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diff --git a/old/69236-0.txt b/old/69236-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1c61f53..0000000 --- a/old/69236-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3352 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The high school course in English, by -Willard G. Bleyer - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The high school course in English - -Author: Willard G. Bleyer - -Release Date: October 25, 2022 [eBook #69236] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from - images generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN -ENGLISH *** - - - - - - HIGH SCHOOL SERIES - - -1. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN ENGLISH, by Willard G. Bleyer, Ph. D., -Assistant Professor of English. 1906. 1907. - -2. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN GERMAN, by M. Blakemore Evans, Ph. D., -Assistant Professor of German. 1907. - -3. REPORT ON THE ENTRANCE EXAMINATION IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION, by Willard -G. Bleyer, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of English. [_In Preparation._] - -4. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN MATHEMATICS, by Ernest B. Skinner, Ph. D., -Assistant Professor of Mathematics. [_In Preparation._] - -5. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN LATIN, by a committee of the Wisconsin -Latin Teachers Association. [_In Preparation._] - -6. THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN FRENCH, by Hugh A. Smith, M. A., Professor -of Romance Languages. [_In Preparation._] - - - Issued bi-monthly, and entered at the postoffice, at Madison, as - second-class matter. - - - - - THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN ENGLISH - - - BY - WILLARD G. BLEYER, Ph. D. - Assistant Professor of English - University of Wisconsin - - - REVISED EDITION - - - UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN - MADISON - 1907 - - - - - CONTENTS - - - Page - INTRODUCTION 5 - - I. PURPOSE OF THE COURSE 7 - - II. ORGANIZATION OF ENGLISH WORK 9 - 1. Length of Course 9 - 2. Plan of Course 10 - 3. Arrangement of Classes 11 - 4. Conferences of Teachers 12 - - III. COMPOSITION 13 - 1. Theme Writing 13 - 2. Correction of Themes 17 - 3. Filing of Themes 19 - 4. Conferences on Written Work 20 - 5. Oral Composition 20 - 6. Principles of Composition 21 - 7. Use of Text-book 22 - - IV. READING 23 - 1. Methods of Teaching 23 - 2. Reading Aloud 27 - 3. Choice of Reading 28 - 4. Library Reading 29 - - V. FIRST YEAR ENGLISH 30 - 1. Composition 31 - 2. Grammar 32 - 3. Rhetorical Principles 33 - 4. Theme writing 34 - 5. Reading 35 - - VI. SECOND YEAR ENGLISH 37 - 1. Composition 37 - 2. Reading 39 - - VII. THIRD YEAR ENGLISH 40 - 1. Reading and History of Literature 40 - 2. Composition 41 - - VIII. FOURTH YEAR ENGLISH 42 - 1. Reading 42 - 2. The Novel 42 - 3. The Drama 43 - 4. The Lyric 43 - 5. The Essay 44 - 6. Library Reading 44 - 7. Composition 45 - 8. Writing of Verse 46 - - IX. OUTLINE OF HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN ENGLISH 47 - - X. LIST OF READINGS FOR FOUR YEARS 50 - - XI. OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION AND STYLE 53 - 1. Whole Composition 53 - 2. Paragraphs 55 - 3. Sentences 57 - 4. Words 60 - 5. Figures of Speech 60 - 6. Qualities of Style 62 - 7. Forms of Discourse 62 - - XII. BIBLIOGRAPHY 65 - 1. The Teaching of English 65 - 2. Literature 66 - 3. Language and Grammar 68 - 4. Rhetoric and Composition 68 - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -This bulletin has been prepared with the purpose of offering some -practical suggestions in regard to the organization of the high school -course in English and to the methods of teaching English. As it is -designed for the principals and teachers of Wisconsin schools, the plan -and methods conform to the courses of study and conditions required of -free high schools in this state. The aim has not been to discuss -theories or to offer novel solutions for the problems of teaching, but -rather to present ways and means of accomplishing the generally accepted -purposes of the study of English in secondary schools. All the methods -and plans suggested have been shown by experience to be practical, and -are adapted to present conditions in both large and small high schools. - -While the plan of the work has been made as flexible as possible in -order to adapt it to different schools, it has seemed desirable to -indicate definitely how all of the details of the course should be -organized and what methods should be used to bring about the required -results. The object has been to consider the purpose of each part of the -English work, and to show as specifically as possible what must be done -and to some extent how it must be done to accomplish this purpose. By -having a definite aim for each year’s work and by seeing clearly what is -to be accomplished in each part of the subject, the teacher of English -feels responsible for the successful completion of a specific part of -the course. At the same time the originality and ability of the teacher -need not be hampered by a definite plan but may be exercised in adapting -the work to different conditions in different schools and classes. - -In discussing the course in English, the general aim and methods in -teaching the important elements, composition and reading, are taken up -first, and then the particular phases of each subject to be presented in -each year, are considered. What is presented under the general topics, -reading and composition, therefore, applies to the work of each year -unless otherwise stated, and usually is not repeated in considering each -year of the course. - -A second edition of this bulletin has made possible some revision. No -essential changes have been made, but considerable new material has been -added. Some parts have been developed at greater length in order to -explain the methods more fully. The most important addition is the -outline for the study of composition and style, which has been included -for those teachers who desire to review the various phases of rhetorical -theory in preparation for teaching composition or reading. The -bibliography has been extended to include a number of standard reference -books on various phases of the English work. The books have been -selected on the basis of their practical value to the teacher in the -work actually required in the high school course in English, and of the -possibility of assisting the teacher to build up for himself, at -reasonable cost, a good working library. In order to accomplish the -latter purpose the less expensive reference books have, as far as -possible, been chosen, and the price and the publisher of each have been -given. - - - - - I - PURPOSE OF THE COURSE - - -The main objects of the teaching of English as presented in the Report -of the Committee of Ten[1], are (1) “to enable the pupil to understand -the expressed thoughts of others;” (2) to enable him “to give expression -to thoughts of his own;” (3) “to cultivate a taste for reading, to give -the pupil some acquaintance with good literature, and to furnish him the -means of extending that acquaintance.” Other subsidiary objects may be -accomplished by the study of English, the Report points out, but these -should never be permitted to encroach upon the main purposes. While -these purposes are considered separately, and are apparently separated -in arranging the course of study, the Report continues, their mutual -dependence must constantly be kept in mind. By studying the thoughts of -others as expressed in the literature read in or out of the class room, -the pupil can be led to see how to express his own thoughts more -effectively. All reading of good literature should tend to cultivate a -taste for reading, and all study of good literature should lead to a -better appreciation of what is best in expression. The survey of the -history of English and American literature accompanied by the reading -and study of characteristic selections of every period, will open up to -the pupil the whole field of literature in English and will furnish him -the means of judging intelligently of what he reads. This -interdependence of the main purposes of the study of English requires -the closest correlation of every phase of the English work. - -Footnote 1: - - Report of Committee on Secondary School Studies, p. 86. - -Since the English work is divided into two principal parts, reading and -composition, it may be well to consider briefly the purpose of each in -relation to the main objects just considered. - -The first object of the work in reading must always be to have the pupil -understand the thought expressed on the printed page. However thorough -has been his training in the grades, the average pupil on entering high -school needs to be taught how to read. Generally he gets but a hazy, -general idea from reading a paragraph, either because he fails to grasp -the meaning of each sentence, or because he does not combine the -sentence-thoughts in their relation to the topic. The aim of the reading -must be to enable the pupil to understand each idea as it is presented, -to combine these ideas to get the thought of the sentence, and to follow -the chain of thought from sentence to sentence until he grasps the -meaning of the paragraph, essay, story, or poem, as a whole. As rapidly -as the maturity of the pupil permits, other elements that aid in the -better understanding of a piece of literature may be considered in -connection with the reading. The study of the structure, the form, the -author’s purpose, his style, the revelation of the author’s personality, -the relation of the piece of literature to the age in which it was -written, and a comparison with other pieces of the same type, all give a -clearer understanding of literature. The other purpose of the reading is -to stimulate the pupils’ interest in good literature, and to lead them -to read what is worth while, on their own initiative. If interest is -aroused by the reading and study in class, of one work of an author, it -is easy to create a desire to read other works by the same author, -outside of the class room. By suggestions and advice the teacher can do -much toward directing the pupils in their outside reading. To lead -pupils to read, understand, and appreciate the best of English -literature is certainly an aim that is worth striving to accomplish. - -To enable the pupil to give clear and effective expression to his own -thoughts, is the end and aim of the other important part of the English -work—composition. That composition is the expression of his own thoughts -is the first principle that must constantly be impressed upon the -pupils’ minds. The misconception that the only ideas worth expressing in -writing themes are those derived from books, must be corrected at once. -While reproductions and paraphrases of the expressed thoughts of others -may sometimes be used as exercises, the fact must be made clear to the -pupils that these are not original compositions, in as much as they are -not the expression of their own ideas. - -The relation of clear thinking to clear expression is another factor to -be considered in teaching composition. Much of the instruction in theme -writing is really concerned with training the pupils to think logically -and to arrange their thoughts in an orderly manner. Pupils must be -taught that as they can give clear expression only to those thoughts -that are clear in their own minds, the first process in theme writing is -the clarifying and arranging of their ideas. The mental training given -by such systematic preparation for theme writing as the making of -outlines or other devices for grouping thoughts in a logical plan, is -invaluable, since, unlike that given by other studies, it is concerned -largely with the pupil’s own thoughts rather than with those acquired -from books. - -The third important element in composition is the style or form of -expression. The first aim of teaching composition, whether written or -oral, must be to give the pupils sufficient command of simple, idiomatic -English for the needs of everyday life. If the average pupil can be -taught to express his ideas in clear, correct English, much will have -been accomplished by the four years’ training. Those pupils who show -natural ability in expression can be encouraged to develop their talent -for writing or speaking in connection with class work or with the -various outside activities of the school, and may be given considerable -assistance in their efforts by the teacher of English. It is much more -important, however, to enable the majority of high school pupils to -express themselves simply, naturally, and correctly, than to attempt to -develop literary style where there is little natural ability. - - - - - II - ORGANIZATION OF ENGLISH WORK - - - 1. Length of Course - -All high schools provide four years of instruction in English, and most -of the schools devote five periods a week to the subject in each year. -The course of study outlined in this bulletin, therefore, is arranged on -the basis of five periods a week for four years. The successful -completion of at least two years’ work in English, one-half of which -shall be devoted to composition and rhetoric, and one-half to the study -of English classics, is required of all students for graduation from -Wisconsin high schools, and for entrance to the University of Wisconsin. -The first two years of English are always required of all high school -pupils whether they pursue an elective or a prescribed course of study. -In some high schools four years’ study of English is required of all -pupils, and in most of the Wisconsin high schools the curriculum -provides for three years of English in all courses. When the course of -study is partly elective, pupils are usually advised to continue with a -third and often a fourth year of English after completing the two years -of required work. Thus practically all high school pupils pursue the -course in English for at least three years. - -Whether pupils who study English for three years take up the work in the -third or the fourth year of their course, is generally determined by the -arrangement of the other subjects in the curriculum. When a choice may -be made by either third or fourth year pupils between third and fourth -year English, the principal and teacher of English can often decide for -the pupil, basing their decision in each case upon what they know of the -pupil and his plans. For some pupils the survey of English and American -literature in the third year will be most valuable since it furnishes -them the means of extending their acquaintance with literature by -independent reading. Other pupils will doubtless derive more benefit -from the intensive study of a few classics outlined for the fourth year. - - - 2. Plan of Course - -The arrangement of the several phases of the English work in the course, -and the amount of time that is to be devoted to each is as follows[2]: - -Footnote 2: - - For a complete outline of the course see p. 47. - -First year—5 periods a week; one-half of the time to be given to -composition, and one-half to the reading and study of literature. - -Second year—5 periods a week; one-half of the time to be given to -composition, and one-half to the reading and study of literature. - -Third year—5 periods a week; from one-tenth to one-fifth of the time to -be given to the history of English literature during the first -three-quarters of the year and to the history of American literature -during the last quarter of the year; four-fifths of the time to be -devoted to the study of the works of representative authors in each -period of the history of English and American literature; and from -one-tenth to one-fifth of the time to be given to composition. - -Fourth year—5 periods a week; four-fifths of the time to be devoted to -the study of typical examples of each of the following forms of -literature: the novel, the drama, the lyric, and the essay; one-fifth of -the time to be given to composition. - -The reading and study of literature in class in each year is to be -supplemented by library reading of literature, the amount of which will -be determined by library facilities and other local conditions. - - - 3. Arrangement of Classes - -If the English work is being taught by several teachers, the -distribution of classes among the teachers deserves careful -consideration. No English work should be entrusted to a teacher who is -not interested in the subject and who is not adequately prepared to -teach it. It is particularly important that the first year classes -should be in charge of the best teachers of English that the school has -in its corps. The not infrequent practice of having the thoroughly -prepared and experienced teachers take charge of third and fourth year -English, and of assigning the first year classes to the young and -inexperienced English teacher, or even to teachers of other subjects who -have little or no interest in the work and who are compelled to take -classes in first year English because their time is not completely -occupied by their own subjects, generally proves extremely -unsatisfactory. If the pupils in the high schools are to have the right -attitude toward the study of English, and are to begin the subject in -the right way, the best teachers must be provided for the first year -work, since much of the success of the whole high school course in -English depends upon the manner in which the introductory work is -taught. - -The number of classes in English to be assigned to the teacher and the -size of these classes must also be considered. The teaching of English -requires an unusual amount of work outside of class. First, the -preparation for each day’s teaching whether the work is in composition -or reading demands much time and energy if it is to be done as it should -be. Second, the correction of themes is a daily task that must be done -carefully and accurately and that requires the best effort of the -teacher when his mind is most keen and active. Third, personal -conferences with each pupil on his written work are now generally -conceded to be essential for successful training in writing. All these -elements must be considered in arranging the programme of classes for -teachers of English. Teachers cannot do satisfactory work if they must -prepare for five or six classes a day, teach these classes, correct -twenty-five or thirty themes daily, and hold conferences with pupils -before and after school. The teaching of many classes exhausts the -energy of the teacher and makes accurate correction after school or in -the evening, as well as the careful preparation for the next day’s -classes, extremely difficult if not impossible. Conferences on written -work should be provided for in the regular programme and should not -interfere with the teacher’s other duties before and after school. Four -classes a day, two periods daily for conference with pupils, and not -more than a hundred pupils in all classes, a number which requires the -correction of one hundred themes a week, is an arrangement of work that -makes possible effective teaching. - - - 4. Conference of Teachers - -To give unity to the four years’ work in English, it is essential that -all the teachers of English in each high school meet at frequent -intervals to discuss organization, methods, and progress of the work. -Each teacher will thus familiarize himself with the English work of the -whole school, and can do his particular part of it more intelligently -and more effectively. As the success of high school English also depends -in no small degree upon the character of the instruction which the -pupils have received in the grades, and particularly in the seventh and -eighth grades, it will be found very profitable to have similar -conferences occasionally between the seventh and eighth grade teachers -and the high school teachers of English. A closer relation ought to -exist between the English work of the last two grades and the high -school, and there seems to be no better way to accomplish this than to -bring about cooperation between the teachers through the medium of these -conferences. The benefit to the teachers and the great advantage that -results to the English work of the school repay many fold the time and -effort devoted to these conferences. If local conditions make these -meetings of grade and high school teachers impracticable, the high -school teacher of English should make every effort to familiarize -himself with the amount and character of the training which the pupils -have had before entering the high school, by visiting the schools and -conferring with the teachers in the seventh and eighth grades. The -knowledge thus acquired of the earlier training of the pupils will be of -great service to the high school teacher in planning his work both in -reading and composition. - - - - - III - COMPOSITION - - -The ability to write clearly and accurately can generally be acquired -only by practice. If this practice is to be really effective it can not -be confined to one semester or one year, but must extend through the -whole course in English. Training in composition naturally includes a -study of the principles of the art; and since these principles are of -different degrees of difficulty, all can not be presented in one year, -but must be developed from year to year as the ability and maturity of -the pupil makes possible the comprehension and application of them. -Practice in writing and instruction in the principles of composition, -therefore, must form a part of all instruction in English throughout the -four years. - - - 1. Theme Writing - -Since it is only by constant practice that the average pupil can learn -to write good English, it naturally follows that the essential part of -the composition work is the writing of themes. The methods by which the -pupil is given this practice are of the greatest importance. In the -first place, as has already been indicated, it should be made clear to -the pupil what original composition is, and what it is not. The belief, -all too prevalent among pupils, that ideas for compositions are to be -obtained largely if not entirely from books, should be promptly -eradicated from their minds. They must be constantly impressed with the -fact that the expression of their own ideas is the important factor in -all original composition. - -The direction of the pupils to a right choice of subject for their -compositions is the first important consideration. The possibility of -writing interesting themes on the everyday incidents in the life of the -pupils and the school must be made clear to them at the beginning of the -course. After the pupils have once been made to see the inexhaustible -supply of material which their own experience affords, there will be no -temptation to turn to books for inspiration. Throughout the course in -composition it is necessary for a teacher of English to have a large -supply of good subjects for themes. To secure these subjects the teacher -must familiarize himself with local conditions, particularly as they -affect the life and interests of his pupils. It is an essential part of -the teacher’s preparation for teaching composition that he inform -himself fully upon the subjects of local interest upon which he -encourages the pupils to write. By his interest in the various -activities of the pupils and by his sympathy in their efforts, the -teacher not only comes to know what subjects to suggest for composition, -but gains the pupils’ confidence, and arouses in them a desire to tell -him of these activities in their written work. With proper encouragement -and interest on the part of the teacher, pupils will soon come to take -pleasure in writing of their everyday experiences, and the themes will -become a source of greater pleasure and satisfaction to both teacher and -pupils. - -It is frequently desirable that the same subject be assigned to all -pupils, so that the results may be compared and presented to the class -as part of the regular instruction. At other times it is necessary to -give the class a number of subjects from which each pupil may select the -one that suits him best; and at still others, to suggest general topics -from which the pupil may frame his own subject. In announcing and -assigning a subject for compositions the teacher can be of much -assistance to the pupils by discussing with the class the subject under -consideration. These discussions will stimulate interest in the subject, -and will arouse a desire on the part of the pupils to write upon it. The -teacher can direct the discussion so that the pupils will be led to -consider the best method of treating the subject and can thus prevent -waste of effort. It is necessary, however, to guard against giving the -pupil so many suggestions that little original thought and observation -will be required in writing the theme. - -That clear, logical thinking is prerequisite for clear expression should -also be constantly emphasized in teaching composition. Pupils must be -made to realize, as has already been said, that unless thoughts are -clear in their own minds, they cannot expect to make these thoughts -clear to others. They should be taught, therefore, to get before their -minds clearly what they desire to express before they undertake to -express it. The first step can be taken early in the course when the -pupils are writing narratives, by urging upon them the necessity of -accuracy in observing what happens and how it happens, since the degree -of completeness of the remembrance of the event depends upon the -character of the impression. In description, likewise, careful -observation of what is to be portrayed must be emphasized as the only -means of obtaining a complete mental picture that can be described to -others. The methods of exposition and argumentation presented in the -third and fourth years naturally involve a discussion of the methods of -reasoning and as much logic as the pupils can comprehend. So closely -related are thinking and the expression of thought that, as has been -pointed out before, much of the work of teaching pupils to express their -thoughts clearly and accurately is really concerned with teaching them -to think clearly and logically. - -In all work of this kind the outline is of great value. An outline of a -paragraph analyzed in connection with the reading will make clear the -manner of arranging the subtopics and details in an orderly form. A -similar outline of the subject of a theme, made in class by the -cooperation of teacher and pupils, will indicate the method of grouping -the pupil’s own ideas in a logical manner. After the process has been -illustrated by such class exercises, the pupils should be required to -make outlines of their themes, without assistance from the teacher. -While it is not necessary to require that a complete outline be prepared -by the pupils for every theme that is assigned, frequent exercises in -outlining the material of the theme before it is written are desirable -throughout the course. Like all formal devices, the outline, if made -mechanically, may tend to curb the spontaneous expression of the pupils; -but rightly employed by the teacher and pupils, it will readily become a -valuable aid to clear thinking and expression. - -From the beginning to the end of the course in English, the fact must be -impressed upon the pupils’ minds that the only acceptable themes are -those that are the result of thought and careful effort. Hastily and -carelessly prepared compositions and those handed in after the appointed -time, should not be accepted by the teacher. Promptness, neatness, and -earnest effort are essentials for successful theme writing that pupils -should never be permitted to neglect. While it may seem very exacting to -require that all themes be written in black ink, on paper of uniform -size, and that they be numbered or dated and indorsed in a prescribed -form, experience has shown that these details in the organization of the -work are important for economy of time and effort on the part of teacher -and pupils. - -Although most of the themes will be prepared by the pupils before coming -to the class room, it is desirable to have some of them written during -the recitation period in order to give the pupils practice in thinking -and writing rapidly. At the beginning of the course the subject may be -assigned at the preceding recitation so that the pupils may consider it -carefully and come prepared to write. After the pupils have gained some -fluency of expression, impromptu themes will prove interesting and -valuable class room exercises. Considerable importance should be -attached to these impromptu themes and exercises as tests of the pupils’ -ability to write rapidly and accurately. - - - 2. Correction of Themes - -Of equal importance to the writing of themes is the prompt and careful -correction of them by the teacher, and the revision or rewriting by the -pupil. While doubtless the pupil will gain some facility in expression -by writing frequently, he is not likely to learn how to write clear, -accurate, forcible English unless his work is carefully corrected and -returned to him promptly so that it may be revised or rewritten. In -correcting themes the purpose should be to indicate to the pupil the -errors and weaknesses of his style, in order that he may correct these -faults. The teacher, therefore, should not correct the pupil’s errors, -but should use some sign or abbreviation to indicate the character of -the fault. Much if not all of the benefit derived by the pupil from the -teacher’s correction is lost if he does not have the opportunity to -correct his own errors in revising or rewriting the composition. Not -only is this correction of the pupil’s mistakes by the teacher bad -pedagogically, but it takes a needless amount of the teacher’s time. It -is desirable to have a simple but complete system of signs and -abbreviations indicating the exact character of the error. In this -connection attention may be called to the value of having each school -adopt some system of correction signs and abbreviations, so that the -same marks may be used not only by all of the teachers of English, but -by the teachers of all other subjects in correcting note-books, topics, -examination papers, and all other written exercises. It is only by -insisting that high school pupils be as careful of their English in all -written work as in compositions prepared for English classes that the -best results can be accomplished. - -The following sign and abbreviations used in the English department of -the University of Wisconsin for the correction of themes may serve to -indicate the character and scope of a system of correction marks: - - amb ambiguous. - ant antecedent. - bal make elements balance. - ch coherence. - cst construction. - ∥cst. parallel construction. - D see dictionary. - E poor English. - emp emphasis. - F. W. fine writing. - fig figure of speech. - gr grammar. - H hackneyed. - K awkward. - L loose. - MS manuscript. - p punctuation. - pc comma fault. - per make periodic. - rep repetition. - red redundant. - S sentence. - sp spelling - Th theme. - tr transpose. - U unity. - V vague. - W weak. - W. W. wrong word. - ¶ paragraph. - [ ] omit. - ] indention. - x obvious error. - │ divide. - ╱ small letter. - ≡ capital letter. - ⁐ unite. - -Besides indicating all the errors in every theme, the teacher should -write a concise comment on each, pointing out the faults and merits of -the theme. He should aim to make these comments as stimulating and -suggestive as possible for judicious criticism must be constructive, -encouraging the pupil in that which is praiseworthy in his efforts, as -well as aiding him to eliminate that which is undesirable. These -comments to be most helpful should be based on the teacher’s knowledge -of the pupil’s personality and of the character of his other themes, for -each piece of written work must be regarded as a step in the individual -pupil’s progress toward the more effective expression of his thoughts. -The teacher should also remember that firm insistence from the beginning -to the end of the course on correctness in the fundamentals of -expression such as grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, is -quite as necessary as the stimulating criticism that aims at developing -more original and spontaneous thought and expression. - -In order that the pupil may get the greatest benefit from the teacher’s -correction of his themes, these should be returned for revision or -rewriting as soon as possible. If the pupil does not receive his theme -until a week or more after he has written it, the corrections and the -revision and rewriting are much less interesting and valuable than if it -is returned to him promptly. It is also easier for the teacher to -correct themes as soon as they are received rather than to allow them to -accumulate until their number makes the correction of them an exhausting -task. - -In addition to the careful correction of compositions by the teacher, -other methods may be used to call attention to the merits and faults of -the pupils’ themes. The teacher may have the pupils copy on the -blackboard the themes which they have prepared before coming to class, -and the recitation period may be devoted to the criticism of these -compositions by teacher and pupils. The pupils may occasionally be -required to correct each other’s written work, either in or out of the -class room. A recitation period can sometimes be used to advantage for -the rewriting by the pupils of themes corrected by the teacher, who by -passing from one pupil to another during this exercise can assist each -in correcting and improving his work. While these methods often prove -interesting and valuable, they should not be regarded as an adequate -substitute for the prompt and accurate correction of themes by the -teacher. - - - 3. Filing of Themes - -After themes have been either rewritten or revised by pupils, they -should be returned to the teacher, who must glance over them to be sure -that the pupils have made the necessary changes. If the themes are -rewritten, the original as well as the rewritten form should be returned -to the teacher for the purpose of this comparison. It is also desirable -to have some method of filing themes after they have been returned to -the teacher. A simple method of keeping them is to use looseleaf -note-books similar to the laboratory note-books in science. With this -system the themes are first handed in on separate sheets of uniform -size, and, after they have been corrected by the teacher and revised or -rewritten by the pupil, are fastened in the note-book. If the themes are -rewritten or corrected on the blank page of the note-book facing the -original copy, the teacher can readily compare the two forms and can -determine the character of the revision. Another plan adopted by a -number of schools is to have a large filing case with a compartment for -the themes of each pupil in the school. All the themes should be -preserved until the end of the year, when they may be returned to the -pupils. - - - 4. Conferences on Written Work - -In order to accomplish the best results in theme writing and correcting, -it is desirable that the teacher talk over the written work with each -pupil as frequently as his time permits. If the English teacher’s -programme of recitations is properly arranged, he should have sufficient -time to have conferences with all his pupils once a month. Regular -appointments should be made with each pupil for holding these -conferences during those periods in which both pupil and teacher have no -recitation. At the conference the teacher can go over with the pupil the -written work of the month, can answer questions, and give helpful -suggestions for improving the pupil’s composition and class work. - - - 5. Oral Composition - -Although the term “composition” as used in connection with English work -usually refers only to written expression, it is evident that the oral -expression of the pupils’ thoughts is worthy of consideration. Generally -no particular provision is made in high school work for so-called oral -composition, nor does it seem necessary to provide a distinct place for -it in the outline of the course. The importance of the form of the -recitation in every subject is emphasized by all good teachers. The -topical recitation now so frequently required in all high school -studies, if properly conducted, is the most effective kind of oral -composition that can be given. A teacher of English, of course, should -give especial attention to the form of recitation in English classes. -Pupils, after some encouragement, will express their ideas freely in the -course of the discussions which inevitably arise in connection with the -reading and composition. Their attention should be directed to the fact -that the same principles govern the clear and forcible expression in -spoken, as in written language. The correction of common faults in -recitation, such as the “and”, “and then” habit, will assist in -eliminating these errors from the written work as well as in improving -greatly the oral expression. During the first year the pupils may be -assigned simple topics in connection with the reading and should be -taught how to collect the material and arrange it in an outline form -from which to present it in the class room. After they have acquired the -ability to present topics with the aid of notes, they should be -encouraged to speak without any of these aids. The same method may be -applied to the daily recitation. In fact, it is often best to begin by -having the pupils outline the subject matter of the lesson and come to -class prepared to recite upon any topic in the outline. In this manner -the recitations in English and in practically all of the other subjects -of the high school course may be used to give the pupils the necessary -training in oral composition. - - - 6. Principles of Composition - -In connection with the writing and correction of themes must be studied -the principles of composition and their application. These rhetorical -principles may be presented either inductively or deductively. The pupil -may either learn them from a definite statement in the text-book, which -illustrates their application by selected examples, or he may be led to -discover the principles of effective expression from the literature that -he is studying in class as a part of the work in reading. While much may -be said for the merits of each of these methods, the inductive plan -seems to commend itself particularly, since it makes possible a close -and effective correlation of the two elements of the English -work—composition and reading. - -During the first two years, when particular attention is given to the -principles of sentence and paragraph construction in the composition -work, these principles can be developed and their application readily -illustrated from the selections that are read and studied in class. The -object of the work in reading, as has already been stated, is to teach -the pupil to get the thought clearly from the printed page. In order to -do this effectively, it is necessary to study with some degree of care -the sentence and paragraph structure of the selection which he is -reading. To get the thought of each sentence it is necessary to -understand clearly the relation of all its parts. By noting the separate -ideas as expressed in words, phrases, and clauses, and by determining -their relation in the sentence as the expression of the whole thought, -the pupil is taught the principles of sentence unity and coherence. If -his attention is properly drawn to these principles as they are -exemplified in the literature before him, the importance and application -of them may be clearly demonstrated without spoiling the masterpiece of -literature. In fact the appreciation of the skill of the literary artist -is thereby increased, provided the teaching is done in a proper manner. - -To follow the chain of thought in the paragraph, it is necessary to see -clearly the relation of each thought as expressed in the sentence to the -preceding and succeeding thoughts in order that the development of the -topic may be clear, and that the pupil may grasp the subject in its -entirety. In teaching the pupil to get the whole thought in the -paragraph, it is necessary to consider the whole topic treated in the -paragraph; that is, to study the unity of the paragraph; and also to -consider the relation of each thought to the one central topic; that is, -the principle of paragraph coherence. Thus, in the effort to teach the -pupil how to get the thoughts of others by reading, the essential -principles of composition are absolutely necessary. In a similar manner -all the principles of narration, description, exposition, and -argumentation may be developed inductively from the reading. By seeing -the application of the rhetorical principles in literature, the pupil -comes to realize their importance in effective writing, and is impressed -by the varied forms of their application as he is not likely to be by -selected examples isolated from their context, in text-books. - - - 7. Use of Text-book - -If the principles of composition may be developed from the masterpieces -that are studied in class, the question naturally suggests itself, “Is -it necessary to have a text-book at all in studying the principles of -rhetoric and composition?” It is entirely possible to teach composition -successfully without a text-book, but owing to difficulties in the -organization of the schools, and the not infrequent change of teachers, -it is often desirable for the sake of uniformity of work to make use of -a text-book. It is also convenient, even where these difficulties do not -exist, to have a good text-book to which the teacher may direct the -pupil for a detailed statement of the principles after they have been -developed and exemplified in the reading; that is, to use it as a -reference book. In order that it may be used thus for reference, the -text-book selected should take up the principles of composition and the -forms of discourse in a logical manner, treating each fully and -systematically in a separate division. Text-books of this character can -be used throughout the first two years at least, and some of them are -sufficiently complete to supply all the material needed for four years’ -study of composition. - -It is generally conceded that text-books in rhetoric and composition -have very often been used to poor advantage by having the pupils -memorize the definitions and statements of principles, and by devoting -much of the period set aside for composition to recitation upon the -subject matter of the text book. The principles of rhetoric and -composition, of course, have little value except as the pupil is able to -apply them in his own work or to recognize the application of them in -the work of others. The real test of his knowledge of the subject matter -of the text-book therefore is not made by having him recite what the -book contains, but by requiring him to apply it in his own work and to -perceive examples of it in that of others. - - - - - IV - READING - - - 1. Methods of Teaching - -The purposes already indicated for the reading are “to enable the pupil -to understand the expressed thoughts of others,” “to cultivate an -acquaintance with good literature, and to furnish him with a means of -extending that acquaintance.” It is evident that the only way to teach -the pupil to understand the expressed thoughts of others is to have him -understand each unit of that expression. The meanings of words, -allusions, and figures of speech, as the expressions of the idea, must -be clearly understood. The intelligent use of the dictionary and the -usual books of reference should therefore be taught at the very -beginning of the course of reading. Whenever the origin and history of a -word are helpful for a better understanding of its meaning, these may be -called to the pupil’s attention, and he should be encouraged to observe -in the dictionary the etymology of words as he looks for their meaning. -While the importance of knowing the significance of proper names, -allusions, etc., is to be impressed on the pupil’s mind, the preparation -of the reading lesson must not be allowed to degenerate into a mere -searching for the meaning of all unknown terms in the assignment. Pupils -should be warned against the practice of making a list of all the -unknown words in the lesson and of consulting the dictionary and other -books of reference for information, without considering the context in -which the words are used. - -From the very beginning of the course in reading, the teacher should -make sure that each pupil gets a clear conception of the thought -expressed in each sentence. Without undue emphasis on grammatical -analysis, the pupil should be encouraged to note the form in which the -principal proposition is expressed, and the manner in which it is -modified by the subordinate elements, for it is only by the careful -consideration of the syntactical relations that the pupil can get -accurately the thought expressed. The development of the thought through -a series of sentences constituting a paragraph must be analyzed with -equal care, so that the pupil may see clearly the development of the -thought and the relation of each sentence to the preceding and -succeeding ones and to the paragraph topic. The amount and character of -analysis in each assignment of reading should be carefully determined by -the teacher as he prepares his work for each day, and he must beware of -having the reading lesson become merely a formal analysis of sentence -and paragraph structure, for nothing more effectively kills the pupil’s -interest in reading than too much of this formal analytical drill on -detail. - -Various methods may be used to assist the pupil in grasping the thought -expressed in the literature. In narration, the retelling of the story, -paragraph by paragraph, from memory, will lead the pupils to get the -details of the story in logical groups. In description, the pupils -should be required to visualize the scene, object, or person portrayed -in words. Boys and girls can readily be interested in exercises of this -kind and will respond eagerly when asked to describe the mental pictures -which they obtain from a given piece of description. Sketches on the -blackboard to make clear the position of the details in the description -and other devices tend to emphasize to the pupil the importance of -reading carefully and accurately in order to get the whole thought of -the author. - -After the pupil has been taught to get the thought accurately, the -analysis may be extended to the forms of discourse and the qualities of -style. In short stories, novels, and dramas the analysis of plot, the -delineation of character, and similar consideration of the principles of -narration and description will naturally receive due attention. In -essays and orations the study of corresponding principles of exposition -and argumentation gives the pupil a clearer conception and better -appreciation of the writer’s purpose and the means that he uses to -accomplish it. A study of metre and verse form is necessary for an -appreciation of the poetry read and studied in class. The study of all -these details, designed as it is to help the pupils to understand the -author’s thought, part by part, ought always to lead to a better -understanding and appreciation of the meaning and purpose of the whole. -A study of literature that emphasizes details to such an extent that the -theme and significance of the story, the drama, or the poem, as a whole, -is neglected, fails to bring out the vital element. - -The value of the ideas and ideals which find expression in the -literature must not be overlooked in planning the work in reading. As a -portrayal of life in its various activities, literature presents to the -pupil many types of character and action, and thus gives the boys and -girls a broader view of life than their own experience affords. The -analysis of character, motives, and actions forms an interesting and -valuable part of the study of literature. Since good literature is also -an interpretation or “criticism” of life, it presents life in its true -relations and shows their significance. The author’s interpretation of -life, his judgment upon its various phases, and the emotional coloring -which he gives it, are all to be considered in a manner best adapted to -the maturity and understanding of the pupils. The formative influence -exerted upon the character of the boys and girls by the characters and -actions portrayed in their reading, as well as by the emotional element -of literature is undoubtedly of importance, and by some teachers is -emphasized in all their work. The ideals of conduct presented in good -literature, and the close relation between conduct and the emotions -aroused by the reading, are often factors in the ethical training of the -pupils, but the indirect and unconscious influence of these elements is -generally much more effective than many efforts to teach lessons in -ethics based on literature. - -Since the study of literature involves the consideration of all these -various elements, the result accomplished in reading will depend largely -upon the methods of the teacher in preparing his work for each day’s -reading. Before beginning the reading and study of a piece of literature -with a class, the teacher should make a careful study of the whole, -analyzing and outlining it, so that the relation of each part to the -expression and development of the theme may be clearly determined. With -this outline before him the teacher can plan each day’s reading more -readily and intelligently. Every recitation in reading should be -carefully planned by the teacher in order that each part of the work may -receive emphasis proportionate to its importance and that something -definite may be accomplished toward a better appreciation of the whole. - -Owing to the fact that the study of literature is radically different -from any other subject which the high school pupils pursue, much -attention must be given to teaching them how to read and study a piece -of literature. In assigning the lesson in reading, the teacher should -indicate clearly to the pupils what they are to do, and as far as -possible, how they are to do it. Failure of the pupils to understand -clearly what is desired of them, is the cause of many a poorly prepared -recitation in English. A well planned outline with the important points -to be considered in studying the day’s lesson, or a series of questions -concerning these points, will serve to give direction to the pupils’ -preparation from day to day, and in the end will teach them how to read -and study literature. - -In connection with the reading, pupils should be encouraged to memorize -the whole or parts of many of the pieces of literature studied in class. -In every year of the course the teacher should select passages from the -reading that are worth memorizing, and should urge the pupils to learn -them. To make a task of this memorizing is not desirable, nor is it at -all necessary, for pupils will usually respond willingly to the -teacher’s suggestion as to the value of learning choice selections of -prose and poetry. The value of knowing and being able to quote many of -the finest passages in English and American literature cannot be -overestimated. - - - 2. Reading Aloud - -Some attention should generally be given to reading aloud intelligently. -A part of each recitation may be devoted to giving the pupils practice -in distinct, accurate pronunciation, and in reading with sufficient -expression to interpret the meaning. The teacher can do much toward -showing the pupils how to read by reading to them from time to time, and -then having them read the same selection. The frequent practice of -devoting a considerable part of the recitation period to reading aloud -in class by the pupils without individual correction or helpful -suggestion by the teacher is a waste of time. As few high school pupils, -particularly in the first two years of their course, read sufficiently -well to interpret a piece of literature for their classmates continued -reading aloud in class by the pupils is an uninteresting exercise that -is more likely to decrease than increase the pupils’ interest, pleasure, -or appreciation. If the assignment has been read and studied carefully -by the pupils in preparation for the recitation, the only purpose of -having any portion of it read aloud in class must be to give the pupils -practice in reading clearly, accurately, and intelligently. To be of -value this practice must be systematic and must be regarded as an -exercise in expression. Careful preparation by the pupils including -practice in reading aloud at home, and helpful criticism by the teacher, -are as essential for success in exercises in reading aloud as in other -forms of expression. Since training in reading aloud is neither the -primary nor the secondary aim of the study of literature, the time to be -devoted to these exercises in the class room must necessarily be very -limited. - -As the ability to read well depends in part upon the management of the -voice, some attention may be given from time to time to the fundamental -principles of vocal expression. Occasional instruction in class in -correct breathing, the control of the voice, the position of the vocal -organs in the formation of the different sounds, and the care of the -voice, supplemented by exercises for individual practice, will aid -materially in improving the character of the vocal expression not only -in reading but also in recitation and conversation. - - - 3. Choice of Reading - -To carry out effectively the plan for the correlation of the reading and -composition work, and to provide a well graded course of reading adapted -to the maturity and ability of the pupils, the greatest care must be -exercised in the selection of masterpieces of literature to be read and -studied in class. Beginning with the simple prose narrative in the form -of short stories, tales, and sketches in the first year, the work should -proceed by regular gradations to more difficult types. For the first two -years of the course, during which one-half of the time allotted to -English is devoted to work in composition, the reading should be chosen -with regard to the principles of composition and forms of discourse that -are to be considered, so that a close correlation may be made between -the two elements of the course. In the third year the study of the -history of English literature will determine the order in which the -authors are to be taken up, but the character and maturity of the pupils -must be considered in the choice of authors and selections for reading -and study in class. Again in the fourth year the same elements must -determine the choice. It is impossible to prescribe certain books to be -read in each year, since the character of the pupils in different -schools and in different classes in the same school, makes necessary a -selection of reading adapted to local conditions. - -Although in the number and variety of the books the list of college -entrance requirements in English is now sufficiently large to meet the -needs of the average school, it is not necessary to confine the -selection of material for study in class to this list. On page 50 of -this bulletin is given a list of the selections adapted for reading and -study, together with suggestions as to the years in the course in which -they can be read to the best advantage. - -In selecting editions of the masterpieces for reading in class, the -purpose and methods of the reading should not be forgotten. If the pupil -is to be taught to work out the meaning of unfamiliar words, figures, -and allusions, it is undesirable to give him this information on every -page in the form of foot-notes explanatory of many things that with a -little effort he might find in reference books. Elaborate introductions -in which the structure and style of the masterpiece are fully discussed -are equally undesirable, since they tend to make unnecessary any -original thought or analysis on the part of the pupils. The text of the -masterpiece with a few notes explanatory of unusual difficulties is all -that is necessary in order to carry on successfully the study of any -selection. - - - 4. Library Reading - -Throughout the course in English, the pupils ought to be urged, if not -actually required, to read considerable good literature in addition to -that read and studied in class. A list of standard books as large and as -wide in range of subjects as the library facilities of the school make -possible, should be prepared each year, and the pupils should be -encouraged to read as many of these books as their time permits. Reading -that is done on the pupil’s own initiative is many times more valuable -than that which he does simply because of a formal requirement. If the -plan is followed of requiring that a certain number of books be read, -precaution must be taken against making the outside reading a formal -task rather than a pleasure. The teacher can do much toward interesting -the pupils in the library reading. By reading aloud to the class a -chapter or two of a book, he may lead many of the pupils to read the -whole book. By referring in the class work to the characters, plots, and -other details of the books on the reading list, or by quoting from them, -he will often arouse the pupils’ curiosity and create a desire to read -the books. By considering the tastes and needs of the individual pupils, -he can suggest to each the books most likely to be of the greatest -interest and value. To create and develop the desire to read good -literature outside of the class room, is one of the greatest privileges -of the teacher of English. - -In general the plan of having a written review, outline, or summary of -these books, either as a part of the composition or the reading work, is -to be discouraged. Since the writing of a book review is a difficult -task for a man or woman of broad education, it is too much to expect -that the immature high school pupil will be able to do it with any -degree of intelligence or interest. The fact constantly emphasized by -such a method, that every book which he reads must serve as material for -a book review, a summary, or an examination, often defeats the purpose -of his outside reading, since it tends to create a dislike rather than a -love for reading. The books read by pupils may sometimes be discussed in -class, however, as a means of arousing interest in the outside reading, -and frequently pupils may be led to express their opinions freely, and -spontaneously concerning the books under discussion. If the pupils can -be turned from an oral to a written discussion of the book more or less -spontaneously, there is less danger in having an occasional written -exercise based on the library reading. - - - - - V - FIRST YEAR ENGLISH - - -In outlining the work of the first year, it is assumed that English will -be pursued for five periods a week throughout the year. Of this time -one-half should be devoted to composition, and one-half to reading. -These two phases of the first year English, as has already been -indicated, should be closely correlated, and must, of course, be taught -by the same teacher. By suggesting that one-half of the time be devoted -to each phase of the subject, it is not intended, as has already been -said, that the time should be formally divided. Instead of setting aside -two or three periods a week for composition it is frequently more -satisfactory to devote a portion of each period to a study of the -principles of composition as exemplified in the reading or to a -discussion of subjects for composition, and thus not to interrupt the -continuity of the reading. - -In Wisconsin high schools the present course of study for one course, -generally called the English course, presents one serious difficulty in -connection with first year English; i. e., the arrangement by which -grammar and composition for five periods a week and reading and -composition for five periods a week are required of all pupils in this -course. It is manifestly undesirable for any pupils in the first year to -pursue two courses in English for ten periods a week throughout the -year. This arrangement gives the pupils in this course seven and -one-half periods of composition work during the second semester if the -course in grammar and composition is divided so that grammar is required -in the first semester and composition in the second. It also divides the -composition work between two separate classes, part of the instruction -in composition being given in the course in grammar and composition and -part in the course in reading and composition. Since instruction in the -principles of composition without practice is of little value especially -for the immature pupils in the first year, and since from five to seven -and a half periods is too much time to devote to composition when the -amount of practice that is possible or even desirable is necessarily -limited, the best solution of the problem seems to be to devote the time -to additional reading and not to attempt to give more than two and a -half periods, the amount assigned for other courses, to composition -work. The question of teaching grammar is considered on page 32. - - - 1. Composition - -The object of the first year in composition should be to encourage -pupils to express freely their own ideas and impressions. Fluency of -expression is to be encouraged by every possible means. The most -effective method of developing this free and fluent expression is to -have the pupils write on subjects in which they are most interested. It -is sometimes said that the difficulty in writing themes in the first -year lies in the fact that the pupils have nothing to write about from -their own experience, and that therefore subjects must be drawn largely -from the reading; that is, pupils must reproduce others’ thoughts rather -than express their own. It seems doubtful whether this paucity of ideas -really exists, for it is indeed a stupid girl or boy in the first year -at high school who is not interested in many things in active everyday -life, and who does not talk constantly of these things to schoolmates -and friends. It is doubtless true that the pupil often does not consider -his simple experiences of sufficient importance to be the subjects of -his compositions and must therefore be led by the teacher to see the -possibilities which they contain. It is the duty of the teacher of -composition, as has been said, to familiarize himself with the -surroundings of his pupils, and to interest himself in their various -activities in and out of school. It is only by such sympathy and -interest that he can get his pupils to express themselves freely in -their themes. Experience has shown that the daily life of the individual -pupil, and the varied activities of the school can be made to furnish -practically all of the theme subjects not only for first year -composition, but also for that of the other three years. - -While fluency and spontaneity of expression should be encouraged in -every way possible, the teacher must also insist on accuracy in details -of expression. The common errors in grammar, spelling, capitalization, -punctuation, and other matters of form should be corrected constantly, -and by the end of the first year all such mistakes should be fairly well -eliminated from the average pupil’s work. In connection with the -correction of errors in the themes, the rules of spelling, -capitalization, punctuation, and grammar may be reviewed to advantage -from time to time. - - - 2. English Grammar - -It is not desirable to take up formally the study of English, grammar as -a regular part of first year English. Whenever the plan of devoting a -semester or a term to English grammar has been tried, it has been -conceded that the course has not been very successful. The cause of this -is not far to seek. Since the pupils have been drilled in grammar in the -seventh and eighth grades, a repetition of the subject at the beginning -of the high school course invariably proves distasteful, and it is -extremely difficult if not practically impossible to arouse any interest -in the subject. High school pupils in the first year are too immature to -take up the subject from a point of view materially different from that -from which it was studied in the grades. The work, consequently, is done -in a perfunctory manner, and seems to have little practical result in -the pupils’ written or spoken English. It is the general experience, -nevertheless, that a number of pupils entering the high school are -deficient in their knowledge of the most elementary principles of -English grammar, and that they are therefore somewhat handicapped in -taking up the study of composition. If the present system of promotion -permits some pupils to enter the high school without a sufficient -knowledge of the elements of English grammar to make possible an -intelligent study of high school English, it seems very doubtful whether -the high school course in English should be planned to provide for -pupils whose preparation is deficient. If provision must be made for the -deficient ones, a special class in grammar should be organized for their -benefit, and well-prepared pupils should not be compelled to repeat this -grade work. This special review of grammar for poorly prepared pupils -should not form a part of the regular English work of the first year, -and it may be questioned whether it should be credited for graduation -from high school. For pupils of required preparation the only study of -grammar necessary in the first year may be taken up in connection with -the correction of errors made by the pupils in composition. Syntax must -be studied in connection with the construction of sentences in -composition work. A consideration of the grammatical construction of -sentences required for effective work in reading and composition, with -such review of grammar as is made necessary by the actual errors of the -pupils, will generally be sufficient training in grammar for the first -year. - - - 3. Rhetorical Principles - -The study of rhetorical principles in the first year should be confined -to the consideration of the simpler principles of sentence and paragraph -construction. In connection with the study of grammatical construction -of sentences, the violation of the principles of sentence unity and -sentence coherence in the pupils’ written work will offer opportunity -for enlarging upon the application of these principles. If, in the first -year, pupils can be taught to express simple ideas in sentences the -parts of which are logically connected, much will have been -accomplished. In paragraph construction unity and coherence must also be -emphasized; that is, the pupils should be taught that the paragraph -consists of a series of closely related sentences developing a single -topic. The unity of the paragraph as emphasized by the part of the -definition referring to the single topic, and the principle of -coherence, as brought out by the idea of a series of related sentences, -constitute the important points regarding paragraph construction to be -developed in the first year. - -The simplest principles of narration, such as the choice, order, and -connection of incidents, may be emphasized and developed in the pupils’ -composition work. Examples of the application of these principles will -be noted constantly in the short stories read in class. During the -second semester the elementary principles of description can be -developed from the reading, and pupils can be led to add a descriptive -element to their narrative themes, or even to write short descriptive -themes. After studying the descriptive methods used in the portrayal of -a character or scene in the story read in class, the pupils may very -naturally be encouraged to write descriptions of persons or places with -which they are familiar. The knowledge and application of these -principles of composition, thoroughly mastered, is all the rhetoric that -is necessary for the first year. - - - 4. Theme Writing - -In the first year one or two short themes a week will give sufficient -practice in composition. A short theme should consist of one -well-rounded paragraph of about 150 words. The one-paragraph theme of -this length has several advantages. First, the pupil is taught from the -beginning of his high school composition work to regard the paragraph as -a unit of some length, which may be complete in itself. Second, the -pupil usually has enough ideas for a short theme, and can present them -simply and directly without writing to fill space, as he sometimes must -do when longer themes are required. Third, a teacher can correct these -short single page themes in less time, and yet see clearly the pupil’s -faults, for he is likely to make the characteristic errors as evident in -one page as in three or four. If the teacher has time to correct -carefully two short themes a week, one of these may be prepared outside -the class room, and the other may be written during part of one of the -recitation periods. This plan gives the pupil practice in carefully -prepared written work for the writing of which he has plenty of time, -and also in writing rapidly in class when he has time to prepare but a -single draft of his theme. - -As in all composition work, these themes must be promptly and carefully -corrected by the teacher; and the errors, as has already been pointed -out, should be indicated by signs and abbreviations so that the pupil -may have the benefit of correcting his mistakes. This correction by the -pupil may be done either by rewriting the theme or by revising it and -making corrections neatly between the lines, or in some other convenient -place. In either case, the work should be returned to the teacher so -that he may glance over the original and rewritten forms, or the -original as revised, and may see whether the errors have been corrected -and the changes properly made. - -In the first year the conferences of teacher and pupil on composition -work are of great importance. By talking over the work, the teacher can -do much towards encouraging a pupil who becomes disheartened because of -the difficulties in expressing his ideas in writing. In these -conferences, also, the teacher can learn much concerning the pupil’s -interests and character, and by sympathy and insight can be as helpful -to the excellent pupil as to the mediocre or poor one. - - - 5. Reading - -The selection of suitable masterpieces for reading and study in the -first year must be made with particular care, since the pupils’ attitude -toward the reading and study of literature is often influenced for some -time by their first impressions. As the purpose of the reading is not -only to have the pupils understand what they read by teaching them to -read carefully and accurately, but also to interest them in reading good -literature, it is desirable to begin on material that does not present -too many difficulties. The length of the selection is also an important -element. The piece of literature must not be so long that interest in it -flags or that the pupil can not grasp it in its entirety and study it as -a unit. Short stories, tales, and narrative and descriptive sketches -combine more of the desired elements than other forms of literature. -Prose narratives of this type also make possible the close and effective -correlation of the reading and composition, the importance of which has -already been emphasized. Among the short stories and sketches that have -been used successfully in the first year and that may be taken as -typical are Hawthorne’s “Twice Told Tales”, Irving’s “Rip Van Winkle” -and “Legend of Sleepy Hollow”, Holmes’ “My Hunt After the Captain”, -Warner’s “A-Hunting of the Deer”, Dickens’ “A Christmas Carol”. -Mythology and folk tales have also been tried with considerable success -in the first semester of the first year; the available selections -include Hawthorne’s “Wonder Book”, Church’s “The Story of the Iliad” and -“The Story of the Odyssey”, Peabody’s “Old Greek Folk Stories”, Bryant’s -translations of the “Iliad” and the “Odyssey” and Palmer’s translation -of the “Odyssey”. - -The advantages of using prose for reading and study in the first year in -preference to poetry or the poetical drama, are important ones. In the -first place since it is desirable to teach pupils to get the whole -thought contained in what they read, it is undoubtedly best to begin -with those forms in which ideas are expressed in the usual order, which, -of course, is that of prose rather than that of poetry or the poetical -drama. The training in following and grasping in their entirety the -expressed thoughts of others as they appear in the simplest logical -order of prose should be one of the first aims of the first year -reading. In the second place poetic inversions and figurative -expressions increase so greatly the pupils’ difficulties in -understanding what they read, that at the beginning of the course it -makes too great a task of that which should be a source of interest and -pleasure. To pass over these difficulties and emphasize simply the story -or description in the study of poetry is to encourage the bad habit of -careless, inaccurate reading. If the pupil is taught to understand fully -the prose that he reads in the first year, his progress in reading -poetry in the following years will be much more rapid. These advantages -together with close correlation possible between the study of prose and -the theory and practice of composition should determine the choice of -reading for the first year. - -What has already been said in regard to the reading in general (p. 23) -applies particularly to the first year work. - - - - - VI - SECOND YEAR ENGLISH - - - 1. Composition - -In the second year the composition and the reading which have been begun -in the first year may be continued in about the same proportion, that -is, about one-half of the five periods a week may be devoted to each. -The work should be largely a development and expansion of that of the -first year. In the study of the rhetorical principles the consideration -of sentence construction should be continued, and the principle of -emphasis and its application should be studied. The several types of -sentences, such as long, short, loose, periodic, and balanced, and their -uses should receive considerable attention, and the importance of -variety in sentence structure may be emphasized. In the discussion of -paragraph structure more study may be given to the details of its -construction by developing the importance of the principles of emphasis, -as well as by considering again the principles of unity and coherence. -The methods of developing the paragraph topic will naturally form a part -of the work of paragraph construction, particularly in the second -semester, when the principles of exposition are studied. The application -of the same principles of unity, emphasis, and coherence to the whole -theme, where it consists of a number of paragraphs, may also be -developed, for in the second year it is desirable to have the students -write longer themes, as well as the short ones. - -The forms of discourse, narration and description, studied in the first -year, will also be developed and expanded during the second year, and -more emphasis can be placed upon the several forms of description. From -description the pupil can be led by gradual steps to the study of -exposition, and this subject may be developed as fully as the maturity -of the pupils will permit. It is also possible in some schools to -undertake the elementary forms of argumentation toward the end of the -second year, particularly if there is considerable interest and activity -in the school debating society, but it is not desirable to undertake -much of this work with immature pupils. - -The reading of the second year will also furnish material for a study of -words and figures of speech. In the analysis and writing of description -it is natural to note the effects of different kinds of words, and to -discriminate between the general, colorless term and the specific, -picture-making expression. In description, likewise, the effectiveness -of contrast, or of a comparison in the form of a simile or metaphor may -be pointed out. In exposition emphasis must be given to the importance -of using the exact term to make clear the idea, and to the dependence of -clearness upon this accurate choice and use of words. The use of -comparisons, contrast, and other figures of speech, may also be studied -in relation to exposition. - -In the second year, as in the first, the subjects for composition should -be drawn largely if not entirely, from the pupil’s own experiences. In -narrative and descriptive themes the pupil, after his practice in the -first year, will find little difficulty in choosing the right kind of -subjects. In exposition he can be encouraged to write explanations of -those subjects with which he is thoroughly familiar. Simple -manufacturing processes, the operation of machinery or of mechanical -devices generally, methods of doing any kind of work, directions for -playing games, and many other similar subjects that the pupil -understands thoroughly, furnish excellent material for simpler -expository themes. If argumentation is undertaken, the pupil may be led -to discuss questions constantly arising in connection with the life of -the school and the community, and thus he can obtain most of his -material from his own experiences. - -The plan of having one or two paragraph themes of from 150 to 200 words -each week should be continued throughout the second year. Every month or -six weeks pupils should write a longer theme of from 600 to 800 words, -that is, a theme of four or five paragraphs. Both the short and the long -theme should be promptly and carefully corrected by the teacher and -revised or rewritten by the pupil. In the second year a careful revision -of the corrected themes by the pupils is usually sufficient, but all -themes that can be sufficiently improved to make rewriting worth while, -should be rewritten. - - - 2. Reading - -The general purpose and the character of the reading in the second year -are the same as in the first. During the first part of the year -narrative and descriptive material should be read, and during the second -semester some of the simpler types of essays may be used as a basis of a -study of exposition. As has already been indicated in connection with -the composition, the pupils’ attention should be directed to the use of -words and figures of speech in the masterpieces. The plot and its -development, and the form in which the story is told can be studied in -more detail than in the first year. - -Methods of describing persons and places and of delineating character, -taken up in connection with description, will frequently be exemplified -in the reading. Direction may be given to the study of essays by -considering them as examples of exposition. All this analytical work -ought to be carried on with a view not only to developing inductively or -illustrating the principles of composition which it is desired to have -the pupils apply in their own writing, but also to having the pupils -understand the author’s purpose and the methods which he uses to -accomplish it; that is, to understand fully what they are reading. - -The following may be taken as typical of the character of the reading -best adapted for the purposes outlined: Irving’s “Sketch Book” and -“Tales of the Alhambra”, Poe’s “Gold Bug”, Thoreau’s “The Succession of -Forest Trees”, Burroughs’ “Birds and Bees” and “Sharp Eyes”, Macaulay’s -“Lord Clive” and “Life of Samuel Johnson”, Lincoln’s “Gettysburg -Speech.” If at the end of the first semester the pupils have learned to -read prose of average difficulty, it is often advantageous during the -second semester to study a play of Shakespeare’s, and “Merchant of -Venice” or “Julius Caesar” is well adapted for this purpose. Narrative -poetry such as Tennyson’s “Idylls of the King”, Arnold’s “Sohrab and -Rustum”, Coleridge’s “Ancient Mariner”, or Scott’s “Lady of the Lake” -may also be used successfully during the second semester. - - - - - VII - THIRD YEAR ENGLISH - - - 1. Reading and History of Literature - -The plan for the third year reading provides for a survey of English and -American literature, in which about three-fourths of the time is to be -devoted to English literature, and one-fourth to American literature. In -designating the reading as a study of English and American literature, -it is not intended that the history of literature, as such, should -occupy any considerable portion of the time. It is not desirable to -devote more than one-tenth to one-fifth of the time, that is, from -one-half to one period a week, to text-book work in the history of -literature. The greater part of the time (about four periods a week) -should be spent in the reading of selections from representative -authors. In the study of the history of literature, emphasis should be -placed upon general movements and tendencies in literature, and their -relation to national conditions and ideals. In each period one or two -typical authors should be selected whose works are to be studied in the -class room. Selections from writers contemporary with these authors may -be read by the pupils as library reading. In a course of this kind it is -much more important to have the pupils read the literature than to have -them read about literature. It is also much more important to lead the -pupils to perceive the characteristics of the author in a selection read -in or out of the class room than to have these characteristics called to -their attention by the teacher or by reading criticism. In connection -with the course in the history of literature, a list of books for -outside reading should be prepared, and the pupils should be encouraged -to supplement the class room study by reading other works of the authors -studied in class. It seems desirable to follow as far as possible the -chronological order in the reading done in and out of the class room so -that the pupil may be led to see the development of English and American -literature and the relation of the work of one author to that of those -preceding and succeeding him. - -The detailed study of selections from the most important English and -American authors, is a large task for one year’s work, but experience -has shown that much can be accomplished toward widening the pupils’ -knowledge and appreciation of literature by a course of this kind. After -two years of intensive study of the elements of expression, the average -pupil will be able to comprehend more readily what he reads, and less -time will have to be spent on the details. The selections studied may -also be regarded from a somewhat different point of view from that taken -during the first two years. The piece of literature may be considered in -relation to the author’s personality and the age in which it was -written, as well as in comparison with other literature that has been -read by the pupils. - -In the history of English literature characteristic selections from most -of the following authors should be studied in class: Chaucer, -Shakespeare, Bacon, Milton, Pope, Addison, Goldsmith, Gray, Burns, -Scott, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats, Shelley, Tennyson, Browning, Lamb, -George Eliot, Dickens, and Thackeray. - -In the survey of American literature the same general method should be -followed. As the pupils have generally read considerable of the poetry -of Longfellow, Whittier, Bryant, and Holmes, as well as selections from -the prose of Irving, Hawthorne, and Thoreau, a brief review of these -will be sufficient. The class work should therefore consist largely of -the reading and study of works of authors not previously read in class, -such as the poems and short stories of Poe, essays of Emerson, Lowell, -and Holmes, and novels of Hawthorne and Cooper. - - - 2. Composition - -During the third year about one-fifth of the time, or one period a week, -should be devoted to English composition. One short theme a week, and -one long composition once in six weeks will furnish the necessary -practice in writing. While the narrative and descriptive work of the -first two years may be continued, more emphasis should be placed upon -expository composition, in continuation of the study of exposition begun -in the second semester of the second year. Besides explaining the -various processes and simple mechanical devices with which he is -familiar, the pupil may be encouraged to express his own opinions in -regard to what he reads in literature. If the conditions are favorable, -the kind of elementary argumentation suggested for the second year, may -also be used in theme work. - - - - - VIII - FOURTH YEAR ENGLISH - - - 1. Reading - -In the fourth year about four-fifths of the time should be allotted to -reading and about one-fifth to composition. The time assigned to the -reading may most profitably be devoted to an extensive study of a few -typical examples of the most important forms of literature. The novel, -the drama, the lyric, and the essay, may be taken as the types to be -studied. The maturity of the pupils in the fourth year will make -possible a detailed analysis of the essential elements of these forms, -which cannot be undertaken earlier in the course. By a careful study of -a few of the best examples of each form to be found in English -literature, the pupils not only come to know and appreciate some of the -best literature in our language but are given some canons by which to -judge what they read independently after they leave school. - - - 2. The Novel - -The novel is a convenient form with which to begin the fourth year work. -George Eliot’s “Silas Marner” is one of the novels which lends itself -admirably to intensive study. The kind of novel, the theme, the author’s -point of view, the plot, the characters, the setting, and other -important elements are all to be carefully studied. In the detailed -analysis of plot, the introduction, the situation, the development of -the plot, the secondary plots, the interweaving of principal and -subordinate plots, the means of sustaining interest and suspense, the -climax of the action, the unraveling, the denouement and the probability -and plausibility of action, should receive consideration. The study of -character presented in the novel will include the interaction of plot -and character, the types of character, the grouping of characters, the -methods of delineation, the truth to life, and similar points. It is -also important to consider the novel as the expression of the author’s -personality, of his attitude toward life, and of his interpretation, or -“criticism,” of life. - -Since time will permit of the detailed analysis, in class, of but one -novel, use for comparison may be made of other novels which the pupils -have read or are reading as a part of their library work. Novels of such -different types as Goldsmith’s “Vicar of Wakefield,” Dickens’ “Tale of -Two Cities,” Scott’s “Ivanhoe,” and “Talisman,” Thackeray’s “Henry -Esmond,” Hawthorne’s “House of Seven Gables,” and George Eliot’s -“Romola,” will furnish ample supplementary material. - - - 3. The Drama - -The consideration of plot, character, etc., in the novel will prepare -the way for a similar study of the drama. Shakespeare’s “Macbeth” offers -excellent opportunity for thoughtful study. The important elements in -the technique of dramatic construction may be brought out inductively in -the course of the reading. The indirect and suggestive method of -describing character of the drama will give rise to much discussion, for -pupils will naturally differ in their estimates of the characters as a -result of different interpretations which they give to the words and -actions of the characters. To give a better conception of the drama as -it is to be acted, important scenes may be presented in the class room -by the pupils. The greater appreciation of the drama and dramatic action -which comes from the preparation for an informal presentation of this -kind, makes it well worth undertaking. - -Some attention should also be given to the style and the versification -in so far as these are necessary for a better understanding of the -author’s methods. - - - 4. The Lyric - -The study of lyric poetry, although often difficult alike to teacher and -pupils, should be undertaken during the second semester of the fourth -year. Much of the success will depend upon the character of the lyrics -selected for reading and study. Palgrave’s “Golden Treasury of Songs and -Lyrics,” containing as it does much of the best English poetry of this -type, is the most convenient book to use. While interpretative reading -and the memorizing of these poems often lead to a real appreciation of -their music, and the emotions which they express, a judicious analysis -of metrical structure and poetic expression will result in a better -understanding of the essentials of good poetry. - - - 5. The Essay - -The expository essay, as the most difficult form of literature for high -school pupils, may well be left until the last part of the fourth year. -The analysis of the logical development of the subject of the essay is -of particular value at this stage of the course. The outlining of the -plan of the essay with its divisions into sections, sub-sections, -topics, subtopics, and details is excellent practice. Macaulay’s essays, -Burke’s “Speech on Conciliation,” and Webster’s “First Bunker Hill -Oration” although, of course, the latter two are orations rather than -essays, afford material for this kind of study. Burke’s “Speech on -Conciliation,” although difficult for young pupils, is particularly well -adapted for analysis of logical structure, and may be used to study -methods of exposition and argumentation. - -The elements and qualities of prose style illustrated in the essays -should also be considered. Balance, parallelism, antithesis, hyperbole, -climax, terse and epigrammatic expression, methods of transition and -connection, and similar elements of Macaulay’s style are sufficiently -obvious to be readily recognized by the high school pupil after his -attention has once been called to them. The rhetorical qualities of -Burke’s or Webster’s style are also evident enough to make possible the -study of them by high school pupils. - - - 6. Library Reading - -The library reading for the fourth year can be arranged to supplement -the work done in class. Several standard novels, two or three plays of -Shakespeare, considerable lyric poetry, and a number of essays may be -assigned from time to time so that the library and class room reading -will run parallel. Reference by teacher and pupils to these pieces of -literature by way of comparison with those under consideration, will -lead to a close correlation of these two phases of the reading. - - - 7. Composition - -The fourth year is in some respects the most important for the work in -composition. The ability to write good English fluently, acquired by -most of the pupils from several years of constant practice; the maturity -of the pupils; their larger stock of knowledge and wider experience; and -the possibility of making practical application of their ability to -write in preparing orations and debates, reporting for local newspapers, -or editing the school publications; all tend to make composition a more -attractive and significant subject in the fourth year than it seems to -be at any other period of the course. The emphasis will naturally be -shifted from the mechanical details of expression which necessarily -occupy the greater portion of the time in the earlier years of the -course, to the larger and more interesting problems of expression. The -study of the principles of exposition and argumentation, and of the -development of the theme, as they appear in the plan and outline of the -essay, take on new significance when their application to the writing of -a debate or a commencement oration is made clear. The pupil discovers -that the periodic sentence, parallel construction, climax, and other -rhetorical devices, are effective means that he may use to accomplish -his ends. For those with literary inclinations the study of plot, -characterization, and poetic form and expression furnishes new -inspiration for their own work. The teacher who fails to take advantage -of this new interest in writing for practical purposes, by correlating -it closely with all the English work of the fourth year, is losing the -best opportunity of the course to teach the art of effective expression. - -The amount of written work should be about the same as in the third -year; that is, a weekly theme of about 250 words, or a fortnightly one -of from 400 to 500 words; and a long theme of from 800 to 1200 words at -intervals of six weeks. The subjects chosen for both long and short -themes, in the course of the year should give practice in all the forms -of discourse, narration, description, exposition, and argumentation, -especially in combinations as they are found in the literature that is -read in and out of the class room. The writing of a short story or of a -chapter of a novel proves an interesting form of composition when -fiction is being studied. The consideration of problems of character in -the novels and dramas read and studied, permits pupils to express their -opinions in essay form, while debates on questions growing out of class -room discussions will give practice in argumentation. The preparation of -commencement essays and orations, as has already been suggested, can -readily be made a part of theme writing during the second semester. - - - 8. Writing of Verse - -The writing of verse has frequently been tried in the fourth year, and -has generally proved an interesting and valuable exercise. The reading -of poetry in the third and fourth years makes necessary some study of -metre and verse forms, and with the information thus obtained as a -basis, many pupils, it has been found, can write creditable verse. -Exercises beginning with blank verse, octosyllabic and heroic couplets, -and continuing with the quatrain, the triolet, the rondeau, the -Spenserian stanza, and possibly the sonnet, can be given from time to -time in place of weekly themes and will usually arouse considerable -interest. Efforts to write verse, whether entirely successful or not, -give the pupils a keener feeling for rhyme and rhythm, a better -understanding of metrical forms, and of the nature of poetical -composition; and to that extent should heighten their appreciation of -poetry. - - - - - IX - OUTLINE OF HIGH SCHOOL COURSE IN ENGLISH - - -The following outline is designed to show in general the amount and -character of each part of the English work to be considered in each year -of the course. The order in which the details are arranged in each year -is not intended to be the order in which these parts of the subject are -to be taken up in the class room. - - - First Year - -A. COMPOSITION (one-half of the time). - - I. Grammar, Punctuation, Capitalization. - - 1. Work based on errors in pupils’ written work. - - 2. Occasional review of general principles. - - II. Sentence. - - 1. Grammatical construction. - - 2. Unity. - - 3. Coherence. - - III. Paragraph. - - 1. Length. - - 2. Unity (topic, selection of material). - - 3. Coherence (order, connection). - - IV. Forms of Discourse. - - 1. Narration. - - 2. Description. - - V. Theme Writing. - - At least one and not more than two, one-paragraph themes of from - 150–200 words, every week; to be carefully corrected by teacher and - to be rewritten by pupil. - -B. READING (one-half of the time). - - Short stories and descriptive sketches. - - - Second Year - -A. COMPOSITION (one-half of the time). - - I. Sentence. - - 1. Length (long, medium, short). - - 2. Rhetorical form (loose, periodic, balanced). - - 3. Unity. - - 4. Coherence. - - 5. Emphasis. - - II. Paragraph. - - 1. Unity. - - 2. Coherence (subtopics, order, and connection). - - 3. Emphasis (selection, proportion, position). - - 4. Methods of developing topic. - - III. Whole Composition—Unity, Coherence, Emphasis. - - IV. Words. - - V. Figures of Speech. - - VI. Forms of Discourse. - - 1. Narration. - - 2. Description. - - 3. Exposition. - - VII. Theme Writing. - - At least one and not more than two, one-paragraph themes of from - 150–200 words, every week; and one four or five paragraph theme of - from 600–800 words, every six weeks; both long and short themes to - be carefully corrected by teacher and to be revised or rewritten by - pupil. - -B. READING (one-half). Descriptive and expository essays. - - - Third Year - -A. READING (four-fifths). - - 1. History of English Literature (one-fifth to one-tenth for ¾ of - year). - - 2. History of American Literature (one-fifth to one-tenth for ¼ of - year). - - 3. Study of selections from representative English and American - authors (three-fifths to four-fifths). - -B. COMPOSITION (one-fifth to one-tenth). - - I. Exposition. - - 1. Kinds. - - 2. Methods. - - II. Structure of Whole Composition. - - 1. Unity. - - 2. Coherence (transition, connection). - - 3. Emphasis (proportion, position). - - III. Words, figures of speech, sentences, and paragraphs. - - IV. Theme Writing. - - One short theme not exceeding 500 words every week; and one long - theme of from 700–1000 words every six weeks; to be carefully - corrected by teacher and to be rewritten or revised by pupil. - - - Fourth Year - -A. READING (four-fifths). - - Study of typical examples of the novel, the drama, the lyric, and the - essay. - -B. COMPOSITION (one-fifth). - - I. Narration, Description, and Exposition. - - II. Argumentation. - - Methods. - - III. Words, figures of speech, sentences, paragraphs, and whole - composition. - - IV. Verse writing. - - V. Theme writing. - - One short theme not exceeding 500 words, every week; and one long - theme of from 800–1200 words every eight weeks; to be carefully - corrected by teacher and revised or rewritten by pupil. - - - - - X - LIST OF READINGS FOR FOUR YEARS - - -The following list contains the college entrance requirements in English -for the years 1906 to 1911, and other selections adapted for reading and -study in high school English classes. The Roman numerals following the -titles indicate the year or years of the course herein outlined, in -which the books may most profitably be read: - - Addison’s De Coverley Papers. II, III. - - Addison and Steele’s Spectator. II, III. - - Arnold’s Sohrab and Rustum. II. - - Bacon’s Essays. III. - - Blackmore’s Lorna Doone. IV. - - Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress, Part One. I, III. - - Byron’s The Prisoner of Chillon, and Mazeppa. III. - - Browning’s Cavalier Tunes, The Lost Leader, How They Brought the Good - News from Ghent to Aix, Evelyn Hope, Home Thoughts From Abroad, Home - Thoughts from the Sea, Incident of the French Camp, The Boy and the - Angel, One Word More, Hervé Riel, Pheidippides. III. - - Bryant’s Translation of the Iliad and Odyssey (selections). I, II. - - Burrough’s Birds and Bees, Sharp Eyes, A Bunch of Herbs, etc. I, II. - - Burke’s Conciliation With America. IV. - - Carlyle’s Essay on Burns. III, IV. - - Carlyle’s Heroes and Hero Worship. III, IV. - - Chaucer’s Prologue. III. - - Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner. II, III. - - Cooper’s Last of the Mohicans. II, III. - - De Quincey’s Joan of Arc, and The English Mail Coach. III, IV. - - Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities. II, IV. - - Dickens’ Christmas Carol. I. - - Emerson’s Essays (selected). III, IV. - - Franklin’s Autobiography. I, II, III. - - Mrs. Gaskell’s Cranford. III, IV. - - George Eliot’s Silas Marner. IV. - - Goldsmith’s The Deserted Village. II, III. - - Goldsmith’s The Vicar of Wakefield. II, III. - - Hawthorne’s House of the Seven Gables. II, III. - - Hawthorne’s Twice Told Tales. I. - - Irving’s Life of Goldsmith. II, III. - - Irving’s Tales of a Traveler. I, II. - - Irving’s Alhambra. II. - - Irving’s Sketch Book. I, II. - - Lamb’s Essays of Elia. II, III. - - Lincoln’s Gettysburg Speech, etc. II, IV. - - Longfellow’s The Courtship of Miles Standish. I, II. - - Lowell’s Vision of Sir Launfal. II. - - Macaulay’s Lays of Ancient Rome. II. - - Macaulay’s Essay on Addison. III, IV. - - Macaulay’s Lord Clive. II, IV. - - Macaulay’s Life of Johnson. II, IV. - - Milton’s Lycidas, Comus, L’Allegro, and II Penseroso. III, IV. - - Palgrave’s Golden Treasury (First Series) Books II and III with - special attention to Dryden, Collins, Gray, Cowper, and Burns. III, - IV. - - Palgrave’s Golden Treasury (First Series) Book IV with special - attention to Wordsworth, Keats, and Shelley. III, IV. - - Poe’s Poems. III, IV. - - Poe’s Short Stories. II, III. - - Pope’s The Rape of the Lock. III. - - Pope’s Essay on Man and Essay on Criticism. III. - - Ruskin’s Sesame and Lilies. II, III. - - Scott’s Ivanhoe, Lady of the Lake, and Quentin Durward. II, III. - - Shakespere’s Julius Caesar. II, III. - - Shakespere’s Macbeth. IV. - - Shakespere’s As You Like It, Henry V., Twelfth Night, and Midsummer - Night’s Dream. III. - - Shakespere’s Merchant of Venice. II, III. - - Spenser’s Faerie Queene (selections). III. - - Stevenson’s Treasure Island. I, II. - - Thoreau’s Succession of Forest Trees. I, II. - - Tennyson’s Gareth and Lynette, Lancelot and Elaine, The Passing of - Arthur. II, III. - - Thackeray’s Henry Esmond. IV. - - Warner’s A-Hunting of the Deer. I. - - Washington’s Farewell Address. II, IV. - - Webster’s First Bunker Hill Oration. II, IV. - - - - - XI - OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION AND STYLE - - -The following is a fairly complete outline of the essential elements of -rhetorical theory as applied in composition work and in a study of -structure and style. As such, it is designed primarily for the teacher -who desires to review any part of the subject in preparation for -teaching composition. Many portions may be used in the class room in a -simplified form, to supplement or summarize parts of the text-books in -rhetoric and composition. The books to which references are given are in -general the most convenient and comprehensive manuals for the particular -parts of the subject with which each deals. - - -The references as abbreviated in the outline are as follows: - -(P), Pearson, Principles of Composition. Heath, Boston ($.50). - -(W), Barrett Wendell, English Composition. Scribner, New York. ($1.50). - -(M), Minto, Manual of English Prose Literature. Ginn, New York. ($1.50). - -(C), Cairns, Forms of Discourse. Ginn, New York. ($1.15). - -(BI, BII), Bain, English Composition and Rhetoric, 2 Vols. American Book -Co., New York. ($1.20 a vol.). - - - 1. Whole Composition - - I. SUBJECT. 1. What is it? 2. Is it indicated by title? 3. Is it - stated at the beginning? 4. Is it proportionate to the length of the - composition? P. 11–12. - - II. PURPOSE. 1. What is it? 2. Is it stated? 3. Is it accomplished? - - III. INTEREST. 1. Is it an interesting subject? 2. Is it made - interesting? 3. How is it made interesting? - - IV. KIND OF COMPOSITION. 1. Narration, Description, Exposition, - Argumentation, or Persuasion? 2. A combination of forms? - - V. PLAN. 1. What are the main divisions of the composition? 2. How is - the subject introduced? 3. What are the subdivisions in the body of - the composition? 4. How is the composition concluded? - - VI. TITLE. 1. Accurate? 2. Concise? 3. Attractive? P. 12–13. - - A. UNITY. P. 15–25. W. 155–162. - - 1. Selection of Material. - - _a._ Subject and Purpose? - - _Violations of unity of selection._ - - (1) _False Introduction._ P. 18. - - (2) _Tag Conclusion._ P. 42. - - (3) _Digressions._ P. 20. - - 2. Unity of Expression. - - _a._ Point of View? P. 25. - - _a′._ Point of view evident? P. 25. - - B. COHERENCE. P. 26–33. W. 162–178. - - 1. Arrangement. W. 162–166. - - _a._ Order of parts of composition. P. 26. - - _b._ Arrangement evident? P. 29. - - _c._ Announcement. P. 31. - - _d._ Summary. P. 30. cf. P. 44. - - 2. Connection. W. 173–178. - - _a._ Devices for Transition and Connection. - - (1) Transition words, phrases, and sentences. - - (2) Transition paragraphs. P. 30. - - (3) Repetition. - - (4) Parallel construction. W. 174. - - (5) Retrospective and prospective reference. - - C. EMPHASIS. P. 34–45. W. 166–172. - - 1. Selection of Material. P. 34. - - _a._ Important details chosen? - - 2. Proportion. P. 34. - - _a._ Parts given space proportionate to their importance? - - 3. Arrangement. P. 38–43. - - _a._ Important parts in emphatic positions? - - _a′._ At end. - - _b′._ At beginning. - - _c′._ Summary. - - _d′._ Climax. - - _e′._ Antithesis. - - - 2. Paragraphs - -P. 53–60. W. 114–149. M. 11; 53–55; 89–97; 152. BI, 91–134. - - A. FORM. - - 1. Related Paragraph. - - 2. Independent Paragraph. - - 3. Transition Paragraph. - - 4. Paragraph in Conversation. - - B. LENGTH. W. 121–126. - - 1. Short—100 words or less. - - 2. Medium—100–300 words. - - 3. Long—300 words or more. - - C. UNITY. P. 53–60. W. 122–126. - - I. Topic. - - 1. Definition of Topic (i. e. determination of its limits). - - 2. Division of Topic (i. e. subtopics). - - 3. Topic Sentence. P. 57. W. 124. - - 4. Do first and last sentences give substance of the paragraph? P. - 71–75. W. 128. - - II. Selection of Material. - - 1. Topic and subtopics? - - 2. Point of View? - - _Violations of unity of selection._ - - (1) _False Beginning._ cf. P. 18. - - (2) _Tag Conclusion._ cf. P. 42. - - (3) _Digressions._ P. 56–57. - - III. Unity of Expression (cf. Paragraph Coherence). - - 1. Uniformity of Construction. - - _Violations._ - - (1) _Needless change of voice or tense of verbs._ - - (2) _Needless change of subject of sentences._ - - D. COHERENCE. P. 61–70. W. 133–146. - - I. Arrangement. P. 61–65. BI, 114–120. - - 1. Order of Parts. - - _a._ Related ideas brought together? W. 135. - - 2. Arrangement evident? - - _a._ Subtopic and transition sentences. - - II. Connection. P. 65–70. W. 142–146. BI, 94–108. - - 1. Devices for Coherence. - - _a._ Connective words, phrases, and clauses. - - _b._ Transition sentences. - - _c._ Repetition. - - _d._ Parallel construction. W. 137–142. - - _e._ Retrospective and prospective reference. - - 2. Position of Connectives. W. 144. - - _a._ At beginning of sentences. - - _b._ Imbedded in midst of sentences. - - E. EMPHASIS. P. 71. W. 126–133. BI, 121–134. - - I. Selection of Material. - - 1. Most important parts chosen? cf. P. 34. - - II. Proportion. W. 131. cf. P. 34. - - 1. Parts given space proportionate to their importance? - - III. Arrangement. P. 71–78. W. 126–131. - - 1. Position of parts. - - 2. Position of important parts. - - _a._ At end. - - _b._ At beginning. - - _c._ Climax. - - _d._ Summary. - - _e._ Antithesis. - - F. VARIETY. - - 1. In sentence construction. - - _a._ Grammatical. - - _b._ Rhetorical. - - 2. In sentence beginnings. - - 3. In devices for coherence. - - 4. In devices for emphasis. - - - 3. Sentences - -P. 83–116. W. 76–113. M. 3–11; 50–53; 87–89; 149–152. BI, 55–90. - - A. LENGTH. W. 84; 89–94. M. 7. BI, 84–85. - - I. Short Sentence—15 words or less. - - 1. Use; _e. g._:— - - _a._ Single short sentence. - - _a′._ Topic sentence. - - _b′._ Subtopic sentence. - - _c′._ Conclusion. - - _d′._ Transition sentence. - - _e′._ For emphasis. - - _b._ Series of short sentences; _e. g._:— - - _a′._ Rapidity. - - _b′._ Excitement and suspense. - - _c′._ Abruptness; staccato effect. - - II. Medium Sentence—15–30 words. - - III. Long Sentence—30 words or more. - - 1. Use; _e. g._:— - - _a._ To group minor details. - - _b._ Climax. - - _c._ Rhythmical effect. - - B. CONSTRUCTION. - - I. Grammatical. - - 1. Simple. 2. Complex. 3. Compound. - - II. Rhetorical. - - 1. Loose Sentence. P. 86–89. W. 84–89. BI, 55–63. - - _a._ Effect and use of loose sentence. - - 2. Periodic Sentence. P. 86; 106–112. W. 84–89. M. 4. - - _a._ Means for securing periodic effect. - - _a′._ Essential parts at end of sentence. - - _b′._ Phrases and dependent clauses at beginning. - - _c′._ Use of correlatives. - - _b._ Effect and use of periodic sentences. - - 3. Balanced Sentence. P. 112. W. 95. M. 8. BI, 66–74. - - _a._ Means for securing balanced effect. - - _a′._ Parallelism. - - _b′._ Use of correlatives. - - _b._ Effect and use of balanced sentences; e. g.:— - - _a′._ Antithesis. - - _b′._ Epigrammatic expression. - -C. UNITY. P. 83–93. W. 96–99. M. 10. BI, 85–90. - - I. Unity of Thought. - - _Violations._ - - (1) _Digression._ - - (2) _Separation of parts of thought into independent sentences._ - P. 89–92. - - II. Unity of Expression. (cf. Sentence Coherence). - - 1. Relation of Parts. - - _a._ Grammatical construction evident? - - _b._ Parallelism of construction. P. 102–3. - - _c._ Subordination in predication. P. 86. W. 108–9. - - _d._ Implied predicate (no sentence). - -D. COHERENCE. P. 94–104. W. 105–110. - - I. Order. W. 105–106. - - 1. Collocation accurate? (i.e. words closely related in thought - placed together). - - _a._ Modifiers in accurate relation to modified elements? - - _Violations._ - - (1) _Squinting construction._ - - (2) _Participle in false relation._ - - (3) _Misplaced adverbial modifier._ - - _b._ Reference exact? P. 94–96. - - _Violations._ - - (1) _Ambiguous reference._ - - (2) _No antecedent._ - - (3) _Disagreement._ - - _c._ Correlatives properly placed? P. 100–101. - - _d._ Collocation close? - - _Violation._ - - (1) _Awkward separation of essential parts._ - - II. Construction (i. e. elements similar in significance similar in - form). P. 102–104. - - _a._ Balance. - - _b._ Parallel construction. - - _Violations._ - - (1) _Needless change of voice or tense of verbs._ - - (2) _Needless change of grammatical subject._ - - III. Connection. W. 108–110. - - _a._ Accurate expression of relation of parts by connectives. - - (1) Subordination indicated? (cf. subordination in predication - under sentence unity. P. 86). - - (2) Co-ordination accurately expressed? - -E. EMPHASIS. P. 105–115. W. 99–103. BI, 74–84. - - I. Arrangement of Parts. - - 1. Important parts in emphatic positions? - - _a._ At beginning. - - _b._ At end. - - _c._ In other positions more emphatic. - - 2. Suspense—periodic effect. - - 3. Antithesis—balanced construction. - - 4. Climax. P. 113. - - II. Subordination in Predication, (cf. Sentence Unity. P. 86.) - - - 4. Words - -P. 119–129. W. 50–75. M. 1–3; 49–50; 87; 147–149. BI, 27–54. - - A. VOCABULARY. - - I. Size. - - 1. Actual? - - 2. Relative? W. 50–52. - - II. Range. - - 1. Narrow or wide? (cf. Kinds of words.) - - III. Character. - - 1. General classes of words. - - _a._ Long or short? W. 57–58. - - _b._ Anglo-Saxon or classical? W. 52–57. - - _c._ Common or learned? - - _d._ General or specific? P. 121–129. W. 58–60. - - _e._ Connotative or denotative? W. 71–75. - - 2. Kinds of words. - - _a._ Literary. - - _b._ Scientific. - - _c._ Technical. - - _d._ Colloquial. - - _e._ Cant. - - _f._ Slang. - - _g._ Coined. - - _h._ Archaic. - - _i._ Foreign. - - - 5. Figures of Speech - -M. 11–14; 55–60; 97–104; 152–159. BI, 135–233. - -(See Bradley, Classification of Rhetorical Figures, Modern Language -Notes, Vol. I, pp. 280–284.) - - A. TERM FIGURES (accentuated designation of object of thought). - - I. Figure of Contrast. - - 1. Antithesis. - - II. Figures of Resemblance. - - 1. Simile (resemblance affirmed). - - 2. Metaphor (resemblance assumed). - - 3. Personification (resemblance of inanimate to animate). - - III. Figures of Contiguity and Association. - - 1. Synecdoche (part and whole, genus and species). - - 2. Antonomasia (individual with type of its class). - - 3. Metonymy (sign or symbol, cause and effect). - - 4. Transferred epithet (fancied sympathy or participation). - - B. MODAL FIGURES (accentuated statement of proposition). - - I. Interrogation. - - II. Exclamation. - - III. Apostrophe (absent addressed as if present). - - IV. Vision (absent represented as if present). - - V. Hyperbole (statement stronger than intent). - - VI. Innuendo (statement weaker than intent). - - VII. Irony (statement negatory to intent). - - C. SENTENCE AND PARAGRAPH FIGURES (Co-ordination and gradation of - terms or propositions): - - I. Figures of Co-ordination. - - 1. Balance. - - 2. Parallelism. - - II. Figures of Gradation. - - 1. Climax (ascending series). - - 2. Anticlimax (descending series). - - - 6. Qualities of Style - - A. INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES. M. 15–19; 60–68; 104–109; 159–161. W. - 193–233. BI, 233–257. - - I. Simplicity. Relation to elements of style. - - II. Clearness. Relation to elements of style. - - 1. Perspicuity (general clearness). - - 2. Precision (minute clearness). - - B. EMOTIONAL QUALITIES. M. 19–23; 64–81; 109–115; 162–167. W. 234. - - I. Strength. Relation to elements of style. - - 1. Animation, vivacity, liveliness, rapidity. - - 2. Nerve, vigor, force, energy, fervor. - - 3. Dignity, stateliness, splendor, grandeur, magnificence, - loftiness, sublimity. - - II. Pathos. M. 20. - - III. The Ludicrous. M. 23. BII, 236–279. - - 1. Humor. - - 2. Wit. - - 3. Satire. - - C. AESTHETIC QUALITIES. M. 23–26; 71–72; 115; 167–169. BII, 280–294. - W. 272–307. - - I. Melody (sound or modulation). - - II. Harmony (sound expressive of sense). - - III. Taste. - - - 7. Forms of Discourse - - A. NARRATION. C. 58–112. - - I. Kind. - - 1. Narration without plot. C. 58–67. - - 2. Narration with plot. C. 67–93. - - II. Form. C. 59; 78–88. - - III. Purpose. C. 59; 68. - - IV. Interest. C. 65–68; 69–71. - - V. Methods. - - 1. Number and choice of details. C. 63–64; 89–90. 2. Order of - details. C. 65; 88–89. - - _a._ Beginning. C. 65; 86–88. - - _b._ Development. C. 65–66; 74–78. - - _c._ Culmination. C. 67. - - 3. Diction. C. 66–67; 91. - - B. DESCRIPTION. C. 113–169. - - I. Kind. - - 1. Circumstantial. C. 142. - - 2. Dynamic. C. 143. - - 3. Suggestive. C. 144. - - 4. Objective. C. 148. - - 5. Subjective. C. 149. - - II. Subject. C. 123–142. - - III. Purpose. C. 113; 147. - - IV. Methods. - - 1. Point of view. - - 2. Number and choice of details. C. 147–149. - - 3. Arrangement of details. C. 151. - - 4. Diction. C. 153. - - C. EXPOSITION. C. 170–226. - - I. Kind. - - 1. Subject. - - _a._ Scientific or technical. - - _b._ Popular. - - 2. Treatment. - - _a._ Scientific or technical. - - _b._ Popular. - - II. Form. C. 170; 194–207. - - III. Purpose. C. 170–171. - - IV. Methods for Term. C. 172. - - 1. Definition. C. 172–174. - - _a._ Logical definition. C. 174–178. - - (1) Complete logical definition. - - (2) Incomplete logical definition. C. 182. - - _b._ Incomplete definition. C. 178–186. - - (1) Repetition (synonyms). C. 179. - - (2) Exclusion (what not). - - (3) Comparison. C. 180–182. - - (4) Contrast. C. 180–182. - - (5) Example. C. 179. - - (6) Logical description (particulars and details). C. 185–186. - - 2. Division. C. 186–191. - - _a._ Classification. C. 187–190. - - _b._ Partition. C. 190–191. - - V. Methods for Proposition. C. 191–194. - - 1. Exposition of terms (cf. Methods for term). - - 2. Repetition. - - 3. Obverse. - - 4. Example. - - 5. Analogy. - - - - - XII - BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - 1. The Teaching of English - -A bibliography of some thirty pages consisting of all the important -books, pamphlets, and magazine articles published before 1903, that -treat of the different phases of English work in elementary and -secondary schools is appended to Carpenter, Baker, and Scott’s “The -Teaching of English”, and will be of great assistance to those who -desire material on any part of the work since the references are -classified under such heads as, rhetoric and composition, literature, -grammar, spelling, college entrance requirements, etc. The volumes of -the educational periodicals such as “Education”, “Educational Review”, -“School Review”, etc., that have appeared since 1903, also contain many -articles on English work. The following are the most important books on -the teaching of English in the high school: - - Carpenter, G. R., Baker, F. T., and Scott, F. N. The Teaching of - English, Longmans, Green and Co., New York, 1903. ($1.50). The best - discussion of every phase of English work in elementary and - secondary schools, with excellent bibliographies. - - Chubb, Percival. The Teaching of English, Macmillan, New York, 1902. - ($1.00). A valuable discussion of the aims, ideals, and methods in - teaching English in elementary and secondary schools. - - Hinsdale, B. A. Teaching the Language-Arts: Speech, Reading, - Composition. Appleton, New York, 1896. ($1.00). A comprehensive - treatment of all the elements in the study of language. - - Laurie, S. S. Lectures on Language and Linguistic Method in the - School. 2d edition, revised. Macmillan, New York, 1893. ($1.00). An - excellent presentation of the value, the purposes, and the methods - of language study. - - Report of Committee on Secondary School Studies (The Committee of Ten) - U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, 1893. This report has been - the basis of most of the present courses in English for secondary - schools. - -Other books bearing more or less directly on the teaching of parts of -the English work are: - - Bates, Arlo. Talks on Teaching Literature. Houghton, Mifflin Co. - ($1.50). Practical methods are given for teaching literature in the - high school. - - Bates, Arlo. Talks on the Study of Literature. Houghton, Mifflin Co. - ($1.50). - - Bates, Arlo. Talks on Writing English. First and Second Series. - Houghton, Mifflin Co. ($1.50 a vol.). - - Corson, H. Aims of Literary Study. Macmillan. ($.75). - - Corson, H. Voice and Spiritual Education. Macmillan. ($.75). - - Copeland and Rideout. Freshman English and Theme Correction at Harvard - College. Silver, Burdett & Co. ($1.00). Some of the suggestions for - theme writing and theme correcting can be adapted to high school - composition. - - Palmer, G. H. Self-cultivation in English. Crowell. ($.35). - - - 2. Literature - -The following list contains the standard histories of English and -American literature, the biographical and critical works on some of the -writers to whom especially attention is generally given, and volumes on -the history and development of the various types of literature. - - Brooke, Stopford. English Literature to the Norman Conquest. - Macmillan. ($1.50). A review of Anglo-Saxon literature with - translations of many Anglo-Saxon poems. - - Cook, A. S. and Tinker, C. Translations of Old English Poetry. Ginn. - ($1.00). Translations of parts of Beowulf and of all the important - Anglo-Saxon poems. - - Schofield, W. H. English Literature from the Norman Conquest to - Chaucer. Macmillan. ($1.50). - - Saintsbury, G. History of Elizabethan Literature. (1557–1660). - Macmillan. ($1.50). - - Gosse, E. Eighteenth Century Literature. (1660–1780). Macmillan. - ($1.50). - - Saintsbury, G. History of Nineteenth Century Literature. (1780–1895). - Macmillan. ($1.50). - - Ward, H. English Poets, 4 vols. Macmillan. (Students’ edition $4.00). - Brief biographies, good criticisms, and representative selections of - all the English poets from Chaucer to Tennyson. - - Bronson, W. C. History of American Literature. Heath. ($.90). A good - handbook for American literature. - - Wendell, B. and Greenough, C. N. History of Literature in America. - Scribner. ($1.40.) A good short history of American literature. - - - Pollard, A. W. Chaucer Primer. Macmillan. ($.35). A convenient little - handbook on Chaucer’s life and work. - - Sweet, H. Second Middle English Primer. Oxford Univ. Press. ($.50). A - very good handbook for the pronunciation of Chaucer with a phonetic - transcription of the Prologue to the Canterbury Tales. - - - Dowden, E. Shakespeare Primer. American Book Co. ($.35). A very useful - little manual of Shakespearean criticism. - - Lee, Sidney. Life of Shakespeare. Macmillan. ($1.75). An invaluable - critical analysis of all biographical material relating to - Shakespeare. - - Moulton, R. G. Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist. Oxford Univ. Press. - ($1.90). A detailed consideration of the motives, plots, and - characters of a number of Shakespeare’s plays. - - Symonds, J. A. Shakespeare’s Predecessors in the English Drama. - Scribner. ($2.00). An excellent account of the origin and the - development of the English drama. - - Baker, G. P. The Development of Shakespeare as a Dramatist. Macmillan. - ($1.75). A discussion of the Elizabethan stage, the public, and - other conditions in relation to the development of Shakespeare’s - dramatic art. - - Freytag, G. The Technique of the Drama. Scott, Foresman & Co., - Chicago. ($1.50). A comparative study of drama as a literary form - with considerable discussion of the plays of Shakespeare. - - - Raleigh, W. History of the English Novel. Scribner. ($1.25). An - interesting account of the development of the English novel to - Scott. - - Cross, W. L. The Development of the English Novel. Macmillan. ($1.50.) - A history of English fiction from the Arthurian romance to - Stevenson. - - Perry, Bliss. A Study of Prose Fiction. Houghton, Mifflin Co. ($1.25). - A suggestive discussion of plot, characters, setting and other - elements in the novel and short story, with suggestions for original - work in construction and analysis. - - - Alden, R. M. Specimens of English verse. Holt. ($1.25). A practical - handbook of poetics with numerous selections. - - Gayley, C. M. Classic Myths in English Literature. Ginn. ($1.50). An - excellent collection of Greek, Roman, Norse, and German mythological - stories. - - - 3. Language and Grammar - - Sweet, H. New English Grammar; Vol. I., Phonology and Accidence. - ($2.60). Vol. II. Syntax. ($.90). Oxford Univ. Press. The most - complete logical and historical grammar. - - Emerson, O. F. History of the English Language. Macmillan. ($1.25). - - Greenough and Kittredge. Words and their Ways in English Speech. - Macmillan. ($1.10). An interesting popular account of the origin and - development of language and of changes in the meaning of words. - - Trench, R. C. The Study of Words. Armstrong, N. Y. ($1.00). An - excellent introduction to the study of the development of the - meaning of words. - - - 4. Rhetoric and Composition - - Bain, A. English Composition and Rhetoric. 2 vols. American Book Co. - ($1.20 a vol.). A discussion, with numerous illustrations, of all - the elements and qualities of style in prose and poetry. - - Brewster, W. T. Studies in Structure and Style. Macmillan. ($1.10). An - analysis of the structure and style of seven modern English essays. - - Cairns, W. B. Forms of Discourse. Ginn. ($1.15). A consideration of - the various forms of narration, description, exposition, - argumentation, and persuasion. - - Genung, J. F. Working Principles of Rhetoric. Ginn. ($1.40). A - comprehensive discussion of rhetorical principles. - - Minto, W. Manual of English Prose Literature. Ginn. ($1.50). A - detailed analysis of the styles of Macaulay, De Quincey, and - Carlyle, with briefer discussions of the style of all English prose - writers to the beginning of the nineteenth century. - - Scott, F. N. and Denney, J. V. Paragraph-Writing. Allyn and Bacon. - ($1.00.) An interesting discussion of paragraph structure with many - examples. - - Wendell, Barrett. English Composition. Scribner. ($1.50). A suggestive - explanation of the principles of unity, coherence, and mass or - emphasis. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in - spelling. - 2. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings as printed. - 3. 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