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<body>
<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 69207 ***</div>
<div class="front">
<div class="div1 note transcriberNote"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="main">Transcriber’s Note.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p class="first">This book contains text in Tibetan (<span lang="bo">བོད་<wbr></wbr>སྐད་</span>), Devanagari (<span lang="sa" class="deva">देवनागरी</span>), Arabic (<span lang="ar" class="arab">عَرَبِيّ</span>), Urdu (<span lang="ur" class="aran">اُردُو</span>) and Greek (<span lang="el" class="grek">Ελληνικά</span>). You may need to install additional fonts to properly render those languages. I
suggest to use the following freely available fonts:
</p>
<div class="table">
<table class="xd31e153">
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellTop">Tibetan: </td>
<td class="cellTop">Yagpo Tibetan Uni </td>
<td class="cellRight cellTop"><a id="xd31e160" href="#xd31e160ext">link</a>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Devanagari: </td>
<td>Sanskrit 2003 </td>
<td class="cellRight"><a id="xd31e169" href="#xd31e169ext">link</a>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Arabic: </td>
<td>Scheherazade </td>
<td class="cellRight"><a id="xd31e178" href="#xd31e178ext">link</a>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">Urdu: </td>
<td class="cellBottom">Awami Nastaliq </td>
<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><a id="xd31e187" href="#xd31e187ext">link</a>. </td>
</tr>
</table>
</div><p>
</p>
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</div>
<div class="div1 cover"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divBody">
<p class="first"></p>
<div class="figure cover-imagewidth"><img src="images/frontcover.jpg" alt="Original Front Cover." width="491" height="720"></div><p>
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="titlePage">
<div class="docTitle">
<div class="seriesTitle">TRÜBNER’S COLLECTION <br>OF <br>SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS <br>OF THE PRINCIPAL <br>ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.</div>
</div>
<div class="byline">EDITED BY <br><span class="docAuthor">REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., <span class="sc">Ph.D.</span></span> </div>
<div class="docTitle">
<div class="volumeTitle">VII.</div>
<div class="mainTitle">TIBETAN.</div>
</div>
<div class="byline">BY <span class="docAuthor">H. A. JÄSCHKE.</span></div>
</div>
<p></p>
<div class="div1 advertisement"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="main">TRÜBNER’S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN
LANGUAGES.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p class="first adCenter">EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., <span class="sc">Ph.D.</span>
</p>
<p class="adCenter">I. <br><span class="xlarge">HINDUSTANI, PERSIAN, AND ARABIC.</span> <br><span class="sc">By the late E. H. Palmer</span>, M.A. <br><i>Price</i> 5<i>s.</i>
</p>
<p class="adCenter">II. <br><span class="xlarge">HUNGARIAN.</span> <br><span class="sc">By I. Singer.</span> <br><i>Price</i> 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>
</p>
<p class="adCenter">III. <br><span class="xlarge">BASQUE.</span> <br><span class="sc">By W. Van Eys.</span> <br><i>Price</i> 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>
</p>
<p class="adCenter">IV. <br><span class="xlarge">MALAGASY.</span> <br><span class="sc">By G. W. Parker.</span> <br><i>Price</i> 5<i>s.</i>
</p>
<p class="adCenter">V. <br><span class="xlarge">MODERN GREEK.</span> <br><span class="sc">By E. M. Geldart</span>, M.A. <br><i>Price</i> 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>
</p>
<p class="adCenter">VI. <br><span class="xlarge">ROUMANIAN.</span> <br><span class="sc">By R. Torceanu.</span>
</p>
<p class="adCenter">VII. <br><span class="xlarge">TIBETAN.</span> <br><span class="sc">By H. A. Jäschke.</span>
</p>
<p class="adCenter"><i>Grammars of the following are in preparation:—</i>
</p>
<p class="adCenter">Albanese, Anglo-Saxon, Assyrian, Bohemian, Bulgarian, Burmese, Chinese, Cymric and
Gaelic, Danish, Finnish, Hebrew, Malay, Pali, Polish, Russian, Sanskrit, Serbian,
Siamese, Singhalese, Swedish, Turkish.
</p>
<p class="adCenter large"><span class="sc">London: TRÜBNER & CO., Ludgate Hill.</span>
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="div1 titlepage"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divBody">
<p class="first"></p>
<div class="figure titlepage-imagewidth"><img src="images/titlepage.png" alt="Original Title Page." width="456" height="720"></div><p>
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="titlePage">
<div class="docTitle">
<div class="mainTitle">TIBETAN GRAMMAR</div>
</div>
<div class="byline">BY
<br><span class="docAuthor">H. A. JÄSCHKE</span> <br>MORAVIAN MISSIONARY.
<br>SECOND EDITION
<br>PREPARED BY <br><span class="docAuthor"><span class="sc">Dr.</span> H. WENZEL.</span> </div>
<div class="docImprint">LONDON: <br>TRÜBNER & CO., 57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL. <br><span class="docDate">1883.</span>
<br>[<i>All rights reserved.</i>] </div>
</div>
<p><span class="pageNum" id="pb.v">[<a href="#pb.v">V</a>]</span></p>
<div class="div1 preface"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="main">Preface.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p class="first">The present new edition of Mr. <span class="sc">Jäschke’s</span> Tibetan Grammar scarcely needs a word of apology. As the first edition which was
lithographed at Kyelaṅ in 1865 in a limited number of copies has long been out of
print, Dr. <span class="sc">Rost</span> urged the author to revise his grammar for the purpose of bringing it out in an improved
form. The latter, prevented by ill-health from undertaking the task, placed the matter
in my hands, and had the goodness to make over to me his own manuscript notes and
additions to the original work. Without his personal cooperation, however, I was unable
to make any but a very sparing use of these, adding only a few remarks from Gyalrabs
and Milaraspa, with some further remarks on the local vernacular of Western Tibet.
Indeed, special attention has been paid throughout to this dialect; it is the one
with which the author during his long residence at Kyelaṅ had become most familiar,
and with which the English in India are most likely to be brought into direct contact.
</p>
<p>Besides the above mentioned additions, I have taken a number of examples from the
Dzaṅlun, to make clearer some of the rules, and, with the same view, I have altered,
here and there, the wording of the lithographed edition. <span class="pageNum" id="pb.vi">[<a href="#pb.vi">VI</a>]</span>The order of the paragraphs has been retained throughout, and only one (<a href="#s23">23</a>.) has been added for completeness’ sake.
</p>
<p>The system of transliteration is nearly the same as in the Dictionary, only for <i>ny</i>, <i>ñ</i> is used, and instead of <i>e̱</i>, <i>ä</i> (respectively <i>ā̤</i>) has been thought to be a clearer representation of the sound intended. For the niceties
of pronunciation the reader is referred to the Dictionary, as in this Grammar only
the general rules have been given.
</p>
<p>Finally I must express my warmest thanks to Dr. <span class="sc">Rost</span>, to whose exertions not only the printing of this Grammar is solely due, but who
also rendered me much help in the correcting of the work.
</p>
<p class="dateline"><span class="ex">Mayence</span>, May 1883.
</p>
<p class="signed"><span class="sc">H. Wenzel.</span>
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="div1 abbreviations"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="main">Abbreviations.</h2>
<table class="splitListTable">
<tr>
<td>
<ul>
<li>act. = active. </li>
<li>C or CT = Central Tibet, especially the provinces of Ü and Tsaṅ. </li>
<li>cf. = confer, compare. </li>
<li>Dzl. = Dzaṅlun. </li>
<li>e.g. = exempli gratia, for instance. </li>
<li>ET = East Tibet. </li>
<li>fut. = future. </li>
<li>imp. = imperative. </li>
<li>inf. = infinitive. </li>
<li><abbr title="instead of">i.o.</abbr> = instead of. </li>
<li>Köpp. = Köppen. </li>
<li>Kun. = Kunawur, province under English protection. </li>
</ul>
</td>
<td>
<ul>
<li>Ld. = Ladak, province. </li>
<li>Mil. = Milaraspa. </li>
<li>neutr. = neuter verb. </li>
<li>perf. or pf. = perfect. </li>
<li>pres. = present. </li>
<li>s. = see. </li>
<li>term. = terminative case. </li>
<li>Thgy. = Thar-gyan, scientific treatises. </li>
<li>v. = vide, see. </li>
<li>vulg. = vulgar expression. </li>
<li>W or WT = Western Tibet. </li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><span class="pageNum" id="pb.vii">[<a href="#pb.vii">VII</a>]</span></p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="toc" class="div1 contents"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="main">Contents.</h2>
<table class="tocList">
<tr>
<td class="tocDivNum">I.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"> <a href="#pt1">Phonology</a>.
</td>
<td class="tocPageNum"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tocDivNum"></td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">
</td>
<td class="tocPageNum">Page</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">1.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s1">Alphabet</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">2.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s2">Remarks</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">3.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s3">Vowels</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">4.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s4">Syllables</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">5.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s5">Final Consonants</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">6.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s6">Diphthongs</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">7.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s7">Compound Consonants</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">7</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">8.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s8">Prefixed Letters</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">11</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">9.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s9">Word; Accent; Quantity</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">12</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">10.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s10">Punctuation</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">14</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tocDivNum">II.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"> <a href="#pt2">Etymology</a>.
</td>
<td class="tocPageNum"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">I.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#ch2.1" id="xd31e594">Article</a>.
</td>
<td class="tocPageNum"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">11.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s11">Peculiarities of the Tibetan Article</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">17</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">12.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s12">Difference of the Articles</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">18</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">13.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s13">The Indefinite Article</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">19</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">II.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#ch2.2" id="xd31e633">Substantive</a>.
</td>
<td class="tocPageNum"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">14.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s14">Number</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">20</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">15.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s15">Declension</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">21</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">III.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#ch2.3" id="xd31e662">Adjective</a>.
</td>
<td class="tocPageNum"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">16.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s16">Relation to the Substantive</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">25</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">17.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s17">Comparison</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">26</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">IV.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#ch2.4" id="xd31e691">Numerals</a>.
<span class="pageNum" id="pb.viii">[<a href="#pb.viii">VIII</a>]</span></td>
<td class="tocPageNum"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">18.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s18">Cardinal numerals</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">28</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">19.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s19">Ordinal numerals</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">31</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">20.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s20">Remarks</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">31</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">21.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s21">Distributive numerals</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">33</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">22.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s22">Adverbial numerals</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">33</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">23.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s23">Fractional numerals</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">33</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">V.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#ch2.5" id="xd31e761">Pronouns</a>.
</td>
<td class="tocPageNum"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">24.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s24">Personal pronouns</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">34</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">25.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s25">Possessive pronouns</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">36</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">26.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s26">Reflective pronouns</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">37</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">27.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s27">Demonstrative pronouns</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">37</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">28.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s28">Interrogative pronouns</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">38</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">29.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s29">Relative pronouns</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">38</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">VI.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#ch2.6" id="xd31e830">Verb</a>.
</td>
<td class="tocPageNum"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">30.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s30">Introduction</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">40</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">31.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s31">Inflection</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">41</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">32.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s32">Infinitive</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">42</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">33.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s33">Participle</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">43</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">34.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s34">Finite Verb</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">45</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">35.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s35">Present</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">46</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">36.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s36">Preterit</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">47</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">37.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s37">Future</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">48</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">38.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s38">Imperative</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">49</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">39.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s39">Intensive</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">50</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">40.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s40">Substantive Verbs</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">51</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">41.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s41">Gerunds and Supines</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">54</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">42.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#ch2.7" id="xd31e959">VII. <span class="ex">Adverb</span></a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">65</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">43.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#ch2.8" id="xd31e971">VIII. <span class="ex">Postposition</span></a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">67</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">44.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#ch2.9" id="xd31e983">IX. <span class="ex">Conjunction</span></a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">74</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">45.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#ch2.10" id="xd31e995">X. <span class="ex">Interjection</span></a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">76</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum"></td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#ch2.11" id="xd31e1005">XI. <span class="ex">Derivation</span></a>: </td>
<td class="tocPageNum"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">46.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s46">Derivation of Substantives</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">77</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">47.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s47">Derivation of Adjectives</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">78</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tocDivNum">III.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"> <a href="#pt3">Syntax</a>.
</td>
<td class="tocPageNum"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">48.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s48">Arrangement of Words</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">80</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">49.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s49">Use of the Cases</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">81</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">50.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s50">Simple Sentences</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">82</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum">51.</td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s51">Compound Sentences</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">83</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tocDivNum"></td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#app" id="xd31e1082">Appendix</a>.
</td>
<td class="tocPageNum"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum"></td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"><a href="#phrases" id="xd31e1087">Phrases</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">86</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum"></td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"><a href="#exercise" id="xd31e1094">Reading Exercise</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">92</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td class="tocDivNum"></td>
<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"><a href="#verbs" id="xd31e1101">Verbs</a> </td>
<td class="tocPageNum">99</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="div1 last-child errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="main">Errata.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p class="first transcriberNote">The corrections listed below have been applied to the text.
</p>
<p></p>
<div class="table">
<table class="tblerrata">
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellTop"><span class="seg">Page</span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellTop"> 3, </td>
<td class="cellTop"><span class="seg">line</span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellTop">13 </td>
<td class="cellTop"><span class="seg">read</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight cellTop"><span class="ex">at</span> instead of in. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 4, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 2 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">respectively</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 4, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 7 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">which</span> instead of whom. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 4, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 9 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">under</span> particular. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 4, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">14 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="ar" class="arab">همزة</span> instead of <span lang="ar" class="arab">همرنة</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 4, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">20 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">exertion</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 4, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">21 </td>
<td>dele </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">to</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 5, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 5 </td>
<td>dele </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">down</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 7, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 4 </td>
<td>read </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">succession</span> instead of conjunction. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 7, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 5 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">each</span> instead of either. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 7, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">11 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">subscribed</span> instead of subjoined. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 8, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">11 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">foot</span> for food. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 8, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">12 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">subscribed</span> for subjoined. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 8, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">16 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">homonyms</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 8, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">19 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">language</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 8, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">23 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">over</span> instead of above. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 8, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">24 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">consonants</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 9, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">10 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">case</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">10, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 4 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">judgment</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">11, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 9 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">except</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">12, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">21 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">it</span> instead of is. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">13, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 1 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight">which serve <span class="ex">to denote</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">13, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 7 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">preceding</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">14, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 6 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">exclamation</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">20, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 3 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">indiscriminately</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">20, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 5 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">superseded</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">20, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">19 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">But</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">21, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 5 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">adds</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">23, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 1 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">motion</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">26, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">13 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">terminations</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">26, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"><span class="corr" id="xd31e1767" title="Source: 24">20</span> </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">precedes</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"><span class="corr" id="xd31e1784" title="Source: 26">27</span>, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"><span class="corr" id="xd31e1792" title="Source: 27">3</span> </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight">higher <span class="ex">than</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">33, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 6 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">to</span> denote. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">34, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">14 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">letter-writing</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">36, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 1 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight">The <span class="ex">terms</span> most &c. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">36, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">16 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight">high person <span class="ex">speaking of himself</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">38, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">11 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">ghaṅ</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">39, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">14 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight">you <span class="ex">may</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">40, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 7 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">verbs</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">40, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">21 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">an</span> Accusative. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">40, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">25 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex"><span class="corr" id="xd31e1995" title="Source: neutre">neuter</span></span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">41, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">10 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">form</span> instead of shape. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">41, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">11 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">forms</span> instead of shapes. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">41, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">22 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight">the Perfect <span class="ex">prefers</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">42, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 1 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">Perfect</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">42, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">16 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">recognises</span> instead of acknowledges. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">43, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">20 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">idea</span> instead of notion. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">45, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">14 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight">with <span class="ex">the</span> exception. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">46, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 6 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">which will always be</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">46, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">10 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">to</span> one. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">52, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">15 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight">it <span class="ex">expresses</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">53, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">11 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">found</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">53, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">24 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight">passive <span class="ex">sense, opposed</span> to &c. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">55, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 7 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight">affixes. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">58, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">12 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight">that <span class="ex">it</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">61, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">12 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">king’s</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117">64, </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117"> 8 </td>
<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">intended</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellBottom">66, </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellBottom">15 </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td>
<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">རབ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> ‘<span class="ex">principally</span>, very’; </td>
</tr>
</table>
</div><p>
<span class="pageNum" id="pb1">[<a href="#pb1">1</a>]</span> </p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="body">
<div id="pt1" class="div0 part">
<h2 class="label">Part I.</h2>
<h2 class="main">Phonology.</h2>
<p id="s1" class="first"><b>1. The Alphabet.</b> The Tibetan Alphabet was adapted from the <i>Lañc̀ʽa</i> (<span lang="bo">ལཱཉ་<wbr></wbr>ཚ</span>) form of the Indian letters by <i lang="bo-latn">Tʽon-mi-sam-bho-ta</i> (<span lang="bo">ཐོན་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>སམ་<wbr></wbr>བྷོ་<wbr></wbr>ཏ</span>) minister of king <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="corr" id="xd31e2386" title="Source: S̀ron-tsan-gam-po">Sroṅ-tsan-gam-po</span></i> (<span lang="bo">སྲོང་<wbr></wbr>བཙན་<wbr></wbr>སྒམ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>) about the year 632 (s. Köpp. II, 56). The Indian letters out of which the single
Tibetan characters were formed are given in the following table in their Nāgari shape.
</p>
<p></p>
<div class="table">
<table class="border-collapse">
<thead>
<tr class="label">
<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan xd31e2396 cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">surd. </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan xd31e2396 cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">aspir. </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan xd31e2396 cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">sonant. </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan xd31e2396 cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">nasal. </td>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">gutturals. </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཀ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">क</span> </td>
<td><i>ka</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཁ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">ख</span> </td>
<td><i>kʽa</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ག་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">ग</span> </td>
<td><i>ga</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ང་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">ङ</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i>ṅa</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">palatals. </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཅ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">च</span> </td>
<td><i>c̀a</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཆ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">छ</span> </td>
<td><i>c̀ʽa</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཇ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">ज</span> </td>
<td><i>j̀a</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཉ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">ञ</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i>ña</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">dentals. </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཏ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">त</span> </td>
<td><i>ta</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཐ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">थ</span> </td>
<td><i>tʽa</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ད་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">द</span> </td>
<td><i>da</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ན་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">न</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i>na</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">labials. </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">प</span> </td>
<td><i>pa</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཕ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">फ</span> </td>
<td><i>pʽa</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">ब</span> </td>
<td><i>ba</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">མ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">म</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i>ma</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">palatal sibilants. </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཙ་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><i>tsa</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཚ་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><i>tʽsa</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཛ་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><i>dsa</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight">
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3" class="rowspan cellLeft cellBottom">semivowels </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཝ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">व</span> </td>
<td><i>wa</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཞ་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><i>z̀a</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཟ་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><i>za</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">འ་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i>˱a</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཡ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">य</span> </td>
<td><i>ya</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ར་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">र</span> </td>
<td><i>ra</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ལ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">ल</span> </td>
<td><i>la</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e2396 cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ཤ་</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="sa" class="deva">श</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><i>s̀a</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396 cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ས་</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="sa" class="deva">स</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><i>sa</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396 cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ཧ་</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="sa" class="deva">ह</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><i>ha</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e2396 cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ཨ་</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><i>’a</i> </td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div><p>
<span class="pageNum" id="pb2">[<a href="#pb2">2</a>]</span></p>
<p>It is seen from this table that several signs have been added to express sounds that
are unknown in Sanscrit. The sibilants <span lang="bo">ཙ་ ཚ་ ཛ་</span> evidently were differentiated from the palatals. But as in transcribing Sanscrit
words the Tibetans substitute their sibilants for the palatals of the original (as
<span lang="bo">ཙི་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> for <span lang="sa" class="deva">चीन</span>), we must suppose that the sibilisation of those consonants, common at present among
the Hindus on the Southern slopes of the Himālaya (who <span class="corr" id="xd31e2789" title="Source: speak">say</span> <i>tsār</i> for <span lang="hi" class="deva">चार</span>, four etc.), was in general use with those Indians from whom the Tib. Alphabet was
taken (cf. also the Afghan <span lang="ar" class="arab">څ</span> and <span lang="ar" class="arab">ڂ</span> likewise sprung from <span lang="ar" class="arab">چ</span> and <span lang="ar" class="arab">ج</span>). <span lang="bo">ཝ་</span> is differentiated from <span lang="bo">བ་</span>, which itself often is pronounced <i>v</i>, as shewn in the sequel; in transcribing Sanscrit, <span lang="sa" class="deva">ब</span> and <span lang="sa" class="deva">व</span> both are given, generally, by <span lang="bo">བ</span> only. <span lang="bo">ཞ་</span> seems to be formed out of <span lang="bo">ཤ་</span> to which it is related in sound. <span lang="bo">ཟ་</span> evidently is only the inverted <span lang="bo">ཇ་</span>. <span lang="bo">ཨ་</span> corresponds with Sanscrit <span lang="sa" class="deva">अ</span>. <span lang="bo">འ་</span> is newly invented; for its functions see the following §§.—The letters which are
peculiar to Sanscrit are expressed, in transcribing, in the following manner. <i>a</i>) The linguals, simply by inverting the signs of the dentals: thus, <span lang="bo">ཊ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">ट</span>, <span lang="bo">ཋ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">ठ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཌ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">ड</span>, <span lang="bo">ཎ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">ण</span>. <i>b</i>) The sonant aspirates, by putting <span lang="bo">ཧ་</span> under the sonants: thus, <span lang="bo">གྷ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">घ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཛྷ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">झ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཊྷ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">ढ</span>, <span lang="bo">དྷ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">ध</span>, <span lang="bo">བྷ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">भ</span>.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2915src" href="#xd31e2915">1</a>
<span class="pageNum" id="pb3">[<a href="#pb3">3</a>]</span></p>
<p id="s2"><b>2. Remarks.</b> <span>1.</span> Regarding the pronunciation of the single letters, as given above, it is to be born
in mind, that surds <span lang="bo">ཀ་ ཏ་ པ་</span> are uttered without the least admixture of an aspiration, viz. as <i>k</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>p</i> are pronounced in the words <i>skate</i>, <i>stale</i>, <i>spear</i>; the aspirates <span lang="bo">ཁ་ ཐ་ ཕ་</span> forcibly, rather harder than the same in <i>Kate</i>, <i>tale</i>, <i>peer</i>; the sonants <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ བ་</span> like <i>g</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>b</i> in <i>gate</i>, <i>dale</i>, <i>beer</i>. <span>2.</span> The same difference of hardness is to be observed in <span lang="bo">ཅ་ ཆ་ ཇ་</span> or <i>c̀</i>, <i>c̀ʽ</i>, <i>j̀</i> (<i>c̀ʽ</i> occurs in <i>church</i>; <i>c̀</i>, the same without aspiration; <i>j̀</i> in <i>judge</i>) and in <span lang="bo">ཙ་ ཚ་ ཛ་</span> or <i>ts</i>, <i>tʽs</i>, <i>ds</i>. <span>3.</span> <span lang="bo">ཞ་</span> is the soft modification of <i>s̀</i> or the <i>s</i> in <i>leisure</i> (French <i>j</i> in <i lang="fr">jamais</i>, but more palatal). <span>4.</span> <span lang="bo">ང་</span> is the English <i>ng</i> in <i>sing</i>, but occurs in Tibetan often <span class="corr" id="xd31e3035" title="Corrected by author from: in">at</span> the commencement of a syllable. <span>5.</span> <span lang="bo">ཉ་</span> <i>ñ</i> is the Hindi <span lang="sa" class="deva">न्य</span>, or the initial sound in the word <i>new</i>, which would be spelled <span lang="bo">ཉུ་</span> <i>ñu</i>. <span id="s2.6">6.</span> In the dialects of Eastern or Chinese-Tibet, however, the soft consonants <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ བ་ ཇ་ ཛ་</span>, when occurring as initials, are pronounced with an aspiration, similar to the Hindi
<span lang="sa" class="deva">घ</span>, <span lang="sa" class="deva">ध</span>, <span lang="sa" class="deva">भ</span>, <span lang="sa" class="deva">झ</span>, or indeed so that they often scarcely differ from the common English <i>k</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>p</i>, <i>ch</i>; also <span lang="bo">ཞ་</span> and <span lang="bo">ཟ་</span> are more difficult to distinguish from <span lang="bo">ཤ་</span> and <span lang="bo">ས་</span> than in the Western provinces (Exceptions s. §§ <a href="#s7.8">7. 8</a>).
</p>
<p id="s3"><b>3. Vowels.</b> <span>1.</span> Since every consonant sign implies, like its Sanscrit prototype, a following <i>a</i>, unless some other vowel sign is attached to it, no particular sign is wanted to
denote this vowel, except in some cases specified in the <span class="pageNum" id="pb4">[<a href="#pb4">4</a>]</span>following §§. The special vowel signs are <span lang="bo"> ེ</span>, <span lang="bo"> ི</span>, <span lang="bo"> ོ</span>, <span lang="bo"> ུ</span>, pronounced <span class="corr" id="xd31e3125" title="Corrected by author from: respectivily">respectively</span> as <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i> are in German, Italian and most other European languages, viz. <span lang="bo"> ེ</span> like <i>ay</i> in <i>say</i>, or <i>e</i> in <i>ten</i>; <span lang="bo"> ི</span> like <i>i</i> in <i>machine</i>, <i>tin</i>; <span lang="bo"> ོ</span> like <i>o</i> in <i>so</i>, <i>on</i>; <span lang="bo"> ུ</span> like <i>u</i> in <i>rule</i>, <i>pull</i>. It ought to be specially remarked that all vowels, including <i>e</i> and <i>o</i> (unlike the Sanscrit vowels from <span class="corr" id="xd31e3182" title="Corrected by author from: whom">which</span> they have taken their signs) are short, since no long vowels at all occur in the
Tibetan language, except <span class="corr" id="xd31e3185" title="Added by author">under </span>particular circumstances, mentioned below (s. § <a href="#s9.5">9. 5</a>, 6 ). <span>2.</span> When vowels are initial, <span lang="bo">ཨ</span> is used as their base, as is <span lang="ur" class="aran">ا</span> in Urdu, e.g. <span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ama</i>, ‘mother’. <span id="s3.3">3.</span> <span lang="bo">འ</span> is originally different from <span lang="bo">ཨ་</span>, as the latter denotes the opening of the previously closed throat for pronouncing
a vowel with that slight explosive sound which the Arabs mean by <span lang="ar" class="arab">أ</span> (<span lang="ar" class="arab"><span class="corr" id="xd31e3224" title="Corrected by author from: همرنة">همزة</span></span>), as the <i>a</i> in the words: the <i>lily, an</i> endogen, which would be in Tibetan characters <span lang="bo">ལི་<wbr></wbr>ལི་<wbr></wbr>ཨན་</span>; <span lang="bo">འ་</span> on the contrary is the mere vowel <i>without</i> that audible opening of the throat (as Arabic <span lang="ar" class="arab">ا</span> without <span lang="ar" class="arab">ء</span>), as in <i>Lilian</i>, <span lang="bo">ལི་<wbr></wbr>ལི་<wbr></wbr>འན་</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> In Eastern Tibet this difference is strictly observed; and if the vowel is <i>o</i> or <i>u</i> the intentional <span class="corr" id="xd31e3259" title="Corrected by author from: exercion">exertion</span> for avoiding the sound of <span lang="bo">ཨ་</span> makes it resemble <span id="xd31e3266"></span><i>wo</i> and <i>wu</i>: <span lang="bo">འོ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> ‘the milk’, almost like <i>wo-ma</i>, <span lang="bo">འུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘the owl’ = <i>wug-pa</i>. In western Tibet this has been obliterated, and <span lang="bo">འ་</span> is there spoken just like <span lang="bo">ཨ་</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>
</p>
<p id="s4"><b>4. Syllables.</b> The Tibetan language is monosyllabic, that is to say all its words consist of one
syllable only, which indeed may be variously composed, though the <span class="pageNum" id="pb5">[<a href="#pb5">5</a>]</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e3294" title="Source: componend">component</span> parts cannot, in every case, be recognised in their individuality. The mark for the
end of such a syllable is a dot, called <span lang="bo">ཚེག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽseg</i>, put at the right side of the upper part of the closing letter, such as <span lang="bo">ཀ་</span> the syllable <i>ka</i>. This <i lang="bo-latn">tʽseg</i> must invariably be put <span id="xd31e3312"></span>at the end of <i>each</i> written syllable, except before a <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ad</i> (§ <a href="#s10">10</a>), in which case only <span lang="bo">ང་</span> <i>ṅa</i> retains its <i lang="bo-latn">tʽseg</i>. If therefore such a dot is found after two or more consonants, this will indicate
that all of them, some way or other, form <i>one</i> syllable with only <i>one</i> vowel in it: <span lang="bo">ཀ་<wbr></wbr>ར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ka-ra</i>, <span lang="bo">ཀར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kar</i> (cf. §§ 5. 8 ).
</p>
<p id="s5"><b>5. Final consonants.</b> <span>1.</span> Only the following ten: <span lang="bo">ག་ ང་ ཏ་ ན་ བ་ མ་ འ་ ར་ ལ་ ས་</span> (and the four with affixed <span lang="bo">ས</span>, v. 5) occur at the end of a syllable. <span>2.</span> It must be observed, that <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ བ་</span> as finals are never pronounced like the English <i>g</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>b</i> in <i>leg</i>, <i>bad</i>, <i>cab</i>, but are transformed differently in the different provinces. In Ladak they sound
like <i>k</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>p</i> e.g. <span lang="bo">སོག་</span> = <i>sock</i>, <span lang="bo">གོད་</span> = <i>got</i>, <span lang="bo">ཐོབ་</span> = <i>top</i>. <span>3.</span> In all Central Tibet, moreover, final <span lang="bo">ད་</span> and <span lang="bo">ན་</span>, sometimes even <span lang="bo">ལ་</span>, modify the sound of a <span class="corr" id="xd31e3419" title="Source: preceeding">preceding</span> vowel: <i>a</i> to <i>ä</i> (similar to the English <i>a</i> in <i>hare</i>, <i>man</i>), <i>o</i> into <i>o̤</i> (French <i>eu</i> in <i lang="fr">jeu</i>), <i>u</i> into <i>ṳ</i> (French <i>u</i> in <i lang="fr">mur</i>). In most of the other provinces <span lang="bo">ག་</span> and <span lang="bo">ད་</span> are uttered so indistinctly as to be scarcely audible, so that <span lang="bo">སོག་</span>, <span lang="bo">གོད་</span> become <i lang="bo-latn">sŏʼ</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gŏʼ</i>. In Tsang even final <span lang="bo">ལ་</span> is scarcely perceptible, and final <span lang="bo">ག་</span>, particularly after <i>o</i>, is almost dissolved into a vowel sound = a: <span lang="bo">སོལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i>so-wa</i>, <span class="pageNum" id="pb6">[<a href="#pb6">6</a>]</span><span lang="bo">དཀོན་<wbr></wbr>མཆོག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kon-choa</i>.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3492src" href="#xd31e3492">2</a> <span id="s5.4">4.</span> Final <span lang="bo">ས་</span> is sounded as <i>s</i> only in Northern Ladak; elsewhere it changes into <i>i</i> or <span class="corr" id="xd31e3506" title="Source: dissappears">disappears</span> entirely, prolonging, or even modifying at the same time the preceding vowel. Thus
the following words: <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> ‘barley’, <span lang="bo">ཤེས་</span> ‘know’, <span lang="bo">རིས་</span> ‘figure’, <span lang="bo">ཆོས་</span> ‘religion’, <span lang="bo">ལུས་</span> ‘body’, are pronounced in Northern Ladak: <i lang="bo-latn">năs</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ĕs</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">ris</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽos</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lŭs</i>; in Lahoul: <i lang="bo-latn">nai</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">shei</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">rī</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽō</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lū</i>; in Lhasa, and consequently by everyone who wishes to speak elegantly: <i lang="bo-latn">nā̤</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ē</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">rī</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽō̤</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄</i>. <span id="s5.5">5.</span> In some words final <span lang="bo">ས་</span> occurs as a <span class="ex">second</span> closing letter (affix), after <span lang="bo">ག་ ང་ བ་ མ་</span>, as in <span lang="bo">ནགས་</span> ‘forest’, <span lang="bo">གངས་</span> ‘glacier-ice’, <span lang="bo">ཐབས་</span> ‘means’, <span lang="bo">རམས་</span> ‘indigo’; these are pronounced in N. Ladak: <i lang="bo-latn">nacks</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gaṅs</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">tʽaps</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">rams</i>, elsewhere <i lang="bo-latn">nack</i> (in Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">nā</i>), <i lang="bo-latn">gaṅ</i> (ET <i lang="bo-latn">ghang</i>), <i lang="bo-latn">tʽap</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">ram</i>. <span>6.</span> <span lang="bo">ན་</span> before <span lang="bo">པ་</span> and <span lang="bo">མ་</span> is especially in ET very often pronounced <i>m</i>, e.g. <span lang="bo">ཉན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñäm-pa</i>, <span lang="bo">ཉོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñöm-pa</i>, <span class="corr" id="xd31e3657" title="Source: སྙེམ་པ་"><span lang="bo">སྙེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span></span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñem-pa</i>.
</p>
<p id="s6"><b>6. <span class="corr" id="xd31e3671" title="Source: Dipthongs">Diphthongs</span>.</b> <span>1.</span> They occur in Tibetan writing only where one of the vowels <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i> have to be added to a word ending with an other vowel (s. §§ <a href="#s15.1">15. 1</a>; <a href="#s33.1">33. 1</a>; 45. 2 ). These additional vowels are then always written <span lang="bo">འི་</span>, <span lang="bo">འོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">འུ་</span>, never <span lang="bo">ཨི་</span> etc. (cf. § <a href="#s3.3">3. 3</a>); and the combinations <i>ai</i>, <i>oi</i>, <i>ui</i> (as in <span lang="bo">བཀའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">མགོའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">བུའི་</span>) are pronounced very much like <i>ā̤</i>, <i>ō̤</i>, <i>ṳ̄</i>, so that the syllables <span lang="bo">ནའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཤེའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">རིའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཆོའི་</span>, <span class="pageNum" id="pb7">[<a href="#pb7">7</a>]</span><span lang="bo">ལུའི་</span> can only in some vulgar dialects be distinguished from those mentioned in § 5. 4. 2. The others <i>ao</i>, <i>eo</i>, <i>io</i>, <i>oo</i>, <i>uo</i>, <i>au</i>, <i>eu</i>, <i>iu</i> (<span lang="bo">བཀའོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">སྐྱེའོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">བགྱིའོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">འགྲོའོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">འདུའོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">གའུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">བྱེའུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁྱིའུ་</span>) are pronounced in rapid <span class="corr" id="xd31e3795" title="Corrected by author from: conjunction">succession</span>, but <span class="corr" id="xd31e3798" title="Corrected by author from: either">each</span> vowel is distinctly audible. In prosody they are generally regarded as one syllable,
but if the verse should require it they may be counted as two.
</p>
<p id="s7"><b>7. Compound consonants.</b> <span>1.</span> They are expressed in writing by putting one below the other, in which case several
change their original figure.
</p>
<p><span class="ex"><span class="corr" id="xd31e3811" title="Corrected by author from: Subjoined">Subscribed</span> consonants.</span> <span id="s7.2">2.</span> The letter <i>y</i> subjoined to another is represented by the figure <span lang="bo"> ྱ</span>, and occurs in connection with the three gutturals and labials, and with <i>m</i>, thus <span lang="bo">ཀྱ་ ཁྱ་ གྱ་ པྱ་ ཕྱ་ བྱ་ མྱ་</span>. The former three have preserved, in most cases, their original pronunciation <i>kya</i>, <i>kʽya</i>, <i>gya</i> (the latter in ET: <i>ghya</i> s. § <a href="#s2.6">2. 6</a>). In the Mongol pronunciation of Tibetan words, however, they have been corrupted
into <i>c̀</i>, <i>c̀ʽ</i>, <i>j̀</i> respectively, a well known instance of which is the common pronunciation <i>Kanj̀ur</i> i.o. <i>kangyur</i>, or eleg. <i>ka-gyur</i> (<span lang="bo">བཀའ་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་</span>). <span lang="bo">པྱ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཕྱ་</span>, <span class="corr" id="xd31e3863" title="Source: བྱ"><span lang="bo">བྱ་</span></span> are almost everywhere spoken without any difference from <span lang="bo">ཅ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཆ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཇ</span> (except in the Western dialect before <i>e</i> and <i>i</i>, where the <i>y</i> is dropped and <span lang="bo">པ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཕ</span>, <span lang="bo">བ</span> alone are pronounced). <span lang="bo">མྱ</span> is spoken <i>ny</i> = <span lang="bo">ཉ</span>. <span>3.</span> <i>r</i> occurs at the foot of the gutturals, dentals, labials, of <span lang="bo">ན</span>, <span lang="bo">མ</span>, <span lang="bo">ས</span>, and <span lang="bo">ཧ</span>, in the shape of <span lang="bo"> ྲ</span>. In some parts of the country, as in Purig, these combinations <span class="pageNum" id="pb8">[<a href="#pb8">8</a>]</span>are pronounced literally, like <i>kra</i>, <i>khra</i> etc., but by far the most general custom is to sound them like the Indian cerebrals,
viz. <span lang="bo">ཀྲ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཏྲ</span>, <span lang="bo">པྲ</span> indiscriminately = <span lang="sa" class="deva">ट</span> <i>ṭ</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁྲ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཐྲ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཕྲ</span> = <span lang="sa" class="deva">ठ</span> <i>ṭh</i>; <span lang="bo">གྲ</span>, <span lang="bo">དྲ</span>, <span lang="bo">བྲ</span> = <span lang="sa" class="deva">ड</span> <i>ḍ</i> (in CT: <i>ḍh</i>); only in the case of <span lang="bo">བྲ</span> the literal pronunciation <i>br</i> is not uncommon. In <span lang="bo">ནྲ</span> and <span lang="bo">མྲ</span> both letters are distinctly heard; <span lang="bo">ཧྲ</span> sounds like <i>shr</i> in <i>shrub</i>, and so does <span lang="bo">སྲ</span> generally. In Ü this <i>r</i> is dropped nearly in all cases: thus, <span lang="bo">ཕྲ</span> <i>pʽa</i>, <span lang="bo">སྲ</span> <i>sa</i> etc. <span>4.</span> Six letters are often found with an <span lang="bo">ལ</span> beneath: <span lang="bo">ཀླ་ གླ་ བླ་ ཟླ་ རླ་ སླ་</span>; in these the <span lang="bo">ལ</span> alone is pronounced, except in <span lang="bo">ཟླ་</span>, which sounds <i>da</i>. <span>5.</span> The figure <span lang="bo"> ྭ</span>, sometimes found at the <span class="corr" id="xd31e4039" title="Corrected by author from: food">foot</span> of a letter is used in Sanscrit words to express the <span class="corr" id="xd31e4042" title="Corrected by author from: subjoined">subscribed</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">व</span>, as in <span lang="bo">སྭཱ་<wbr></wbr>ཧཱ་</span> (cf. § 9. 6 ) for <span lang="sa" class="deva">स्वाहा</span>; and is now pronounced by Tibetans = <i>ō</i>: <i>sōhā</i>; in words originally Tibetan it now exists merely as an orthographical mark, to distinguish
<span class="corr" id="xd31e4062" title="Corrected by author from: homonymes">homonyms</span> in writing, as <span lang="bo">ཚ་</span> <i>tʽsa</i>, ‘hot’ and <span lang="bo">ཚྭ་</span> <i>tʽsa</i>, ‘salt’; but, as it is spoken, in some words at least, in Balti (e.g. <span lang="bo">རྩྭ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">rtswa</i> ‘grass’<span class="corr" id="xd31e4082" title="Not in source">)</span>, it must be supposed that, in the primitive form of the <span class="corr" id="xd31e4085" title="Corrected by author from: lauguage">language</span>, it was generally heard.—<i>Note.</i> Of such compounds, indeed, as <span lang="bo">ཕྱྭ་</span> ‘lot’ it is difficult to understand, how they can have been pronounced literally,
if the <i>v</i> was not, perhaps, pronounced <span class="ex">before</span> the <i>y</i>.
</p>
<p><span class="ex">Superadded consonants.</span> <span>6.</span> <i>r</i> <span class="corr" id="xd31e4109" title="Corrected by author from: above">over</span> another consonant is written <span lang="bo">⸆</span>, and 11 <span class="corr" id="xd31e4115" title="Corrected by author from: contonants">consonants</span> have this sign: <span lang="bo">རྐ་ རྒ་ རྔ་ རྟ་ རྡ་ རྣ་ རྦ་ རྨ་ རྩ་ རྫ་</span>, above <span lang="bo">ཉ་</span> it preserves <span class="pageNum" id="pb9">[<a href="#pb9">9</a>]</span>its full shape, as better adapted to the form of that letter: thus, <span lang="bo">རྙ་</span>. In speaking it is seldom heard except provincially, and in some instances in compound
words after a vowel thus, <span lang="bo">ཨུ་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱན་</span> <i>Urgyán</i>, <i>Urgyén</i>, ancient name of the country of Lahore; <span lang="bo">རྡོ་<wbr></wbr>རྗེ་</span> <i>dórje</i> ‘<i>vaj̀ra</i>’. Ladakees often pronounce it = <i>s</i>: <span lang="bo">རྟ་</span> <i>sta</i> ‘horse’ elsewhere <i>ta</i>. <span>7.</span> Similar is the usage in those with a superadded <span lang="bo">ལ</span> (namely: the surds and sonants of the first four classes, the guttural nasal, and
<span lang="bo">ཧ</span>), which latter is often softly heard in WT, but entirely dropped elsewhere, except
in the <span class="corr" id="xd31e4164" title="Corrected by author from: ease">case</span> of <span lang="bo">ལྷ</span>, which is spoken = <span lang="bo">ལ</span> in WT, but with a distinct aspiration = <i>hla</i> or <i>lha</i> in ET. <span id="s7.8">8.</span> <span lang="bo">ས</span> is superadded to the gutturals, dentals and labials with exception of the aspiratae,
then <span lang="bo">ཉ་</span> and <span lang="bo">ཙ་</span>. It is, in many cases, distinctly pronounced in Ladak, but dropped elsewhere<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e4191src" href="#xd31e4191">3</a>. <span id="s7.9">9.</span> <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ བ་ ཇ་ ཛ་</span> with any superadded letter lose the aspiration mentioned in § <a href="#s2.6">2. 6</a> and sound = <i>g</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>j̀</i>, <i>ds</i><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> <span>10.</span> <span lang="bo">རྗ་ རྩ་ རྫ་</span> often lose even the inherent <i>t</i>-sound in pronunciation and are spoken like <i>j̀</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>z</i>.
</p>
<div class="footnotes">
<hr class="fnsep">
<div class="footnote-body">
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2915">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2915src">1</a></span> A very clear exposition of the ramification of Indian alphabets by Dr. <span class="ex">Haas</span> is to be found in the Publications of the Palaeographical Society Oriental Series
IV, pl<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> XLIV. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2915src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3492">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3492src">2</a></span> This is the form in which the word, chosen by the missionaries to express the Christian
“God” (cf. dict.), has found its way into several popular works. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3492src" title="Return to note 2 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e4191">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e4191src">3</a></span> This will be indicated in the following examples by including the <i>s</i> in parentheses, as <i>(s)kom</i>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e4191src" title="Return to note 3 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="div1 last-child errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divBody">
<div class="div2 section"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h3 class="main">Examples.</h3>
<table class="splitListTable">
<tr>
<td>
<ul>
<li><span lang="bo">ཀྱིར་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kyir-kyir</i>, round, circular. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཁྱི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyi</i>, dog. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">གྱེན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gyen-la</i>, upwards. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཕྱུགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽug(s)</i>, Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽū</i>, cattle. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཀྱུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kyu</i>, hook. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ</i>, you. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཕྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽug-po</i>, rich. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཕྱེད་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">pʽed</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽĕʼ</i>, half. <span class="pageNum" id="pb10">[<a href="#pb10">10</a>]</span></li>
<li><span lang="bo">བྱ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">j̀á-mo</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ʽa-mo</i>, hen. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">མྱ་<wbr></wbr>ངན་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">ña-ṅán</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">-ṅän</i>, misery. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཀྲམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṭam</i>, cabbage. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཁྲིམས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṭʽim(s)</i>, <span class="corr" id="xd31e4339" title="Corrected by author from: judgement">judgment</span>. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">གྲང་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍaṅ-mo</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍʽ°-</i><span class="corr" id="xd31e4351" title="Not in source">,</span> cold. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཕྲུག་<wbr></wbr>གུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṭʽug-gu</i>, child. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྲན་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ran-ma, srän-ma</i>, pea. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">གླ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">la</i>, wages. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">རླུང་(པོ་)</span> <i lang="bo-latn">luṅ(-po)</i>, wind. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཟླ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">da-wa</i> (s. § <a href="#s11n">11 note</a>), moon. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">རྣོན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nón-po</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">no̤m-po</i>, sharp. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ལྗང་<wbr></wbr>ཁུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">jaṅ-kʽu</i> (Ld. <i lang="bo-latn">lj°</i>), green. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྐོམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)kom</i>, thirst. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྒོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)go</i>, door. </li>
</ul>
</td>
<td>
<ul>
<li><span lang="bo">སྒྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)gyúr-wa</i>, to alter, turn. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྤྱིན་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">(s)pin</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽin</i>, glue. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྤྲེའུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṭe-u</i>, Ld: <i lang="bo-latn">s̀re-u</i>, monkey. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྨན་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">(s)man</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">män</i>, medicine. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">བྱེ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">bé-ma</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ʽe-ma</i>, sand. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">མྱུར་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñur-du</i>, quickly. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཁྲལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṭʽal</i>, tax. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">གྲི་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍi, ḍʽi</i> (Pur: <i lang="bo-latn">gri</i>), knife. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">དྲང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="corr" id="xd31e4502" title="Source: ḍan-po">ḍaṅ-po</span></i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍʽ°</i>, straight. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">བྲག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍag, ḍʽag</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">brag</i>), rock. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཧྲུལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">s̀rul-po</i>, ragged. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">བླ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lá-ma</i>, priest. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སླ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lá-mo</i>, easy. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">རྐང་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kaṅ-pa</i>, foot. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">རྫུན་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">zun</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">dsṳn</i>, lie, untruth. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ལྟད་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tad-mo</i> (Ld. <i lang="bo-latn">lt°</i>), C: <i lang="bo-latn">täʼ-mo</i>, spectacle. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྐྲ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ra</i><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e4576src" href="#xd31e4576">1</a>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ṭa</i>, hair. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྒྲ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍa</i> (vulg<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>: <i lang="bo-latn">ra</i>), sound, voice. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྤུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)pu</i>, small hair. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྤྱོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">(s)c̀od-pa</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀öʼ-pa</i>, to behave. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྦྲུལ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">(sb)rul</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍul</i>, snake. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྨྱོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">ñon-pa</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ño̤n-pa</i>, mad. </li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><span class="pageNum" id="pb11">[<a href="#pb11">11</a>]</span></p>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p id="s8"><b>8. Prefixed letters.</b> <span class="corr" id="xd31e4654" title="Not in source"><span>1.</span> </span>The five letters <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ བ་ མ་ འ་</span> frequently occur before the real, radical initials of other words, but are seldom
pronounced, except in similar cases as § 7. 6. <span lang="bo">ག་</span> occurs before <span lang="bo">ཅ་ ཉ་ ཏ་ ད་ ན་ ཙ་ ཞ་ ཟ་ ཡ་ ཤ་ ས་</span>; <span lang="bo">ད</span> before the gutturals and labials with exception of the aspiratae; <span lang="bo">བ་</span> before <span lang="bo">ཀ་ ག་</span>, the palatals, dentals and palatal sibilants with the same exception as under <span lang="bo">ད</span>, then <span lang="bo">ཞ་ ཟ་ ར་ ཤ་ ས་</span>; <span lang="bo">མ་</span> before the gutturals, palatals, dentals and palatal sibilants, <span class="corr" id="xd31e4687" title="Corrected by author from: excepted">except</span> the surds; <span lang="bo">འ</span> before the aspiratae and sonants of the five classes. In <span class="corr" id="xd31e4694" title="Source: C.T.">CT</span>, to pronounce them in any case, is considered vulgar. <span id="s8.2">2.</span> The ambiguity which would arise in case of the prefix standing before one of the
10 final consonants, as single radical, the vowel being the unwritten <i>a</i>,—e.g. in the syllable <span lang="bo">དག་</span>, which, if <span lang="bo">ད</span> is radical, has to be pronounced <i>dag</i>, if prefixed <i>gā</i>,—is avoided by adding an <span lang="bo">འ་</span> in the latter case: thus, <span lang="bo">དགའ་</span>. Other examples are: <span lang="bo">གད་</span> <i>gad</i> (<i>gʽäʼ</i>) and <span lang="bo">གདའ་</span> <i>dā</i>; <span lang="bo">བས་</span> <i>bas</i> (<i>bā̤</i>, <i>bʽā̤</i>) and <span lang="bo">བསའ་</span> <i>sā</i>; <span lang="bo">མད་</span> <i>mad</i> (<i>mäʼ</i>) and <span lang="bo">མདའ་</span> <i>dā</i>; <span lang="bo">འགའ་</span> <i>gā</i>. This <span lang="bo">འ་</span> is added, though the radical be not one of the mentioned letters; as, <span lang="bo">བཀའ་</span> <i>kā</i>. <span>3.</span> <span lang="bo">ད་</span> as a prefix and <span lang="bo">བ་</span> as first radical annul each other, so that only the following sound is heard, as
will be seen in the <span class="pageNum" id="pb12">[<a href="#pb12">12</a>]</span>following examples (<span lang="bo">དབང་</span> etc.). <span>4.</span> Another irregularity is the <span class="ex">nasal</span> pronunciation of the prefixed <span lang="bo">འ་</span> in compounds after a vowel, which is often heard e.g. <span lang="bo">དགེ་<wbr></wbr>འདུན་</span> pronounced <i>gen-dún</i>, <i>gen-dṳ́n</i>, but eleg.: <i>ge-dṳ́n</i>, ‘clergy’; <span lang="bo">བཀའ་<wbr></wbr>འབུམ་</span> <i>kam-bum</i>, eleg. <i>ka-búm</i>, ‘the 100 000 precepts’ (title of a book).—<i>Note.</i> With regard to the aspiration of the soft consonants in ET the prefixed letters have
the same influence as the superadded ones § <a href="#s7.9">7. 9</a>.
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="div2 section"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h3 class="main">Examples.</h3>
<table class="splitListTable">
<tr>
<td>
<ul>
<li><span lang="bo">གཡག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yag</i>, <span lang="la">bos grunniens</span>. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">དཔེ་<wbr></wbr>ཆ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">pé-c̀ʽa</i> (Ld<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>: <i lang="bo-latn">spe-c̀ʽa</i>), book. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">བཟང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">záṅ-po</i>, good. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">འབབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">bab-pa</i>, to descend. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">དབང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">waṅ</i>, vulg. C: <i lang="bo-latn">aṅ</i>, power. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">དབུས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">Ṳ̄</i>, name of the Lhasa district. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">དབེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">en-pa</i>, solitude. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">དབྱིབས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yib(s), ib</i>, figure. </li>
</ul>
</td>
<td>
<ul>
<li><span lang="bo">དཀར་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kár-po</i>, white. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">དགྲ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍá-wo</i>, enemy. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">མངར་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅár-mo</i>, sweet. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>བཞི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ub-z̀i</i>, eleg. <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-z̀i</i>, fourteen. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">དབུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">u</i>, resp. head. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">དབུགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ug(s)</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ug, ū</i>, breath. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">དབྱར་<wbr></wbr>ཀ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yar-ka</i>, summer. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">དབྱེ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ye-wa, e-wa</i>, difference. </li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p id="s9"><b>9. Word; Accent; Quantity.</b> <span>1.</span> The peculiarity of the Tibetan mode of writing in distinctly marking the word-syllables,
but not the words (cf. § <a href="#s4">4</a>) composed of two or more of these, sometimes renders <span class="corr" id="xd31e4963" title="Corrected by author from: is">it</span> doubtful what is to be regarded as <span class="ex">one word</span>. <span>2.</span> There exist a great number of <span class="pageNum" id="pb13">[<a href="#pb13">13</a>]</span>small monosyllables, which serve <span class="corr" id="xd31e4975" title="Corrected by author from: for denoting">to denote</span> different shades of notions, grammatical relations etc., and are postponed to the
word in question; but never alter its original shape, though their own initials are
not seldom influenced by its final consonant (cf. § <a href="#s15">15</a>). <span>3.</span> Such monosyllables may conveniently be regarded as <span class="ex">terminations</span>, forming <span class="ex">one word</span> together with the <span class="corr" id="xd31e4991" title="Corrected by author from: preceeding">preceding</span> nominal or verbal root. <span>4.</span> The accent is, in such cases, most naturally given to the root, or, in compounds,
generally to the latter part of the composition, as: <span lang="bo">མིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig</i>, ‘eye’, <span lang="bo">མིག་<wbr></wbr>གི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">míg-gi</i>, ‘of the eye’; <span lang="bo">ལག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lag</i>, ‘hand’, <span class="corr" id="xd31e5016" title="Source: ལག ཤུབས་"><span lang="bo">ལག་<wbr></wbr>ཤུབས་</span></span> <i lang="bo-latn">lag-s̀ub(s)</i>, ‘hand-covering, glove’.—<span id="s9.5">5.</span> Equally natural is, in <span class="corr" id="xd31e5030" title="Source: W.T.">WT</span>, the <span class="ex">quantity</span> of the vowels: accentuated vowels, when closing the syllable, are comparatively long
(though never so long as in the English words <i>bee</i>, <i>stay</i>, or Hindi <span lang="ur" class="aran">راجا</span> etc.), otherwise short, as <span lang="bo">མི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mī</i> ‘man’, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mī-lă</i> ‘to the man’, but <span lang="bo">མར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">măr</i>, ‘butter’.—In CT, however, even accentuated and closing vowels are uttered very shortly:
<i lang="bo-latn">mĭ, mĭ-lă</i> etc., and long ones occur there only in the case of § <a href="#s5.4">5, 4</a>. <a href="#s5.5">5</a>. and <a href="#s8.2">8, 2</a>., as <span lang="bo">ལས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lā̤</i> ‘work’; <span lang="bo">ཆོས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽō̤</i> ‘religion’; <span lang="bo">མདའ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dā</i> ‘arrow’; <span lang="bo">གཟའ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">zā</i> ‘planet’; and in Lhasa especially: <span lang="bo">ནགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nā</i> ‘forest’; <span lang="bo">ལེགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lē-pa</i> ‘good’; <span lang="bo">རིགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">rī</i> ‘class, sort’; <span lang="bo">ལོགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lō</i> ‘side’; <span lang="bo">ལུགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lū</i> ‘manner’.—In Sanscrit words the long vowels are marked by an <span lang="bo">འ་</span> beneath the consonant, as: <span lang="bo">ནཱ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> (<span lang="sa" class="deva">नाम</span>) ‘called’, <span lang="bo">མཱུ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> (<span lang="sa" class="deva">मूल</span>) ‘root’ (s. § <a href="#s3">3</a>).
<span class="pageNum" id="pb14">[<a href="#pb14">14</a>]</span></p>
<p id="s10"><b>10. Punctuation.</b> For separating the members of a longer period, a vertical stroke: <span lang="bo">།</span>, called <span lang="bo">ཤད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ad</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">s̀äʼ</i>), is used, which corresponds at once to our comma, semicolon and colon; after the
closing of a sentence the same is doubled; after a longer piece, e<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>g. a chapter, four <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ads</i> are put. No marks of interrogation or <span class="corr" id="xd31e5175" title="Corrected by author from: exlamation">exclamation</span> exist in punctuation.—<span>2.</span> In metrical compositions, the double <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ad</i> is used for separating the single verses; in that case the logical partition of the
sentence is not marked (cf. § <a href="#s4">4</a>).
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="div2 last-child section"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h3 class="main">A list of a few useful words.</h3>
<table class="splitListTable">
<tr>
<td>
<ul>
<li><span lang="bo">ཀ་<wbr></wbr>ར་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ká-ra</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">kʽá-ra</i>, sugar. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽaṅ-pa</i>, house. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">གང་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">gaṅ</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">gʽaṅ</i>, which? </li>
<li><span lang="bo">གུར་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">gur</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">gʽur</i>, tent. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ངལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅal</i>, fatigue. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཅི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀i</i>, what? </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཆད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽad-pa</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽăʼ-pa</i>, punishment. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽuṅ-wa</i>, little. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཇ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">j̀a</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ʽa</i>, tea. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñí-ma</i>, sun; day. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཉུང་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñúṅ-ma</i>, turnip. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཏིབ་<wbr></wbr>རིལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tíb-ril</i>, tea-pot, kettle. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཀུན་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">kun</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">kün</i>, all. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཁུང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽuṅ</i>, hole. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ག་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span> or <span lang="bo">གར་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">ga-ru</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gar</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">gʽ°</i>, where? </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ངན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅan-pa</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ṅam-pa</i>, bad. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཆང་</span>, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽaṅ</i>, beer. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཆར་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽár-pa</i>, rain. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽen-po</i>, great<span class="corr" id="xd31e5357" title="Source: ,">.</span> </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཉ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ña</i>, fish. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཉུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñuṅ-wa</i>, little, few. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཉེ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñe-mo</i>, near. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཏོག་<wbr></wbr>ཙེ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tóg-tse</i> (W), hoe. <span class="pageNum" id="pb15">[<a href="#pb15">15</a>]</span></li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཐག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽag-pa</i>, rope. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཐོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">tʽód-pa</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">tʽöʼ-pa</i>, skull. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">དང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">daṅ</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">dʽaṅ</i>, and; with. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ནག་<wbr></wbr>པོ</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nag-po</i>, black. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ནོར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nor</i>, wealth, property. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཕན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">pʽan-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">pʽäm-pa</i>, use, benefit. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ba</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">bʽa</i>, cow. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">བུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">bu</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">bʽu</i>, son. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">མེ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">me</i>, fire. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">མེད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">med</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">mĕʼ</i>, there is not. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཚང་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽsaṅ-ma</i>, whole. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཞོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀o</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ŏ</i>, curdled milk. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">འོད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">od</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">wöʼ</i>, light, shine. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཡི་<wbr></wbr>གེ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yí-ge</i>, letter. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yod</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">yöʼ</i>, am, is, are. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">རི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ri</i>, hill, mountain. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">la</i>, mountain-pass. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ལུག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lug</i>, sheep. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཐང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽáṅ</i>, the plain. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ད་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">da</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">dʽa</i>, now. </li>
</ul>
</td>
<td>
<ul>
<li><span lang="bo">དུད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dud-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">dʽüʼ-pa</i>, smoke. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ནད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nad</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">näʼ</i>, disease. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">པར་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">pár-ma</i>, a printed book. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཕུག་<wbr></wbr>རོན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">pʽug-rón</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">-ró̤n</i>, dove. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">བལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">bal</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">bʽal</i>, wool. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">bu-mo</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">bʽ°</i>, daughter. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">མིང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">miṅ</i>, name. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཙམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tsam</i>, how much? </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཞག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ag</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ag</i>, day. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">འོ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">o-ma</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">wo-ma</i>, milk. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཡང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yaṅ</i>, also. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yin</i>, am, is, are (cf. § <a href="#s39">39</a>). </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ར་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ra-ma</i>, goat. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">རིན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">rin</i>, price. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ལམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam</i>, road. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཤ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">s̀a</i>, flesh, meat. <span class="pageNum" id="pb16">[<a href="#pb16">16</a>]</span></li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཤིང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">s̀iṅ</i>, tree, wood. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">su</i>, who? </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>ཕ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">a-pʽa</i>, (vulg.) father. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">རས་</span> (Ld: <i lang="bo-latn">ras</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">rā̤</i>, cotton cloth. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">གོས་</span> (Ld: <i lang="bo-latn">gos</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">gō̤</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gʽō̤</i>, clothing. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སེམས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">sem</i>, soul. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཁྲག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṭʽag</i>, blood. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">leb-pa</i>, to arrive. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">རྩྭ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">sa</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">tsa</i>, grass. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྔོན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅon-po</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">ṅo̤m-po</i>, blue. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">གཞུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀u</i>, bow (for shooting). </li>
<li><span lang="bo">དགུན་<wbr></wbr>ཀ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gun-ka</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gṳn-ka</i>, winter. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">མཚོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽso</i>, lake. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">འདྲི་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍi-wa</i>, to ask. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">sa</i>, earth. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སོ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">só-ma</i>, new. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">a-ma</i><span class="corr" id="xd31e5837" title="Not in source">,</span> (vulg.) mother. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">དུས་</span> (Ld<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>: <i lang="bo-latn">dus</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">dṳ̄</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">dʽṳ̄</i>, time. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">ཐབས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽab(s)</i>, means. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">བག་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱེ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">bag-pʽe</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">bʽag-c̀ʽe</i>, flour. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">གྲོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍo</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">ḍʽŏ</i>, wheat. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">རྒད་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gad-po</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gʽäʼ-po</i>, old. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྐྱེ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)kye-wa</i>, to be born, grow. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">སྙིང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñiṅ</i>, heart. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">གཟིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">zig</i>, leopard. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">མགྱོགས་</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e5916" title="Not in source"><span lang="bo">པ་</span></span> <i lang="bo-latn">gyog(s)-pa</i> (Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">gyō-pa</i>), fast, quick. </li>
<li><span lang="bo">འབྲི་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍi-wa</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">bri-wa</i>), to write. </li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><span class="pageNum" id="pb17">[<a href="#pb17">17</a>]</span></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="footnotes">
<hr class="fnsep">
<div class="footnote-body">
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e4576">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e4576src">1</a></span> The concurrence of superadded <span lang="bo">ས་</span> with a consonant already <span class="pageNum" id="pb11n">[<a href="#pb11n">11</a>]</span>compound produces in <span class="corr" id="xd31e4583" title="Source: W.T">WT</span> some irregularities, which cannot all be specified here (see the diction<span class="corr" id="xd31e4586" title="Source: ">.)</span>. The custom of <span class="corr" id="xd31e4589" title="Source: C.T.">CT</span>, according to which the <span lang="bo">ས་</span> is entirely neglected is in this instance easier to be followed. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e4576src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="pt2" class="div0 part">
<h2 class="label">Part II.</h2>
<h2 class="main">Etymology.</h2>
<div id="ch2.1" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e594">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="label">Chapter I.</h2>
<h2 class="main">The Article.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p id="s11" class="first"><b>11. Peculiarities of the Tibetan article.</b> <span>1.</span> What have been called <span class="ex">Articles</span> by Csoma and Schmidt, are a number of little affixes: <span lang="bo">པ་ བ་ མ་ པོ་ བོ་ མོ་</span>, and some similar ones, which might perhaps be more adequately termed <span class="ex">denominators</span>, since their principal object is undoubtedly to represent a given root as a <span class="ex">noun</span>, substantive or adjective, as is most clearly perceptible in the instance of the
roots of verbs, to which <span lang="bo">པ་</span> or <span lang="bo">བ་</span> impart the notion of the Infinitive and Participle, or the nearest abstract and nearest
concrete nouns that can possibly be formed from the idea of a verb. These affixes
are not, however,—except in this case—essential to a noun, as many substantives and
adjectives and most of the pronouns are never accompanied by them, and even those
which usually appear connected with them, will drop them upon the slightest occasion.
<span>2.</span> Almost the only case in which a syntactical use of them, like that of the English
definite Article, is perceptible, is that mentioned § <a href="#s20.3">20. 3</a>; a formal one, that of distinguishing the Gender, occurs in a limited number of words,
where <span lang="bo">མོ་</span> denotes the female, <span lang="bo">པོ་</span> the masculine. Thus: <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gyál-po</i> ‘king’, <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gyál-mo</i> ‘queen’. Or, <span class="pageNum" id="pb18">[<a href="#pb18">18</a>]</span>if the word in the masculine (or rather common) gender has no article, <span lang="bo">མོ་</span> is added: <span lang="bo">སེང་<wbr></wbr>གེ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">séṅ-ge</i> ‘lion’, <span class="corr" id="xd31e6008" title="Source: སེང་གེ་མོ"><span lang="bo">སེང་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span></span> ‘lioness’. <span>3.</span> In most instances, by far, their only use is to distinguish different meanings of
homonymous roots, e.g. <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)tón-pa</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">tó̤n-pa</i>), ‘teacher’; <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)tón-mo</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">tó̤n-mo</i>)<span id="xd31e6038"></span> ‘feast’; <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>ཁ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)tón-kʽa</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">tó̤n-kʽa</i>) ‘autumn’. Even this advantage, however, is given up, as soon as a composition takes
place, and then the meaning can only be inferred from the context, or known from usage:
<span lang="bo">མིང་<wbr></wbr>སྟོན་</span> (from <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span>) ‘name feast’ (given on the occasion of naming or christening an infant); <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>ཟླ་</span> (from <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>ཁ་</span>) ‘autumnal month’. In some instances the putting or omitting of these articles is
optional; more frequently the usage varies in different provinces. <span>4.</span> The peculiar nature of these affixes is most clearly shown by the manner in which
they are connected with the indefinite article § <a href="#s13">13</a>.
</p>
<p id="s11n"><i>Note.</i> The affixes <span lang="bo">བ་ བོ་</span> are after vowels and after the consonants <span lang="bo">ང་ ར་ ལ་</span> always pronounced <i lang="bo-latn">wa</i> and <i lang="bo-latn">wo</i>, instead of <i lang="bo-latn">ba</i> and <i lang="bo-latn">bo</i>; thus, <span lang="bo">དཀའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ka-wa</i> ‘difficult’; <span lang="bo">རེ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">re-wa</i> ‘hope’; <span lang="bo">གང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gaṅ-wa</i> (<i lang="bo-latn"><span class="sic">gh°</span></i>) ‘full’; <span lang="bo">ཟེར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">zer-wa</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">ser-wa</i>) ‘to say’; <span lang="bo">མྱལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nyal-wa</i> ‘hell’; <span lang="bo">ཇོ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">jo-wo</i> (<i lang="bo-latn"><span class="sic">jho-wo</span></i>) ‘lord, master’.
</p>
<p id="s12"><b>12. Difference of the Articles among each other.</b> <span id="s12.1">1.</span> The usage of <span lang="bo">པ་ བ་ མ་</span> is the most general and widest of all, <span class="pageNum" id="pb19">[<a href="#pb19">19</a>]</span>as they occur with all sorts of substantives and other nouns. <span lang="bo">པ་</span> is particularly used for denoting a man who is in a certain way connected with a
certain thing (something like <span lang="ur" class="aran">والا</span> and <span lang="fa" class="aran">دار</span> in Hindustāni and Persian<span class="corr" id="xd31e6160" title="Not in source">)</span>: <span lang="bo">གྲྭ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍa</i> ‘school’, <span lang="bo">གྲྭ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (literally: scholar) ‘disciple, novice’; <span lang="bo">ཆུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽu</i><span id="xd31e6177"></span> ‘water’, <span lang="bo">ཆུ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘water-carrier’ (<span lang="ur" class="aran">پانى والا</span>); <span lang="bo">རྟ་</span> ‘horse’, <span lang="bo">རྟ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘horseman’; <span lang="bo">དབུས་</span> ‘the province of Ṳ̄’, <span lang="bo">དབུས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘a man from Ṳ̄’, <span lang="bo">ཁྱེའུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyëu</i> ‘boy’, <span lang="bo">ལོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lo</i> ‘year’, <span lang="bo">གཉིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñi(s)</i> ‘two’, hence: <span lang="bo">ཁྱེའུ་<wbr></wbr>ལོ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘a two years’ boy’. If the feminine is required <span lang="bo">མ་</span> is either added to, or—more commonly—used instead of, the former: <span lang="bo">དབུས་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> ‘a woman from Ṳ̄’; <span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་<wbr></wbr>ལོ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> ‘a two years’ girl’. The performer of an action is more frequently denoted by <span lang="bo">པོ་</span> (or, in more solemn language, <span lang="bo">པ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>), though, in conversation at least, <span lang="bo">མཁན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽan</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">kʽe̱n</i>), is preferred; <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ed-pa</i> ‘to do, make; doing, making’: <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་</span> ‘the doer, maker’. <span>2.</span> The appendices <span lang="bo">ཀ་ ཁ་ ག་</span> occur with a limited number of nouns only, especially the names of the seasons, with
numerals, and some pronouns. (<span lang="bo">ཀོ་</span> seems to be a vulgar form of pronunciation for <span lang="bo">ཀ་</span>).
</p>
<p id="s13"><b>13. The indefinite Article.</b> This is the numeral <span class="ex">one</span> (§ <a href="#s13">13</a>), only deprived of its prefix, viz<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>: <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span>, which form it retains, if the preceding word ends with <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ བ་</span>, as: <span lang="bo">ཁབ་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་</span> <span class="pageNum" id="pb20">[<a href="#pb20">20</a>]</span><i lang="bo-latn">kʽab-c̀ig</i>, a needle; it is changed to <span lang="bo">ཤིག་</span> after <span lang="bo">ས་</span>, <span lang="bo">རས་<wbr></wbr>ཤིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ras-s̀ig</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">rä-s̀ig</i>, a cloth; to <span lang="bo">ཞིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ig</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">s̀ig</i>) in all other cases. Some authors use <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span> after any termination <span class="corr" id="xd31e6329" title="Corrected by author from: indisriminately">indiscriminately</span>. It is, of course, always without accent. The articles <span lang="bo">པ་ བ་</span> etc. are not <span class="corr" id="xd31e6335" title="Corrected by author from: thrown out">superseded</span> by the indefinite article e.g. <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘teacher, the teacher’, <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> ‘a teacher’. It is used even after a plurality: thus, <span lang="bo">ཆུ་<wbr></wbr>མིག་<wbr></wbr>བཞི་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> ‘there were some four wells’, and even: <span lang="bo">མང་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>གདའ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘there being a multitude of them’ (from Mil<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>). Very often it is placed after the interrogative pronouns (v. <a href="#s27">27</a>), and sometimes its original meaning is obscured so much that it occurs even after
known and definite subjects, where one would expect the demonstrative (see <abbr title="for instance">f.i.</abbr> Dzl. 25, 1. 28, 6. 128, 14).
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="ch2.2" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e633">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="label">Chapter II.</h2>
<h2 class="main">The Substantive.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p id="s14" class="first"><b>14. The Number.</b> The Plural is denoted by adding the word <span lang="bo">རྣམས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nam</i>, or, more rarely, <span lang="bo">དག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dag</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">dʽag</i>), <span lang="bo">ཚོ་</span>, or a few other words, which originally were nouns with the common notion of plurality.
<span class="corr" id="xd31e6386" title="Corrected by author from: Bus">But</span> this mark of the Plural is usually omitted, when the plurality of the thing in question
may be known from other circumstances, e.g. when a numeral is added: thus, <span lang="bo">མི་</span> ‘man’, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་</span> ‘men’, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་</span> ‘three men’. When a substantive is connected with an adjective, the plural sign is
added only once, viz. after the <span class="pageNum" id="pb21">[<a href="#pb21">21</a>]</span>last of the connected words: <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>བཟང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་</span> ‘the good men’.
</p>
<p id="s14n"><i>Note.</i> The conversational language uses the words <span lang="bo">རྣམས་</span> etc. seldom, in WT scarcely ever (an exception s. <a href="#s24r">24. Remarks</a>), but <span class="corr" id="xd31e6413" title="Corrected by author from: add">adds</span>, when necessary, such words as: all, many, some; two, three, seven, eight, or other
suitable numerals (cf. § <a href="#s20.5">20, 5</a>.).
</p>
<p id="s15"><b>15. Declension.</b> The regular addition of the different particles or single sounds by which the cases
are formed is the same for all nouns, whether substantives or adjectives, pronouns
or participles. Only in some cases, in the Dative and Instrumental, the noun itself
is changed, when, ending in <span class="corr" id="xd31e6423" title="Source: an">a</span> vowel, it admits of a closer connection with the corrupted case-sign. We may reckon
in Tibetan seven cases, expressive of all the relations, for which cases are used
in other languages, viz: nominative and accusative, genitive, instrumental, dative,
locative, ablative, terminative and vocative. <span id="s15.1">1.</span> The unaltered form of the noun has some of the functions of our Nominative and those
of the Accusative and Vocative. <span>2.</span> The sign of the Genitive is <span lang="bo">ཀྱི་</span> after words with the finals <span lang="bo">ད་ བ་ ས་</span>; <span lang="bo">གྱི་</span> after <span lang="bo">ན་ མ་ ར་ ལ་</span>, <span lang="bo">གི་</span> after <span lang="bo">ག་</span> and <span lang="bo">ང་</span>; after vowels <i lang="bo-latn">i</i> is simply added by means of an <span lang="bo">འ་</span> thus: <span lang="bo">འི་</span>, which then will form a diphthong with the vowel of the noun (cf. § <a href="#s6">6</a>), or if, in versification, two syllables are required, <i lang="bo-latn">i</i> appears supported by an <span lang="bo">ཡ་</span> forming a distinct word. <span>3.</span> The Instrumental or Agent is expressed by the particles <span lang="bo">ཀྱིས་</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e6479" title="Not in source">,</span> <span lang="bo">གྱིས་</span> or <span lang="bo">གིས་</span> after the respective <span class="pageNum" id="pb22">[<a href="#pb22">22</a>]</span>consonants as specified above; after vowels simply <span lang="bo">ས་</span> is added, or, in verse, sometimes <span lang="bo">ཡིས་</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>
</p>
<p id="s15n"><i>Note.</i> The instrumental is, in modern pronunciation, except in Northern Ladak, scarcely
discernible from the genitive, and there are but few if any, even among lamas, who
are not liable to confound both cases in writing.
</p>
<p>In the language of common life, <span class="ex">in WT</span>, the different forms of the particle of the genitive and instrumental, after consonants,
<span lang="bo">ཀྱི་ གྱི་</span> etc. are never heard, but everywhere the final consonant is doubled and the vowel
<i lang="bo-latn">i</i> added to it, thus: <span lang="bo">ལུས་</span>, G. <i lang="bo-latn">lus-si</i> (Ld.), <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄-i</i>; <span lang="bo">ལམ་</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e6523" title="Not in source">,</span> G. <i lang="bo-latn">lam-mi</i>; <span lang="bo">གསེར་</span> (gold), G. <i lang="bo-latn">ser-ri</i> etc; or, in other words, all nouns ending in consonants are formed like those ending
with <span lang="bo">ག་</span> (see the example <span lang="bo">མིག་</span>). In those ending with a vowel no irregularity takes place.
</p>
<p><span>4.</span> The Dative adds indiscriminately the postposition <span lang="bo">ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">la</i>, denoting the relation of space in the widest sense, expressed by the English prepositions
<i>in</i>, <i>into</i>, <i>at</i>, <i>on</i>, <i>to</i>. <span id="s15.5">5.</span> The Locative is formed by the postposition <span lang="bo">ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">na</i> ‘in’. <span>6.</span> The Ablative by <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nā̤</i> or <span lang="bo">ལས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lā̤</i> ‘<i>from</i>’ (the latter especially with the meaning: <i>from among</i>), all three likewise without any discriminating regard to the ending of the noun.
<span>7.</span> The Terminative is expressed by the postpositions <span lang="bo">རུ་</span> or <span lang="bo">ར་</span> after vowels; <span lang="bo">ཏུ་</span> after final <span lang="bo">ག་</span> and <span lang="bo">བ་</span> and, in certain words, <span lang="bo">ད་ ར་ ལ་</span>; <span lang="bo">སུ་</span> after <span lang="bo">ས་</span>; <span lang="bo">དུ་</span> generally after <span lang="bo">ན་ ར་ ལ་</span> and the other final consonants. All these <span class="pageNum" id="pb23">[<a href="#pb23">23</a>]</span>postpositions denote the <span class="corr" id="xd31e6629" title="Corrected by author from: movement">motion</span> <i>to</i> or <i>into</i>. <span>8.</span> The Vocative is not different from the Nominative (as stated above), if not distinguished
by the interjection <span lang="bo">ཀྱེ་</span> <i>oh!</i>, and can only be known from the context.
</p>
<p><b>Examples of declension.</b> As example of the declension of <span class="corr" id="xd31e6648" title="Source: consonontal">consonantal</span> nouns we may take 1. for those in <i lang="bo-latn">s</i> (respectively <i lang="bo-latn">d</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">b</i>), <span lang="bo">ལུས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄</i>, ‘body’; 2. for those in <i lang="bo-latn">m</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">n</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">r</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">l</i>), <span lang="bo">ལམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam</i> ‘way’; 3. for those in <i lang="bo-latn">g</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">ṅ</i>), <span lang="bo">མིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig</i> ‘eye’,—of that of vocalic nouns: 4. <span lang="bo">ཁ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa</i> or <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wa</i> ‘snow’.
</p>
<p>Singular.
</p>
<p></p>
<div class="table">
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="label">
<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop"> </td>
<td class="cellHeadTop">1. </td>
<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop">2.
</td>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">N. Acc. </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ལུས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus</i>, <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="corr" id="xd31e6732" title="Source: lū">lṳ̄</span></i> </td>
<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ལམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Gen. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-kyi</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄-kyi</i>; <i lang="bo-latn">lus-si</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄i</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལམ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam-gyi</i>; <i lang="bo-latn">lam-mi</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Inst. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-kyis</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄-kyī</i>; <i lang="bo-latn">lus-sī</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄ī</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལམ་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam-gyis</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">-gyī</i>; <i lang="bo-latn">lam-mī</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Dat. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-la</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄-la</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལམ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam-la</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Loc. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-na</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལམ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam-na</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Abl. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-nā̤</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལམ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam-nā̤</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Term. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-su</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam-du</i>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="label">
<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellHeadBottom">3. </td>
<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadBottom">4.
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">N. Acc. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">མིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཁ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wa</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Gen. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">མིག་<wbr></wbr>གི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig-gi</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཁའི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽai</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བའི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wai</i> <span class="pageNum" id="pb24">[<a href="#pb24">24</a>]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Inst. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">མིག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig-gis</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">-gī</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཁས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽā̤</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wā̤</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Dat. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">མིག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig-la</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-la</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wa-la</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Loc. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">མིག་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig-na</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-na</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wa-na</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Abl. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">མིག་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig-nā̤</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-nā̤</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wa-nā̤</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">Term. </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">མིག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig-tu</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-ru</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">kʽar</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wa-ru</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-war</i>. </td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div><p>
</p>
<p>Plural.
</p>
<p>As the plural signs are simply added to the nouns, without affecting their form, we
here only give examples of declension with the two most frequent plural particles.
As example for <span lang="bo">དག་</span> the plural of the pron. <span lang="bo">དེ་</span> ‘that’ has been chosen.
</p>
<p></p>
<div class="table">
<table>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellTop">N. Acc. </td>
<td class="cellTop"><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus(lṳ̄-)-nam(s)</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight cellTop"><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de-dag</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Gen. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-nam(s)-kyi</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>གི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de-dag-gi</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Inst. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-nam(s)-kyis</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de-dag-gis</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Dat. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-nam(s)-la</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de-dag-la</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Loc. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-nam(s)-na</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de-dag-na</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Abl. </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-nam(s)-nā̤</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de-dag-nā̤</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">Term. </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-nam(s)-su</i> </td>
<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de-dag-tu</i> </td>
</tr>
</table>
</div><p>
<span class="pageNum" id="pb25">[<a href="#pb25">25</a>]</span> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="ch2.3" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e662">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="label">Chapter III.</h2>
<h2 class="main">The Adjective.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p id="s16" class="first"><b>16.</b> In the Tibetan language the Adjective is not formally distinguished from the Substantive,
so that many nouns may be used one or the other way just as circumstances require.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e7203src" href="#xd31e7203">1</a> The declension, likewise, follows the same rules as that of substantives<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> Only two remarks may be added here. <span>1.</span> The particles <span lang="bo">པ་ མ་ པོ་ མོ་</span> are not very strictly used for distinguishing the gender, since even in the case
of human beings <span lang="bo">པ་</span> and <span lang="bo">པོ་</span> are not seldom found connected with feminines, e.g.: <span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་<wbr></wbr>མཛེས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> just as well as <span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་<wbr></wbr>མཛེས་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> ‘a fine girl’. <span>2<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span></span> The Adjective stands <span class="ex">after</span> the Substantive to which it belongs: thus, <span lang="bo">རི་<wbr></wbr>མཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ri-tʽón-po</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ri-tʽo̤n-po</i>, ‘the high hill’, when, of course, the case-signs <span class="pageNum" id="pb26">[<a href="#pb26">26</a>]</span>are joined to the Adjective: <span lang="bo">རི་<wbr></wbr>མཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་</span> ‘of the high hill’, <span lang="bo">རི་<wbr></wbr>མཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་</span> ‘the high hills’ etc.
</p>
<p>Or the Adjective may be put in the Gen. <span class="ex">before</span> the Substantive: <span lang="bo">མཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>རི་</span>, and then the latter only is declined: <span lang="bo">མཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>རིའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">མཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>རི་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་</span>. In the vulgar speech both of C and WT the adjective sometimes preserves, even in
this position, its simple form (Nominative). A third way of expression, when both
are joined together, without any article, as <span lang="bo">སྐམ་<wbr></wbr>ས་</span> instead of <span lang="bo">ས་<wbr></wbr>སྐམ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <span class="corr" id="xd31e7320" title="Not in source">‘</span><span class="ex">the dry land</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e7323" title="Not in source">’</span>, is rather a compound substantive, with the same difference of meaning as ‘highland’
and ‘a high land’ in English.
</p>
<p id="s17"><b>17. Comparison.</b> <span id="s17.1">1.</span> Special <span class="corr" id="xd31e7332" title="Corrected by author from: endings">terminations</span>, expressive of the different degrees of comparison, as in the Aryan languages, do
not exist in Tibetan. There are two particles, however, corresponding to the English
<i>than</i>: <span lang="bo">བས་</span>, after the final consonants <span lang="bo">ང་ ར་ ལ་</span> and after vowels (<span lang="bo">པས་</span>, after <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ ན་ བ་ མ་ ས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e7349src" href="#xd31e7349">2</a>), and <span lang="bo">ལས་</span>; these particles follow the word with which another is compared (like the Hind. <span lang="ur" class="aran">سے</span>) and this then <span class="corr" id="xd31e7361" title="Corrected by author from: preceeds">precedes</span> the compared one, finally follows the adjective in the positive: <span lang="bo">རྟ་<wbr></wbr>བས་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ལས་</span>) <span lang="bo">ཁྱི་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘horse—than dog small is’, just as in Hindūstāni: <span lang="ur" class="aran">گھوڑى <span class="corr" id="xd31e7376" title="Source: سى">سے</span> كتّا چھوٹا ھَى</span>. But also the position usual in <span class="pageNum" id="pb27">[<a href="#pb27">27</a>]</span>our European languages occurs, thus: <span lang="bo">རབ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>འབྱུང་<wbr></wbr>བའི་<wbr></wbr>བསོད་<wbr></wbr>ནམས་<wbr></wbr>རི་<wbr></wbr>རབ་<wbr></wbr>ལྷུན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>བས་<wbr></wbr>འཕངས་<wbr></wbr>མཐོའོ་</span> ‘the merit of becoming a priest is relatively higher <span class="corr" id="xd31e7387" title="Corrected by author from: that">than</span> mount Meru’; <span lang="bo">བོད་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>གཞན་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>ནོ་</span> ‘the king of Tibet is greater than the other ones’. The particle <span lang="bo">བས་</span> (<span lang="bo">པས་</span>) may be put, in the same manner, after adverbs. Thus, <span lang="bo">སྔར་<wbr></wbr>བས་<wbr></wbr>གསལ་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>གྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཏོ་</span> ‘(their eyes) became more keen-sighted than before’. Or, after infinitives, <span lang="bo">གཞན་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>བས་<wbr></wbr>ནུ་<wbr></wbr>བོས་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཕན་</span> ‘it is better (for him) that his younger brother should go (with him) than another’.
<span lang="bo">ལས་</span> for itself has the meaning of ‘more than’, with the negative: ‘not more than’, ‘only’;
thus: <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྲང་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>དགོས་</span> ‘more than two ounces I do not want’ (cf. vulg. WT: <span lang="bo">གསུམ་<wbr></wbr>མན་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>མེད་</span> ‘there are not more than (only) three’); or ‘nothing but’, ‘only’, <span lang="bo">རི་<wbr></wbr>དྭགས་<wbr></wbr>ཤོར་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་</span> ‘there is no pleasure (for us) but hunting, h. is our only pl<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>’.
</p>
<p>2. An Adverb which augments the notion of the adjective itself, is <span lang="bo">ལྷག་<wbr></wbr>པར་</span> ‘more’; this can be added ad libitum: <span lang="bo">རྟ་<wbr></wbr>བས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱི་<wbr></wbr>ལྷག་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span>.
</p>
<p><span>3.</span> Another adverb, <span lang="bo">ཇེ་</span> means: ‘more and more’, ‘gradually more’, e.g. <span lang="bo">ཇེ་<wbr></wbr>ཉེ་<wbr></wbr>ཇེ་<wbr></wbr>ཉེ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘going nearer and nearer’. <span>4.</span> ‘The elder—the younger’ e.g. of two brothers, is <span class="pageNum" id="pb28">[<a href="#pb28">28</a>]</span>simply expressed by: ‘the great—the little’. <span>5.</span> The Superlative is paraphrased by the same means: <span lang="bo">ཀུན་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཐམས་<wbr></wbr>ཅད་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> ‘greater than all’. Or it is expressed in the following manner: <span lang="bo">ཡུལ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>གང་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་</span> ‘of (among) the kings of the country which one is the greatest (prop. great)?’. Adverbs
for expressing high degrees are: <span lang="bo">ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> or <span lang="bo">རབ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> ‘very’, <span lang="bo">ཀུན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> ‘all’, <span lang="bo">ཡོངས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་</span> ‘quite’, <span lang="bo">མཆོག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> ‘exceedingly’ etc.
</p>
<p><i>Note.</i> The colloquial language of WT uses <span lang="bo">སང་</span> instead of <span lang="bo">བས་</span> or <span lang="bo">ལས་</span>, and <span lang="bo">མཱ་</span> (<i lang="bo-latn">mā</i>, always with a strong emphasis, perhaps a mutilated form of <span lang="bo">མངས་</span> ‘much’) or <span lang="bo">མང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> instead of <span lang="bo">ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span>, whereas that of CT employs <span lang="bo">ལས་</span> in the former case, but repeats the adjective in the latter, so that ‘very large’
is expressed in books by <span lang="bo">ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>, in speaking, in WT by <i lang="bo-latn">mā́ c̀ʽén-po</i>, in CT by <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽem-po c̀ʽem-po</i>.
</p>
</div>
<div class="footnotes">
<hr class="fnsep">
<div class="footnote-body">
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e7203">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e7203src">1</a></span> But the vulgar language has a predilection for certain forms of Adjectives <span>1.</span> those with the gerundial particle <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span>, as: <span lang="bo">ཚན་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> for the more classical <span lang="bo">ཚན་</span> ‘warm’; these seem to be particularly in use in <span class="corr" id="xd31e7217" title="Source: Tsan">Tsaṅ</span>: <span lang="bo">མཛའ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘friendly’, less so in Ü. <span>2.</span> compound adjectives either by simple reiteration of the root: <span lang="bo">རིལ་<wbr></wbr>རིལ་</span> for <span lang="bo">རིལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> ‘round’, or changing the vowel at the same time: <span lang="bo">ཁྲག་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲུག་</span> ‘complicate’, <span lang="bo">གཙང་<wbr></wbr>གཙོང་</span> <span class="corr" id="xd31e7240" title="Not in source">‘</span>awry<span class="corr" id="xd31e7242" title="Not in source">’</span> etc<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> Often they are quadrisyllables after this form: <span lang="bo">མལ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>མུལ་<wbr></wbr>ལེ་</span> ‘lukewarm’, <span lang="bo">ཆག་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>ཆོག་<wbr></wbr>གེ་</span> ‘medley’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e7203src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e7349">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e7349src">2</a></span> Some Mscr. and wood-prints, however, prefer, even after these consonants, the form
<span lang="bo">བས་</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e7349src" title="Return to note 2 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="ch2.4" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e691">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="label">Chapter IV.</h2>
<h2 class="main">The Numerals.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p id="s18" class="first"><b>18. Cardinals:</b>
</p>
<p></p>
<div class="table">
<table>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft cellTop"> 1 </td>
<td class="cellTop"><span lang="bo">༡</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight cellTop"><span lang="bo">གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ig</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 2 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༢</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">གཉིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñi(s)</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 3 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༣</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">གསུམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">sum</i> <span class="pageNum" id="pb29">[<a href="#pb29">29</a>]</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 4 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༤</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཞི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀i</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 5 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༥</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལྔ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅa</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 6 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༦</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དྲུག་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍug</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍhug</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 7 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༧</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བདུན་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">dun</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">dhṳn</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 8 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༨</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བརྒྱད་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">gyad</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">gyäʼ</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 9 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༩</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དགུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gu</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 10 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u</i>, or <span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>ཐམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-tʽam-pa</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 11 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༡</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-c̀ig</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 12 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༢</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-ñí</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ug-ñí(s)</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 13 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༣</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-súm</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ug-súm</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 14 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༤</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>བཞི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-z̀í</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ub-z̀í</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 15 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༥</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅོ་<wbr></wbr>ལྔ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀o-ṅá</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 16 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༦</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>དྲུག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-ḍúg</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">-ḍhúg</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 17 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༧</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>བདུན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-dún</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">-dṳ́n</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ub-d°</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 18 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༨</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅོ་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀o-gyád</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">-gyäʼ</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ob-g°</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 19 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༩</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>དགུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-gú</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 20 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༢༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñi-s̀u</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 21 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༢༡</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñi-s̀u-sa-c̀íg</i>, or <span lang="bo">ཉེར་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñer-c̀íg</i> <span class="pageNum" id="pb30">[<a href="#pb30">30</a>]</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 30 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༣༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">སུམ་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">súm-c̀u</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 31 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༣༡</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">སུམ་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">sum-c̀u-sa-c̀íg</i>, <span lang="bo">སོ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">so-c̀ig</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 40 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༤༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཞི་<wbr></wbr>བཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀i-c̀u</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ib-c̀u</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 41 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༤༡</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཞི་<wbr></wbr>བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀i-c̀u-sa-c̀íg</i>, <span lang="bo">ཞེ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀e-c̀íg</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 50 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༥༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལྔ་<wbr></wbr>བཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅa-c̀u</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">ṅab-c̀u</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 51 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༥༡</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལྔ་<wbr></wbr>བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅa-c̀u-sa-c̀íg</i>, <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅa-c̀ig</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 60 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༦༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དྲུག་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍug-c̀u</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍhug-c̀u</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 61 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༦༡</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དྲུག་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍug-c̀u-sa-c̀íg</i>, <span lang="bo">རེ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">re-c̀íg</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 70 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༧༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བདུན་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dun-c̀u</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">dṳn-c̀u</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 71 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༧༡</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བདུན་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dun-c̀u-sa-c̀íg</i>, <span lang="bo">དོན་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">don-c̀íg</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 80 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༨༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བརྒྱད་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gyád-c̀u</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">gyäʼ-c̀u</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 81 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༨༡</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བརྒྱད་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gyad-c̀u-sa-c̀íg</i>, <span lang="bo">གྱ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gya-c̀íg</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 90 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༩༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དགུ་<wbr></wbr>བཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gú-c̀u</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">gúb-c̀u</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 91 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༩༡</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དགུ་<wbr></wbr>བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gu-c̀u-sa-c̀ig</i>, <span lang="bo">གོ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="corr" id="xd31e8126" title="Source: go c̀íg">go-c̀íg</span></i> (C: <i lang="bo-latn">gʽo-c̀íg</i>) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 100 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༠༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བརྒྱ་(ཐམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་)</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gya (tʽám-pa)</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 101 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༠༡</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བརྒྱ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> or <span lang="bo">བརྒྱ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gya daṅ</i> (or <i lang="bo-latn">sa</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">c̀íg</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 200 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༢༠༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñi-gya</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">ñib-gya</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 300 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༣༠༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">སུམ་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">sum-gya</i> <span class="pageNum" id="pb31">[<a href="#pb31">31</a>]</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 400 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༤༠༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཞི་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀i-gya</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ib-gya</i> etc. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 1000 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༠༠༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">སྟོང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)toṅ</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 10 000 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༠ ༠༠༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཁྲི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṭʽi</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 100 000 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡༠༠ ༠༠༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">འབུམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">bum</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 1 000 000 </td>
<td><span lang="bo">༡ ༠༠༠ ༠༠༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ས་<wbr></wbr>ཡ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">sa-ya</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft cellBottom">10 000 000 </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">༡༠ ༠༠༠ ༠༠༠</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">བྱེ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">j̀e-wa</i> </td>
</tr>
</table>
</div><p>
</p>
<p>There are, as in Sanscrit, names for many more powers of 10, but they are seldom used.
</p>
<p id="s19"><b>19. Ordinals.</b> <span lang="bo">དང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">daṅ-po</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">dʽ°</i> ‘the first’, the rest are simply formed by adding <span lang="bo">པ་</span> to the cardinals, as: <span lang="bo">གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, <span class="corr" id="xd31e8312" title="Not in source">‘</span>the second<span class="corr" id="xd31e8314" title="Not in source">’</span> etc.; the <span class="corr" id="xd31e8316" title="Source: 21.">21st</span> is <span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘the twenty-oneth’, not, as in English, ‘the twenty first’.
</p>
<p id="s20"><b>20. Remarks.</b> <span>1.</span> The smaller number postponed indicates, as is seen in § <a href="#s18">18</a>, addition, the reverse—multiplication: <span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་</span> 13, <span lang="bo">སུམ་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་</span> 30; but in the latter case the three first numerals are changed to <span lang="bo">ཆིག་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཉི་</span>, <span lang="bo">སུམ་</span>; and <span lang="bo">བཅུ་</span>, as the second part of a compound after consonants, is spelled <span lang="bo">ཅུ་</span>. <span>2.</span> The words <span lang="bo">ཐམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (after full tens up to one hundred), <span lang="bo">ཕྲག་</span> (after hundreds and thousands<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e8364src" href="#xd31e8364">1</a>), <span class="pageNum" id="pb32">[<a href="#pb32">32</a>]</span><span lang="bo">ཚོ་</span> (with still greater numbers), are optional but frequent additions. <span lang="bo">རྩ་</span> is common instead of <span lang="bo">དང་</span> ‘and’, to connect units with tens (s. § <a href="#s18">18</a>), but it occurs also with hundreds and thousands, and not seldom together with <span lang="bo">དང་</span>, e.g. <span lang="bo">སྟོང་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་</span>, 1002. It is used also instead of <span lang="bo">ཐམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, as: <span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་</span> ten, <span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་</span> twenty; often it is standing alone for <span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་</span>, as <span lang="bo">རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་</span>, twenty two. This latter custom may have caused the belief, common even among educated
readers in C and WT, that <span lang="bo">རྩ་</span> must mean <span class="ex">twenty</span>, even when connecting a hundred or thousand to a unit, as they will usually understand
the above mentioned number in the sense of 1022 instead of 1002; but the authority
of printed books, wherever the exact number can be verified from other circumstances,
does not confirm this, which would indeed be a sadly ambiguous phraseology. <span id="s20.3">3.</span> <span lang="bo">ཀ་</span> added to a cardinal number means conjunction: <span lang="bo">གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>ཀ་</span>, the two together, both; <span lang="bo">གསུམ་<wbr></wbr>ཀ་</span>, the three together, all three etc. <span lang="bo">པོ་</span> means either the same, or represents the definite article, indicating that the number
has been already mentioned, e.g. <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>ལྔ༌༌༌༌ བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌། །མི་<wbr></wbr>ལྔ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>བསླེབ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ༌༌༌༌</span>, five men were sent.… The five men arriving etc. <span>4.</span> <span lang="bo">པ་</span> is used, besides <span class="pageNum" id="pb33">[<a href="#pb33">33</a>]</span>forming Ordinals, to express the notion of ‘containing’, e.g. <span lang="bo">ཡི་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>དྲུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘that containing six letters’, viz. the famous formula: <span lang="bo">ཨོཾ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཎི་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དྨེ་<wbr></wbr>ཧཱུཾ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">om maṇi padme hum</i>; <span lang="bo">སུམ་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span><span id="xd31e8463"></span> ‘that containing thirty (letters)’, the Tibetan alphabet. <span id="s20.5">5.</span> Such combinations as <span lang="bo">གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་</span> etc. are frequently used in common life, <span class="corr" id="xd31e8472" title="Corrected by author from: so">to</span> denote a number approximately, ‘two or three or so’ (cf. § <a href="#s14n">14 Note</a>).
</p>
<p id="s21"><b>21. Distributive numerals.</b> They are expressed by repetition as in Hind<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>: <span lang="bo">དྲུག་<wbr></wbr>དྲུག་</span> each time six, six for each etc. In composed numerals only the last member is repeated,
thus <span lang="bo">སུམ་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་</span> each time thirty two.
</p>
<p id="s22"><b>22. Adverbial numerals.</b> <span>1.</span> Firstly, secondly etc. are formed from the ordinals as every Adverb is from an Adjective,
viz. by adding the letter <span lang="bo">ར་</span>, <span lang="bo">དང་<wbr></wbr>པོར་</span>, <span lang="bo">གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>པར་</span> etc. (s. § <a href="#s41">41</a>). <span>2.</span> Multiplicative adverbs, ‘once’, ‘twice’ etc<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>, are expressed by putting <span lang="bo">ལན་</span> ‘times’ before the cardinal: <span lang="bo">ལན་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span>, <span lang="bo">ལན་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་</span>, W: <i lang="bo-latn">lan-c̀ig</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lan-ñi(s)</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">län-c̀ig</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">län-ñī</i> ‘once, twice’ etc.: seldom <span lang="bo">ཚེར་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཚར་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཐེངས་</span> with the same meaning as <span lang="bo">ལན་</span>.
</p>
<p id="s23"><b>23. Fractional numerals</b> are formed by adding <span lang="bo">ཆ་</span> ‘part’: thus, <span lang="bo">བརྒྱའི་<wbr></wbr>ཆ་</span> ‘a hundredth part’ etc., but also: <span lang="bo">བང་<wbr></wbr>མཛོད་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་<wbr></wbr>ཆ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> ‘one third of the treasury’.
<span class="pageNum" id="pb34">[<a href="#pb34">34</a>]</span> </p>
</div>
<div class="footnotes">
<hr class="fnsep">
<div class="footnote-body">
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e8364">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e8364src">1</a></span> <span lang="bo">ཕྲག་</span> is used especially if the number counting the hundreds, <span class="pageNum" id="pb32n">[<a href="#pb32n">32</a>]</span>thousands etc. follows: thus, <span class="corr" id="xd31e8370" title="Source: སྟོང་ཕྲག་ཉི་ཤུ"><span lang="bo">སྟོང་<wbr></wbr>ཕྲག་<wbr></wbr>ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ་</span></span> ‘of thousands: twenty, 20 000’; <span lang="bo">ཁྲི་<wbr></wbr>ཕྲག་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> ‘many ten-thousands’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e8364src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="ch2.5" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e761">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="label">Chapter V.</h2>
<h2 class="main">Pronouns.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p id="s24" class="first"><b>24. Personal Pronouns.</b> First person: <span lang="bo">ང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅa</i>; <span lang="bo">ངེད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅed</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">ṅĕʼ</i>; <span lang="bo">ངོས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅos</i> (Ld<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>); <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽo-wo</i>, masc., and <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽo-mo</i>, fem.; <span lang="bo">བདག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dag</i> ‘self’—‘I’; Second person: <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ</i>), <span lang="bo">ཁྱེད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyed</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">kʽyĕʼ</i>) ‘thou, you’; Third person: <span lang="bo">ཁོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽo</i>, <span lang="bo">ཁོང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽoṅ</i>—‘he, she, it’.
</p>
<p>The plural is formed by adding <span lang="bo">ཅག་</span>, <span lang="bo">རྣམས་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཅག་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཚོ་</span>, but very often, if circumstances show the meaning with sufficient certainty, the
sign of the plural is altogether omitted. The declension is the same as that of the
substantives.
</p>
<p id="s24r"><span class="ex">Remarks</span>: <span lang="bo">ང་</span> is the most common and can be used by every body; <span lang="bo">ངེད་</span> seems to be preferred in elegant speech (s. <a href="#s24n">Note</a>); <span lang="bo">ངོས་</span> is very common in modern <span class="corr" id="xd31e8678" title="Corrected by author from: letter writing">letter-writing</span>, at least in WT; <span lang="bo">བདག་</span> ‘self’, when speaking to superior persons occurs very often in books, but has disappeared
from common speech, except in the province of Tsaṅ (<i lang="bo-latn">Ṭas̀ilhunpo</i>) as also the following; <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> in easy conversation with persons of equal rank, or to inferiors.
</p>
<p><span class="ex">2. person.</span> <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་</span> is used in books in addressing even <span class="ex">the highest persons</span>, but in modern conversation only among equals or to inferiors; <span lang="bo">ཁྱེད་</span> is elegant and respectful, especially in books.—
<span class="pageNum" id="pb35">[<a href="#pb35">35</a>]</span></p>
<p><span class="ex">3. person.</span> <span lang="bo">ཁོ་</span> seldom occurs in books, where the demonstr. pron. <span lang="bo">དེ་</span> (§ <a href="#s26">26</a>) is generally used instead; <span lang="bo">ཁོང་</span> is common to both the written and the spoken language, and used, at least in the
latter, as respectful. But it must be remarked that the pronoun of the third person
is in most cases entirely omitted, even when there is a change of subject.—Instead
of <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ཅག་</span> and <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅག་</span> the people of WT use <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ཞ་</span> and <span lang="bo">ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞ་</span>; the vulgar plural of <span lang="bo">ཁོ་</span> is <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>.—
</p>
<p>To each of these pronouns may be added: <span lang="bo">རང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">raṅ</i> or <span lang="bo">ཉིད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñid</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">ñĭʼ</i> ‘self’, and in conversational language <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>རང་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>རང་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>རང་</span> are, perhaps, even more frequently used than the simple forms, without any difference
in the meaning. <span lang="bo">ཉིད་</span> is more prevalent in books, except the compound <span lang="bo">ཉིད་<wbr></wbr>རང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñi-raṅ</i>, which is <span class="ex">in modern speech</span> the usual respectful pronoun of address, like ‘<span lang="de">Sie</span>’ in German.
</p>
<p id="s24n"><i>Note.</i> The predilection of Eastern Asiatics for a system of ceremonials in the language
is met with also in Tibetan. There is one separate class of words, which must be used
in reference to the honoured person, when spoken to as well as when spoken of. To
this class belong, besides the pronouns <span lang="bo">ཉིད་<wbr></wbr>རང་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁྱེད་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁོང་</span>, all the <span class="ex">respectful</span> terms by which the body or soul, or parts of the same, and all things or persons
pertaining to such a person, and <span class="pageNum" id="pb36">[<a href="#pb36">36</a>]</span>even his actions, must be called. The <span class="corr" id="xd31e8804" title="Corrected by author from: notions">terms</span>, most frequently occurring, have special expressions, as <span lang="bo">སྐུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)ku</i>, instead of <span lang="bo">ལུས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄</i>, ‘body’; <span lang="bo">དབུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">u</i>, i.o. <span lang="bo">མགོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">go</i> ‘head’; <span lang="bo">ཐུགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽug(s)</i> (Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">tʽū</i>), i.o. <span lang="bo">སེམས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">sem(s)</i> ‘soul’, or <span lang="bo">ཡིད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yid</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">yĭʼ</i>, ‘mind’; <span lang="bo">ཡབ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yab</i>, i.o. <span lang="bo">ཕ་</span> (vulg: <span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>ཕ་</span>), ‘father’; <span lang="bo">ན་<wbr></wbr>བཟའ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">na-za</i>, i.o. <span lang="bo">གོས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gos</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gō̤</i>, ‘coat’, ‘dress’; <span lang="bo">ཆིབས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽib(s)</i>, i.o. <span lang="bo">རྟ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(r)ta</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">sta</i> ‘horse’; <span lang="bo">བཞུགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ug(s)-pa</i> (Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ū-pa</i>), i.o. <span lang="bo">སྡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dod-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">döʼ-pa</i> ‘to sit’; <span lang="bo">མཛད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dzad-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">dzäʼ-pa</i> i.o. <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ed-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="sic">j̀hĕʼ-pa</span></i> ‘to make’ and many others. If there is no such special word, any substantive may
be rendered respectful by adding <span lang="bo">སྐུ་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཐུགས་</span> respectively (so, <span lang="bo">སྐུ་<wbr></wbr>ཚེ་</span> i.o. <span lang="bo">ཚེ་</span> ‘lifetime’; <span lang="bo">ཐུགས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> i.o. <span lang="bo">ཁྲོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘anger’) <span class="corr" id="xd31e8962" title="Not in source">and </span>any verb by adding <span lang="bo">མཛན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, according to <a href="#s39.1">39, 1</a>. Another class of what might be called <span class="ex">elegant</span> terms are to be used when conversing with an honoured person (or also by a high person
<span class="corr" id="xd31e8974" title="Corrected by author from: himself in his own speech">speaking of himself</span>), such as <span lang="bo">བགྱིད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gyid-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gyĭʼ-pa</i> ‘to do’; <span lang="bo">མཆིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽī-pa</i><span id="xd31e8992"></span> ‘to be’; <span lang="bo">སླད་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lad-du</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">läʼ-du</i> i.o. <span lang="bo">ཕྱིར་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> ‘for the sake of’, <span class="ex">without</span> reference to the said person himself. Even uneducated people know, and make use of,
most of the ‘respectful’ terms, but the merely ‘elegant’ ones are, at least in WT,
seldom or never heard in conversation.
</p>
<p id="s25"><b>25. Possessive pronouns.</b> The Possessive is simply <span class="pageNum" id="pb37">[<a href="#pb37">37</a>]</span>expressed by the Genitive of the Personal, <span lang="bo">ངའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་</span> etc. ‘His’, ‘her’, ‘its’, when referring to the acting subject (<span lang="la">suus</span>), must be expressed by <span lang="bo">རང་<wbr></wbr>གི་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཉིད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་</span> ‘his own’; otherwise (<span lang="la">ejus</span>) by <span lang="bo">ཁོའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁོང་<wbr></wbr>གི་</span>, <span lang="bo">དེའི་</span>. In C, in the latter case, <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span> are used.
</p>
<p id="s26"><b>26. Reflective and Reciprocal pronouns.</b> <span>1.</span> The Reflective pronoun, ‘myself’, ‘yourself’ etc. is expressed by <span lang="bo">རང་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཉིད་</span>, also <span lang="bo">བདག་</span>. But in the case of the same person being the subject <span class="ex">and</span> object of an action, it must be paraphrased, so for ‘he precipitated himself from
the rock’ must be said ‘he precipitated his own body etc.’ <span lang="bo">རང་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ལུས་</span>; for ‘he rebuked himself’—‘he rebuked his own soul’ <span lang="bo">རང་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>སེམས་</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>—2. The reciprocal pronoun ‘each other’ or ‘one another’ is rendered by ‘one—one’,
as <span lang="bo">གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>བསད་</span> ‘by one one was killed’, ‘they killed one another’; <span lang="bo">གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>རེ་</span> ‘to one one said’, ‘they said to each other’.
</p>
<p id="s27"><b>27. Demonstrative pronouns.</b> <span id="s27.1">1.</span> <span lang="bo">འདི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">di</i>, ‘this’; <span lang="bo">དེ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de</i>, <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="sic">dhe</span></i> ‘that’ are those most frequently used, both in books and speaking. The Plural is
generally formed by <span lang="bo">དག་</span>, but also by <span lang="bo">རྣམས་</span> and <span lang="bo">ཚོ་</span>. More emphatical are <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ཀ་</span>, <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ག་</span>, <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ཀོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>གོ་</span>, ‘just this’, ‘this same’; <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཀ་</span> etc. ‘that same’.—The vulgar dialect also uses <span lang="bo">ཧ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">hắ-gyi</i> <span class="pageNum" id="pb38">[<a href="#pb38">38</a>]</span>and <span lang="bo">ཕ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">pʽắ-gyi</i> for ‘that’, ‘yonder’, and, in WT, <span lang="bo">ཨི་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཨི་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> for ‘this’ and <span lang="bo">ཨ་</span> for ‘that’; <span lang="bo">ཕ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་</span> occurs even in books.—<span id="s27.2">2.</span> It is worth remarking that the distinction of the nearer and remoter relation is,
even in common language, scrupulously observed. If reference is made to an object
already mentioned, <span lang="bo">དེ་</span> is used; if to something following, <span lang="bo">འདི་</span>; e.g. <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>སྐད་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘that speech he said’, ‘thus he said’; <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>སྐད་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘this speech he said’, ‘he said thus, spoke the following words’.
</p>
<p id="s28"><b>28. Interrogative pronouns.</b> They are <span lang="bo">སུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">su</i> ‘who?’; <span lang="bo">གང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gaṅ</i>, <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="corr" id="xd31e9195" title="Corrected by author from: gh.">ghaṅ</span></i> ‘which?’; <span lang="bo">ཅི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀i</i> ‘what?’; to these the indefinite article <span lang="bo">ཞིག་</span> is often added, <span lang="bo">སུ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> etc. The two former can also assume the plural termination <span lang="bo">དག་</span>, <span lang="bo">སུ་<wbr></wbr>དག</span>, <span lang="bo">གང་<wbr></wbr>དག་</span>.—In CT <span lang="bo">གང་</span> is frequently used instead of <span lang="bo">ཅི་</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>
</p>
<p id="s29"><b>29. Relative pronouns.</b> These are almost entirely wanting in the Tibetan language, and our subordinate relative
clauses must be expressed by Participles <span class="corr" id="xd31e9232" title="Source: und">and</span> Gerunds, or a new independent sentence must be begun. The participle, in such a case,
is treated quite as an adjective, being put either in the Genitive before the substantive,
or, in the Nominative, after: <span lang="bo">འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>བའི་<wbr></wbr>ཚོང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་</span> ‘the merchants who would go (with him)’; <span lang="bo">ཉག་<wbr></wbr>ཐག་<wbr></wbr>གཡུ་<wbr></wbr>བརྒུས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘the cord on which turquoises are strung’; <span lang="bo">འཁྱོས་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>མང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> <span class="pageNum" id="pb39">[<a href="#pb39">39</a>]</span>‘one who gets (unto whom come) many presents’. Cf. also <a href="#s33">33</a>. Only those indefinite sentences which in English are introduced by ‘he who’, ‘who
ever’, ‘that which’, ‘what’ etc. can be adequately expressed in Tibetan, by using
the interrogative pronouns with the participle (seldom the naked root) of the verb,
or adding <span lang="bo">ན་</span> (‘if—’ v. <a href="#s41.a.4">41, A. 4.</a>) to the latter. Instead of <span lang="bo">ཅི་</span> in this case <span lang="bo">ཇི་</span> is written more correctly. Thus: <span lang="bo">སུ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དམ་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>ཆོས་<wbr></wbr>མཆིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>གྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘if anybody who possesses the good faith teach it me’; <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོགས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> ‘when those of you who wish to go are assembled’; <span lang="bo">ནོར་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>རིན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>ཇི་<wbr></wbr>འདོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཐམས་<wbr></wbr>ཅད་<wbr></wbr>ཆར་<wbr></wbr>བཞིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>འབེབས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘this jewel (<i>cintāmaṇi</i>) will make come down like rain whatever is wished for’; <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ཟེར་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཇི་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བཞིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>བྱའོ་</span> ‘whatever you <span class="corr" id="xd31e9277" title="Corrected by author from: way">may</span> say and ask of me according to that I will act, or I will grant you whatever you
ask’. <span lang="bo">བདག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>མཐུ་<wbr></wbr>ཇི་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱ་<wbr></wbr>མཚོའི་<wbr></wbr>ཆུ་<wbr></wbr>བཅུས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> ‘having scooped the water of the sea with what force I have’; <span lang="bo">རིན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>ཇི་<wbr></wbr>ལྟ་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>རྙེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བསྟན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>གསོལ་</span> ‘I beg you to show me what sort of jewel you have found (got)’; <span lang="bo">རྒང་<wbr></wbr>གྱེ་<wbr></wbr>རྗེས་<wbr></wbr>གང་<wbr></wbr>རིགས་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>གསེར་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>བྱེ་<wbr></wbr>མར་<wbr></wbr>གྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཏོ་</span> ‘his footprints, in what place soever they fell (v. lex. s. v. <span lang="bo">རིགས་</span>), became gold-sand’.
<span class="pageNum" id="pb40">[<a href="#pb40">40</a>]</span></p>
<p>But the participle is treated as if no relative was preceding, thus <span lang="bo">སྔར་<wbr></wbr>ཇི་<wbr></wbr>སྐད་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཟློགས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘he did not recede from (recall) the word he had spoken before’; vulg., WT, <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>གང་<wbr></wbr>བསྡད་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>ཁང་<wbr></wbr>མིག་</span> ‘the room where I sat’.
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="ch2.6" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e830">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="label">Chapter VI.</h2>
<h2 class="main">The Verb.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p id="s30" class="first"><b>30. Introductory remarks.</b> The Tibetan <span class="corr" id="xd31e9310" title="Corrected by author from: verb">verbs</span> must be regarded as denoting, not an action, or suffering, or condition of any subject,
but merely a <span class="ex">coming to pass</span>, or, in other words, they are all <span class="ex">impersonal</span> verbs, like <i lang="la">taedet</i>, <i lang="la">miseret</i> etc. in Latin, or <i>it suits</i> etc. in English. Therefore they are destitute of what is called in our own languages
the active and passive voice, as well as of the discrimination of persons, and show
nothing beyond a rather poor capability of expressing the most indispensable distinctions
of tense and mood. From the same reason the acting subject of a transitive verb must
regularly appear in the <span class="ex">Instrumental</span> case, as the case of the subject of a <span class="corr" id="xd31e9331" title="Source: neutral">neuter</span> verb,—which, in European languages, is the Nominative—, ought to be regarded, from
a Tibetan point of view, as <span class="corr" id="xd31e9334" title="Added by author">an </span>Accusative expressing the object of an impersonal verb, just as ‘poenitet me’ is translated
by ‘I repent’. But it will perhaps be easier to say: The subject of a transitive verb,
in Tibetan, assumes regularly the form of the instrumental, of a <span class="corr" id="xd31e9337" title="Corrected by author from: neutral">neuter</span> verb that of the nominative which is the same as the accusative. Thus, <span lang="bo">ངས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>རྡུང་</span> is properly: <span class="pageNum" id="pb41">[<a href="#pb41">41</a>]</span><span lang="bo">རྡུང་</span> a beating happens, <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་</span> regarding you, <span lang="bo">ངས་</span> by me = I beat you. In common life the object has often the form of the dative, <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>, to facilitate the comprehension. But often, in modern talk as well as in the classical
literature, the acting subject, if known as such from the context, retains its Nominative
form. Especially the verba loquendi are apt to admit this slight irregularity.
</p>
<p id="s31"><b>31. Inflection of verbs.</b> This is done in three different ways:
</p>
<p><span><i>a</i>)</span> by changing the <span class="corr" id="xd31e9366" title="Corrected by author from: shape">form</span> of the root. Such different <span class="corr" id="xd31e9369" title="Corrected by author from: shapes">forms</span> are, at most, four in number, which may be called, according to the tenses of our
own grammar to which they correspond, the Present-, Perfect-, Future-, and Imperative-roots;
e.g. of the Present-root <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to give’ the Perfect root is <span lang="bo">བཏང་</span>, the Future-root <span lang="bo">གཏང་</span>, the Imperative root <span lang="bo">ཐོང་</span>; of <span lang="bo">འཚག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to filter, bolt’ respectively: <span lang="bo">བཙགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tsag(s)</i> (Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">tsā</i>), <span lang="bo">བཙག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tsag</i>, <span lang="bo">ཚོག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽsog</i>. The Present root, which implies duration, is also occasionally used for the Imperfect
(in the sense of the Latin and Greek languages) and Future tenses. It is obvious,
from the above mentioned instances, that the inflection of the root consists partly
in alterations of the prefixed letters (so, if the Perfect <span class="corr" id="xd31e9410" title="Corrected by author from: likes">prefers</span> the prefixed <span lang="bo">བ</span>, the Future will have <span lang="bo">ག</span> or retain the <span lang="bo">བ</span>), partly in adding a final <span lang="bo">ས་</span> (to the Perfect and Imperative), partly in changing the vowel (particularly in the
Imperative). But also the consonants of the root itself are changed <span class="pageNum" id="pb42">[<a href="#pb42">42</a>]</span>sometimes: so the aspirates are often converted in the <span class="corr" id="xd31e9428" title="Corrected by author from: Perfet">Perfect</span> and Future into their surds, besides other more irregular changes. Only a limited
number of verbs, however, are possessed of all the four roots, some cannot assume
more than three, some two, and a great many have only one. To make up in some measure
for this deficiency:
</p>
<p><span><i>b</i>)</span> some auxiliary verbs have been made available: for the Present tense <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span>, <span lang="bo">འདུག་</span>, <span lang="bo">ལགས་</span> and others, all of which mean ‘to be’ (§ <a href="#s39">39</a>); for the Perfect <span lang="bo">ཚར་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཟིན་</span>, <span lang="bo">སོང་</span>; for the Future <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་</span>, <span lang="bo">འོང་</span>, and the substantive <span lang="bo">རྒྱུ་</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>
</p>
<p><span><i>c</i>)</span> By adding various monosyllabic affixes, the Infinitive, Participles, and Gerunds
are formed. These affixes as well as the auxiliary verbs are connected partly with
the root, partly with the Infinitive, resp. its terminative, partly with the Participle.
</p>
<p id="s31n"><i>Note.</i> The spoken language, at least in WT, <span class="corr" id="xd31e9476" title="Corrected by author from: acknowledges">recognises</span> even in four-rooted verbs seldom more than the Perfect root.
</p>
<p id="s32"><b>32. The Infinitive mood.</b> The syllables <span lang="bo">པ་</span> <i>pa</i> or, after the final consonants <span lang="bo">ང་ ར་ ལ་</span> and vowels, <span lang="bo">བ་</span> <i>wa</i> are added to the root, whereby it assumes all the qualities and powers of a noun.
In verbs of more roots than one, each of them can, of course, in this way be converted
into a substantive, or, in other words, each tense has its Infinitive, except the
Imperative. From one-rooted verbs the different Infinitives may be formed by the above
mentioned auxiliaries: thus, the Inf. Perf., by adding <span lang="bo">ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> to the Infinitive of <span class="pageNum" id="pb43">[<a href="#pb43">43</a>]</span>the verb in question, or <span lang="bo">ཚར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཟིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, <span lang="bo">སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> to the root, and the Inf. Fut. by adding <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> to the Supine (terminative of the infinitive, <a href="#s41.b">41. B</a>) thus, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <span lang="la">visurum esse, visum iri</span>.
</p>
<p id="s32n"><i>Note.</i> The spoken language uses, in WT almost exclusively, a termination pronounced <i lang="bo-latn">c̀as</i> in Turig and Balti, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀es</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀e</i> in Ladak, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀e</i> in Lahoul etc., <i lang="bo-latn">j̀a</i> in Kunawar, <i lang="bo-latn">s̀e</i> in Tsaṅ etc., the etymology of which is doubtful, as it is not to be found in any
printed book. Lamas in Ladak and Lahoul spell it <span lang="bo">ཅེས་</span>.
</p>
<p id="s33"><b>33. The Participle.</b> <span id="s33.1">1.</span> This is in the written language entirely like the Infinitive <span lang="bo">ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘being’, <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘giving’, <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘having given’.—<span>2.</span> Whether the meaning is active <span class="corr" id="xd31e9569" title="Source: and">or</span> passive, however, can only be inferred from the context, e.g. <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>བའི་<wbr></wbr>དངུལ་</span> is of course ‘the money given’, but <span lang="bo">དངུལ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་<wbr></wbr>བའི་<wbr></wbr>མི་</span> ‘the man having given, or, that has given, the money’; the Tibetan participle means
nothing but that the action or condition is connected in some way with a person or
thing. But it is natural that in the present participle the active <span class="corr" id="xd31e9578" title="Corrected by author from: notion">idea</span> should be the more frequent one, as well as in the preterit the passive.—<span>3.</span> In the instance of Intensive verbs (formed with <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <a href="#s38.1">38.1</a>) the usage of scientific authors has strictly connected the active sense with those
formed with <span lang="bo">བྱེད་</span>, as <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">toṅ-j̀ed</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">toṅ-j̀ʽĕʼ</i>, instead of <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, <span class="corr" id="xd31e9607" title="Not in source">‘</span>doing give, giving, <span class="pageNum" id="pb44">[<a href="#pb44">44</a>]</span>giver<span class="corr" id="xd31e9611" title="Not in source">’</span>, and the passive to those with <span lang="bo">བྱ་</span>, as <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">toṅ j̀a</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">toṅ j̀ʽa</i> i.o. <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to be given’ (dandus), <span lang="bo">བྱ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to teach the things to be done and not to be done’ (Thgy<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>).—<span>4.</span> In certain cases, especially with verbs that mean: to say, ask etc.<span class="corr" id="xd31e9637" title="Not in source">,</span> the Participle is used before the words of the speech, where we should use the Imperfect:
<span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ༌༌༌</span> ‘the king said.…’
</p>
<p><i>Note.</i> In the spoken language, of WT at least, the Participle is formed by <span lang="bo">མཁན་</span>, in the active sense as well as the passive (whereas in books this syllable occurs
only in the meaning of the performer of an action<span class="corr" id="xd31e9650" title="Not in source">,</span> s. <a href="#s12.1">12. 1</a>.): <span lang="bo">དངུལ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>མི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅul taṅ kʽan-ni mi</i> (s. <a href="#s15n">15, Note</a>) ‘the man giving the money’, <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>དངུལ་</span> ‘the money given’. <span lang="bo">འདས་<wbr></wbr>ཞག་<wbr></wbr>གོན་<wbr></wbr>ཆས་<wbr></wbr>བཙོངས་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>བླ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> ‘the lama who brought a coat for sale the other day’. <span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་<wbr></wbr>རྗེ་<wbr></wbr>བཙུན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྒོ་<wbr></wbr>ཁུང་<wbr></wbr>སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>དེ་</span> ‘the girl who had shewn the door to his reverence’ (Mil<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>). The future participle is represented, just as in English, by the Infinitive (<a href="#s32n">32, Note</a>), so that ‘the sheep to be killed’, (in books <span lang="bo">གསོད་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་<wbr></wbr>བའི་<wbr></wbr>ལུག་</span> or <span lang="bo">གསོད་<wbr></wbr>བྱའི་<wbr></wbr>ལུག་</span>) is expressed, in the most Western provinces, by: <i lang="bo-latn">sád c̀as-si lug</i>, Lad.: <i lang="bo-latn">sád-c̀es-si lug</i>, Lah. etc.: <i lang="bo-latn">sád c̀eï lug</i>, Tsaṅ: <i lang="bo-latn">söʼ-s̀ē-kyi lug</i> <span lang="bo">གསོད་<wbr></wbr>ཤེས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>ལུག་</span>, and, most like the classical language, in Kun.: <i lang="bo-latn">sód j̀ā̤ lug</i>.
<span class="pageNum" id="pb45">[<a href="#pb45">45</a>]</span></p>
<p id="s34"><b>34. The finite verb.</b> <span id="s34.1">1.</span> The principal verb of a sentence, which always closes it (<a href="#s48">48</a>.) receives in written Tibetan in most cases a certain mark, by which the end of a
period may be known. This is, in affirmative sentences, the vowel <i>o</i> (called by the grammarians: <span lang="bo">སླར་<wbr></wbr>སྡུ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>), in interrogative ones the syllable <i>am</i>. Before both the closing consonant of the verb is repeated, or, if it ends with a
vowel, <span lang="bo">འོ་</span> and <span lang="bo">འམ་</span> are written. The Perfect of the verbs ending in <span lang="bo">ན་ ར་ ལ་</span>, which formerly had a <span lang="bo">ད་</span> as second final—<span lang="bo">ད་<wbr></wbr>དྲག་</span>—, assume <span lang="bo">ཏོ་</span> and <span lang="bo">ཏམ་</span>.—<span>2.</span> These additional syllables are omitted <span><i>a</i>)</span> in imperative sentences, <span><i>b</i>)</span> in the latter member of a double question, <span id="s34.2.c"><i>c</i>)</span> when the question is expressed already by an interrogative pronoun or adverb, <span><i>d</i>)</span> in coordinate members of a period, with <span class="corr" id="xd31e9766" title="Added by author">the </span>exception of the last one, <span><i>e</i>)</span> commonly, when the principal verb is the verb substantive <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span> etc. (<a href="#s40.1">40. 1</a>.).
</p>
<p><i>Examples.</i> <i>a</i>) <span lang="bo">སོང་</span> ‘go!’, <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>ཤོག་</span> ‘come here!’.—<i>b</i>) <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ངམ་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་</span> ‘do you see or not?’—<i>c</i>) <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> ‘who is there?’, <span lang="bo">ནམ་<wbr></wbr>བསླེབ་</span> ‘when did (he, you etc.) arrive?’.—<i>d</i>) <span lang="bo">ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཤིག །མི་<wbr></wbr>བསད ། གྲོང་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>ཚང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་<wbr></wbr>སོ།</span> ‘the houses were destroyed, the men killed, the whole town annihilated’.—<i>e</i>) <span lang="bo">གཙང་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>བྱེ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>གསེར་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད།</span> ‘in the sand of the river is gold’.
</p>
<p><i>Note.</i> In conversation the <i>o</i> is generally omitted, and <span class="pageNum" id="pb46">[<a href="#pb46">46</a>]</span>the <i>m</i> of the interrogative termination dropped, so that merely the vowel <i>a</i> is heard, e.g. the question <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ངམ་</span> ‘do (you) see’ and the answer <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ་</span> ‘(I) see’, are commonly spoken in WT: <i lang="bo-latn">tʽoṅ-ṅa? tʽoṅ.</i>
</p>
<p id="s35"><b>35. Present Tenses.</b> <span>1.</span> Simple Present Tense. This is the simple root of the verb, which <span class="corr" id="xd31e9846" title="Corrected by author from: always will">will always</span> be found in the dictionary; in WT, as mentioned above, of verbs with more than one
root, only the Perfect root is in use; if, therefore, stress is laid on the Present
signification, recourse must be had <span class="corr" id="xd31e9849" title="Corrected by author from: te">to</span> one of the following compositions<span id="xd31e9852"></span> (s. <a href="#s31">31</a>. and <a href="#s31n">Note</a>). Thus, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་</span> ‘(I, thou, he etc.) see, seest etc.’, <span lang="bo">གཏོང་</span> ‘(I etc.) give’ through all persons; in the end of a sentence: <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌། གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌།</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>
</p>
<p><span>2.</span> Compound Present Tenses. <span><i>a</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">འདུག་</span> (s. <a href="#s40.1">40, 1</a>) is added to the root: <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> ‘(I) see’, <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> ‘(I) give’. This is common in the dialect of WT especially.—<span id="s35.2.b"><i>b</i>)</span> The Participle connected with <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span>, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘I see’. In WT this, of course, is changed to <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>—<span id="s35.2.c"><i>c</i>)</span> One of the Gerunds (<a href="#s41.a">41, A</a>) with <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span> or <span lang="bo">འདུག་</span>, as <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> or <span lang="bo">གི་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཞིང་</span>), <span lang="bo">འདུག་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span> ‘(I) see, am seeing’; it must, however, be remarked that both ways of expression,
<i>b</i>) and <i>c</i>), are not very frequent.—<span id="s35.2.d"><i>d</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">གིན་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> or <span lang="bo">འདུག་</span> is the proper form for the compound <span class="pageNum" id="pb47">[<a href="#pb47">47</a>]</span>English present: <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>གིན་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> ‘(I) am seeing’, <span lang="bo">འབྲི་<wbr></wbr>གིན་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> ‘(I) am writing (just now)’.
</p>
<p id="s36"><b>36. Preterit Tenses.</b> <span>1.</span> Simple Preterit, Perfect or Aorist Tense; this is the Perfect root: <span lang="bo">བཏང་</span>, at the close of the sentence <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌།</span> ‘gave, have given, was given’; in one-rooted verbs it has, of course, the same form
as the present: <span lang="bo">མཐོང་(ངོ་)</span> ‘saw, have, or was, seen’. This is the usual narrative tense like the Greek Aorist
or French Parfait défini.—<span>2.</span> Compound Preterit Tenses.—<span><i>a</i>)</span> The root with <span lang="bo">སོང་</span>, <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘have given, gave, was given’, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘have seen, saw, was seen’; rarely met with in books, but in general use in the conversation
of WT. In CT <span lang="bo">བྱུང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ʽuṅ</i> is used in a similar way: <span lang="bo">ཁྱིས་<wbr></wbr>རྨུག་<wbr></wbr>བྱུང་</span> ‘the dog has <span class="corr" id="xd31e10005" title="Source: bit">bitten</span>’.—<span><i>b</i>)</span> The root with <span lang="bo">ཟིན་</span> (more in books), or <span lang="bo">ཚར་</span> (more in common language), the true Perfect as the tense of accomplished action:
<span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཟིན་</span>, <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཚར་</span> ‘have given etc.’, ‘the action of giving is past’, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>ཚར་</span> ‘the man has already left<span class="corr" id="xd31e10028" title="Not in source">’</span>.—<span id="s36.2.c"><i>c</i>)</span> The Participle connected with <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span> occurs more frequently in the past sense than otherwise. Here, in the common talk
of WT, <span lang="bo">པ་</span> is used, even in those cases where the books have <span lang="bo">བ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཡི་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>བཀལ་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yí-ge kál-pa yin</i>, or, contracted, <i lang="bo-latn">kál-pen</i>, ‘the letter has been sent off’, in books: <span lang="bo">བཀལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> (s. <a href="#s11n">11, Note</a>), even <span lang="bo">གླ་<wbr></wbr>བཏངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> <span class="pageNum" id="pb48">[<a href="#pb48">48</a>]</span><i lang="bo-latn">la táṅs-pa yin</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">táṅs-pen</i>, ‘the wages have been paid’ i.o. <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span>.—<span><i>d</i>)</span> Gerunds in <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span> (WT) or <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> (CT) with <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span> or <span lang="bo">འདུག་</span> (the same as <a href="#s35.2.c">35. 2. <i>c</i></a>); also (in Ü Tsaṅ and later books) the mere Perfect root with <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span>, the <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span> or <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> being dropped: <span lang="bo">སོང་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> ‘has gone’.
</p>
<p id="s37"><b>37. Future Tenses.</b> <span>1.</span> Simple Future. The Future-root, <span lang="bo">གཏོང་(ངོ་)</span> ‘shall, will give, be given’.—<span id="s37.2">2.</span> Compound Future. <span><i>a</i>)</span> The auxiliary verb <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> (to grow, become) added to the Terminative case of the Infinitive: <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་(རོ་)</span> ‘shall, will give, be given’, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་(རོ་)</span> ‘shall, will see, be seen’. This is the most common, and, together with the Simple
Future and the Intensive (<a href="#s39">39</a>.), <span lang="bo">༌༌༌བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱའོ་</span>, the only one in use with the early classical authors in all cases where a special
Future-root is wanted, and even where this exists. It <span class="corr" id="xd31e10140" title="Source: dissappears">disappears</span>, however, gradually from the literature of the later period, and is replaced by the
two following compositions.—<span><i>b</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">རྒྱུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> connected with the root: <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘shall, will see’, <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘shall, will give’ etc. (<span lang="bo">རྒྱུ་</span> is originally a substantive, meaning <i>material</i>, <i>cause</i>, <i>occasion</i>).—<span><i>c</i>)</span> the root with <span lang="bo">འོང་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཡོང་</span>, <span lang="bo">སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོང་</span> ‘will arrive’, or, i.o. the root, the Term. Inf., <span lang="bo">སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>འོང་</span>.—Both <i>b</i>) and <i>c</i>) are even now in common <span class="pageNum" id="pb49">[<a href="#pb49">49</a>]</span>use in CT, whereas in WT:—<span><i>d</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span> connected with the root is the general form: <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽoṅ yin</i>, vulg.: <i lang="bo-latn">tʽóṅin</i> ‘shall, will see’, <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">táṅin</i>, ‘shall, will give’, <span lang="bo">བཀལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kállin</i> ‘will send’, <span lang="bo">ཚ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽa yin</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽa’in</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽän</i> ‘will go’.—<span><i>e</i>)</span> In books the Participle with <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span> (<a href="#s35.2.b">35. 2. <i>b</i></a>, <a href="#s36.2.c">36. 2 <i>c</i></a>) occurs sometimes also as Future.
</p>
<p id="s38"><b>38. Imperative mood.</b> <span id="s38.1">1.</span> This is usually the shortest possible form of the verb, which often loses its prefixed
letters, though in some instances a final <span lang="bo">ས་</span> is added. In many verbs with the vowel <i>a</i>, and in some with <i>e</i> these vowels are changed into <i>o</i>, besides other alterations of the consonants. Particularly often the surds or sonants
of the other tense-roots are changed to their aspirates in the Imperative. Thus, <span lang="bo">ཐོང་</span> ‘give!’, from <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>; <span lang="bo">ལྟོས་</span> Ld: <i lang="bo-latn">ltos</i>, CT: <i lang="bo-latn">tō̤</i> ‘look!’, from <span lang="bo">ལྟ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>; <span lang="bo">ཐོབ་</span> ‘throw!’, from <span lang="bo">འདེབས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>. In one-rooted verbs it is, of course, like the Present, but it can always be sufficiently
distinguished by adding the particle <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span> (<span lang="bo">ཤིག་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཞིག་</span>, according to <a href="#s13">13</a>.). This is used in the classical literature indiscriminately in addressing the highest
and the lowest persons (or, in other words, as well to command, as to pray), but according
to the modern custom of CT only when addressing servants and inferior people.—<span id="s38.2">2.</span> In <span class="ex">forbidding</span>, the Present-root is used with the negative particle <span lang="bo">མ་</span>, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>གཏོང་</span> ‘do not give!’, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ལྟ་</span> ‘do <span class="pageNum" id="pb50">[<a href="#pb50">50</a>]</span>not look!’, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>འདེབས་</span> ‘do not throw!’—<span>3.</span> In <span class="ex">praying</span> or <span class="ex">wishing</span> (Precative or Optative) either the same forms as under 1. are used, or the Imperatives
of <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to come’ or <span lang="bo">འོང་</span> ‘to come’ (the latter, <span lang="bo">ཤོག་</span>, of a quite different root) are connected with the Termin. Infin. <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>གྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཤོག་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་</span> ‘may (I, you, he etc.) see!’—<span>4.</span> In none of the three a person is indicated, but it is natural that in commanding
and forbidding the subject will be the second, sometimes the third person; in the
precative also the first person can be understood.
</p>
<p id="s38n"><i>Note.</i> The common language of WT, acknowledging only the Perfect-root, changes nothing but
the vowel: <span lang="bo">བཏོང་</span> ‘give!’ from <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་</span>; <span lang="bo">ལྟོས་</span> ‘look!’ from <span lang="bo">ལྟ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་</span>; <span lang="bo">བཏོབ་</span> ‘throw!’ from <span lang="bo">བཏབ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་</span> (Perf. of <span lang="bo">འདེབས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>). Instead of <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span>, which is not much used, <span lang="bo">བཏོང་</span> (<span class="corr" id="xd31e10383" title="Not in source">‘</span>give!<span class="corr" id="xd31e10385" title="Not in source">’</span>) is often added to the roots of other verbs (s. <a href="#s39">39</a>), thus, <span lang="bo">བཏོན་<wbr></wbr>བཏོང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ton toṅ</i> ‘take out!’ from <span lang="bo">བཏོན་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་</span> (<span lang="bo">འདོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>). Or the Imperative is paraphrased by <span lang="bo">དགོས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gos</i> (Ld<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>)<span class="corr" id="xd31e10412" title="Source: .">,</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gō̤</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">goi</i> ‘must’, added to the root of the verb: <span lang="bo">བསད་<wbr></wbr>དགོས་</span> ‘must be killed’.—In CT the changing of the vowel seems to be usually omitted, but
the <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span> is more used. Here, also, the Perfect root is not so exclusively preferred.
</p>
<p id="s39"><b>39. Intensive verbs.</b> <span id="s39.1">1.</span> Very frequent in books is the <span class="pageNum" id="pb51">[<a href="#pb51">51</a>]</span>connection of the four-rooted verb <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (Pf. <span lang="bo">བྱས་</span>, Fut. <span lang="bo">བྱ་</span>, Imp. <span lang="bo">བྱོས་</span>) ‘to do’, elegantly <span lang="bo">བགྱིད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (Pf. <span lang="bo">བགྱིས་</span>, Fut. <span lang="bo">བགྱི་</span>, Imp. <span lang="bo">གྱིས་</span>), respectfully <span lang="bo">མཛད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (Imp. <span lang="bo">མཛོད་</span>) with the Term. Inf. of another verb, to intensify the action of the latter. By this
means not only one-rooted verbs can be made to participate in the advantages of the
four-rooted, as <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་</span> ‘see’, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་</span> ‘saw’, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་</span> ‘shall, will see’, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱོས་</span> ‘see!’, but also several other periphrastical phrases are gained for speaking more
precisely than otherwise would be possible. The Future tense <span lang="bo">བྱ(འོ)༌</span> serves, besides its proper notion of futurity, particularly to express the English
auxiliaries ‘must, ought etc.’: thus, <span lang="bo">བརྗོད་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>བྱའོ་</span> ‘must not be uttered, ought not to be uttered’, sometimes it may be translated by
the Imperative mood. The spoken language, at least of WT, is devoid of this convenience,
and possesses nothing of the kind except the above mentioned intensive form of the
Imperative, formed by <span lang="bo">བཏོང་</span> (s. <a href="#s38n">38., Note</a>).—2. Another class of intensive verbs are formed by connecting two <span class="corr" id="xd31e10494" title="Source: synonymes">synonyms</span>, as <span lang="bo">འཇིགས་<wbr></wbr>སྐྲག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to be afraid’, literally ‘to be fear-frightened’, and other similar ones.
</p>
<p id="s40"><b>40. Substantive and Auxiliary Verbs.</b> <span id="s40.1">1.</span> <span class="ex">To be</span> <span id="s40.1.a"><i>a</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, in elegant and respectful speech <span lang="bo">ལགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lag-pa</i>, Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">lā-pa</i> (the latter word never used in WT) is the mere means <span class="pageNum" id="pb52">[<a href="#pb52">52</a>]</span>of connecting the attribute with its subject, as: <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དྭགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘this man is a Ladakee’, <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེད་<wbr></wbr>ལགས་<wbr></wbr>སམ་</span> ‘is it you, Sir?’. Therefore the question <span lang="bo">སུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> is to be understood ‘who are you’ or ‘who is he’ etc., the personal pronoun being
often let to be guessed.—<span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span> itself is often omitted in daily life in WT as well as in poetry, e.g. <span lang="bo">ཨི་<wbr></wbr>ཁུར་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>མཱ་<wbr></wbr>ལྕིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> ‘this load (is) very heavy’ WT. Negatively: <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span>, <span lang="bo">མིན་</span> vulg. <span lang="bo">མན་</span>, resp. <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ལགས་</span>.—<span id="s40.1.b"><i>b</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yod-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">yöʼ-pa</i>, eleg. <span lang="bo">མཆིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽī-pa</i>, resp. <span lang="bo">བཞུགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ug(s)-pa</i>, Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ū-pa</i>, negat.: <span lang="bo">མེད་</span>, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>མཆིས་</span>, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>བཞུགས་</span> means ‘to exist’, or ‘to be present’, ‘to be found at a place’, therefore the question
<span lang="bo">སུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> is to be understood: ‘Who is here? Who is there?’—<span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span> and <span lang="bo">བཞུགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> are in general use, <span lang="bo">མཆིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> is seldom heard. When connected with the Dative of a substantive it <span class="corr" id="xd31e10610" title="Corrected by author from: replaces">expresses</span> the English ‘to have, to have got’, as: <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དངུལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> ‘I have money’; <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཟུག་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> ‘I have pain’. In this case the <span class="ex">respectful</span> term is not <span lang="bo">གཞུགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> but <span lang="bo">མངའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅa-wa</i>: <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྙུན་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>མངའ་<wbr></wbr>འམ་</span> ‘has not the King an indisposition?’ i.e. ‘is Your Majesty ill?’.—<span id="s40.1.c"><i>c</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">འདུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dug-pa</i> (eleg. <span lang="bo">གདའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> is seldom heard), resp. <span lang="bo">བཞུགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, ‘to be present, stay, be found at a place’; negat. <span class="pageNum" id="pb53">[<a href="#pb53">53</a>]</span><span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span>. Both <span lang="bo">འདུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> and <span lang="bo">ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> can be used instead of <span lang="bo">ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, though not this instead of them.—<span><i>d</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">རེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">rĕʼ-pa</i> = <span lang="bo">འདུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, negat. <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>རེད་</span> in Spiti and CT, seldom in books.—<span id="s40.1.e"><i>e</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">མོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mod-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">möʼ-pa</i> has a somewhat emphatical sense: ‘to be (something) in a high degree’, ‘to be (somehow)
in plenty’. It occurs most frequently in the Gerund with <span lang="bo">ཀྱི་</span> (<a href="#s41">41</a>.), when it frequently has the sense of ‘though’, but never with a negative.—<span><i>f</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">སྣང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">naṅ-wa</i>, originally ‘to appear, to be visible, extant’, negat. <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>སྣང་</span>. Sometimes in books, and common in certain districts.—<span id="s40.1.g"><i>g</i>)</span> In books the concluding <i>o</i> (<a href="#s34">34</a>.) is, moreover, <span class="corr" id="xd31e10726" title="Corrected by author from: fouud">found</span> to represent the verb ‘to be’ in all its meanings, and is capable of being connected
with words of all classes besides verbs, e.g. <span lang="bo">དང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>འོ་</span> ‘is the first’ = <span lang="bo">དང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span>. In a similar manner also the <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span> of the Imperative (<a href="#s38">38</a>.) implies the verb ‘to be’.—<span><i>h</i>)</span> The Preterit root for all these verbs is <span lang="bo">སོང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">soṅ</i> ‘was, has been’, and besides also ‘has gone, become’, which is its original meaning.—For
the use of these verbs as auxiliaries s. <a href="#s35">35</a>. sq.
</p>
<p><span>2.</span> <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> originally ‘to be changed, turned into something’ then ‘to become, to grow’, auxiliary
for the Future tense in the old classical language, as mentioned in <a href="#s37">37</a>. Since this can be considered as the intransitive or passive <span class="corr" id="xd31e10766" title="Corrected by author from: notion, opposite">sense, opposed</span> to <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to make, render’, the connection <span class="pageNum" id="pb54">[<a href="#pb54">54</a>]</span>of <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> with the Term. Inf. of another verb must, in many cases, be rendered by the passive
voice in our languages. In WT the verb <span lang="bo">ཆ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽa-c̀e</i> ‘to go’ is used in the sense of ‘to become, to grow’. The Perfect root for both is
<span lang="bo">སོང་</span> ‘(went), grew, became, has become, is’ (s. above).—In CT and later books <span lang="bo">འབྱུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> is used instead.
</p>
<p><span id="s40.3">3.</span> ‘<span class="ex">must</span>’ is expressed by <span lang="bo">དགོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to be necessary’ (s. <a href="#s38n">38. Note</a>). In WT this is used in a very wide sense for any possible modification of the notion
of necessity: ‘I must, should, want to, ought’ and even ‘I will, wish, beg (for something)’
is nothing but <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དགོས་</span> ‘to me is necessary’ which may be, in the last mentioned case, rendered somewhat
more politely by adding <span lang="bo">ཞུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀u</i> ‘pray!’ <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཨ་<wbr></wbr>ལུ་<wbr></wbr>དགོས་<wbr></wbr>ཞུ་</span> ‘I want potatoes, pray!’ is as much to say as ‘Will you kindly give me some potatoes’.
In books and more refined language several other verbs are used in the same sense,
viz. <span lang="bo">རིགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘it is right to’ (usually with the Genit. Infin.), <span lang="bo">རུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘it is meet, decent’, <span lang="bo">འདོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to wish, desire’, both with the Supine; <span lang="bo">དགའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to like’ with the Dat. Inf. The popular substitute of the last, especially in use
in WT, is <span lang="bo">འཐད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, of similar meaning, added to the root.
</p>
<p id="s41"><b>41. Gerunds and Supines.</b> We retain these terms, employed by former grammarians, but observe that they do not
refer to the <span class="ex">form</span>, but to the <span class="ex">meaning</span>, as well as that Gerund is not to be understood in the same signification <span class="pageNum" id="pb55">[<a href="#pb55">55</a>]</span>as in Latin, but as the Gérondif of some French grammarians, or what Shakespeare calls
Past conjunctive participle in Hindi. These forms are of the greatest importance in
Tibetan, being the only substitutes for most of those subordinate clauses which we
are accustomed to introduce by conjunctions. They are formed by the two monosyllabic
<span class="corr" id="xd31e10844" title="Corrected by author from: appendices">affixes</span> <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span> (so after the closing consonants <span lang="bo">ན་ ར་ ལ་</span> <span class="corr" id="xd31e10854" title="Source: ས"><span lang="bo">ས་</span></span><span class="corr" id="xd31e10861" title="Not in source">)</span>; <span lang="bo">དེ་</span> after <span class="corr" id="xd31e10866" title="Source: དེ"><span lang="bo">དེ་</span></span>, <span lang="bo">སྟེ་</span> after <span lang="bo">ག་ ང་ བ་</span> <span class="corr" id="xd31e10881" title="Source: མ"><span lang="bo">མ་</span></span> and vowels and <span lang="bo">ཅིང་</span> (<span lang="bo">ཤིང་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཞིང་</span> according to the same rule as <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span> <a href="#s13">13</a>.), both of which are added to the root, or by the terminations mentioned in 15. as
composing the declension of nouns, which are added partly to the root, partly to the
Infinitive or Participle.
</p>
<p><span id="s41.a">A.</span> <span class="ex">Gerunds.</span> All the following forms can be rendered by the English Participle ending in <i>ing</i>, but the more accurate distinctions must be expressed by various conjunctions.
</p>
<p><span id="s41.a.1">1.</span> <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span> (<span lang="bo">དེ་</span> etc.), the most frequent of all these endings. It is added to the Present-root as
well as to the Perfect-root: <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘giving’, <span lang="bo">བཏོང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘having given’, and stands for all clauses beginning with <i>when</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>since</i>, <i>after</i> etc. Also in the spoken language of WT it is used most frequently.—Examples: <span lang="bo">ཕྲུ་<wbr></wbr>གུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>ཤིའོ་</span> ‘the child, having been carried away by the water, died’; <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཤི་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>སྲས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>ས་<wbr></wbr>བཟུང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ་</span> ‘the king having died, the prince occupied <span class="pageNum" id="pb56">[<a href="#pb56">56</a>]</span>the throne (<span class="corr" id="xd31e10948" title="Source: kings-place">king’s-place</span>)’; <span lang="bo">ཆུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲུལ་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>ཐུབ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span> ‘as there is a great water, we cannot go’.
</p>
<p><span>2.</span> <span lang="bo">ཅིང་</span> (<span lang="bo">ཤིང་</span> etc.), of a similar sense, chiefly used for smaller clauses within a large one, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིང་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲོས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> ‘when, being displeased, he became angry’, or ‘growing displeased and angry’. Often
it denotes two actions going on at the same time, or two states of a thing existing
together, and then can only be translated by ‘and’, thus, <span lang="bo">མཐའ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་<wbr></wbr>ཅིང་<wbr></wbr>མུ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་</span> ‘without end and boundary’; <span lang="bo">ཤ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཟ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིང་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འཐུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to eat flesh and drink blood’<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e10974src" href="#xd31e10974">1</a>. It stands also in a causal sense: ‘by doing etc.’, as: <span lang="bo">ཉ་<wbr></wbr>བཤོར་<wbr></wbr>ཞིང་<wbr></wbr>འཚོའོ་</span> ‘(we) live by catching fish’. These two (1. and 2.) can also, like the closing <i>o</i>, as mentioned in <a href="#s40.1.g">40. 1. <i>g</i></a>, be added to every class of words, in the sense of <i>being</i>: <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>རིགས་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིང་<wbr></wbr>མཐོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘as you are high(-born), being of a great family’. In conversation, <span lang="bo">ཅིང་</span> is scarcely ever heard.
</p>
<p><span>3.</span> <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> (from, or after, doing something) in temporal clauses with ‘after, when, as’; practically
it is very much like <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span>, and often alternating with it. In most cases, in speaking always, it is added to
the root, seldom to the infinitive.<span class="pageNum" id="pb57">[<a href="#pb57">57</a>]</span>—<i>Examples.</i> <span lang="bo">ནམ་<wbr></wbr>ལངས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘when the night had risen (viz. at daybreak) he went’; <span lang="bo">ལང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘after you will have risen, go!’ <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>སྐད་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱུང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་<wbr></wbr>ངུས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘when I saw that<span class="sic">,</span> raising clamour, I wept’.
</p>
<p><span id="s41.a.4">4.</span> <span lang="bo">ན་</span> ‘in (doing something)’ again for clauses with ‘since, when, as’, but in most cases
by far for ‘if’ and conditional ‘when’: <span lang="bo">འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘if, or, when (I) go, or went’; <span lang="bo">ཤི་<wbr></wbr>ཚར་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘when, after (he) has died’, ‘if he is already dead’; <span lang="bo">ཤི་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘if (he) die, should die’, ‘if (he) died’, ‘when (he) dies’; <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘if … do, did’; <span lang="bo">བྱ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘if … were to do’. It is added to the root, seldom to the infinitive, and as common
in talking as in books.
</p>
<p><span id="s41.a.5">5.</span> <span lang="bo">ལ་</span> is of more various use. When added to the root, it is very much like <span lang="bo">ཅིང་</span>, which it replaces in the conversational language of CT (where the first example
of 2. would be, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲོས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span>), but does not occur so often except in imperative or precative sentences, when it
is added to the Imperative root of the subordinate verb, just like other gerunds:
<span lang="bo">སོང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ལྟོས་</span> ‘going look!’, ‘go and look!’ <span lang="bo">ལོང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘rise and go!’. This particle, like the above-mentioned, implies the verb ‘to be’,
especially when added to adjectives denoting a personal quality. <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>སྡུག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཐུང་<wbr></wbr>ངུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> ‘being ugly and short’; <span lang="bo">དབྱིབས་<wbr></wbr>ལེགས་<wbr></wbr>ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>ལྟ་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>སྡུག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>མཛེས་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb58">[<a href="#pb58">58</a>]</span><span lang="bo">པ་</span> ‘pretty, being of a good figure and nice to behold’. When added to the Infinitive,
it denotes: <span><i>a</i>)</span> of course, the real Dative, or the usual meanings of the postposition <span lang="bo">ལ་</span> with a substantive; thus, <span lang="bo">གསོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to rejoice at killing, be fond of killing’. <span id="s41.a.5.b"><i>b</i>)</span> nearly the same as <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span> or ‘as’ in English, e.g. <span lang="bo">ལམ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>ལྷ་<wbr></wbr>རྟེན་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>བབ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span> ‘as there was an idol-shrine in the middle of the way, (she) alighted from (her)
chariot’; <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཉིན་<wbr></wbr>རེ་<wbr></wbr>བཞིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>དེར་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲུས་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> ‘as the king went there daily to bathe’; <span lang="bo">འཇིག་<wbr></wbr>རྟེན་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>འོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>འོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘as (it) does not occur in the (whole) world, what is (its) occurring here, or, how
is it that <span class="corr" id="xd31e11106" title="Corrected by author from: is">it</span> occurs here?’. Finally, in the language of common life <span lang="bo">ལ་</span> is added to the repeated root in order to express the English ‘while, whilst’: <span lang="bo">ངས་<wbr></wbr>ཤ་<wbr></wbr>གཏུབ་<wbr></wbr>གཏུབ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅā̤ s̀a tub-túb-la kʽyód-dī</i> (<a href="#s15n">15., Note</a>) <i lang="bo-latn">s̀iṅ kʽyoṅ</i> WT, or <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>བཀུར་<wbr></wbr>ཤོག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ-kyī s̀iṅ kur-s̀og</i> CT ‘while I am cutting the meat into pieces, bring you (some) wood’.
</p>
<p><span id="s41.a.6">6.</span> <span lang="bo">ལས་</span> added only to the Infinitive, literally ‘out of (the doing)’. This may mean <span><i>a</i>)</span> ‘<span class="ex">after</span>’, <span lang="bo">ཉལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ལང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to rise from lying, after having lain’; <span lang="bo">དུར་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཞག་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>དུར་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>བྱུང་</span> ‘after having been three days in <span class="pageNum" id="pb59">[<a href="#pb59">59</a>]</span>the grave (I) came out of the grave’.—<span id="s41.a.6.b"><i>b</i>)</span> ‘<span class="ex">while</span>’, in which case the root of the verb may be repeated, as: <span lang="bo">སོང་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>བྲམ་<wbr></wbr>ཟེ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>ཕྲད་<wbr></wbr>དོ་</span> ‘out of my walking i.e. when walking along, (I) met with a brahman’; <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ཤ་<wbr></wbr>གཏུབ་<wbr></wbr>གཏུབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>བཀུར་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>ཤོག་</span> (the above mentioned example (s. <span lang="bo">ལ་</span>) translated into classical language); <span><i>c</i>)</span> also the English ‘being about to’ is, in books, often expressed by this Gerund: <span lang="bo">ནང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>སྒོ་<wbr></wbr>བཅད་<wbr></wbr>དོ་</span> ‘when (I) was about to enter, the door was shut’; <span lang="bo">ཤི་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིར་<wbr></wbr>སོས་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>གྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཏོ་</span> ‘when (I) was going to die, (I) was restored to life again’. Which of the three is
the real meaning, will in most cases be clear from circumstances. This gerund is not
used in talking, at least in WT.
</p>
<p><span id="s41.a.7">7.</span> <span lang="bo">ཀྱིས་</span> (<span lang="bo">གྱིས་</span> etc.) or <span lang="bo">ཀྱི་</span> (<span lang="bo">གྱི་</span> etc.), or the Instrumental and Genitive cases of the root, mean <span><i>a</i>)</span> ‘by doing something’ or ‘because’, e.g. <span lang="bo">དགོས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>འདོང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ་</span> ‘we come (here), because it is necessary’. <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>མོས་<wbr></wbr>གྲོགས་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིས་<wbr></wbr>སྙིང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> ‘since I am resolved to help you, do not be depressed!’ This, originally, is a function
of the Instrumental only, but in later times the other cases also are used in this
meaning.—<span id="s41.a.7.b"><i>b</i>)</span> more frequently they are used adversatively, ‘though’, especially when connected
with <span lang="bo">མོད་</span> (<a href="#s40.1.e">40. 1. <i>e</i></a>), <span lang="bo">ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>མོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ཅིས་<wbr></wbr>ཡིད་<wbr></wbr>ཆེས་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་</span> ‘though (you) did <span class="pageNum" id="pb60">[<a href="#pb60">60</a>]</span>say so, by what shall (I) believe (it)?’ In other cases it may be left untranslated
when the next sentence will commence with ‘but’: <span lang="bo">ཟས་<wbr></wbr>བཟང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>འདོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ཟས་<wbr></wbr>ཐ་<wbr></wbr>མལ་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཟོས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘not liking delicate food, he ate vulgar food’ or ‘he did not like d. f., but preferred
v. f.’. This Gerund is scarcely used in talking, at least in WT.
</p>
<p><span id="s41.a.8">8.</span> <span lang="bo">པས་</span> (<span lang="bo">བས་</span>), the Instrumental of the Infinitive, ‘by (doing something)’ is, of course, the proper
expression for ‘because’, but also very often used indiscriminately for <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span> or <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> only for the sake of varying the mode of speaking: <span lang="bo">ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>དཀའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པས་</span> ‘because it is very difficult’; <span lang="bo">ལྟས་<wbr></wbr>པས་</span> ‘when (he) looked’.
</p>
<p><span>9.</span> Also <span lang="bo">གིན་</span> the proper use of which has been shewn above (<a href="#s35.2.d">35. 2. <i>d</i>.</a>) must be mentioned once more as it occurs in a similar sense to <span lang="bo">ཅིང་</span>, <span lang="bo">སྨོན་<wbr></wbr>ལམ་<wbr></wbr>འདེབས་<wbr></wbr>གིན་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> ‘walk on praying (preces faciendo)!’; <span lang="bo">བྲང་<wbr></wbr>བརྡུང་<wbr></wbr>གིན་<wbr></wbr>ངུས་<wbr></wbr>པས་</span> ‘beating (her own) breast and weeping’.
</p>
<p><span id="s41.b">B.</span> <span class="ex">Supines.</span> They are expressed simply by the Terminative Case of the Infinitive or of the Root,
<span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཐོང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> ‘to see’. In many instances the use of either is optional, in others one is preferred.
<span id="s41.b.1"><span class="corr" id="xd31e11288" title="Not in source">1.</span></span> Their use is: with adjectives like the Latin supine in <i>u</i>, e.g. <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>དཀའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘difficult to learn’; with verbs expressing ‘to go, to send’ etc., <span class="pageNum" id="pb61">[<a href="#pb61">61</a>]</span>also ‘to pray’ etc. like that in <i lang="bo-latn">um</i>: <span lang="bo">ལེན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘go to fetch’, <span lang="bo">གནང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>གསོལ་</span> ‘(I) beg (you) to permit,—for permission’. In these cases the root is most common,
but the Inf. <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>པར་</span>, or <span lang="bo">གནང་<wbr></wbr>བར་</span>, <span lang="bo">ལེན་<wbr></wbr>པར་</span> may also be used. <span id="s41.b.2">2.</span> Another use of the Supine is <span id="s41.b.2.a"><i>a</i>)</span> with verbs of sensation and, less frequently, with those of declaration, where we
use sentences with ‘that’ or the Participle or Infinitive: <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>འོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘seeing (his) mother coming’ (instead of which, however, <span lang="bo">འོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> may be said as well); <span lang="bo">༌༌༌བའི་<wbr></wbr>དུས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བབ་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>ཤེས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘knowing that the time of … ing had arrived’ (lit: ‘that it had come down to the
time’); <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>དྲན་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘remembering him to be the <span class="corr" id="xd31e11337" title="Corrected by author from: kings">king’s</span> son’ or ‘that he was …’.—<span id="s41.b.2.b"><i>b</i>)</span> in an adverbial sense, when we say ‘so that’, especially in negative sentences, ‘so
that not’<span class="corr" id="xd31e11344" title="Not in source">,</span> ‘without … ing’, <span lang="bo">སུས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཚོར་<wbr></wbr>བར་</span> ‘so that nobody may (did) perceive it’, or ‘without anybody perceiving it<span class="corr" id="xd31e11350" title="Source: .’">’.</span>
</p>
<p id="s41n1"><i>Note 1.</i> The modern language of WT uses in the first instance (<a href="#s41.b.1">B. 1</a>.) either the simple Infinitive, <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>ཁག་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">དཀག་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>), or the same with <span lang="bo">ལ་</span>, <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁག་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>, or with <span lang="bo">ཕྱི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> (for the <span lang="bo">ཕྱིར་</span> of the books s. <a href="#s7.2">7. 2</a>.), <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁག་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>; in the second either the same forms, or a particular one, which consists in repeating
the final consonant <span class="pageNum" id="pb62">[<a href="#pb62">62</a>]</span>of the root with the vowel <i>a</i>, to which also <span lang="bo">ལ་</span> may be added: thus, <span lang="bo">ལེན་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>རང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཐུག་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོངས་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘(I) have come to meet you’; in the third, the direct Imperative adding <span lang="bo">ཞུ་</span> for the sake of civility, <span lang="bo">དགོངས་<wbr></wbr>ཞུ་</span> ‘pray permit!’
</p>
<p>In the case of <a href="#s41.b.2">B. 2</a>., instead of <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>འོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e11411" title="Source: ;">,</span> the expression in common use will be <span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོང་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཡོང་<wbr></wbr>ང་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span>; instead of <span lang="bo">སུས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཚོར་<wbr></wbr>བར་</span>, either the same form, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ཚོར་<wbr></wbr>ར་</span>, or the Gerund, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ཚོར་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span>.—In CT those examples would respectively, stand thus, <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> or <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> or <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>དོན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>དཀག་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">láb-tu</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">láb-ba</i> (sounding almost <i lang="bo-latn">lă-wa</i>), <i lang="bo-latn">láb-pa̤ dʽo̤n-dʽu kag-po</i>; in the third instance a peculiar word, ‘<i lang="bo-latn">rog</i>’, is used, which is said to be originally the same as <span lang="bo">གྲོགས་</span> (<span lang="bo">རོགས་</span>) ‘friend, assistant’, and serves now as the respectful substitute of <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span>, Particle of the Imperative, <span lang="bo">གནང་<wbr></wbr>རོག་</span> ‘pray permit!’, <span lang="bo">སྟེར་<wbr></wbr>རོག་</span> ‘pray give!’ Instead of <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ཚོར་<wbr></wbr>ར་</span> etc. the most usual form in CT will be the simple Participle, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ཤེས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>.
</p>
<p><i>Note 2.</i> All the forms, of course, where <span lang="bo">པ་</span> or <span lang="bo">བ་</span> are met with might in certain cases belong to the Participle, and not to the Infinitive.
</p>
<p><i>Note 3.</i> The reader will have missed any mention of tenses of the class of Pluperfect, Past
Future etc., and, <span class="pageNum" id="pb63">[<a href="#pb63">63</a>]</span>indeed, there exists no form of the kind, and they can only be rendered by a Gerund,
e.g. <span lang="bo">ཡི་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>བྲིས་<wbr></wbr>ཟིན་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>བཀལ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘when (he) had written the letter, (he) sent (it) off’; <span lang="bo">ཡི་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>བྲིས་<wbr></wbr>ཟིན་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>བཀལ་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་</span> (WT: <span lang="bo">བཀལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">བཀལ་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span>) ‘when (he) shall have written the letter, (he) will <span class="corr" id="xd31e11504" title="Source: sent">send</span> (it) off’. Neither have the Conditional or Subjunctive any special form. Thus, e.g.,
<span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>འཚོའོ་</span> ‘if we did not do that, we could not live<span class="corr" id="xd31e11510" title="Not in source">’</span> (i.e. we cannot earn our sustenance in any other manner); <span lang="bo">ཅིའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱེར་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཟེར་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>ཉན་</span> ‘why should not I hear (grant) what you say (your wish)?’; <span lang="bo">བརྡ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཀྲོལ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིང་<wbr></wbr>རྟགས་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>རྟོགས་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> ‘if (you) had not explained it, and (we) had not seen the signs, we would not have
understood it’; <span lang="bo">མིས་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>རྙེད་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>སྤྲུལ་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་<wbr></wbr>བཏག་<wbr></wbr>དགོས་</span> ‘as a man would not find it, I must send an emanation’; vulg., WT, <span lang="bo">ཨི་<wbr></wbr>ཟུག་<wbr></wbr>ཐག་<wbr></wbr>རིང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ངའི་<wbr></wbr>རྩར་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོང་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘if the distance was not so great, they would come to me (visit me)’. Here may be
added, that also the intention of, or attempt at, doing something is expressed by
the simple verb: thus, <span lang="bo">བདག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>བཀག་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏུབ་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་</span> ‘though I did try to hinder him, I could not’; <span lang="bo">བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ཉེ་<wbr></wbr>གནས་<wbr></wbr>ཆུར་<wbr></wbr>མཆོངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས། ཆུར་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིན་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>རྫུ་<wbr></wbr>འཕྲུལ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>མཐུས་<wbr></wbr>བླངས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘as he saw his own disciple <span class="pageNum" id="pb64">[<a href="#pb64">64</a>]</span>on <span class="ex">the point of</span> springing into the water (and that he <span class="ex">had</span> sprung off the bank), he held him back by the force of his magic, so that he did
not touch the water’ (s. <a href="#s41.b.2.b">41. B. 2. b</a>.). Especially the gerunds in <span lang="bo">ལས་</span> (<a href="#s41.a.6">41. A. 6</a>.) have often this meaning: <span lang="bo">བདག་<wbr></wbr>སྲོག་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>བྲལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>སྲོག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>སྐྱབས་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘when I was <span class="ex">about</span> to be parted from life, he saved it’; <span lang="bo">སྦྲུལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲོས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>གདུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱུང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>སྙམས་<wbr></wbr>བསམས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘the snake, having become angry, though she <span class="ex"><span class="corr" id="xd31e11560" title="Corrected by author from: intented">intended</span></span> (or: had at first int.) to let out her poison, reflected thus’. As will be seen from
these examples, the action, in such cases, is thought to have begun in fact.
</p>
<div class="div2 last-child section"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h3 class="main">A Survey of the principal forms of the Finite Verb.</h3>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p class="first xd31e11565">Present:
</p>
<p></p>
<div class="table">
<table class="tbl64.1">
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellTop"><span lang="bo">གཏོང་</span>, </td>
<td class="cellTop">W </td>
<td class="cellRight cellTop"><span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> give </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> I see intens. <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"> </td>
<td>C </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span>) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellBottom">W </td>
<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>གིན་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span>); C <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> I am seeing </td>
</tr>
</table>
</div><p>
</p>
<p class="xd31e11565">Perfect:
</p>
<p></p>
<div class="table">
<table class="tbl64.1">
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellTop"><span lang="bo">བཏང་</span> </td>
<td class="cellTop">W </td>
<td colspan="5" class="colspan cellRight cellTop"><span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> gave, have given </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་</span> </td>
<td>C </td>
<td><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བྱུང་</span> saw, </td>
<td>W </td>
<td><span lang="bo">སོང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> </td>
<td>C </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">སོང་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="xd31e11669">went </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight xd31e11669">went </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཟིན་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td colspan="5" class="colspan cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཚར་</span> I have given, <span class="ex">intens.</span> <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"> </td>
<td colspan="5" class="colspan cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">བཏངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> has been given </td>
</tr>
</table>
</div><p>
<span class="pageNum" id="pb65">[<a href="#pb65">65</a>]</span></p>
<p class="xd31e11565">Future:
</p>
<p></p>
<div class="table">
<table class="tbl64.1">
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellTop"><span lang="bo">གཏང་</span> </td>
<td class="cellTop">W </td>
<td class="cellRight cellTop"><span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> shall, will give </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་</span> </td>
<td>C </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> <span class="ex">intens.</span> <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight">shall, will see </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོང་</span>, <span lang="bo">སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>འོང་</span> will arrive </td>
</tr>
</table>
</div><p>
</p>
<p class="xd31e11565">Imperative:
</p>
<p></p>
<div class="table">
<table class="tbl64.1">
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellTop"><span lang="bo">ཐོང་</span> </td>
<td class="cellTop">W </td>
<td class="cellRight cellTop"><span lang="bo">བཏོང་</span> give! <span lang="bo">བཏོན་<wbr></wbr>བཏོང་</span> take out! <span lang="bo">བསད་<wbr></wbr>དགོས་</span> kill! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་</span> see! <span class="ex">intens.</span> <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱོས་</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan cellLeft cellRight cellBottom"><span class="ex">negat.</span> <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་</span> do not give! <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་</span> </td>
</tr>
</table>
</div><p>
</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="footnotes">
<hr class="fnsep">
<div class="footnote-body">
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e10974">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e10974src">1</a></span> The objects of <span lang="bo">ཟ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> and <span lang="bo">འཐུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> often assume the dative-sign, cf. English ‘to feed on’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e10974src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="ch2.7" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e959">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="label">Chapter VII.</h2>
<h2 class="main">The Adverb.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p class="first"><b>42.</b> We may distinguish three classes of adverbs: 1. Primitive adverbs. 2. Adverbs formed
from Adjectives. 3. Adverbs formed from Substantives or Pronouns.
</p>
<p><span id="s42.1">1.</span> Very few Primitive Adverbs occur; the most usual are: <span lang="bo">ད་</span> ‘now’, <span lang="bo">ནམ་</span> ‘when’, <span lang="bo">སང་</span> (books and CT) or <span lang="bo">ཐོ་<wbr></wbr>རེ་</span> (WT) ‘to morrow’, and a few similar ones; <span lang="bo">ཡང་</span> ‘again’, and the two negatives <span lang="bo">མི་</span> and <span lang="bo">མ་</span>, the latter of which is used in prohibitive sentences, and with a past tense, as
<span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>གཏོང་</span> ‘(I) do not give’, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>གཏང་</span> ‘(I) shall not give’, but: <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་</span> ‘did not give’, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>གཏོང་</span> (WT: <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་</span>) ‘do not <span class="pageNum" id="pb66">[<a href="#pb66">66</a>]</span>give!’ The verbs <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span>, <span lang="bo">ལགས་</span>, <span lang="bo">མཆིས་</span>, <span lang="bo">རེད་</span> have always <span lang="bo">མ་</span> instead of <span lang="bo">མི་</span> before them (<a href="#s40">40.</a>). Another particle of this kind, of a merely formal value, is <span lang="bo">ནི་</span>, which is added to any word or group of words in order to single it out and distinctly
separate it from everything that follows. It is, therefore, often very useful in lessening
the great indistinctness of the language, especially so when separating the subject
from the attribute: <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དྭགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘that man is a Ladakee’. (There is scarcely an adequate word to be found in our modern
languages, but the Greek <span class="trans" title="ge"><span lang="grc" class="grek">γε</span></span>, or <span class="trans" title="men"><span lang="grc" class="grek">μεν</span></span>—<span class="trans" title="de"><span lang="grc" class="grek">δε</span></span>—, are very similar.) In talking it is seldom heard, and, when used, in WT pronounced:
<span lang="bo">ནིང་</span>.
</p>
<p><span id="s42.2">2.</span> Adverbs may be formed from any Adjective by putting it in the Terminative case. <span lang="bo">བཟང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> ‘good’, <span lang="bo">བཟང་<wbr></wbr>པོར་</span> ‘well’; <span lang="bo">རབ་</span> ‘principal’, <span lang="bo">རབ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> ‘<span class="corr" id="xd31e11927" title="Corrected by author from: principal">principally</span>, very’; <span lang="bo">དྲག་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> ‘violent’, <span lang="bo">དྲག་<wbr></wbr>པོར་</span> or <span lang="bo">དྲག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> ‘violently’.
</p>
<p><span id="s42.3">3.</span> Nearly all the <span class="ex">local</span> Adverbs are formed from Substantives or Pronouns with some local Postposition: <span lang="bo">གོང་</span> ‘the place (space) above, upper part’, <span lang="bo">གོང་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘above’, <span lang="bo">གོང་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> ‘upwards’, <span lang="bo">གོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘from above (downwards)’; <span lang="bo">འདི་</span> ‘this’, <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘in this, here’, <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">འདིར་</span> ‘hither, here’ (cf. <a href="#s15">15.</a>), <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘hence’; <span lang="bo">དེ་</span> ‘that’, <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘there’, <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>རུ</span>, <span lang="bo">དེར་</span> ‘thither, there’, <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘from there, thence, then, after that’.
<span class="pageNum" id="pb67">[<a href="#pb67">67</a>]</span></p>
<p><i>Note.</i> In talking the simple adjective is used, mostly, instead of its adverb (2. class):
<span lang="bo">མགྱོགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> for —<span lang="bo">པར་</span> ‘quickly, soon’.
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="ch2.8" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e971">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="label">Chapter VIII.</h2>
<h2 class="main">The Postposition.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p id="s43" class="first"><b>43.</b> There are two kinds of Postpositions: 1. Simple Postpositions. These are the same
that we know already as forming the cases (<a href="#s15">15</a>). 2. Compound Postpositions, formed in the manner of local Adverbs (<a href="#s42.3">42. 3</a>), with which they are, indeed, with a few exceptions, identical.
</p>
<p><span id="s43.1">1.</span> <span class="ex">Simple Postpositions.</span> These are: <span lang="bo">ལ་</span> (the affix of the Dative), <span lang="bo">ན་</span> (Locative), <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> and <span lang="bo">ལས་</span> (Ablative), <span lang="bo">རུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ར་</span>, <span lang="bo">སུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཏུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">དུ་</span> (Terminative).
</p>
<p>Their use will be best seen in the following examples:
</p>
<p class="xd31e11565"><span lang="bo">༎ ལ་ ༎</span>
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཕན་<wbr></wbr>དིལ་<wbr></wbr>མེ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བོར་</span> WT, <span lang="bo">ཟངས་<wbr></wbr>མེ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བཞག་</span> (inst. of <span lang="bo">ཞོག་</span> <a href="#s38n">38, Note</a>) CT ‘put the degchi on the fire!’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">བོང་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲེའོ་</span>, vulg: <span lang="bo">འགྲེ་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span>, Tsang: <span lang="bo">བོང་<wbr></wbr>གུ་<wbr></wbr>ས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲེ་<wbr></wbr>གིས་</span> ‘the ass rolls himself on the ground’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">རྟ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཞོན་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ནས་</span>) <span lang="bo">འགྲོ་</span> ‘having mounted on the horse (he) goes’, or ‘(he) goes on horseback’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">བྱ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>མཁའ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འཕུར་<wbr></wbr>རོ་</span>, vulg (WT): <span lang="bo">ཅི་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (corrupted from <span class="pageNum" id="pb68">[<a href="#pb68">68</a>]</span><span lang="bo">མཆིལ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>) <span lang="bo">ནམ་<wbr></wbr>མཁའ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འཕུར་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">བྱ་<wbr></wbr>ནམ་<wbr></wbr>མཁའ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འཕིར་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> ‘the bird flies in the sky’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">མཚན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཆ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> WT, <span lang="bo">ནམ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> CT ‘(we) shall set out at night’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> (books and CT), <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>མང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>འཐད་<wbr></wbr>དེ་</span> WT ‘being very glad at this’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">སྨན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>མཁས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘skilful in medicine’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཆང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བོས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span>, vulg: <span lang="bo">བོས་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘invited him to beer’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">མགོ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཟུག་<wbr></wbr>རག་<wbr></wbr>ག་</span> WT, <span lang="bo">འདུག་<wbr></wbr>གམ་</span> CT ‘is (there) ache in (your) head’, ‘have you head-ache?’
</p>
<p class="xd31e11565"><span lang="bo">༎ ན་</span>, <span lang="bo">དུ་</span> etc. <span lang="bo">༎</span>
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> (or <span lang="bo">དུ་</span>) <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span>, vulg: <span lang="bo">ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">རུ་</span>) <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span> ‘(he) is in the house, at home’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span>, vulg: <span lang="bo">ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ལ་</span>) <span lang="bo">སོང་</span> ‘go into the house, home!’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">དུས་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span>, vulg: <span lang="bo">ཞག་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་</span> ‘at a (certain) time, once’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ད་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་<wbr></wbr>ཞག་<wbr></wbr>བདུན་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> (books) ‘from to-day in (after) seven days’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">མས་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>པང་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>ཏོ་</span>; WT: <span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>མས་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཚ་<wbr></wbr>པང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁུར་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་</span>; CT: <span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>མས་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>པང་<wbr></wbr>ཀར་<wbr></wbr>ཁུར་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘the mother carried the son in (her) arms’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">དེའི་<wbr></wbr>དུས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་</span>, vulg: <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དུས་</span> ‘at that time’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ལོ་<wbr></wbr>བདུན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> (books, for vulg. see Compound adv.) ‘for seven years’.
<span class="pageNum" id="pb69">[<a href="#pb69">69</a>]</span></p>
<p><span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོར་<wbr></wbr>བཅུག་<wbr></wbr>གོ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">བསྐོས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span>), W: <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བཏག་</span> ‘(they) made (or selected, raised) that man to (be) king’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཡོ་<wbr></wbr>བྱད་<wbr></wbr>སྔས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>བཅུག་<wbr></wbr>གོ་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">འཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>བྱད་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ཆ་<wbr></wbr>ལག་</span>) <span lang="bo">སྔས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བཅུག་</span> ‘they made (their) luggage into a pillow, used it as a pillow’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">གང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ག་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span>) <span lang="bo">འགྲོ་</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">ག་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆ་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་</span> (s. <a href="#s35.2.b">35. 2. <i>b</i></a>, <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span> omitted, <a href="#s40.1.a">40. 1. <i>a</i></a>), CT: <span lang="bo">ག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> (<span lang="bo">པ་</span> or <span lang="bo">པས་</span>, provincial irregularities <a href="#s35.2.c">35. 2. <i>c</i></a>) ‘where are (you) going?’
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ཏི་<wbr></wbr>ནོར་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ཁོག་<wbr></wbr>སར་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>) <span lang="bo">འགྲུལ་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> (vulg.) ‘I am going to Tino (or Kʽoksar)’.
</p>
<p class="xd31e11565"><span lang="bo">༎ ནས་ ༎</span>
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཟླ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱད་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘after eight months’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཟླ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘from (after) the eighth month’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཐོག་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> (books and CT), WT: <span lang="bo">མགོ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘from the beginning’.
</p>
<p class="xd31e11565"><span lang="bo">༎ ལས་ ༎</span>
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">དཀར་<wbr></wbr>ཁུང་<wbr></wbr>ལས་</span> ‘from the window, through the window’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">འཁོར་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, vulg: <span lang="bo">༌༌༌ནས་<wbr></wbr>བསྒྲལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to deliver from the circulation (transmigration)’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">པ་<wbr></wbr>གུ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>རྩིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">ནས་</span>, Tsang: <span lang="bo">པ་<wbr></wbr>གུའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>རྩིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to build a house out of brick (Ts: a house of brick)’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">མདོ་<wbr></wbr>ཟ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཏོག་<wbr></wbr>ལས་</span> ‘from the sūtra Zamatog’.
<span class="pageNum" id="pb70">[<a href="#pb70">70</a>]</span></p>
<p><span lang="bo">སློབ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> (vulg: <span lang="bo">སློབ་<wbr></wbr>མའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span>) ‘one of (from among) the pupils’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཀུན་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>མཁས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (books and CT), WT: <span lang="bo">ཚང་<wbr></wbr>མའི་<wbr></wbr>སང་<wbr></wbr>མཁས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘wiser than all, the wisest, most skilful of all’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ལུས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘more than two are not left’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> ‘more than myself are not’.
</p>
<p>Besides these <span lang="bo">དང་</span> ‘with’ is to be mentioned as Simple Postposition: thus, <span lang="bo">ཁྱེའུ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">ཁྱོག་<wbr></wbr>ཐོང་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>ལབ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘speaking (conversing) with the youth’; <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>དང་</span> ‘with me’, or, in fuller form, <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>ལྷན་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>བཅས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་</span> vulg: <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>མཉམ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> ‘together with me’. In WT it is even used for the instrumental when the real instrument
(tool) of an action is meant, e.g. <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>བློན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>རལ་<wbr></wbr>གྲིས་<wbr></wbr>བསད་</span> so in books, but WT: <span lang="bo">རལ་<wbr></wbr>གྲི་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>བསད་</span> ‘the king killed the minister with the sword’. It is, moreover, added to many Adjectives
and Verbs, when we use the Accusative or Dative or other Prepositions, e.g. <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>འདྲ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘like (with) that, similar to that’. With an Infinitive it denotes the synchronism
of the action with another one, <span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཤར་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང་</span> ‘with the sun rising, at sunrise’; <span lang="bo">གཉིད་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང་</span> ‘with (on) their going to sleep, when they went to sleep’; <span lang="bo">ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘(with) saying so he went home’ or also ‘he said so, and went home’. Often it is
found with <span class="pageNum" id="pb71">[<a href="#pb71">71</a>]</span>an Imperative, without any perceptible signification, if it is not to be regarded
as a substitute for <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span> (<a href="#s38">38</a>): <span lang="bo">ད་<wbr></wbr>ཟོ་<wbr></wbr>དང་</span> ‘now eat!’ For its use as a conjunction see the next chapter.
</p>
<p><span id="s43.2">2.</span> <span class="ex">Compound Postpositions.</span> These may conveniently be grouped in two classes: <span><i>a</i>)</span> Local Compound Postpositions, which are virtually the same as the Local Adverbs specified
in <a href="#s42.3">42. 3</a>.: thus, <span lang="bo">ནང་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘in (the midst of)’, <span lang="bo">ནང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> ‘into’ also ‘in’, <span lang="bo">ནང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘from, out of’. The most usual ones will be seen in the following examples:
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">རྫིང་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> (or <span lang="bo">དུ་</span>) <span lang="bo">ཁྲུས་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to bathe in a pond’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཆུའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>ཞུགས་</span> ‘he entered into the water’ (both in books and common talk).
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ལྷའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>གཙོ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span> ‘the lord among the gods’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>འཐོན་</span> (or <span lang="bo">འབྱུང་</span>) vulg. ‘(he) comes (emerges) out of the house’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">སྒོའི་<wbr></wbr>གོང་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ན་</span>, or <span lang="bo">ལ་</span>) ‘above the door’ (books and vulg., but more usual in WT: <span lang="bo">སྒོ་<wbr></wbr>ལྟག་</span>, CT <span lang="bo">སྒོ་<wbr></wbr>ཐོད་</span>).
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཡབ་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>གོང་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>འདས་</span>, vulg.: <span lang="bo">ཡབ་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>སྔན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ལྔུན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>, CT also <span lang="bo">གདོང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> ‘he died before his father’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">པདྨའི་<wbr></wbr>སྟེང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ན་</span>, or <span lang="bo">ཐོག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span>, or <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span>) <span lang="bo">བཞུགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, vulg., in WT: <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ཐོག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> (<span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ཐོད་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>), CT: <span lang="bo">དགེང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> ‘to sit on a lotus-flower’.
<span class="pageNum" id="pb72">[<a href="#pb72">72</a>]</span></p>
<p><span lang="bo">སྒོའི་<wbr></wbr>འགྲམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ལ་</span>, or <span lang="bo">ན་</span>) (books and talk) ‘beside, near the door’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>དྲུང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span>, vulg.: <span lang="bo">མདུན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>, <span lang="bo">རྩ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span>, <span lang="bo">རྩར་</span> ‘under a tree’ (literally: ‘in front, by the side, of a tree’).
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཞལ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>དྲུང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> (<span lang="bo">མདུན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span>) <span lang="bo">འཁྲིད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to take before the judge’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཟླ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>རྗེས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> CT, <span lang="bo">རྟིང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> WT ‘after eight months’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཟླ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>སྔན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">སྔུན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>) vulg. ‘before two months, two months ago’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">སའི་<wbr></wbr>འོག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>གཏེར་<wbr></wbr>སྦེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> books and CT, WT: <span lang="bo">སའི་<wbr></wbr>འོག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>གཏེར་<wbr></wbr>སྦ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to hide a treasure below the ground’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">སའི་<wbr></wbr>འོག་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>འབྱུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> CT, WT: <span lang="bo">སའི་<wbr></wbr>ཡོག་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>འཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to emerge, come out, from below the ground’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཆུའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕ་<wbr></wbr>རོལ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> books and CT, in CT also: <span lang="bo">ཕར་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱོགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">ཕར་<wbr></wbr>ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཕར་<wbr></wbr>ངོས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> ‘beyond the water, river’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཆུའི་<wbr></wbr>ཚུ་<wbr></wbr>རོལ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> books and CT, WT: <span lang="bo">ཚུར་<wbr></wbr>ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> ‘on this side of the water’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཞག་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ནས་</span>) <span lang="bo">ཐང་<wbr></wbr>དེའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕ་<wbr></wbr>རོལ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིན་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>རོ་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">ཕ་<wbr></wbr>རོལ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོང་</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">ཕར་<wbr></wbr>ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘in (after) three days he will arrive beyond this plain, will have crossed it’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱོགས་<wbr></wbr>བཞི་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span> ‘in the four regions of the house, roundabout’.
<span class="pageNum" id="pb73">[<a href="#pb73">73</a>]</span></p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཡུལ་<wbr></wbr>དེའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱོགས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘go in the direction of, towards, that village’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ལོ་<wbr></wbr>བདུན་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">ལོ་<wbr></wbr>བདུན་<wbr></wbr>ཐུག་(པ་)</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">༌༌༌ཚུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘for seven years’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>དེའི་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཐུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">ཨི་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>ཨ་<wbr></wbr>ཚུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘from this to that’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ཉུང་<wbr></wbr>ཏི་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>ཚུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> WT<span class="corr" id="xd31e12651" title="Source: ,">:</span> ‘till I go to Kullu’.
</p>
<p><span id="s43.2.b"><i>b</i>)</span> General Compound Postpositions, expressive of the general relations of things and
persons. They are formed in the same manner as the Local ones, from substantives,
adjectives, and even verbs. Their use may be learned from the following examples:
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ངའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིར་(དུ་)</span> or <span lang="bo">དོན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> books and CT, WT: <span lang="bo">ངའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> ‘for me, in my behalf, for my sake, on my account’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ནད་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>ཅིའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིར་<wbr></wbr>བྱུང་</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">ཅིའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོངས་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">གང་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>རོན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>བྱུང་</span> ‘for what reason has that illness come? what is the cause of etc.?’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">སེམས་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ཐམས་<wbr></wbr>ཅད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>དོན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> ‘in behalf of all living beings’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ཚབ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>རྡོ་</span> (WT: <span lang="bo">རྡོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>) <span lang="bo">བཏོང་</span> ‘give (apply) stone instead of wood’.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">བཞིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> ‘according to, like, as’—<span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>བཀའ་<wbr></wbr>བཞིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> ‘doing according to the word of the king’; <span lang="bo">དེ་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb74">[<a href="#pb74">74</a>]</span><span lang="bo">བཞིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> ‘according to that, like that, thus, so’; <span lang="bo">སྔ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཞིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> ‘as formerly, as before’; instead of it the dialect of WT uses <span lang="bo">ནང་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span>, generally with the Genitive, thus the last example there would be: <span lang="bo">སྔན་<wbr></wbr>མའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span>.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">ལྟར་</span> ‘like’, <span lang="bo">རི་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span> ‘like a hill’; <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span>, <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span> ‘like this, like that, thus, so<span class="corr" id="xd31e12730" title="Not in source">’</span>, <span lang="bo">ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">གང་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span> ‘like what? how? in what manner?’.
</p>
<p>In the dialect of WT <span lang="bo">མཚོགས་</span> or <span lang="bo">མཚོགས་<wbr></wbr>སེ་</span> is used instead (which is a corruption of <span lang="bo">མཚོངས་</span>, occurring in books with the same meaning): thus, <span lang="bo">རི་<wbr></wbr>མཚོགས་<wbr></wbr>སེ་</span> ‘like a hill’; <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>མཚོགས་</span>, <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>མཚོགས་</span> ‘thus’; or <span lang="bo">ཟུག་</span> (properly <span lang="bo">ཙུག་</span>), <span lang="bo">ཨི་<wbr></wbr>ཟུག་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>ཟུག་</span> ‘thus’, <span lang="bo">ག་<wbr></wbr>ཟུག་</span> ‘how?’.
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="ch2.9" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e983">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="label">Chapter IX.</h2>
<h2 class="main">The Conjunction.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p id="s44" class="first"><b>44.</b> The written language possesses very few, the spoken still fewer, Conjunctions, most
of which are coordinative. The common word for ‘and’ is <span lang="bo">དང་</span> which we have seen above in the sense of ‘with’, <span lang="bo">གསེར་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དངུལ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། ལྕགས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སོགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘gold and silver and iron and collection (i.e. and so on)’, though the position of
the <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ad</i> (<a href="#s10">10</a>.) <span class="ex">after</span> the word <span lang="bo">དང་</span> shows that it is always considered as belonging to the preceding member of the sentence,
similar, <span class="ex">in <span class="pageNum" id="pb75">[<a href="#pb75">75</a>]</span>this respect</span>, to the Latin ‘<span lang="la">que</span>’; nor can it in any case begin a sentence. Very seldom, and only in later literature,
it appears as combining two verbs, if not, indeed, the root ought to be regarded there
as abbreviation for the infinitive. Further: <span lang="bo">ཡང་</span> ‘also, too’. When belonging to a single word or notion it is put after it in an enclitical
way like ‘<span lang="la">quoque</span>’ in Latin. It is changed according to the termination of the preceding word, into
<span lang="bo">ཀྱང་</span> after <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ བ་ ས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e12822src" href="#xd31e12822">1</a>, into <span lang="bo">འང་</span> often after vowels (cf. <a href="#s6">6</a>). Thus: <span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲིད་<wbr></wbr>དེ་</span> ‘taking also a son (with him)’. When repeated, it has the signification of Latin
‘<span lang="la">et—et—</span>’, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>ཤི། བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>ཤིའོ༎</span> ‘both mother and son died’. Often, especially in negative sentences, it means ‘even’,
<span lang="bo">གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>རྙེད་<wbr></wbr>དོ་</span> ‘even one (they) did not find—not even one’. This is the only means for expressing
‘none, no, nothing’, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>སུ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">གང་</span>) <span lang="bo">ཡང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>འོངས་</span> (resp. <span lang="bo">ཡོངས་</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e12865" title="Not in source">)</span> ‘nobody came’; <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་</span> (<span lang="bo">ཅིའང་</span>, or <span lang="bo">ཅང་</span>) <span lang="bo">མེད་</span> ‘there is nothing’ (cf. <a href="#s29">29</a>). When combined with verbs, <span lang="bo">བཙལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>རྙེད་<wbr></wbr>དོ་</span> ‘even searching (they) did not find’, it serves as another expression for ‘though’
or also ‘but’ (s. <a href="#s41.a.7.b">41. A. 7. <i>b</i></a>): thus, ‘though they searched, they etc.’ or ‘they searched, but they etc.’. Standing
<span class="pageNum" id="pb76">[<a href="#pb76">76</a>]</span>for itself (not leaning on the preceding word) it means ‘again, once more’ (when it
is to be regarded as adverb), <span lang="bo">དེར་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>འཁམས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘there (I) fainting once more etc.’. In the beginning of a sentence it is ‘and, again,
moreover’, and may occasionally be rendered by ‘however, but’. <span lang="bo">ཡང་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span>, ‘or’; repeated, <span lang="bo">ཡང་<wbr></wbr>ན༌༌༌༌ ཡང་<wbr></wbr>ན༌༌༌༌</span> ‘either—or—’.—‘Or’ is expressed also by the interrogative affix of the finite verb
(<a href="#s34.1">34. 1</a>.), <span lang="bo">འམ་</span> etc., <span lang="bo">གསེར་<wbr></wbr>དངུལ་<wbr></wbr>འམ། ཟངས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>བུམ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> ‘a bottle of gold, silver, or copper’.—<span lang="bo">འོན་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་</span> ‘nevertheless, but’, vulg: <span lang="bo">ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་</span> occurs much less frequently in Tibetan than in the European languages.
</p>
<p>The only <span class="ex">Subordinate Conjunctions</span> are: <span>1.</span> <span lang="bo">གལ་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> ‘if’, introducing conditional sentences ending in <span lang="bo">ན་</span> (<span class="corr" id="xd31e12931" title="Source: 40. 1. A. 4"><a href="#s41.a.4">41. A. 4</a></span>). But, as the conditional force really rests on the closing <span lang="bo">ན་</span>, the initial <span lang="bo">གལ་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> may be put or omitted at pleasure; <span>2.</span> <span lang="bo">ཅི་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘but if’; <span lang="bo">གལ་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>ནུས་<wbr></wbr>ན༌༌༌༌</span> ‘if I can …’, <span lang="bo">ཅི་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>ནུས་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘but if not …’; this last is found only in books.
</p>
</div>
<div class="footnotes">
<hr class="fnsep">
<div class="footnote-body">
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e12822">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e12822src">1</a></span> This is not very carefully observed even in good mscr. and prints, where <span lang="bo">ཡང་</span> will occur sometimes after <span lang="bo">ག་</span> etc., and <span lang="bo">ཀྱང་</span> after the other consonants and even after vowels. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e12822src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="ch2.10" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e995">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="label">Chapter X.</h2>
<h2 class="main">The Interjection.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p class="first"><b>45.</b> The most common Interjection is <span lang="bo">ཀྱེ་</span>, or, repeated, <span lang="bo">ཀྱེ་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱེ་</span> ‘oh!, alas!’ used also before the Vocative. The language of common life uses instead:
<span lang="bo">ཝ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">wa</i>, or <span lang="bo">ཝའི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">wä</i>.
<span class="pageNum" id="pb77">[<a href="#pb77">77</a>]</span> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="ch2.11" class="div1 last-child errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e1005">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="label">Chapter XI.</h2>
<h2 class="main">Derivation.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p id="s46" class="first"><b>46. Derivation of Substantives.</b> As most of what belongs under this head has already been mentioned in <a href="#s11">11</a>. and <a href="#s12">12</a>. only the formation of abstract nouns remains to be spoken of. <span>1.</span> The unaltered adjective may be used as an abstract noun, especially with the article
<span lang="bo">བ་</span>, as: <span lang="bo">གྲང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དྲོ་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་</span> ‘the cold is changed into warmth’.—To this may be added the pronoun <span lang="bo">ཉིད་</span> (<span lang="bo">གྲང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཉིད་</span> ‘ipsum frigidum’); but this is used scarcely anywhere else than in metaphysical treatises,
from whence a few expressions, such as <span lang="bo">སྟོང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཉིད་</span> ‘the vacuum, the absolute rest in deliverance from existence’ have become more generally
known.—<span>2.</span> In the case of two correlative ideas existing, frequently the compound of both is
used, esp. in common talk, <span lang="bo">ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་</span> ‘size’ (lit. ‘large and small’), <span lang="bo">སྦོམ་<wbr></wbr>ཕྲ་</span> ‘thickness’ (‘thick and thin’), e.g. <span lang="bo">ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>ཡུངས་<wbr></wbr>འབྲུ་<wbr></wbr>ཙམ་</span> ‘the size as much as a mustard-seed’.—<span>3.</span> <span lang="bo">ཁྱད་</span> ‘difference’ (or, sometimes, <span lang="bo">ཚད་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཚོད་</span> ‘measure’) is added, <span lang="bo">མཐོ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱད་</span> ‘height’, <span lang="bo">ཕྱུག་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱད་</span> ‘wealth, riches’.—<span>4.</span> Mental qualities are in most cases paraphrased by <span lang="bo">སེམས་</span>, or <span lang="bo">བློ་</span> with a genitive, <span lang="bo">བཟོད་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>སེམས་</span> ‘mind of suffering, enduring, i.e. patience’, <span lang="bo">མཁས་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>བློ་</span> ‘wise mind, wisdom, skill’; <span lang="bo">དགའ་<wbr></wbr>བའི་<wbr></wbr>སེམས་</span> ‘mind of rejoicing, <span class="pageNum" id="pb78">[<a href="#pb78">78</a>]</span>joy’ (vulg: <span lang="bo">སེམས་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span>), <span lang="bo">དད་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>སེམས་</span> ‘mind of belief (also ‘a believing mind’), faith’.—<span>5.</span> <span class="ex">Diminutives</span> are formed by adding the termination <span lang="bo">འུ་</span>, often with an alteration of the preceding vowel: <span lang="bo">རྟ་</span> ‘horse’, <span lang="bo">རྟེའུ་</span> ‘little horse, foal’; <span lang="bo">མི་</span> ‘man’, <span lang="bo">མིའུ་</span> ‘little man, dwarf’; <span lang="bo">རྡོ་</span> ‘stone’, <span lang="bo">རྡེའུ་</span> ‘small stone, calculus’. If a word ends with a consonant, only <i>u</i> is added, and a new syllable formed: <span lang="bo">ལུག་</span> ‘sheep’, <span lang="bo">ལུ་<wbr></wbr>གུ་</span> ‘lamb’.
</p>
<p id="s47"><b>47. Derivation of Adjectives.</b> <span>1.</span> <span class="ex">Possessive</span> adjectives are regularly expressed by adding the syllable <span lang="bo">ཅན་</span>, or the phrase <span lang="bo">དང་<wbr></wbr>ལྡན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, abridged <span lang="bo">ལྡན་</span> to any substantive, <span lang="bo">མགོ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span> ‘having a head’; <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>མགོ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span> ‘having the head of a man’; <span lang="bo">སྐྲ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span> ‘having hair, (long-)haired’; <span lang="bo">རིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span>, <span lang="bo">རིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>ལྡན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘possessing knowledge, learned, wise’; <span lang="bo">དང་<wbr></wbr>ལྡན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> is never heard in common talk in WT.—<span>2.</span> Adjectives of appurtenance are generally expressed by the genitive of the substantive,
<span lang="bo">གསེར་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་</span> ‘of gold, golden’; <span lang="bo">ཤའི་<wbr></wbr>མིག་</span> ‘the eye of flesh, the carnal, bodily eye’, oppos.: <span lang="bo">ཤེས་<wbr></wbr>རབ་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>མིག་</span> ‘the eye of knowledge, spiritual eye’.—<span>3.</span> Negative, or privative adjectives are formed in several ways: <span><i>a</i>)</span> by the simple negative <span lang="bo">མི་</span>, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>འོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘unworthy’; <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>རུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘unfit’; <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>ཐོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘unheard of’. <span id="s47.3.b"><i>b</i>)</span> by adding <span lang="bo">མེད་</span> ‘without’<span class="corr" id="xd31e13192" title="Not in source">,</span> <span class="pageNum" id="pb79">[<a href="#pb79">79</a>]</span><span lang="bo">མགོ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་</span> ‘headless’; <span lang="bo">སྐྱོན་<wbr></wbr>མེད་</span> ‘faultless’. <span><i>c</i>)</span> by adding the verb <span lang="bo">བྲལ་(བ་)</span> ‘separated from’, <span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>བྲལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>བྲལ་</span> ‘separated from the body, bodiless’.—<span>4.</span> The English adjectives in <i>-able</i>, <i>-ible</i> are expressed by <span lang="bo">རུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to be fit’, added to the Supine, or to the simple Root, <span lang="bo">འཐང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>རུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, <span lang="bo">འཐུང་<wbr></wbr>རུང་</span> ‘fit for drinking, drinkable’, <span class="ex">vulgo</span>: <span lang="bo">འཐུང་<wbr></wbr>ཉན་</span> (from <span lang="bo">ཉན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to be able’), <span lang="bo">འཐུང་<wbr></wbr>ཆོག་</span> (<span lang="bo">ཆོག་</span> ‘permitted, lawful’).
<span class="pageNum" id="pb80">[<a href="#pb80">80</a>]</span> </p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="pt3" class="div0 last-child part">
<h2 class="label">Part III.</h2>
<h2 class="main">Syntax.</h2>
<p id="s48" class="first"><b>48. Arrangement of words.</b> <span>1.</span> The invariable rule is this: in a simple sentence all other words must precede the
verb; in a compound one all the subordinate verbs in the form of gerunds or supines,
and all the coordinate verbs in the form of the root, each closing its own respective
clause, must precede the governing verb (examples s. below).—<span>2.</span> The order in which the different cases of substantives belonging to a <span class="ex">verb</span> are to be arranged, is rather optional, so that e.g. the agent may either precede
or follow its object. Local and temporal adverbs or adverbial phrases are, if possible,
put at the head of the sentence.—<span>3.</span> The order of words belonging to a substantive is this: <span class="small">1<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span></span> The Genitive, <span class="small">2.</span> the governing Substantive, <span class="small">3.</span> the Adjective (unless this is itself put, in the genitive, before; <a href="#s16">16</a>), <span class="small">4.</span> the Pronoun, <span class="small">5.</span> the Numeral, <span class="small">6.</span> the indefinite Article: thus, <span lang="bo">ངའི་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>ངུ་<wbr></wbr>འདི་</span> ‘this my little daughter’; <span lang="bo">གོས་<wbr></wbr>དམར་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> ‘a red gown’; <span lang="bo">གོས་<wbr></wbr>དམར་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> or <span lang="bo">དམར་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>གོས་</span> ‘the red gown’; <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁམས་<wbr></wbr>ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་</span> ‘these three great kingdoms’. Adverbs precede the word they belong to: <span lang="bo">ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> ‘very great’; <span lang="bo">ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>མགྱོགས་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>ཤོག་</span> ‘come very quickly’.—<span class="pageNum" id="pb81">[<a href="#pb81">81</a>]</span><span>4.</span> In correlative sentences (cf. <a href="#s29">29</a>) the Relative precedes the Demonstrative: <span lang="bo">གང་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> ‘what there is, give!’ i.e. ‘give whatever you have’, and in comparative sentences
the thing with which another is compared, ordinarily precedes this (cf. <a href="#s17">17</a>).
</p>
<p id="s49"><b>49. Use of the cases.</b> As the necessary observations about the instrumental have been made in <a href="#s30">30</a>, about the other cases and postpositions partly in <a href="#s15">15</a>, partly in <a href="#s43">43</a>, it is only the Accusative, that requires a few words more, as it is very often used
absolutely (as in Greek). <span><i>a</i>)</span> <span class="ex">Acc. temporalis</span>: <span lang="bo">མཚན་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> ‘at night’; <span lang="bo">གསོན་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>ཚེ་</span> ‘during (his etc.) lifetime’; <span lang="bo">དེའི་<wbr></wbr>ཚེ</span>, <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དུས་</span> ‘at that time’; <span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>བསླབས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘having studied for one day, after one day’s study’.—<span><i>b</i>)</span> <span class="ex">Acc. modalis</span>: <span lang="bo">དབྱིབས་<wbr></wbr>ཟླུམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘regarding the size, round’; <span lang="bo">གཏིང་<wbr></wbr>ཟབ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱད་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲུ་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘regarding the depth, eight cubits’ (cf. <a href="#s12">12</a>); <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>དོག་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལྟ་<wbr></wbr>བུར་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘regarding colour, being like smoke’ (cf. <a href="#s50.1.a">50, 1, <i>a</i></a>); <span lang="bo">རིགས་<wbr></wbr>མཐུན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘with regard to (his) birth, equal’ i.e<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> ‘of equal birth’. Here <span lang="bo">ནི་</span> (<a href="#s42.1">42. 1</a>) is very often employed: <span lang="bo">དབྱིབས་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>ཟླུམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> etc. Nearly in all cases, however, postpositions may be added, and in talking they
are preferred to the simple Accusative: <span lang="bo">མཚན་<wbr></wbr>མོ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>, <span lang="bo">མཚན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>, <span lang="bo">དེའི་<wbr></wbr>ཚེ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span>, <span lang="bo">དབྱིབས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> etc.
<span class="pageNum" id="pb82">[<a href="#pb82">82</a>]</span></p>
<p id="s50"><b>50. Simple Sentences.</b>—<span>1.</span> <span class="ex">Affirmative sentences.</span>—<span id="s50.1.a"><i>a</i>)</span> the attribute being a noun, the verb: <i>to be</i>, <i>become</i>, <i>remain</i> etc.; <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>མཁས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘this man is wise’; <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>མཁས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘this is a wise man’. When the verb is <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> (to become), <span lang="bo">གནས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (to remain) etc. the attribute must be put in the Terminative: <span lang="bo">སྐྲ་<wbr></wbr>དཀར་<wbr></wbr>པོར་<wbr></wbr>གྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཏོ་</span> ‘(his) hair became white’; <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཡི་<wbr></wbr>དམ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བརྟན་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>གནས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span>, <span class="ex">vulg</span>: <span lang="bo">བརྟན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>གནས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘the king remained steadfast on his vow’; in some special cases this may take place,
even if the verb is simply ‘to be’: <span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>གཟུགས་<wbr></wbr>ཐམས་<wbr></wbr>ཅད་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>འདྲ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ། རྐང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>འབའ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲ་<wbr></wbr>བོར་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་<wbr></wbr>གོ་</span> ‘while his whole shape was like a man’s, his foot only was piebald’. <span><i>b</i>)</span> the attribute being any other verb: <span lang="bo">རྒྱ་<wbr></wbr>ནག་<wbr></wbr>ཡུལ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>སྔ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>ཡུལ་<wbr></wbr>དེའི་<wbr></wbr>བྱང་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱོགས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>ལྕགས་<wbr></wbr>རི་<wbr></wbr>ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>བརྩིགས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘an ancient king of China built a very large wall in the north of that country’.
</p>
<p><span>2.</span> <span class="ex">Interrogative sentences.</span>—<span><i>a</i>)</span> <span class="ex">simple</span>: <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་<wbr></wbr>གམ་</span> ‘is your son in the house?’; <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> ‘who is there?’; <span lang="bo">ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོང་</span> ‘what do you come for?’, ‘what do you want?’.—<span lang="bo">རིན་<wbr></wbr>ཙམ་</span> W (<span lang="bo">རིན་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>ཚོད་</span> C) ‘how much (is) the price?’.
</p>
<p>Besides the affix <i>am</i> the later literature and the conversational <span class="pageNum" id="pb83">[<a href="#pb83">83</a>]</span>language of CT has the accentuated interrogative particle <span lang="bo">ཨེ་</span> <i>ĕ́</i>, immediately before the verb: <span lang="bo">ཐབས་<wbr></wbr>ཨེ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽab ĕ́ yöʼ</i> ‘is there any means …?’; <span lang="bo">ལས་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>ཨེ་<wbr></wbr>ནུས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lā̤ di j̀ĕʼ ĕ́ nṳ̄</i> ‘can you do this work?’.
</p>
<p>The form of a question is also used to express uncertain suppositions (likely to become
realized), as: <span lang="bo">རྗེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>སྲིད་<wbr></wbr>དམ་</span> ‘is forgetting possible?’ for ‘he may possibly have forgotten it’; <span lang="bo">ཤི་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>ནམ་</span> ‘won’t he die?’; <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>བདུད་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>ནམ་</span> ‘this (apparition) is not the devil, I hope?’.
</p>
<p><span><i>b</i>)</span> <span class="ex">double</span>: <span lang="bo">ནང་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>དམ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་</span> ‘is (he) within or not?’; <span lang="bo">བདག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྦྱིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>རུང་<wbr></wbr>ངམ་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>རུང་</span> ‘is it agreeable (to you i.e. do you consent) to give me (your son) or not?’; <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>འོངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>འམ་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ཉེས་</span> ‘are you sorry at my arrival, or what (else) is the matter (with you—because you
weep)?’.
</p>
<p><span>3.</span> Imperative and Optative or Precative sentences do not require any additional remarks
besides what is said in <a href="#s38">38</a>.
</p>
<p id="s51"><b>51. Compound Sentences.</b> After having examined in <a href="#s41">41</a> the different gerunds as the constituent parts of compound sentences, a few examples
will suffice for illustration.
</p>
<p><span>1.</span> Compound sentences, for the most part coordinative: <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲིམས་<wbr></wbr>བཅའ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13577src" href="#xd31e13577">1</a><span lang="bo">། བཟང་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13588src" href="#xd31e13588">2</a><span lang="bo">ལ་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེར། ངན་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb84">[<a href="#pb84">84</a>]</span><span lang="bo">ཆད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>གཅོད</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13598src" href="#xd31e13598">3</a><span lang="bo">། བྲེ་<wbr></wbr>སྲང་<wbr></wbr>གཏན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཕབ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13612src" href="#xd31e13612">4</a><span lang="bo">། མི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡི་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>བསླབས་<wbr></wbr>སོ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13621src" href="#xd31e13621">5</a><span lang="bo">༎</span> ‘The king having given a law, the good were given rewards, the bad punished, measures
and weights arranged, and people taught letters (i.e. reading and writing)’.
</p>
<p><span>2.</span> subordinate sentences: <span lang="bo">དེར་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13637src" href="#xd31e13637">6</a><span lang="bo">བུད་<wbr></wbr>མེད་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>ཤིག་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13643src" href="#xd31e13643">7</a><span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>རྩོད་<wbr></wbr>དེ། རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>བློ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13650src" href="#xd31e13650">8</a><span lang="bo">མཁས་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>བརྟག་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13657src" href="#xd31e13657">9</a><span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>སྐད་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13667src" href="#xd31e13667">10</a><span lang="bo">བསྒོའོ། །ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>བུའི་<wbr></wbr>ལག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>རེ་<wbr></wbr>རེ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>བཟུང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ། དྲོངས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13673src" href="#xd31e13673">11</a><span lang="bo">གང་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>ཐོབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13688src" href="#xd31e13688">12</a><span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13694src" href="#xd31e13694">13</a><span lang="bo">ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>བསྒོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13703src" href="#xd31e13703">14</a><span lang="bo">། བུའི་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དེས་<wbr></wbr>ནི་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13709src" href="#xd31e13709">15</a><span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྙིང་<wbr></wbr>རྗེ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་<wbr></wbr>པས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13715src" href="#xd31e13715">16</a><span lang="bo">སྣད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13721src" href="#xd31e13721">17</a><span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>དོགས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། མཐུ་<wbr></wbr>ཇེ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པར་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13725src" href="#xd31e13725">18</a><span lang="bo">དྲངས་<wbr></wbr>སོ། །བུའི་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>གང་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བྱམས་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>སྣད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>དོགས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། སྟོབས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ཐུབ་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13735src" href="#xd31e13735">19</a><span lang="bo">དྲག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13741src" href="#xd31e13741">20</a><span class="pageNum" id="pb85">[<a href="#pb85">85</a>]</span><span lang="bo">མ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13749src" href="#xd31e13749">21</a><span lang="bo">དྲངས་<wbr></wbr>སོ། །རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>དྲག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>དྲངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ལ། འདི་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། བུད་<wbr></wbr>མེད་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཤོས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13755src" href="#xd31e13755">22</a><span lang="bo">ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>ན</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13764src" href="#xd31e13764">23</a><span lang="bo">། དྲང་<wbr></wbr>པོར་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13776src" href="#xd31e13776">24</a><span lang="bo">སྨྲོས་<wbr></wbr>ཤིག་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13782src" href="#xd31e13782">25</a><span lang="bo">ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དལ་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>དྲངས་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>གྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13795src" href="#xd31e13795">26</a><span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>རོ༎</span> ‘There being certain two women quarrelling about one boy, the king (being) wise of
understanding having examined (the case) thus ordered: You two, having seized from
each (side) a hand of the boy, pull, and who gets him, (she) may carry him off.—When
he had so spoken, she who was not the boy’s mother, because she had no compassion
for the boy, not fearing (she might) hurt (him), pulled with what force she had. She
who (in truth) was the boy’s mother, because she had compassion with the boy, fearing
(she might) hurt (him), though she was able by force, did not pull hard. The king
said to her who had pulled hard: <span class="corr" id="xd31e13805" title="Not in source">“</span>Because this, not being your son, is the other woman’s son, say (it) outright<span class="corr" id="xd31e13807" title="Source: ’">”</span>. When he had so spoken, as he had turned out to be the son of the gentle puller,
(she) carried off the boy’.
<span class="pageNum" id="pb86">[<a href="#pb86">86</a>]</span> </p>
<div class="footnotes">
<hr class="fnsep">
<div class="footnote-body">
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13577">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13577src">1</a></span> <span lang="bo">འཆའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, perf. <span lang="bo">བཅའ་</span> ‘to make’ esp. ‘institute, <span class="pageNum" id="pb84n">[<a href="#pb84n">84</a>]</span>arrange’; gerund. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13577src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13588">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13588src">2</a></span> i.o. <span lang="bo">བཟང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13588src" title="Return to note 2 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13598">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13598src">3</a></span> ‘to cut’, but <span lang="bo">ཆད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">པས་</span>) <span lang="bo">གཅོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to inflict a punishment’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13598src" title="Return to note 3 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13612">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13612src">4</a></span> <span lang="bo">གཏན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འབེབས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to set in order, arrange’; perf. <span lang="bo">ཕབ་</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13612src" title="Return to note 4 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13621">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13621src">5</a></span> <span lang="bo">སློབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, perf. <span lang="bo">བསླབས་</span> ‘to learn’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13621src" title="Return to note 5 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13637">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13637src">6</a></span> <a href="#s42.3">42. 3</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13637src" title="Return to note 6 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13643">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13643src">7</a></span> indefin. art. after numerals s. <a href="#s13">13</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13643src" title="Return to note 7 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13650">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13650src">8</a></span> Accus. modal., <a href="#s49">49</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13650src" title="Return to note 8 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13657">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13657src">9</a></span> <span lang="bo">རྟོག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, perf. <span lang="bo">བརྟག་</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13657src" title="Return to note 9 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13667">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13667src">10</a></span> <a href="#s27.2">27. 2</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13667src" title="Return to note 10 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13673">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13673src">11</a></span> <span lang="bo">འདྲེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, perf. <span lang="bo">དྲངས་</span>, imp. <span lang="bo">དྲོངས་</span>; cf. 41. 5 . <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13673src" title="Return to note 11 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13688">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13688src">12</a></span> <a href="#s29">29</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13688src" title="Return to note 12 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13694">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13694src">13</a></span> <span lang="bo">འཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, perf. and imp. <span lang="bo">ཁྱེར་</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13694src" title="Return to note 13 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13703">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13703src">14</a></span> <a href="#s43.1">43. 1</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13703src" title="Return to note 14 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13709">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13709src">15</a></span> <a href="#s42.1">42. 1.</a> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13709src" title="Return to note 15 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13715">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13715src">16</a></span> 41. 8 . <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13715src" title="Return to note 16 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13721">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13721src">17</a></span> the object of the fear usually in the instrumental. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13721src" title="Return to note 17 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13725">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13725src">18</a></span> termin. of inf<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> used as adverb, <a href="#s41.b.2.b">41. B. 2. <i>b</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13725src" title="Return to note 18 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13735">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13735src">19</a></span> <a href="#s44">44</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13735src" title="Return to note 19 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13741">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13741src">20</a></span> <a href="#s42.2">42. 2</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13741src" title="Return to note 20 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13749">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13749src">21</a></span> <a href="#s42.1">42. 1</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13749src" title="Return to note 21 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13755">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13755src">22</a></span> <span lang="bo">ཤོས་</span> ‘other’, almost always with the indefin. article; <a href="#s13">13</a>. fin. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13755src" title="Return to note 22 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13764">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13764src">23</a></span> <span lang="bo">ན་</span> is sometimes pleonastically added to <span lang="bo">པས་</span> (<span lang="bo">བས་</span>), to strengthen its meaning. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13764src" title="Return to note 23 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13776">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13776src">24</a></span> <a href="#s43.2">43.2</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13776src" title="Return to note 24 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13782">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13782src">25</a></span> <span lang="bo">སྨྲ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, perf. <span lang="bo">སྨྲས་</span>, imp. <span lang="bo">སྨྲོས་</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13782src" title="Return to note 25 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13795">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13795src">26</a></span> <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, perf. <span lang="bo">གྱུར་</span> properly ‘as he has come to be’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13795src" title="Return to note 26 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="back">
<div id="app" class="div1 appendix"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e1082">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h2 class="main">Appendix.</h2>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<div id="phrases" class="div2 section"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e1087">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h3 class="main">A collection of phrases from daily life, in the modern dialects, romanized.</h3>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p class="first"></p>
<div class="table">
<table>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellTop">WT </td>
<td class="cellTop"><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod gá-na̤ yoṅ</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight cellTop">Where do you come from? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">CT </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ gʽá-na̤ yoṅ</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod su yin</i>, C <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ s. y.</i> </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Who are you? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod</i> (C <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">sṳ̄<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13862src" href="#xd31e13862">1</a> yin</i>.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13867src" href="#xd31e13867">2</a> </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Whose (man, servant) are you? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod ráṅi miṅ c̀i zer</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">What is your name? (rule <a href="#s34.2.c">34. 2. <i>c</i></a> is not always observed) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ-kyi míṅ-la <span class="corr" id="xd31e13891" title="Source: gʽan">gʽaṅ</span> zér-gi yöʼ-dʽam</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyód-di kʽáṅ-pa gá-na yod</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Where is your house? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ-kyi kʽaṅ-pa gʽá-na yöʼ(-pa)</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod <span class="ex">c̀i-la</span> yoṅ</i>, </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Why do you come? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ <span class="ex">gʽaṅ</span>-la yoṅ</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">(What do you want?) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">c̀i-la ’i-ru dug</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Why are you here? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅa s̀ruṅ-te dad</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">I sit here to watch. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">dī yúl-li <span class="ex">miṅ</span> c̀i zer</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">What is the <span class="ex">name</span> of this village? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">yul dī <span class="ex">miṅ</span>-la gʽaṅ zér-ra<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13978src" href="#xd31e13978">3</a> yim-pa</i>. <span class="pageNum" id="pb87">[<a href="#pb87">87</a>]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod-la <span class="ex">ḍel-wa</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13994src" href="#xd31e13994">4</a> z̀ig yód-da</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Have you any <span class="ex">errand</span> (<span class="ex">business</span>)? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ la <span class="ex">dʽo̤n</span> z̀ig yöʼ-dʽam</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">c̀aṅ med; <span class="ex">c̀ʽón-la</span> yoṅ(s)</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Not any; I have come <span class="ex">to no purpose</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">c̀aṅ mĕ́ʼ; <span class="ex">dʽo̤n-mĕ́ʼ-la</span> yoṅ</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">da tʽug pa tʽuṅ-c̀e-la kaṅ-pa-la-soṅ</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Then go home to eat (drink) your soup. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">yod: ṅá-la man<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14058src" href="#xd31e14058">5</a> z̀ig <span class="ex">sal</span></i><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14064src" href="#xd31e14064">6</a>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Yes: please give me some medicine. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">yöʼ: ṅá-la ma̤n z̀ig <span class="ex">naṅ<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14078src" href="#xd31e14078">7</a>-rog</span></i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅá-la <span class="ex">zug</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14091src" href="#xd31e14091">8</a> yod</i>, Ts <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">sug</span> gyág<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14100src" href="#xd31e14100">9</a>-gī</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">I am <span class="ex">ill</span> (I have got, am befallen with, an <span class="ex">illness</span>)<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">Ü </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅá-la <span class="ex">ná-tʽsa</span> toṅ<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14124src" href="#xd31e14124">10</a>-gi dug</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">zúr-mo</span> rag</i>, C <i lang="bo-latn">- - dug</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">I feel <span class="ex">pain</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">gá-na</i>, C <i lang="bo-latn">gʽá-na</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Where? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">ḍód</span>-pa<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14166src" href="#xd31e14166">11</a>-la</i>, C <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">ḍʽöʼ</span>-pa-la</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">In the stomach. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">gó</span>-la zug rag</i>, C <i lang="bo-latn">- - - yöʼ</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">I have headache. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅa-z̀a yaṅ-pa-la c̀ʽa-c̀e-la tʽsan-te rag</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">We should have taken a walk, but it is too hot. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">WC </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">di <span class="ex">len</span></i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight"><span class="ex">Take</span> this! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">di <span class="ex">kʽyer</span></i>, C <i lang="bo-latn">di <span class="ex">kʽur soṅ</span></i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight"><span class="ex">Take</span> this <span class="ex">with</span> (you)! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">di <span class="ex">kʽyoṅ</span></i>, C <i lang="bo-latn">di <span class="ex">kʽur s̀og</span></i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight"><span class="ex">Bring</span> this! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">di <span class="ex">gá-zug</span> c̀o-c̀e</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">How shall I do this? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">di gʽán-ḍa̤<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14272src" href="#xd31e14272">12</a> j̀ĕʼ toṅ</i> (or <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ĕʼ gyu</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">yin</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">yim-pa</i>). </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">dí-zug</span> c̀o mi gos</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">goi</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gō̤</i>), </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">You must not do it in this way. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">dí-ḍā̤</span> j̀ĕʼ mi gō̤</i>. <span class="pageNum" id="pb88">[<a href="#pb88">88</a>]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅá-la <span class="ex">da-ruṅ</span> ó-ma z̀ig gos</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">I want some more milk. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅá-la <span class="ex">dʽa-ruṅ</span> wó-ma s̀ig gō̤</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">i <span class="ex">lág-mo c̀o</span></i>, C <i lang="bo-latn">di lég-mo j̀ā̤</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight"><span class="ex">Clean</span> this! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">bé-ma daṅ</span> ṭu<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14359src" href="#xd31e14359">13</a>-c̀e</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Wash it with sand! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">j̀é-mā̤</span> ṭʽṳ̄</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅa-la <span class="ex">c̀ʽu c̀uṅ zad</span></i> (C <i lang="bo-latn">säʼ</i>) <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">c̀ig</span> naṅ<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14391src" href="#xd31e14391">14</a> z̀ig</i> (C <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ig</i>). </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Give me <span class="ex">some water</span>, please! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">lág-pa <span class="ex">lág-mo</span> yód-da</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Are (your) hands clean? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">lág-pa <span class="ex">lég-mo</span></i> (<i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">lā-mo</span></i>, or <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">tsaṅ-wa</span></i>) <i lang="bo-latn">é yöʼ</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">o-ma <span class="ex">tʽsag-rā̤́-la</span> tʽsag toṅ</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Filter the milk through the <span class="ex">filtering cloth</span>! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">wo-ma - - - tʽsag s̀og</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">tʽab</span> c̀ʽuṅ-se dḗ c̀ʽog-la bor-toṅ</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Put the little <span class="ex">stove</span> there! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - - dʽḗ c̀ʽog (c̀ʽö)-la z̀ag<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14479src" href="#xd31e14479">15</a>-c̀ig</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">pʽàn-dil</span> sá-la pʽob<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14492src" href="#xd31e14492">16</a></i> (<i lang="bo-latn">pʽab-toṅ</i>), </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Put the <span class="ex">pot</span> (<i lang="bo-latn">degc̀i</i>) down on the ground! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">saṅ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14515src" href="#xd31e14515">17</a> sá-la pʽáb-s̀ig</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">zaṅ(-bu) me daṅ <span class="ex">ñe-mo</span> bor</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Put the pot <span class="ex">near</span> the fire! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">saṅ me dʽaṅ <span class="ex">ñe-mo</span> z̀ag</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">pʽog ton</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Take it off! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ñí-ma gás<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14561src" href="#xd31e14561">18</a>-sa (gā̤-a) <span class="ex">tsám-z̀ig-ga</span> me pʽu<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14568src" href="#xd31e14568">19</a></i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight"><span class="ex">As soon as</span> the sun sets, light a fire! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - gā̤ <span class="ex">tsam-s̀ig-la</span> - -</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">kar-yol kʽyoṅ-ṅa son</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Go to fetch the china! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"> </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - len-na s̀og</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Come to take away - -. <span class="pageNum" id="pb89">[<a href="#pb89">89</a>]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽu ḍáṅ-mo<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14612src" href="#xd31e14612">20</a> daṅ <span class="ex">ṭú</span>-na kar-yól<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14619src" href="#xd31e14619">21</a> mi dag</i> (or <i lang="bo-latn">kar-yol lag-mo mi c̀ʽa-yin</i>); <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">tʽsán-te</span> z̀ig láṅ-te gyal-la ṭu gos</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">gō̤</i>), </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">If you <span class="ex">wash</span> with cold water, the china does not become clean; wash it well with some <span class="ex">hot</span> (water)! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽu dʽáṅ mō̤ <span class="ex">tṳ̄</span> na kar-yól mi dag; <span class="ex">tʽsám-mo</span> s̀íg gī lég (lā̤)-pa-ṭṳ̄ s̀og</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">lás (lā̤)-ka tʽsaṅ-ma tʽsar-na̤ <span class="ex">mán-na</span> ma c̀ʽa</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Unless all the work is done, don’t go! (or) you must not go. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - - <span class="ex">ma̤m-pa</span> ḍo<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14677src" href="#xd31e14677">22</a> mi c̀ʽog</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">sol-c̀óg<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14688src" href="#xd31e14688">23</a> ṭʽal-ḍig<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14692src" href="#xd31e14692">24</a> c̀o-a</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Shall I make the table ready? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - - - j̀ĕʼ gyu yin-na(m)</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">o-ná; c̀og-tán <span class="ex">tiṅ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14714src" href="#xd31e14714">25</a> toṅ</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Yes; <span class="ex">lay</span> (<span class="ex">spread</span>) the cloth! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">yā-ya; c̀og-tá̤n <span class="ex">tíṅ</span>-c̀ig</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">tib-ríl</span> li naṅ-na c̀ʽu máṅ-po yód-da ñúṅ-ṅu yód</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Is there much water in the <span class="ex">teapot</span>, or little? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - gyi-naṅ-na c̀ʽu máṅ-po yöʼ-dʽam ñúṅ-ṅu yöʼ</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ñúṅ ṅu z̀ig yod (a-tʽsig man-na med)</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">(But) a little. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ñúṅ ṅu s̀ig yöʼ</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">tib-ril c̀ʽu <span class="ex">kaṅ<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14786src" href="#xd31e14786">26</a>-te</span> kʽyoṅ</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight"><span class="ex">Fill</span> the teapot with water, and bring it! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - c̀ʽṳ̄ <span class="ex">káṅ-nā̤</span> kʽur s̀og</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">tib-ril <span class="ex">dzag</span> dug</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">The kettle <span class="ex">leaks</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">kár-yā</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14831src" href="#xd31e14831">27</a> daṅ j̀ar<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14835src" href="#xd31e14835">28</a> gos (gō̤)</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">It must be soldered (fastened with <span class="ex">pewter</span>). </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">kár-yā̤</span></i> (or <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">s̀a-kar-gyī</span></i>) <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ar gō̤</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">gar-wa̤</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14870src" href="#xd31e14870">29</a> tsar<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14874src" href="#xd31e14874">30</a> kʽyer</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Take it to the <span class="ex">blacksmith’s</span>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽur soṅ</i>. <span class="pageNum" id="pb90">[<a href="#pb90">90</a>]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">s̀el-kor</span> gas (gā̤) soṅ</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">The tumbler (<span class="ex">glass-cup</span>) has got a crack. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">s̀el-pʽor</span> gā̤ soṅ</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅā̤ ma zer-na <span class="ex">s̀iṅ</span> ma kʽyoṅ</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Unless I tell you, do not bring <span class="ex">wood</span>! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - ser-na - - kyal<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14937src" href="#xd31e14937">31</a></i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">sab <span class="ex">mol</span>-na kʽyoṅ yin</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">When master <span class="ex">commands</span>, I shall bring. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">sa-hib <span class="ex">suṅ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14967src" href="#xd31e14967">32</a>-na kyal gyu yin</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">sab gá-zug <span class="ex">mol</span></i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">What did you <span class="ex">say</span>, sir (did the gentleman say)? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">sa-hib gʽaṅ <span class="ex">suṅ</span> wa yin</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ma <span class="ex">pʽaṅ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15004src" href="#xd31e15004">33</a>; bud ma c̀ug<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15011src" href="#xd31e15011">34</a></i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Don’t cast it away! Do not let it slip! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ma <span class="ex">bʽor</span>-wa j̀ʽĕʼ; bʽüʼ ma c̀ug</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">WC </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">rig-pa ḍim<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15037src" href="#xd31e15037">35</a></i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Take care! Cautiously! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-dar c̀o</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">nán</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15057src" href="#xd31e15057">36</a>-c̀e man</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">You must not press! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">ná̤n</span> gyu min</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ḍás<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15079src" href="#xd31e15079">37</a>-si (ḍā̤́-i) lág-ma <span class="ex">ṭí<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15085src" href="#xd31e15085">38</a>-te bor</span></i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight"><span class="ex">Put by</span> the remainder of the rice! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ḍā̤́-kyi lhág-ma <span class="ex">tʽsag j̀ʽā̤</span></i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">lag-ma</span> mi dug, c̀aṅ ma <span class="ex">lus</span></i> (<i lang="bo-latn"><span class="corr" id="xd31e15115" title="Source: lū">lṳ̄</span></i>). </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">There is no <span class="ex">remainder</span>; nothing is left. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">o-ma <span class="ex">lud</span> ma c̀ug</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Do not let the milk run over! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">wo-ma <span class="ex">lüʼ</span> ma c̀ug</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽín-pa<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15151src" href="#xd31e15151">39</a> ma túb<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15155src" href="#xd31e15155">40</a>-te <span class="ex">són-te</span> kʽyoṅ</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Not cutting the liver, bring it as a <span class="ex">whole</span>! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - - - - <span class="ex">tʽsáṅ-ma</span></i> (or <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">gʽáṅ-mo</span></i>) <i lang="bo-latn">kʽur-s̀og</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">a-lu</span> s̀u-te tub toṅ</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Peel the <span class="ex">potatoes</span>, and cut them in pieces! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">kyi-u</span></i> (or <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">ḍo-ma</span></i><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15213src" href="#xd31e15213">41</a>) <i lang="bo-latn">s̀u-te tub-c̀ig</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"> </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">maṅ-po</i> (or <i lang="bo-latn">yun riṅ-mo</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">ma <span class="ex">gor</span></i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Don’t <span class="ex">tarry</span> much! <span class="pageNum" id="pb91">[<a href="#pb91">91</a>]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">gyog-pa</i> (C <i lang="bo-latn">gyog-po</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gyō-po</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">s̀og</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Come soon! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ma j̀ed</i><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15265src" href="#xd31e15265">42</a>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">1. Do not forget! 2. (I) did not forget. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">ma j̀ĕʼ</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">yid-la zum</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15285src" href="#xd31e15285">43</a> tʽub-ba</i>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Can you <span class="ex">remember</span> it (<span class="ex">bear it in mind</span>)? </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">sem-la</span> ṅē tʽub-ba</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">yid-la zum gos</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">gō̤</i>), </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">You must bear it in mind, (make it <span class="ex">certain</span>). </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">ṅē-pa</span> j̀ʽĕʼ gō̤</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"> </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">naṅ-du soṅ</i>; <i lang="bo-latn">naṅ-du s̀og</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Go in! Come in! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">naṅ-du kyod</i><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15356src" href="#xd31e15356">44</a>, </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Go (or come) in, sir! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">C </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">naṅ-du pʽeb</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft">W </td>
<td><i lang="bo-latn">dod</i><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15375src" href="#xd31e15375">45</a>, C <i lang="bo-latn">däʼ</i>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Sit down! </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><i lang="bo-latn">z̀ug</i><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15390src" href="#xd31e15390">46</a>. </td>
<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight cellBottom">Please sit down, sir! </td>
</tr>
</table>
</div><p>
<span class="pageNum" id="pb92">[<a href="#pb92">92</a>]</span> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="exercise" class="div2 section"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e1094">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h3 class="main">Reading Exercise.</h3>
</div>
<div class="divBody">
<p class="first">The Story of <i lang="bo-latn">Yug-pa-c̀an</i> the Brahman<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15406src" href="#xd31e15406">47</a>.
</p>
<p><span lang="bo">༄༅ ༎ཡུལ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15418src" href="#xd31e15418">48</a><span lang="bo">ན་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15424src" href="#xd31e15424">49</a><span lang="bo">བྲམ་<wbr></wbr>ཟེ་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="n92.4src" href="#n92.4">50</a><span lang="bo">ཞིག</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e15457" title="Not in source"><span lang="bo">༌</span></span><span lang="bo">འདུག་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15462src" href="#xd31e15462">51</a><span lang="bo">སྟེ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15470src" href="#xd31e15470">52</a><span lang="bo">། རབ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>དབུལ་<wbr></wbr>འཕོངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བཟའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། བགོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15476src" href="#xd31e15476">53</a><span lang="bo">ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>གོ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15487src" href="#xd31e15487">54</a><span lang="bo">། དེས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ལས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15498src" href="#xd31e15498">55</a><span lang="bo">བ་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>བརྙས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། ཉིན་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>སྤྱད་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲིད་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>དེའི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15504src" href="#xd31e15504">56</a><span lang="bo">ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>ཟན་<wbr></wbr>ཟ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་</span><a class="noteRef" id="n92.11src" href="#n92.11">57</a><span lang="bo">བ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། བ་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>སྒོ་<wbr></wbr>གཞན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>སྟོར་<wbr></wbr>རོ༎ ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཟན་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཟོས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>ལངས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15518src" href="#xd31e15518">58</a><span lang="bo">པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེ་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>དེས་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>རེ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15525src" href="#xd31e15525">59</a><span lang="bo">དང༌། ཏེས་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb93">[<a href="#pb93">93</a>]</span><span lang="bo">སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌། །ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ངའི་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>བོར་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="n93.14src" href="#n93.14">60</a><span lang="bo">སློར་<wbr></wbr>བྱིན་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15541src" href="#xd31e15541">61</a><span lang="bo">ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། ངས་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བོར་<wbr></wbr>རོ༎ དེ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོགས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>ཐད་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>འདོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། འུ་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཅག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>རིགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>རིགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>རྟོག་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>རོ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15552src" href="#xd31e15552">62</a><span lang="bo">ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>དོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། མི་<wbr></wbr>གཞན་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>རྒོད་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>བྲོས་<wbr></wbr>ནས། དེས་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། རྒོད་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15558src" href="#xd31e15558">63</a><span lang="bo">ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེས་<wbr></wbr>རྡོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>བླངས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15570src" href="#xd31e15570">64</a><span lang="bo">ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>འཕངས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15577src" href="#xd31e15577">65</a><span lang="bo">པ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>རྟའི་<wbr></wbr>རྐང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཕོག་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>རྐང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བཅག་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15584src" href="#xd31e15584">66</a><span lang="bo">གོ །དེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ངའི་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>བསད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15591src" href="#xd31e15591">67</a><span lang="bo">ངའི་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>བྱིན་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག །ཅིའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིར་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>སྦྱིན། དེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཚུར་<wbr></wbr>ཤོག །རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>དྲུང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15599src" href="#xd31e15599">68</a><span lang="bo">འདོང་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། འུ་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཅག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ཞལ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>གཅོད་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>འོང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>ནས། དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>དེར་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>དེས་<wbr></wbr>འབྲོས་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>བརྩམས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15605src" href="#xd31e15605">69</a><span lang="bo">ཏེ། དེས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15612src" href="#xd31e15612">70</a><span lang="bo">རྩིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>གི་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb94">[<a href="#pb94">94</a>]</span><span lang="bo">སྟེང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15622src" href="#xd31e15622">71</a><span lang="bo">མཆོངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེའི་<wbr></wbr>དྲུང་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཐ་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཐགས་<wbr></wbr>འཐག་<wbr></wbr>ཅིང་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དེའི་<wbr></wbr>སྟེང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>ལྷུང༌</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15629src" href="#xd31e15629">72</a><span lang="bo">ནས་<wbr></wbr>ཐ་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཚེ་<wbr></wbr>འཕོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། ཐ་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>མས་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>བཟུང༌</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15636src" href="#xd31e15636">73</a><span lang="bo">ནས། ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ངའི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>བསད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ངའི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>བྱིན་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། ངས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15643src" href="#xd31e15643">74</a><span lang="bo">སྦྱིན་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>ནས། ཚུར་<wbr></wbr>ཤོག་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>དྲུང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>འདོང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌༎ དེས་<wbr></wbr>འུ་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཅག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ཞལ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེ་<wbr></wbr>གཅད་<wbr></wbr>དོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>དོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས།</span><a class="noteRef" id="n94.29src" href="#n94.29">75</a><span lang="bo"> ལམ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཆུ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་<wbr></wbr>གཏིང་<wbr></wbr>ཟབ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15669src" href="#xd31e15669">76</a><span lang="bo">ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>དེ། ཆུ་<wbr></wbr>དེའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>ཚུར་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15675src" href="#xd31e15675">77</a><span lang="bo">ཤང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15680src" href="#xd31e15680">78</a><span lang="bo">ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>སྟེའུ་<wbr></wbr>ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>འཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>འོང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌། །དེ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ཆུའི་<wbr></wbr>གཏིང་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ཙམ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>དྲིས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15689src" href="#xd31e15689">79</a><span lang="bo">པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། ཆུའི་<wbr></wbr>གཏིང་<wbr></wbr>ཟབ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15696src" href="#xd31e15696">80</a><span lang="bo">ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15703src" href="#xd31e15703">81</a><span lang="bo">སྟེའུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུར་<wbr></wbr>ལྷུང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ། སྟེའུ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>རྙེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེས་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>བཟུང་<wbr></wbr>ནས། ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ངའི་<wbr></wbr>སྟེའུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུར་<wbr></wbr>བསྐྱུར་<wbr></wbr>རོ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15709src" href="#xd31e15709">82</a><span lang="bo">༎ དེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ངས་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བསྐྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཏོ། །ཚུར་<wbr></wbr>ཤོག་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>དྲུང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>འདོང་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེས་<wbr></wbr>འུ་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཅག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ཞལ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>གཅད་<wbr></wbr>དོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>དོང་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb95">[<a href="#pb95">95</a>]</span><span lang="bo">ངོ༌། །དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15720src" href="#xd31e15720">83</a><span lang="bo"> རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>དྲུང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>རྐང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>མགོ་<wbr></wbr>བོས་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱག་<wbr></wbr>འཚལ་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། ཕྱོགས་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་<wbr></wbr>གོ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15727src" href="#xd31e15727">84</a><span lang="bo"> །དེ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འོངས་<wbr></wbr>ཤེས་<wbr></wbr>དྲིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>རྩོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15731src" href="#xd31e15731">85</a><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>ཐམས་<wbr></wbr>ཅད་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>སོ། །རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>བརྙས་<wbr></wbr>སམ། །བརྙས་<wbr></wbr>སོ། །འོ་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིར་<wbr></wbr>བྱིན་<wbr></wbr>ནམ༎ བདག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15735src" href="#xd31e15735">86</a><span lang="bo">བྱིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། ཁས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15743src" href="#xd31e15743">87</a><span lang="bo">ནི་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌། །རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>དེས་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིར་<wbr></wbr>བྱིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>ན</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15748src" href="#xd31e15748">88</a><span lang="bo">། ལྕེ་<wbr></wbr>ཆོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག །ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>འོངས་<wbr></wbr>པར་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15755src" href="#xd31e15755">89</a><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15762src" href="#xd31e15762">90</a><span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏགས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15768src" href="#xd31e15768">91</a><span lang="bo">པས་<wbr></wbr>ནི། མིག་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱུང་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15775src" href="#xd31e15775">92</a><span lang="bo">ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>བརྗོད་<wbr></wbr>དོ། །ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15783src" href="#xd31e15783">93</a><span lang="bo">ནི་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15793src" href="#xd31e15793">94</a><span lang="bo">གླང་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb96">[<a href="#pb96">96</a>]</span><span lang="bo">ཕྲོགས། གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15803src" href="#xd31e15803">95</a><span lang="bo">བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>མིག་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>བས</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15807src" href="#xd31e15807">96</a><span lang="bo"> དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>བླའོ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15813src" href="#xd31e15813">97</a><span lang="bo">། མི་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>ལྷ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15820src" href="#xd31e15820">98</a><span lang="bo">། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>རྒོད་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཀུམ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15830src" href="#xd31e15830">99</a><span lang="bo">མོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་<wbr></wbr>བསད་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>དྲིས་<wbr></wbr>ནས། །བདག་<wbr></wbr>ལམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>ཞུགས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15849src" href="#xd31e15849">100</a><span lang="bo">ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>མཆིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལས། མི་<wbr></wbr>འདིས་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>མཆི་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15856src" href="#xd31e15856">101</a><span lang="bo">བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས། བདག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>རྟོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>བླངས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། འཕངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15869src" href="#xd31e15869">102</a><span lang="bo">རྟ་<wbr></wbr>བཀུམ་<wbr></wbr>མོ། །རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། རྟ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>ལྕེ་<wbr></wbr>ཆོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག །དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ནི་</span><a class="noteRef" id="n96.57src" href="#n96.57">103</a><span lang="bo">རྡོ་<wbr></wbr>འཕངས་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>ལག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཆོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག །མི་<wbr></wbr>དེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>བསད། གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ལྕེ་<wbr></wbr>གཅད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བས། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>བླའོ། །ཐ་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>མས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb97">[<a href="#pb97">97</a>]</span><span lang="bo">གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>བཀུམ་<wbr></wbr>མོ། །དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། བདག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དགྲ་<wbr></wbr>མངས་<wbr></wbr>པས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15887src" href="#xd31e15887">104</a><span lang="bo">འཇིགས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>རྩིགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>བརྒལ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>བྲོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལས། ཕག་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15896src" href="#xd31e15896">105</a><span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་<wbr></wbr>གུམ་<wbr></wbr>མོ། །རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། སོང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15900src" href="#xd31e15900">106</a><span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ཉིད་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15906src" href="#xd31e15906">107</a><span lang="bo">ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15913src" href="#xd31e15913">108</a><span lang="bo">ཤིག །དེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>བསད། གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བས</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15926src" href="#xd31e15926">109</a><span lang="bo">། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>བླའོ། །ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>དེ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15930src" href="#xd31e15930">110</a><span lang="bo">བདག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུའི་<wbr></wbr>གཏིང་<wbr></wbr>ཅེ་<wbr></wbr>ཙམ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>དྲིས་<wbr></wbr>པས། ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>སྟེའུ་<wbr></wbr>ཐོགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15937src" href="#xd31e15937">111</a><span lang="bo">ཆུར་<wbr></wbr>ལྷུང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌། །རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། རྫ་<wbr></wbr>ཇི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>ཕྲག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བཀུར་<wbr></wbr>བའི་<wbr></wbr>རིགས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15941src" href="#xd31e15941">112</a><span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>བས། ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>དུན་<wbr></wbr>སོ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>ཆོག་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག །དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>ཆུའི་<wbr></wbr>གཏིང་<wbr></wbr>ཟབ་<wbr></wbr>བམ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>པས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15948src" href="#xd31e15948">113</a><span lang="bo">ལྕེ་<wbr></wbr>ཆོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག །ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ།</span> <span class="pageNum" id="pb98">[<a href="#pb98">98</a>]</span><span lang="bo">གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>སྟེའུ་<wbr></wbr>སྟོར། གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>སོ་<wbr></wbr>བཅག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བས། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>བླའོ། །དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>སོ་<wbr></wbr>སོ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15962src" href="#xd31e15962">114</a><span lang="bo">ཞལ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>བཅད་<wbr></wbr>དེ། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ཉེས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཀུན་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ཐར་<wbr></wbr>རོ༎ ༎</span>
<span class="pageNum" id="pb99">[<a href="#pb99">99</a>]</span> </p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="verbs" class="div2 last-child section"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e1101">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead">
<h3 class="main">A list of the more frequent verbs<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15977src" href="#xd31e15977">115</a>.</h3>
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<div class="divBody">
<p class="first xd31e11565"><i>a</i>) Four-rooted verbs.
</p>
<p></p>
<div class="table" id="tbl99">
<table class="tbl64.1">
<thead>
<tr class="label">
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Pres. </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Perf. </td>
<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Fut. </td>
<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Imperv. </td>
<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">WT
</td>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འགེགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཀག་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">དགག་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཁོག་</span> </td>
<td>stop, hinder. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">kag-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འགེངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཀང་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">དགང་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཁོང་</span> </td>
<td>fill. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">kaṅ-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འགེལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཀལ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">དགལ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཁོལ་</span> </td>
<td>lade, put on … </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">kal-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">གཅོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཅད་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">གཅད་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཆོད་</span> </td>
<td>cut. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">c̀ad-c̀e</i> <br>imprv. <i lang="bo-latn">c̀od</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཆིང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཅིངས་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བཅིང་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཆིང་</span> </td>
<td>tie, bind. </td>
<td class="cellRight"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཆོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan rightbrace"><img src="images/rbrace2.png" alt="}" width="12" height="60"></td>
<td colspan="3" rowspan="2" class="rowspan colspan"><span lang="bo">བཅོ(ས)༌</span> </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan"><span lang="bo">བཅོ་</span> </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan"><span lang="bo">ཆོས་</span> </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan">make. </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">c̀o-c̀e</i> <br>pf. and imp. <i lang="bo-latn">c̀os</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཆོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཇིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">(བ)ཤིག་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">གཞིག་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཤིགས་</span> </td>
<td>destroy. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">s̀ig-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཇུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཅུག་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">གཞུག་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཆུག་</span> </td>
<td>put in. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽug-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཇོག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཞག་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">གཞག་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཞོག་</span> </td>
<td>put, place. </td>
<td class="cellRight">(C: <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ag-pa</i>) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཇོག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཞོགས་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">གཞོག་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཞོག་</span> </td>
<td>cut. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">z̀og-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཏང་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">གཏང་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཐོང་</span> </td>
<td>give. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">taṅ-c̀e</i> <br>imp. <i lang="bo-latn">toṅ</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ལྟ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བལྟས་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བལྟ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ལྟོས་</span> </td>
<td>look. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">(l)ta-c̀e</i> <span class="pageNum" id="pb100">[<a href="#pb100">100</a>]</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འདེགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཏེག་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">གདེགས་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཐེག་</span> </td>
<td>lift; weigh. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tag-c̀e</i> imp. <i lang="bo-latn">tog</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td id="debspa" colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འདེབས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཏབ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">གདབ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཐོབ་</span> </td>
<td>throw. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tab-c̀e</i> imp. <i lang="bo-latn">tob</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འདོགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཏགས་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">གདགས་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཐོགས་</span> </td>
<td>tie, bind. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tag-c̀e</i> imp. <i lang="bo-latn">tog</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">tag toṅ</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འདོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཏོན་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">གདོན་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཐོན་</span> </td>
<td>get, drive, out. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ton-c̀e</i> <br>always for <a href="#byinpa"><span lang="bo">འབྱིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span></a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཕེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">འཕངས་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">འཕང་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཕོང་</span> </td>
<td>throw, hurt. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽaṅ-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བྱས་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བྱ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བྱོས་</span> </td>
<td>do, make. </td>
<td class="cellRight">for it <i lang="bo-latn">c̀o-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབེབས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">ཕབ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">དབབ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཕོབ་</span> </td>
<td>bring, let, down. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽab-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="rowspan colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཚག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan leftbrace"><img src="images/lbrace2.png" alt="{" width="12" height="60"></td>
<td><span lang="bo">འཚགས་</span> </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan rightbrace"><img src="images/rbrace2.png" alt="}" width="12" height="60"></td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan"><span lang="bo">བཙག་</span> </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan"><span lang="bo">ཚོག་</span> </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan">filter, sift. </td>
<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽsag-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span lang="bo">བཙགས་</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཚོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཙོངས་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བཙོང་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཚོང་</span> </td>
<td>sell. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tsoṅ-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཛིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">གཟུང་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཟིན་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">གཟུང་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཟུང་</span> </td>
<td>seize. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">zum-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ལེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བླངས་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བླང་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ལོང(ས)</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e16579" title="Not in source"><span lang="bo">༌</span></span>, <span lang="bo">ལོན་</span> </td>
<td>take. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">len-c̀e</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">laṅ-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft cellBottom"><span lang="bo">སློབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td colspan="3" class="colspan cellBottom"><span lang="bo">བསླབ(ས)༌</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">བསླབ་</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">སློབ་</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom">learn; teach. </td>
<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><i lang="bo-latn">lab-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div><p>
</p>
<p class="xd31e11565"><i>b</i>) Three-rooted verbs.
</p>
<p></p>
<div class="table">
<table class="tbl64.1">
<thead>
<tr class="label">
<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Pres. </td>
<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Perf. </td>
<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Fut. </td>
<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Imperv. </td>
<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">WT
</td>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཁུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བཀུར་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཁུར་</span> </td>
<td>carry. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">kʽur-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཁྱོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཁྱོངས་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཁྱོང་</span> </td>
<td>bring. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyoṅ-c̀e</i> for <a href="#khyerba"><span lang="bo">འཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span></a> <span class="pageNum" id="pb101">[<a href="#pb101">101</a>]</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">རྒྱབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བརྒྱབ་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">རྒྱོབ་</span> </td>
<td>throw, cast. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">gyab-c̀e</i> imp. <i lang="bo-latn">gyob</i> for <a href="#debspa"><span lang="bo">འདེབས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span></a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">རྒྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">(བ)རྒྱུག(ས)༌</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">རྒྱུག་</span> </td>
<td>run. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">gyug-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">གཅོག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བཅག་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཆོག་</span> </td>
<td>break. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">c̀ag-c̀e</i>, imp. <i lang="bo-latn">c̀og</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཆད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བཤད་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཤོད་</span> </td>
<td>tell, explain. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">s̀ad-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">རྟེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བརྟེན་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">རྟོན་</span> </td>
<td>hold. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ten-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འདྲེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">དྲང་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">དྲོངས་</span> </td>
<td>draw. </td>
<td class="cellRight">to lead: <i lang="bo-latn">ran-c̀e</i> <br>to remove: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍeṅ-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བབ(ས)༌</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བོབ(ས)༌</span> </td>
<td>descend. </td>
<td class="cellRight"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབུད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཕུ(ས)༌</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">དབུ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཕུས་</span> </td>
<td>blow (act.). </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽu-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབུད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཕུད་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">དབུད་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཕུད་</span> </td>
<td>put off, drop (act.). </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽud-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td id="byinpa" class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབྱིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཕྱུང་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">དབྱུང་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཕྱུང་</span> </td>
<td>take, pull out. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽin-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཕྱེ(ས)༌</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">དབྱེ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཕྱེ(ས)༌</span> </td>
<td>open (act.). </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽe-c̀e</i>, imp. <i lang="bo-latn">pʽe(s)</i>. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">སྨྲ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">སྨྲས་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">སྨྲོས་</span> </td>
<td>say. </td>
<td class="cellRight">s. <a href="#zerba"><span lang="bo">ཟེར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span></a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ལང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ལངས་</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ལོང་</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom">rise. </td>
<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><i lang="bo-latn">laṅ-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div><p>
</p>
<p class="xd31e11565"><i>c</i>) Two-rooted verbs.
</p>
<p></p>
<div class="table">
<table class="tbl64.1">
<thead>
<tr class="label">
<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Pres. </td>
<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Perf. </td>
<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Imperv. </td>
<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">WT
</td>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">སྐྱེ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">སྐྱེས་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td>be born. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">skye-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">སྐྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བསྐྱེད་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td>bear, beget. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">skye-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td id="khyerba" class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཁྱེར་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཁྱེར་</span> </td>
<td>carry. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyer-c̀e</i> <span class="pageNum" id="pb102">[<a href="#pb102">102</a>]</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">གྱུར་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">གྱུར་</span> </td>
<td>become. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">gyur-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">སོང་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">སོང་</span> </td>
<td>go; become. <br><span class="xd31e17093">[only in certain sentences.</span> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ḍo-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">སྒྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བསྒྱུར་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">སྒྱུར་</span> </td>
<td>alter. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">gyur-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ངུ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ངུས་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td>weep. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ṅu-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཆི་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཤི་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td>die. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">s̀i-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཆོར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཤོར་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td>flee. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">s̀or-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཇུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཞུགས་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཞུགས་</span> </td>
<td>enter. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">z̀ug-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཉོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཉོས་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td>buy. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ño-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">སྡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བསྡད་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">སྡོད་</span> </td>
<td>sit; stay. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">dad-c̀e</i> imp. <i lang="bo-latn">dod</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཕེལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཕེལ་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td>increase (neutr.) </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽel-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">བླུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བླུག(ས)༌</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བླུག(ས)༌</span> </td>
<td>pour. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">lug-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབུད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བུད་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td>blow (neutr.) </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽu-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བོས་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བོས་</span> </td>
<td>call. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">bo-c̀e</i>, imp. <i lang="bo-latn">bos</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">boi</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">bō̤</i>). </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབྱུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བྱུང་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td>appear, originate. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">j̀uṅ-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">མྱོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">མྱང་</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td>enjoy. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ñaṅ-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">རྩིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བརྩིགས་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">བརྩིགས་</span> </td>
<td>build up. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tsig-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཞུ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཞུས་</span> </td>
<td><span lang="bo">ཞུས་</span> </td>
<td>ask. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">z̀u-c̀e</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">j̀u-c̀e</i>) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"><span lang="bo">སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">བསླེབས་</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellBottom">arrive. </td>
<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><i lang="bo-latn">leb-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div><p>
<span class="pageNum" id="pb103">[<a href="#pb103">103</a>]</span></p>
<p class="xd31e11565"><i>d</i>) One-rooted <span class="corr" id="xd31e17407" title="Source: verb">verbs</span>.
</p>
<p></p>
<div class="table">
<table class="tbl64.1">
<thead>
<tr class="label">
<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> WT
</td>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">དགའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td>be glad, to like. </td>
<td>Ld. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">γa-c̀e</i>, W besides <span lang="bo">འཐད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འགྲིལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td>fall, drop. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ḍil-c̀e</i>, also <span lang="bo">འདྲིལ་(བ་)</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">མཆོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, <span lang="bo">མཆོངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td>leap, jump. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽoṅ-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཉལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td>lie down. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ñal-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཐུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td>meet. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽug-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td id="thubpa" class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཐུབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td>be able. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽub-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཐོབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td>find, get<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽob-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཐོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td>hear. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight">(<i lang="bo-latn">tʽsor-c̀e</i>) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td>see. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽoṅ-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཐད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td>be glad, to like. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽad-c̀e</i>, nearly always for <span lang="bo">དགའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> and <span lang="bo">འདོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td>come out, go out. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽon-c̀e</i>, usual for <span lang="bo">འབྱུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འདོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td>wish, like, desire. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight">rare. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ནུས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td>be able. </td>
<td> s. </td>
<td class="cellRight"><a href="#thubpa"><span lang="bo">ཐུབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span></a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">གནས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td>stay, dwell, remain. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">nas (nai, nā̤)-c̀e</i>, but usually: <i lang="bo-latn">dad-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td>burn. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">bar-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཚོར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td>perceive. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽsor-c̀e</i>, and usual for <span lang="bo">ཐོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">མཛད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td>do, make (resp.)<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">dzad-c̀e</i>, imp. <i lang="bo-latn">dzod</i>. <span class="pageNum" id="pb104">[<a href="#pb104">104</a>]</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td id="zerba" class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཟེར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td>say. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"> <i lang="bo-latn">zer-c̀e</i>, usual for <span lang="bo">སྨྲ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td>remain, be left. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ལོག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td>turn back, return. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"> <i lang="bo-latn">log-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཤེས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td>
<td>know. </td>
<td> </td>
<td class="cellRight"> <i lang="bo-latn">s̀es (s̀ē)-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"><span lang="bo">(ཧ་)གོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td>
<td class="cellBottom">understand. </td>
<td class="cellBottom"> </td>
<td class="cellRight cellBottom"> <i lang="bo-latn">há-go-c̀e</i> </td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div><p>
</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="footnotes">
<hr class="fnsep">
<div class="footnote-body">
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13862">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13862src">1</a></span> <span lang="bo">སུའི་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13862src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13867">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13867src">2</a></span> The numbers refer to the notes at the end of the collection, exhibiting the spelling
of some of the words that are most disfigured in pronunciation. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13867src" title="Return to note 2 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13978" lang="en">
<p class="footnote" lang="en"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13978src">3</a></span> vulgar supine <a href="#s41n1">41, Note 1</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13978src" title="Return to note 3 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13994">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13994src">4</a></span> <span lang="bo">བྲེལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13994src" title="Return to note 4 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14058">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14058src">5</a></span> <span lang="bo">སྨན་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14058src" title="Return to note 5 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14064">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14064src">6</a></span> <span lang="bo">སྩལ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14064src" title="Return to note 6 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14078">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14078src">7</a></span> <span lang="bo">གནང་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14078src" title="Return to note 7 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14091">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14091src">8</a></span> <span lang="bo">གཟུག་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14091src" title="Return to note 8 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14100">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14100src">9</a></span> <span lang="bo">རྒྱག་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14100src" title="Return to note 9 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14124">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14124src">10</a></span> <span lang="bo">གཏོང་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14124src" title="Return to note 10 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14166">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14166src">11</a></span> <span lang="bo">གྲོད་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14166src" title="Return to note 11 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14272">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14272src">12</a></span> <span lang="bo">ག་<wbr></wbr>འདྲས་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14272src" title="Return to note 12 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14359">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14359src">13</a></span> <span lang="bo">འཁྲུ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14359src" title="Return to note 13 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14391">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14391src">14</a></span> <span lang="bo">གནང་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14391src" title="Return to note 14 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14479">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14479src">15</a></span> <span lang="bo">བཞག་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14479src" title="Return to note 15 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14492">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14492src">16</a></span> <span lang="bo">འབེབས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> iprv. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14492src" title="Return to note 16 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14515">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14515src">17</a></span> <span lang="bo">ཟངས་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14515src" title="Return to note 17 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14561">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14561src">18</a></span> <span lang="bo">རྒས་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14561src" title="Return to note 18 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14568">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14568src">19</a></span> <span lang="bo">འབུད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> iprv. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14568src" title="Return to note 19 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14612">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14612src">20</a></span> <span lang="bo">གྲང་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14612src" title="Return to note 20 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14619">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14619src">21</a></span> <span lang="bo">དཀར་<wbr></wbr>ཡོལ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14619src" title="Return to note 21 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14677">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14677src">22</a></span> <span lang="bo">འགྲོ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14677src" title="Return to note 22 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14688">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14688src">23</a></span> <span lang="bo">གསོལ་<wbr></wbr>ལྕོག་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14688src" title="Return to note 23 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14692">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14692src">24</a></span> <span lang="bo">འཕྲལ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲིག་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14692src" title="Return to note 24 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14714">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14714src">25</a></span> <span lang="bo">བཏིང་</span> prf. of <span lang="bo">འདིང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14714src" title="Return to note 25 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14786">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14786src">26</a></span> <span lang="bo">བཀང་</span> prf. of <span lang="bo">འགེངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14786src" title="Return to note 26 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14831">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14831src">27</a></span> <span lang="bo">དཀར་<wbr></wbr>གཡའ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14831src" title="Return to note 27 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14835">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14835src">28</a></span> <span lang="bo">སྦྱར་</span> prf. of <span lang="bo">སྦྱོར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14835src" title="Return to note 28 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14870">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14870src">29</a></span> <span lang="bo">མགར་<wbr></wbr>བའི་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14870src" title="Return to note 29 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14874">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14874src">30</a></span> <span lang="bo">རྩར་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14874src" title="Return to note 30 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14937">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14937src">31</a></span> <span lang="bo">བསྐྱལ་</span> prf. of <span lang="bo">སྐྱེལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14937src" title="Return to note 31 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14967">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14967src">32</a></span> <span lang="bo">གསུང་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14967src" title="Return to note 32 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15004">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15004src">33</a></span> <span lang="bo">འཕང་</span> iprv. of <span lang="bo">འཕེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15004src" title="Return to note 33 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15011">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15011src">34</a></span> <span lang="bo">བཅུག་</span> prf. of <span lang="bo">འཇུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15011src" title="Return to note 34 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15037">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15037src">35</a></span> <span lang="bo">འགྲིམ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15037src" title="Return to note 35 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15057">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15057src">36</a></span> <span lang="bo">གནན་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15057src" title="Return to note 36 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15079">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15079src">37</a></span> <span lang="bo">འབྲས་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15079src" title="Return to note 37 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15085">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15085src">38</a></span> <span lang="bo">དཀྲི་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15085src" title="Return to note 38 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15151">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15151src">39</a></span> <span lang="bo">མཆིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15151src" title="Return to note 39 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15155">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15155src">40</a></span> <span lang="bo">བཏུབ་</span> prf. of <span lang="bo">འཐུབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15155src" title="Return to note 40 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15213">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15213src">41</a></span> <span lang="bo">གྲོ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15213src" title="Return to note 41 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15265">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15265src">42</a></span> <span lang="bo">རྗེད་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15265src" title="Return to note 42 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15285">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15285src">43</a></span> <span lang="bo">ཟུམ་</span> i.o. <span lang="bo">བཟུང་</span> from <span lang="bo">འཛིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15285src" title="Return to note 43 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15356">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15356src">44</a></span> <span lang="bo">སྐྱོད་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15356src" title="Return to note 44 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15375">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15375src">45</a></span> <span lang="bo">སྡོད་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15375src" title="Return to note 45 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15390">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15390src">46</a></span> <span lang="bo">བཞུགས་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15390src" title="Return to note 46 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15406">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15406src">47</a></span> From the <i lang="bo-latn">Dzaṅ-lun</i> (<span lang="bo">མཛངས་<wbr></wbr>བླུན་</span>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15406src" title="Return to note 47 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15418">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15418src">48</a></span> <a href="#s13">13</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15418src" title="Return to note 48 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15424">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15424src">49</a></span> <a href="#s15.5">15, 5</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15424src" title="Return to note 49 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="n92.4">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#n92.4src">50</a></span> <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, perf. <span lang="bo">བྱས་</span>, fut. <span lang="bo">བྱ་</span>, iv. <span lang="bo">བྱོས་</span> ‘to make, do’<span class="corr" id="xd31e15443" title="Not in source">,</span> in some cases: ‘to say, call’, <span lang="bo">ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘so to be called, so called’.—<span lang="bo">དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span> is a translation of the Sanscrit name <span lang="sa" class="deva">दण्डिन्</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#n92.4src" title="Return to note 50 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15462">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15462src">51</a></span> <a href="#s40.1.c">40. 1. <i>c</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15462src" title="Return to note 51 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15470">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15470src">52</a></span> <a href="#s41.a.1">41. A. 1</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15470src" title="Return to note 52 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15476">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15476src">53</a></span> <a href="#s40.1.b">40. 1. <i>b</i></a> and <a href="#s47.3.b">47. 3. <i>b</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15476src" title="Return to note 53 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15487">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15487src">54</a></span> <a href="#s34.1">34. 1</a>. and <a href="#s40.1">40. 1</a>. <i>g</i>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15487src" title="Return to note 54 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15498">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15498src">55</a></span> <a href="#s15.5">15. 5</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15498src" title="Return to note 55 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15504">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15504src">56</a></span> <a href="#s42.3">42. 3</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15504src" title="Return to note 56 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="n92.11">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#n92.11src">57</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to give; to send, let go’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#n92.11src" title="Return to note 57 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15518">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15518src">58</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">ལང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to rise’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15518src" title="Return to note 58 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15525">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15525src">59</a></span> s. <a href="#n92.4">50</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15525src" title="Return to note 59 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="n93.14">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#n93.14src">60</a></span> <a href="#s41.a.7">41. A. 7</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#n93.14src" title="Return to note 60 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15541">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15541src">61</a></span> imp. of <span lang="bo">སྦྱིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to give’, <span lang="bo">སླར༌༌༌</span> ‘to return’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15541src" title="Return to note 61 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15552">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15552src">62</a></span> <a href="#s37.2">37. 2</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15552src" title="Return to note 62 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15558">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15558src">63</a></span> <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> s. <a href="#n92.11">57</a>); ‘don’t let pass’; <a href="#s38.2">38. 2</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15558src" title="Return to note 63 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15570">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15570src">64</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">ལེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘take, seize’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15570src" title="Return to note 64 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15577">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15577src">65</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">འཕེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to throw, fling’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15577src" title="Return to note 65 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15584">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15584src">66</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">གཅོག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to break’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15584src" title="Return to note 66 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15591">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15591src">67</a></span> s. <a href="#n93.14">60</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15591src" title="Return to note 67 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15599">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15599src">68</a></span> <a href="#s43.2">43. 2</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15599src" title="Return to note 68 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15605">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15605src">69</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">རྩོམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to prepare, purpose’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15605src" title="Return to note 69 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15612">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15612src">70</a></span> rule <a href="#s30">30</a>. is not always strictly observed. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15612src" title="Return to note 70 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15622">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15622src">71</a></span> <a href="#s43.2">43. 2</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15622src" title="Return to note 71 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15629">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15629src">72</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">ལྟུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to fall’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15629src" title="Return to note 72 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15636">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15636src">73</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">འཛིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to seize’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15636src" title="Return to note 73 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15643">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15643src">74</a></span> <a href="#s43.2.b">43. 2. <i>b</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15643src" title="Return to note 74 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="n94.29">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#n94.29src">75</a></span> <span class="corr" id="xd31e15651" title="Source: 41. 6. b"><a href="#s41.a.6.b">41. A. 6. <i>b</i></a></span>; <span lang="bo">ཞེས་</span> = <span lang="bo">ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#n94.29src" title="Return to note 75 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15669">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15669src">76</a></span> <a href="#s49">49</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15669src" title="Return to note 76 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15675">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15675src">77</a></span> ‘from the inner (i.e. other) to this’, ‘across’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15675src" title="Return to note 77 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15680">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15680src">78</a></span> carpenter (lit. ‘<i>lakṛiwālā</i>’, cf. <a href="#s12.1">12. 1</a>.). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15680src" title="Return to note 78 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15689">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15689src">79</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">འདྲི་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to ask’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15689src" title="Return to note 79 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15696">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15696src">80</a></span> <a href="#s40.1.g">40. 1. <i>g</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15696src" title="Return to note 80 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15703">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15703src">81</a></span> <a href="#s41.a.8">41. A. 8</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15703src" title="Return to note 81 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15709">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15709src">82</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">སྐྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to throw down’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15709src" title="Return to note 82 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15720">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15720src">83</a></span> s. <a href="#n94.29">75</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15720src" title="Return to note 83 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15727">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15727src">84</a></span> ‘sat down’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15727src" title="Return to note 84 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15731">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15731src">85</a></span> if the verb is in the infv., the subject is usually put in the accus., when we use
the genitive. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15731src" title="Return to note 85 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15735">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15735src">86</a></span> ‘returning it so that the owner saw it’; <a href="#s41.b.2.b">41. B. 2. <i>b</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15735src" title="Return to note 86 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15743">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15743src">87</a></span> ‘I did not return it with the mouth i.e. by saying anything’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15743src" title="Return to note 87 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15748">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15748src">88</a></span> ‘because (<a href="#s41.a.8">41. A. 8</a>) that Yugp. did not say it (viz: I give back)’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15748src" title="Return to note 88 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15755">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15755src">89</a></span> <a href="#s41.b.2.a">41. B. 2. <i>a</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15755src" title="Return to note 89 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15762">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15762src">90</a></span> <a href="#s41.a.5">41. A. 5</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15762src" title="Return to note 90 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15768">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15768src">91</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">འདོགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to tie, fasten’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15768src" title="Return to note 91 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15775">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15775src">92</a></span> impv. of <span lang="bo">འབྱིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to take out, pull out’ etc. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15775src" title="Return to note 92 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15783">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15783src">93</a></span> ‘firstly’, less frequent and somewhat different from <span lang="bo">དང་<wbr></wbr>པོར་</span> (<a href="#s22">22</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15783src" title="Return to note 93 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15793">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15793src">94</a></span> ‘my’ (<a href="#s24">24</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15793src" title="Return to note 94 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15803">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15803src">95</a></span> ‘secondly’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15803src" title="Return to note 95 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15807">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15807src">96</a></span> <a href="#s17.1">17. 1</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15807src" title="Return to note 96 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15813">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15813src">97</a></span> ‘it is better that Y. should be the winner, than that besides having been robbed of
my ox, I should lose my eyes into the bargain<span class="corr" id="xd31e15815" title="Not in source">’</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15813src" title="Return to note 97 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15820">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15820src">98</a></span> ‘another said: O god! etc.’ (<span lang="bo">ལྷ་</span> used in addressing a king like Sanscr. <span lang="sa" class="deva">देव</span>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15820src" title="Return to note 98 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15830">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15830src">99</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">འགུམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to kill’; <span lang="bo">འགུམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to die’ has perf. <span lang="bo">གུམ་</span>; an <span class="ex">elegant</span> word (<a href="#s24n">24, Note</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15830src" title="Return to note 99 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15849">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15849src">100</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">འཇུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to enter’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15849src" title="Return to note 100 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15856">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15856src">101</a></span> <span lang="bo">མཆི་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e15859" title="Not in source">,</span> perf. <span lang="bo">མཆིས་</span> ‘to go, walk’; <span class="ex">eleg.</span> ‘to say’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15856src" title="Return to note 101 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15869">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15869src">102</a></span> <a href="#s41.a.5.b">41. A. 5. <i>b</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15869src" title="Return to note 102 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="n96.57">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#n96.57src">103</a></span> Nomin. for Instrum., s. <a href="#s30">30</a> fin. <a class="fnarrow" href="#n96.57src" title="Return to note 103 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15887">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15887src">104</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">མང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to be much, many; to become m<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15887src" title="Return to note 104 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15896">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15896src">105</a></span> partic., ‘that a man was concealed (behind it)’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15896src" title="Return to note 105 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15900">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15900src">106</a></span> <a href="#s41.a.5">41. A. 5</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15900src" title="Return to note 106 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15906">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15906src">107</a></span> <a href="#s27.1">27. 1</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15906src" title="Return to note 107 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15913">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15913src">108</a></span> imper. of <span lang="bo">བགྱིད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <span class="ex">eleg.</span> for <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>; ‘go and make the husband of this same (woman)’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15913src" title="Return to note 108 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15926">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15926src">109</a></span> ‘than that he should be (my) husband’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15926src" title="Return to note 109 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15930">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15930src">110</a></span> s. <a href="#n96.57">103</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15930src" title="Return to note 110 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15937">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15937src">111</a></span> partic., ‘the axe which I held from (i.e. with) my mouth’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15937src" title="Return to note 111 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15941">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15941src">112</a></span> <a href="#s40.3">40. 3</a> ‘whatever things be carried, it being right to carry them on the shoulder’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15941src" title="Return to note 112 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15948">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15948src">113</a></span> for <span lang="bo">ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པས།</span> s. <a href="#n94.29">75</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15948src" title="Return to note 113 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15962">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15962src">114</a></span> <span lang="bo">༌༌སོ་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘different, several’, <span lang="bo">༌༌ནས་</span>—‘separately, each for himself’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15962src" title="Return to note 114 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15977">
<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15977src">115</a></span> They are here arranged according to the number of the roots, though these are in many
instances, not so strictly observed, even in printed books, as they ought to be. It
should especially be remarked that the mute <span lang="bo">ས་</span> in the perf. and imp. is in most cases either put or omitted very arbitrarily. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15977src" title="Return to note 115 in text.">↑</a></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="transcriberNote">
<h2 class="main">Colophon</h2>
<h3 class="main">Availability</h3>
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<h3 class="main">Metadata</h3>
<table class="colophonMetadata" summary="Metadata">
<tr>
<td><b>Title:</b></td>
<td>Tibetan Grammar</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Author:</b></td>
<td>Heinrich August Jäschke (1817–1883)</td>
<td>Info <span class="externalUrl">https://viaf.org/viaf/61583153/</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Editor:</b></td>
<td>Heinrich Wenzel (1855–1893)</td>
<td>Info <span class="externalUrl">https://viaf.org/viaf/34630954/</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>File generation date:</b></td>
<td>2022-10-22 21:02:37 UTC</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Language:</b></td>
<td>English</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Original publication date:</b></td>
<td>1883</td>
<td></td>
</tr> </table>
<h3 class="main">Revision History</h3>
<ul>
<li>2021-09-25 Started. </li>
</ul>
<h3 class="main">External References</h3>
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<th>URL</th>
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<tr>
<td><a class="pageref" id="xd31e160ext" href="#xd31e160">N.A.</a></td>
<td><span class="externalUrl">http://www.buddism.ru/YagpoFont/</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="pageref" id="xd31e169ext" href="#xd31e169">N.A.</a></td>
<td><span class="externalUrl">https://omkarananda-ashram.org/Sanskrit/itranslator2003.htm#dls</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="pageref" id="xd31e187ext" href="#xd31e187">N.A.</a></td>
<td><span class="externalUrl">https://software.sil.org/awami/</span></td>
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<td><a class="pageref" id="xd31e178ext" href="#xd31e178">N.A.</a></td>
<td><span class="externalUrl">https://software.sil.org/scheherazade/</span></td>
</tr>
</table>
<h3 class="main">Corrections</h3>
<p>The following corrections have been applied to the text:</p>
<table class="correctionTable" summary="Overview of corrections applied to the text.">
<tr>
<th>Page</th>
<th>Source</th>
<th>Correction</th>
<th>Edit distance</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1767">N.A.</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">24</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">20</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1784">N.A.</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">26</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">27</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1792">N.A.</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">27</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">3</td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1995">N.A.</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">neutre</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">neuter</td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e2386">1</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">S̀ron-tsan-gam-po</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">Sroṅ-tsan-gam-po</td>
<td class="bottom">2 / 0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e2789">2</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">speak</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">say</td>
<td class="bottom">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><i title="33 occurrences">Passim.
</i></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Not in source</i>]
</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">.</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3035">3</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">in</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">at</td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3125">4</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">respectivily</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">respectively</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3182">4</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">whom</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">which</td>
<td class="bottom">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3185">4</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Not in source</i>]
</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">under </td>
<td class="bottom">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3224">4</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="ar">همرنة</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="ar">همزة</td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3259">4</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">exercion</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">exertion</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3266">4</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">to </td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Deleted</i>]
</td>
<td class="bottom">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3294">5</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">componend</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">component</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3312">5</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">down </td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Deleted</i>]
</td>
<td class="bottom">5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3419">5</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4991">13</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">preceeding</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">preceding</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3506">6</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10140">48</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">dissappears</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">disappears</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3657">6</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">སྙེམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">སྙེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span></td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3671">6</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Dipthongs</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Diphthongs</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3795">7</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">conjunction</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">succession</td>
<td class="bottom">8</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3798">7</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">either</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">each</td>
<td class="bottom">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3811">7</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Subjoined</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Subscribed</td>
<td class="bottom">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3863">7</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">བྱ</span></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">བྱ་</span></td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4039">8</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">food</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">foot</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4042">8</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">subjoined</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">subscribed</td>
<td class="bottom">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4062">8</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">homonymes</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">homonyms</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4082">8</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6160">19</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10861">55</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e12865">75</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Not in source</i>]
</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">)</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4085">8</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">lauguage</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">language</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4109">8</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">above</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">over</td>
<td class="bottom">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4115">8</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">contonants</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">consonants</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4164">9</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">ease</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">case</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4339">10</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">judgement</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">judgment</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4351">10</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e5837">16</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6479">21</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6523">22</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9637">44</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9650">44</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11344">61</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e13192">78</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e15443">92</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e15859">96</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Not in source</i>]
</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">,</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4502">10</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">ḍan-po</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">ḍaṅ-po</td>
<td class="bottom">1 / 0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4583">11</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">W.T</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">WT</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4586">11</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> </td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">.)</td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4589">11</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4694">11</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">C.T.</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">CT</td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4654">11</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Not in source</i>]
</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span>1.</span> </td>
<td class="bottom">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4687">11</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">excepted</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">except</td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4963">12</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11106">58</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">is</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">it</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4975">13</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">for denoting</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">to denote</td>
<td class="bottom">5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e5016">13</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">ལག ཤུབས་</span></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">ལག་<wbr></wbr>ཤུབས་</span></td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e5030">13</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">W.T.</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">WT</td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e5175">14</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">exlamation</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">exclamation</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e5357">14</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">,</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">.</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e5916">16</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Not in source</i>]
</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">པ་</span></td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6008">18</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">སེང་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>མོ</span></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">སེང་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span></td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6038">18</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6177">19</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8463">33</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8992">36</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9852">46</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">,</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Deleted</i>]
</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6329">20</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">indisriminately</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">indiscriminately</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6335">20</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">thrown out</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">superseded</td>
<td class="bottom">10</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6386">20</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Bus</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">But</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6413">21</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">add</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">adds</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6423">21</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">an</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">a</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6629">23</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">movement</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">motion</td>
<td class="bottom">5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6648">23</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">consonontal</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">consonantal</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6732">23</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e15115">90</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">lū</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄</td>
<td class="bottom">2 / 0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7217">25</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Tsan</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Tsaṅ</td>
<td class="bottom">1 / 0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7240">25</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7320">26</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8312">31</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9607">43</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10383">50</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Not in source</i>]
</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">‘</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7242">25</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7323">26</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8314">31</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9611">44</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10028">47</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10385">50</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11510">63</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e12730">74</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e15815">96</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Not in source</i>]
</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">’</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7332">26</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">endings</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">terminations</td>
<td class="bottom">8</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7361">26</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">preceeds</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">precedes</td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7376">26</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="ur">سى</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="ur">سے</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7387">27</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">that</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">than</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8126">30</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">go c̀íg</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">go-c̀íg</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8316">31</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">21.</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">21st</td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8370">32</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">སྟོང་<wbr></wbr>ཕྲག་<wbr></wbr>ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ</span></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">སྟོང་<wbr></wbr>ཕྲག་<wbr></wbr>ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ་</span></td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8472">33</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">so</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">to</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8678">34</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">letter writing</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">letter-writing</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8804">36</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">notions</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">terms</td>
<td class="bottom">5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8962">36</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Not in source</i>]
</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">and </td>
<td class="bottom">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8974">36</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">himself in his own speech</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">speaking of himself</td>
<td class="bottom">19</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9195">38</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">gh.</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">ghaṅ</td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9232">38</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">und</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">and</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9277">39</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">way</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">may</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9310">40</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e17407">103</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">verb</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">verbs</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9331">40</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9337">40</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">neutral</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">neuter</td>
<td class="bottom">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9334">40</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Not in source</i>]
</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">an </td>
<td class="bottom">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9366">41</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">shape</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">form</td>
<td class="bottom">5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9369">41</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">shapes</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">forms</td>
<td class="bottom">5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9410">41</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">likes</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">prefers</td>
<td class="bottom">5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9428">42</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Perfet</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Perfect</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9476">42</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">acknowledges</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">recognises</td>
<td class="bottom">9</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9569">43</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">and</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">or</td>
<td class="bottom">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9578">43</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">notion</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">idea</td>
<td class="bottom">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9766">45</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Not in source</i>]
</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">the </td>
<td class="bottom">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9846">46</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">always will</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">will always</td>
<td class="bottom">10</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9849">46</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">te</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">to</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10005">47</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">bit</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">bitten</td>
<td class="bottom">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10412">50</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">.</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">,</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10494">51</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">synonymes</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">synonyms</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10610">52</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">replaces</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">expresses</td>
<td class="bottom">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10726">53</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">fouud</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">found</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10766">53</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">notion, opposite</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">sense, opposed</td>
<td class="bottom">9</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10844">55</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">appendices</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">affixes</td>
<td class="bottom">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10854">55</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">ས</span></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">ས་</span></td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10866">55</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">དེ</span></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">དེ་</span></td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10881">55</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">མ</span></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">མ་</span></td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10948">56</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">kings-place</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">king’s-place</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11288">60</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Not in source</i>]
</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">1.</td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11337">61</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">kings</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">king’s</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11350">61</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">.’</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">’.</td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11411">62</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">;</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">,</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11504">63</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">sent</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">send</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11560">64</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">intented</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">intended</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11927">66</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">principal</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">principally</td>
<td class="bottom">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e12651">73</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">,</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">:</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e12931">76</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">40. 1. A. 4</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">41. A. 4</td>
<td class="bottom">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e13805">85</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Not in source</i>]
</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">“</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e13807">85</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">’</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">”</td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e13891">86</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">gʽan</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">gʽaṅ</td>
<td class="bottom">1 / 0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e15457">92</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e16579">100</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">
[<i>Not in source</i>]
</td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">༌</span></td>
<td class="bottom">1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e15651">94</a></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">41. 6. <i>b</i></td>
<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">41. A. 6. <i>b</i></td>
<td class="bottom">3</td>
</tr>
</table>
<h3 class="main">Abbreviations</h3>
<p>Overview of abbreviations used.</p>
<table class="abbreviationTable" summary="Overview of abbreviations used.">
<tr>
<th>Abbreviation</th>
<th>Expansion</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="bottom">f.i.</td>
<td class="bottom">for instance</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="bottom">i.o.</td>
<td class="bottom">instead of</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 69207 ***</div>
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