticism.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Lee, Sidney. Life of Shakespeare. Macmillan. ($1.75). -An invaluable critical analysis of all biographical material -relating to Shakespeare.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Moulton, R. G. Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist. Oxford -Univ. Press. ($1.90). A detailed consideration of -the motives, plots, and characters of a number of -Shakespeare’s plays.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Symonds, J. A. Shakespeare’s Predecessors in the English -Drama. Scribner. ($2.00). An excellent account of -the origin and the development of the English drama.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Baker, G. P. The Development of Shakespeare as a Dramatist. -Macmillan. ($1.75). A discussion of the Elizabethan -stage, the public, and other conditions in relation -to the development of Shakespeare’s dramatic art.</p> - -<p class='c019'><span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>Freytag, G. The Technique of the Drama. Scott, Foresman -& Co., Chicago. ($1.50). A comparative study of -drama as a literary form with considerable discussion -of the plays of Shakespeare.</p> - -<p class='c027'>Raleigh, W. History of the English Novel. Scribner. -($1.25). An interesting account of the development of -the English novel to Scott.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Cross, W. L. The Development of the English Novel. -Macmillan. ($1.50.) A history of English fiction from -the Arthurian romance to Stevenson.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Perry, Bliss. A Study of Prose Fiction. Houghton, Mifflin -Co. ($1.25). A suggestive discussion of plot, -characters, setting and other elements in the novel and -short story, with suggestions for original work in construction -and analysis.</p> - -<p class='c027'>Alden, R. M. Specimens of English verse. Holt. ($1.25). -A practical handbook of poetics with numerous selections.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Gayley, C. M. Classic Myths in English Literature. Ginn. -($1.50). An excellent collection of Greek, Roman, -Norse, and German mythological stories.</p> - -<h3 class='c013'>3. Language and Grammar</h3> - -<p class='c018'>Sweet, H. New English Grammar; Vol. I., Phonology and -Accidence. ($2.60). Vol. II. Syntax. ($.90). Oxford -Univ. Press. The most complete logical and historical -grammar.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Emerson, O. F. History of the English Language. Macmillan. -($1.25).</p> - -<p class='c019'>Greenough and Kittredge. Words and their Ways in English -Speech. Macmillan. ($1.10). An interesting popular -account of the origin and development of language -and of changes in the meaning of words.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Trench, R. C. The Study of Words. Armstrong, N. Y. -($1.00). An excellent introduction to the study of the -development of the meaning of words.</p> - -<div> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span> - <h3 class='c013'>4. Rhetoric and Composition</h3> -</div> - -<p class='c018'>Bain, A. English Composition and Rhetoric. 2 vols. American -Book Co. ($1.20 a vol.). A discussion, with -numerous illustrations, of all the elements and qualities -of style in prose and poetry.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Brewster, W. T. Studies in Structure and Style. Macmillan. -($1.10). An analysis of the structure and -style of seven modern English essays.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Cairns, W. B. Forms of Discourse. Ginn. ($1.15). A -consideration of the various forms of narration, description, -exposition, argumentation, and persuasion.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Genung, J. F. Working Principles of Rhetoric. Ginn. -($1.40). A comprehensive discussion of rhetorical principles.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Minto, W. Manual of English Prose Literature. Ginn. -($1.50). A detailed analysis of the styles of Macaulay, -De Quincey, and Carlyle, with briefer discussions of -the style of all English prose writers to the beginning -of the nineteenth century.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Scott, F. N. and Denney, J. V. Paragraph-Writing. Allyn -and Bacon. ($1.00.) An interesting discussion of paragraph -structure with many examples.</p> - -<p class='c019'>Wendell, Barrett. English Composition. Scribner. 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