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} -.grek { font-family: 'Charis SIL', serif; } -.hebr { font-family: Shlomo, 'Ezra SIL', serif; } -.syrc { font-family: 'Serto Jerusalem', serif; } -body { -font-family: 'EB Garamond', serif; -line-height: 1.4; -} -h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6, .h1, .h2, .h3, .h4, .titlePage { -font-family: 'EB Garamond', serif; -} -h1, h2, h3, h4, .h1, .h2, .h3, .titlePage { -text-transform: uppercase; -} -h5, h6 { -font-style: italic; -} -.transcriberNote { -font-family: 'EB Garamond', serif; -font-size: 100%; -} -.hangq { text-indent: -0.24em; } -.hangqq { text-indent: -0.42em; } -.hangqqq { text-indent: -0.68em; } -.grek, .cyrl { font-family: 'EB Garamond', serif; } -/* CSS rules generated from rendition elements in TEI file */ -.xs { -font-size: x-small; -} -.small { -font-size: small; -} -.large { -font-size: large; -} -.xl { -font-size: x-large; -} -.xxl { -font-size: xx-large; -} -.vam { -vertical-align: middle; -} -.center { -text-align: center; -} -.rtl { -direction: rtl; text-align: right; -} -p.rtl .fnlabel { -float: right; margin-right: -0.1em; margin-left: 0; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 0; -} -.hebr { -font-family: Times New Roman, serif; -} -/* CSS rules generated from @rend attributes in TEI file */ -.cover-imagewidth { -width:480px; -} -.titlepage-imagewidth { -width:417px; -} -.xd31e153 { -text-align:left; text-transform:none; -} -.xd31e171 { -text-align:right; -} -.xd31e710 { -line-height:0.9em; -} -/* ]]> */ </style> -</head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Essenes, by Christian David Ginsburg</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Essenes</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>Their history and doctrines</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Christian David Ginsburg</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: October 16, 2022 [eBook #69170]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net/ for Project Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ESSENES ***</div> -<div class="front"> -<div class="div1 cover"> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first"></p> -<div class="figure cover-imagewidth"><img src="images/new-cover.jpg" alt="Newly Designed Front Cover." width="480" height="720"></div><p> -</p> -</div> -</div> -<div class="div1 titlepage"> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first"></p> -<div class="figure titlepage-imagewidth"><img src="images/titlepage.png" alt="Original Title Page." width="417" height="720"></div><p> -</p> -</div> -</div> -<div class="titlePage"> -<div class="docTitle"> -<div class="mainTitle">THE ESSENES:</div> -<div class="subTitle">THEIR HISTORY AND DOCTRINES.</div> -<div class="subTitle">AN ESSAY,</div> -<div class="subTitle">REPRINTED FROM THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF LIVERPOOL.</div> -</div> -<div class="byline">BY <br><span class="docAuthor">CHRISTIAN D. GINSBURG, LL.D.</span> </div> -<div class="epigraph"> -<p class="first xd31e153"><span class="trans" title="hen panti ethnei ho phoboumenos auton"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ἑν παντὶ ἔθνει ὁ φοβούμενος αὐτὸν</span></span> <br><span class="trans" title="kai ergazomenos dikaiosynēn dektos autō estin"><span lang="grc" class="grek">καὶ ἐργαζόμενος δικαιοσύνην δεκτὸς αὐτῷ ἐστιν</span></span> -</p> -<p class="xd31e171"><span class="sc">Acts X</span>, 35 . </p> -</div> -<div class="docImprint">LONDON: <br>LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, ROBERTS, AND GREEN. <br><span class="docDate">1864.</span> </div> -</div> -<p><span class="pageNum" id="pb5">[<a href="#pb5">5</a>]</span></p> -</div> -<div class="body"> -<div class="div1 last-child chapter"> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="main">THE ESSENES.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<div class="div2 section"> -<div class="divHead"> -<h3 class="main">I.</h3> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">It is very surprising that the Essenes, whose exemplary Virtues elicited the unbounded -admiration of even the Greeks and Romans, and whose doctrines and practices contributed -so materially to the spread of Christianity, should be so little known among intelligent -Christians. The current information upon this remarkable sect or order of Judaism, -to be found in ecclesiastical histories and Cyclopædias, is derived from the short -notices of Philo, Pliny, Josephus, Solinus, Porphyry, Eusebius, and Epiphanius. These -seven witnesses—of whom the first and third are Jewish philosophers, the second, fourth -and fifth heathen writers, and the last two Christian church historians—are all who, -till within a very recent period, have been subpœnaed before the tribunal of public -opinion, to give evidence as to the character of these very much misunderstood and -neglected Essenes. -</p> -<p>Not only is this combined testimony insufficient, but it is too much tainted with -the peculiar dogmas of the respective witnesses, to furnish the general reader with -an unbiassed notion of the character and doctrines of this ancient sect. Philo and -Josephus, writing in Greek and in apology for their Jewish brethren, were too anxious -to represent to the Greeks and Romans every phase and sect of Judaism, as corresponding -to the different systems of Greek and Roman philosophy; Pliny, Solinus, and Porphyry, -again, betray too great an ignorance of the inward workings of the Jewish religion, -and too much prejudice against the Jews; whilst Epiphanius draws upon his imagination, -and Eusebius simply copies the account of Philo, with the well-known patristic pen. -Nor can the <span class="pageNum" id="pb6">[<a href="#pb6">6</a>]</span>modern descriptions of the Essenes, as given in the histories of the church and in -the popular Cyclopædias, be always relied upon when they profess to give the results -of the aforementioned garbled scraps of ancient information; since the writers are -either too much afraid of, or too much pleased with, the marked resemblance between -some of the doctrines and practices of Christianity and Essenism. Hence those who -style themselves the true evangelical Christians are very anxious to destroy every -appearance of affinity between Essenism and Christianity, lest it should be said that -the one gave rise to the other; whilst those who are termed Rationalists multiply -and magnify every feature of resemblance, in order to show that Christianity is nothing -but a development of Essenism—so that the poor Essenes are crucified between the two. -</p> -<p>The design of this essay is to give an impartial statement of the doctrines and practices -of the Essenes; to show their rise and progress, their relationship both to Judaism -and Christianity, their numbers and localities, to trace the most probable signification -of their name, &c., &c. To do this, I not only appeal to the seven stereotyped witnesses, -but to the information upon this subject scattered throughout the Midrashim and the -Talmud. But not to incur the charge of partiality, as well as to enable you to test -my conclusions, I have collected all that the ancients have written upon this subject, -and append to this paper the whole account which Philo, Pliny, Josephus, Solinus, -Porphyry, Eusebius, and Epiphanius give of the Essenes. -</p> -<p>The cardinal doctrines and practices of this sect are as follows:—They regarded the -inspired Law of God with the utmost veneration. In fact, their adhesion to it was -such that they were led thereby to pay the greatest homage to Moses, the lawgiver, -and to visit with capital punishment any one of the brotherhood who blasphemed his -name. The <span class="pageNum" id="pb7">[<a href="#pb7">7</a>]</span>highest aim of their life was to become the temples of the Holy Ghost, when they could -prophesy, perform miraculous cures, and, like Elias, be the forerunners of the Messiah. -This they regarded as the last stage of perfection, which could only be reached by -gradual growth in holiness, brought about through strictly observing the commandments -and the Levitical laws of purity contained in the Pentateuch, mortifying the flesh -and the lusts thereof, and being meek and lowly in spirit, inasmuch as this would -bring them into closer communion with him who is the Holy One of Israel. This earnest -desire to avoid everything which involved profanity in the slightest degree and which -might interpose between them and the Deity, made them abstain from using oaths, because -they regarded the invocation, in swearing, of heaven or the heavenly throne, or anything -which represents God’s glory, as a desecration. Their communication was yea, yea; -nay, nay; whatsoever was more than these came of evil. -</p> -<p>Their increased strictness in enforcing the observance of the rigid Mosaic Jaws of -Levitical purity, which were afterwards amplified and rendered still more rigid by -traditional explanations,<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e202src" href="#xd31e202">1</a> ultimately compelled the Essenes to withdraw <span class="pageNum" id="pb8">[<a href="#pb8">8</a>]</span>themselves altogether from the society of their Jewish brethren, to form a separate -community, and to live apart from the world, since contact with any one who did not -practice these laws, or with anything belonging to such an one, rendered them impure. -This fear of coming in contact with that which is impure, as well as the desire not -to be hindered in their spiritual communion with their Creator, also made the Essenes -abstain from marriage; inasmuch as women, according to the law, are subject to perpetual -pollutions in menstruum and child-birth (compare Lev. xii, 1–8 ; xv, 19–31 ), and as going to one’s wife, even under ordinary circumstances, is regarded as defiling -(<i lang="la">vide infra</i>, <i>p.</i> 39, <i>note</i> 19). There were, however, some weak brethren who could not be like the angels in -heaven, neither marrying nor being given in marriage; these were allowed to take wives, -but they could never advance to the highest orders of the brotherhood, and had, moreover, -to observe laws specially enacted for married brethren and sisters. -</p> -<p>Here, in their separation from the Jewish nation, whatever any one of them possessed -was deposited in the general treasury, from which the wants of the whole community -alike were supplied by stewards appointed by the whole brotherhood; so that they had -all things in common. There were no distinctions amongst them, such as rich and poor, -masters and servants; they called no one master upon earth, but all ministered to -the wants of one another. They lived peaceably with all men, reprobated slavery and -war, and would not even manufacture any martial instruments whatever, however great -the temptation or the fear might be. They were governed by a president, who was elected -by the whole body, and who also acted as the judge of the community. Trials were conducted -by juries, composed, not as our juries are, of twelve persons, but of the majority -of the community, or of at least a hundred members, who had to be unanimous in their -verdict. <span class="pageNum" id="pb9">[<a href="#pb9">9</a>]</span>The brother who was found guilty of walking disorderly was excommunicated, yet was -he not regarded as an enemy, but was admonished as a brother, and received back after -due repentance. -</p> -<p>As it was contrary to the laws of Levitical purity to buy anything from one who did -not practice those laws, the Essenes had to raise the supplies of all their wants -among themselves. In this they experienced no difficulty, as their food and raiment -were most simple and very self-denying, and as each one of the community willingly -took his share of work in the department in which he most excelled. Some were engaged -in tilling the ground, some in tending flocks and rearing bees, some in preparing -food, some in making the articles of dress, some in healing the sick, and some in -instructing the young; whilst all of them devoted certain hours to studying the mysteries -of nature and revelation and of the celestial hierarchy. They always got up before -the sun rose, and never talked about any worldly matters till they had all assembled -together and, with their faces turned towards the sun, offered up their national hymn -of praise (<span lang="he" class="hebr">המאיר לארץ</span>) for the renewal of the light of the day. This done, every one betook himself to -his work, according to the directions of the overseers, and remained at it till the -fifth hour (or eleven o’clock, a.m.), when the labour of the forenoon regularly terminated. -All of them again assembled together, had a baptism in cold water, put on their white -garments, the symbol of purity, and then made their way to the refectory, which they -entered with as much solemnity as if it were the temple. The meal was a common one; -and each member took his seat according to the order of age. Those of the brethren -who were the bakers and cooks then placed before each one a little loaf of bread and -a dish of the most simple food, consisting chiefly of vegetables as they ate very -little animal flesh, and the repast commenced after the priest had invoked God’s <span class="pageNum" id="pb10">[<a href="#pb10">10</a>]</span>blessing upon it. A mysterious silence was observed during the meal, which had the -character of a sacrament, and may have been designed as a substitute for the sacrifices -which they refused to offer in the temple. The priest concluded it by offering thanks -to the Bountiful Supplier of all our wants, which was the signal of dismissal. Hereupon -all withdrew, put off their white and sacred garments, and dressed themselves in their -working clothes, resumed their several employments which they had to do according -to the directions of the overseers till the evening, when they assembled again to -partake of a common meal. But though every thing was done under the directions of -the overseers, and the Essenes had even to receive their presents through the stewards, -yet in two things they were at perfect liberty to act as they pleased, viz., they -could relieve the distressed with as much money as they thought proper, and manifest -their compassion for those who were not of the brotherhood as much as they liked, -and whenever they liked. Such was their manner of life during the week days. -</p> -<p>The Sabbath they observed with the utmost rigour, and regarded even the removal of -a vessel as labour, and a desecration of this holy day. On this day they took special -care not to be guilty of forsaking the assembling of themselves together, as the manner -of some is. Ten persons constituted a complete and legal number for divine worship -in the synagogue, and in the presence of such an assembly an Essene would never spit, -nor would he at any time spit to his right hand. In the synagogue, as at meals, each -one took his seat according to age, in becoming attire. They had no ordained ministers, -whose exclusive right it was to conduct the service; any one that liked took up the -Bible and read it, whilst another, who had much experience in spiritual matters, expounded -what was read. The distinctive ordinances of the brotherhood, as well as the mysteries -connected with the Tetragrammaton <span class="pageNum" id="pb11">[<a href="#pb11">11</a>]</span>and the angelic worlds were the prominent topics of Sabbatic instruction. Every investigation -into the causes of the phenomena both of mind and matter was strictly forbidden, because -the study of logic and metaphysics was regarded as injurious to a devotional life. -</p> -<p>Celibacy being the rule of Essenism, the ranks of the brotherhood had to be filled -up by recruits from the Jewish community at large. They preferred taking children, -whom they educated most carefully and taught the practices of the order, believing -that of such the kingdom of heaven is best made up. Every grown-up candidate (<span class="trans" title="ho zēlōn"><span lang="grc" class="grek"><span class="corr" id="xd31e276" title="Source: ό">ὁ</span> ζηλῶν</span></span>) had to pass through a noviciate of two stages, which extended over three years, -before he could be finally admitted into the order. Upon entering the first stage, -which lasted twelve months, the novice (<span class="trans" title="neosystatos"><span lang="grc" class="grek">νεοσύστατος</span></span>) had to cast all his possessions into the common treasury. He then received a copy -of the regulations of the brotherhood (<span class="trans" title="diaitan tou tagmatos"><span lang="grc" class="grek">δίαιταν τοῦ τάγματος</span></span>), as well as <i>a spade</i> (<span class="trans" title="skalis haxinarion"><span lang="grc" class="grek">σκαλίς ἁξινάριον</span></span> = <span lang="he" class="hebr">יתד</span>), to bury the excrement, (comp. Deut. xxiii, 12–14 ,) <i>an apron</i> (<span class="trans" title="perizōma"><span lang="grc" class="grek"><span class="corr" id="xd31e325" title="Source: περίξωμα">περίζωμα</span></span></span> = <span lang="he" class="hebr">זריז</span>), used at the lustrations, and <i>a white robe</i> (<span class="trans" title="leukēn esthēta"><span lang="grc" class="grek">λευκὴν ἐσθῆτα</span></span> = <span lang="he" class="hebr">בגד לבן</span>) to put on at meals, being the symbols of purity. During the whole of this period -he was an outsider, and was not admitted to the common meals, yet he had to observe -some of the ascetic rules of the Society. If, at the close of this stage, the community -found that he had properly acquitted himself during the probationary year, the novice -was admitted into the second stage, which lasted two years, and was called <i>an approacher</i> (<span class="trans" title="prosiōn engion"><span lang="grc" class="grek">προσίων ἔγγιον</span></span>). During the period which lasted two years he was admitted to a closer fellowship -with the brotherhood, and shared in their lustral rites (<span class="trans" title="katharōterōn pros tōn hagneian hydatōn metalambanei"><span lang="grc" class="grek"><span class="corr" id="xd31e364" title="Source: καθαρώτέρων">καθαρωτέρων</span> πρὸς τῶν ἁγνείαν ὑδάτων μεταλαμβάνει</span></span>), but was still not admitted to the common meals (<span class="trans" title="eis tas symbiōseis"><span lang="grc" class="grek">εἰς τὰς συμβιώσεις</span></span>), nor to any office. If he passed satisfactorily through the second stage of probation, -<i>the approacher</i> became <i>an associate</i>, or a full member of the society (<span class="trans" title="homilētēs"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ὁμιλητὴς</span></span>, <span class="pageNum" id="pb12">[<a href="#pb12">12</a>]</span><span class="trans" title="hos eis ton homilon enkrinetai"><span lang="grc" class="grek"><span class="corr" id="xd31e400" title="Source: ὅς">ὃς</span> εἰς τὸν ὅμιλον ἐγκρίνεται</span></span> = <span lang="he" class="hebr">חבר</span>), when he was received into the brotherhood and partook of the common meal (<span class="trans" title="symbiōtēs"><span lang="grc" class="grek">συμβιωτὴς</span></span>). -</p> -<p>Before, however, he was made a <i>homiletes</i>, or finally admitted into close fellowship, he had to bind himself by a most solemn -oath (this being the only occasion on which the Essenes used an oath) to observe three -things. 1. <i>Love to God.</i> 2. <i>Merciful justice towards all men</i>; especially to honor nobody as master, to avoid the wicked, to help the righteous, -to be faithful to every man, and especially to rulers (<span class="trans" title="tois kratousin"><span lang="grc" class="grek">τοῖς κρατοῦσιν</span></span>), for without God no one comes to be ruler. And 3. <i>Purity of character</i>, which implied humility, love of truth, hatred of falsehood, strict <span class="corr" id="xd31e442" title="Source: secresy">secrecy</span> towards outsiders, so as not to divulge the secret doctrines (<span class="trans" title="mystēria"><span lang="grc" class="grek">μυστήρια</span></span>) to any one, and perfect openness with the members of the order, and, finally, carefully -to preserve the books belonging to their sect (<span class="trans" title="ta tēs haireseōs autōn biblia"><span lang="grc" class="grek"><span class="corr" id="xd31e456" title="Source: τἀ">τὰ</span> τῆς αἱρέσεως αὐτῶν βιβλία</span></span>), and the names of the angels (<span class="trans" title="ta tōn angelōn onomata"><span lang="grc" class="grek">τὰ τῶν ἀγγέλων ὀνόματα</span></span>) or the mysteries connected with the <i>Tetragrammaton</i> (<span lang="he" class="hebr">שם המפורש</span>) and the other names of God and the angels, comprised in the theosophy (<span lang="he" class="hebr">מעשה מרכבה</span>) as well as with the cosmogony (<span lang="he" class="hebr">מעשה בראשית</span>) which also played so important a part among the Jewish mystics and the Kabbalists. -</p> -<p>The three sections consisting of candidate (<span class="trans" title="ho zēlōn"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ὁ ζηλῶν</span></span>), approacher (<span class="trans" title="perousiōn engion"><span lang="grc" class="grek"><span class="corr" id="xd31e501" title="Source: πἔροσιὼν">περουσιῶν</span> ἔγγιον</span></span>), and associate (<span class="trans" title="homilētēs, hos eis ton homilon enkrinetai"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ὁμιλητὴς, <span class="corr" id="xd31e516" title="Source: ὅς">ὃς</span> εἰς τὸν ὅμιλον ἐγκρίνεται</span></span>), were subdivided into four orders, distinguished from each other by superior holiness. -So marked and serious were these distinctions, that if one belonging to a higher degree -of purity touched one who belonged to a lower order, <i>i.e.</i>, if one of the fourth or highest order came in contact with one of the third or lower -order, or if one of the third touched one of the second order, or if one of the second -order touched one of the first or lowest order, he immediately became impure, and -could only regain his purity by lustrations. From the beginning of the noviciate to -the achievement of the <span class="pageNum" id="pb13">[<a href="#pb13">13</a>]</span>highest spiritual state, there were <i>eight</i> different stages which marked the gradual growth in holiness. Thus, after being accepted -as a novice and obtaining <i>the apron</i> (<span lang="he" class="hebr">זריז</span>—<span class="trans" title="perizōma"><span lang="grc" class="grek"><span class="corr" id="xd31e543" title="Source: τερίζωμα">περίζωμα</span></span></span>) the symbol of purity, he attained (1) to the state of <i>outward</i> or <i>bodily</i> purity by baptisms (<span lang="he" class="hebr">זריזות מביאה לידי נקיות</span>). From this state of bodily purity he progressed (2) to that stage which imposed -abstinence from connubial intercourse (<span lang="he" class="hebr">נקיות מביאה לידי פרישות</span>), or to that degree of holiness, which enabled him to practise celibacy. Having succeeded -in mortifying the flesh in this respect, he advanced (3) to the stage of <i>inward</i> or <i>spiritual</i> purity (<span lang="he" class="hebr">פרישות מביאה לידי טהרה</span>). From this stage again he advanced (4) to that which required the banishing of all -anger and malice, and the cultivation of a meek and lowly spirit (<span lang="he" class="hebr">טהרה מביאה לידי ענוה</span>). This led him (5) to the culminating point of holiness (<span lang="he" class="hebr">ענוה מביאה לידי הסידות</span>). Upon this summit of holiness he became (6) the temple of the Holy Spirit, and could -prophesy (<span lang="he" class="hebr">חסידות מביה לידי רה״ק</span>). Thence again he advanced (7) to that stage in which he was enabled to perform miraculous -cures, and raise the dead (<span lang="he" class="hebr">רוח הקדש לידי <span class="sic">תחה״מ</span></span>). And finally, he attained (8) to the position of Elias the forerunner of the Messiah -(<span lang="he" class="hebr"><span class="sic">תחה״מ</span> לידי אליהו</span>). -</p> -<p>The earnestness and determination of these Essenes to advance to the highest state -of holiness were seen in their self-denying and godly life; and it may fairly be questioned -whether any religious system has ever produced such a community of saints. Their absolute -confidence in God and resignation to the dealings of Providence; their uniformly holy -and unselfish life; their unbounded love of virtue, and utter contempt for worldly -fame, riches or pleasure; their industry, temperance, modesty and simplicity of life; -their contentment of mind and cheerfulness of temper; their love of order, and abhorrence -of even the semblance of falsehood; their benevolence and philanthropy; their love -for the brethren, <span class="pageNum" id="pb14">[<a href="#pb14">14</a>]</span>and their following peace with all men; their hatred of slavery and war; their tender -regard for children, and reverence and anxious care for the aged; their attendance -on the sick, and readiness to relieve the distressed; their humility and magnanimity; -their firmness of character and power to subdue their passions; their heroic endurance -under the most agonizing sufferings for righteousness’ sake; and their cheerfully -looking forward to death, as releasing their immortal souls from the bonds of the -body to be for ever in a state of bliss with their Creator—have hardly found a parallel -in the history of mankind. No wonder that Jews, of different sects, Greeks and Romans, -Christian church historians, and heathen writers have been alike constrained to lavish -the most unqualified praise on this holy brotherhood. It seems that the Saviour of -the world, who illustrated simplicity and innocence of character by the little child -which he took up in his arms, also showed what is required for a holy life in the -Sermon on the Mount by a description of the Essenes. So remarkably does this brotherhood -exemplify the lessons which Christ propounds in Matth. chap v. , &c. -</p> -<p>This leads us to consider the question about the origin of this brotherhood, and their -relationship to Judaism and Christianity. The assertion of Josephus that they “live -the same kind of life which among the Greeks has been ordered by Pythagoras” (<i lang="la">vide infra</i>, p. 226, § 4,) has led some writers to believe that Essenism is the offspring of -Pythagorism. The most able champion for this view is Zeller, the author of the celebrated -<i>History of Philosophy</i>. He maintains<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e604src" href="#xd31e604">2</a> “that Essenism, at least as we know it from Philo and Josephus, has, in its essence, -originated under Greek and especially under Pythagorean influences,” and tries to -support his conclusion by the following summary of the supposed resemblances between -Neo-Pythagorism and Essenism. (1) “Both strive to attain to superior holiness by an -ascetic life. <span class="pageNum" id="pb15">[<a href="#pb15">15</a>]</span>(2) Both repudiate animal sacrifices, the eating of animal food, wine and marriage. -(3) Both of them are, however, not quite agreed among themselves about the latter -point; for on both sides there are some who recommend marriage, but restrict connubial -intercourse to procreation. (4) Moreover, both demand simplicity of life. (5) Both -refrain from warm baths. (6) Both wear white garments, especially at dinner time. -(7) Both lay the greatest value upon their purification and eschew everything unclean. -(8) Both prohibit oaths, because a pious man does not require them. (9) Both find -their social ideal in institutions which it is true were only realized by the Essenes, -and in living together with perfect community of goods and unconditional subordination -of individuals to their overseers. (10) Both insist on strict secresy about their -schools. (11) Both like symbolic representations of their doctrines. (12) Both support -themselves on an allegorical interpretation of ancient traditions, whose authority -they recognise (13) Both worship higher powers in the elements, and pray to the rising -sun. (14) Both seek to keep everything unclean from their sight, and for this reason -have peculiar prescriptions about the discharge of the duties of nature. (15) Both -cultivate the belief in intermediate beings between the supreme Deity and the world. -(16) Both devote themselves to magic arts. (17) Both regard above all things the gift -of prophesy as the highest fruit of wisdom and piety, and both boast to possess this -gift in their most distinguished members. (18) Finally, Both corroborate their peculiar -mode of life with a dualistic view of the relation of the spirit and matter, good -and evil. (19) Both agree especially in their notions about the origin of the soul, -its relationship to the body, and about a future life, only the doctrine of transmigration -of souls seems not to have been known among the Essenes”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e611src" href="#xd31e611">3</a> -<span class="pageNum" id="pb16">[<a href="#pb16">16</a>]</span></p> -<p>Striking as these resemblances may appear, it will be seen on a closer examination -that some of the points which constitute this comparison do not exist in Essenism, -that others are either due to the coloring of Josephus or have their origin in Judaism, -that the difference between Pythagorism and Essenism are far more numerous and vital -than the parallels, and that Zeller’s conclusion is therefore not warranted. I shall -examine these points seriatim. -</p> -<p>(1) Asceticism is not foreign to Judaism. We meet with individuals who voluntarily -imposed upon themselves ascetic life to be able, as they thought, to give themselves -more entirely to the service of God by mortifying the lusts of the flesh, at a very -early period of Biblical history; and we need only to refer to the regulations about -Nazarites ( Numb. vi. 1–21 ), to the case of Manoah and his wife ( Judg. xiii .), to the life of Elijah ( 1 Kings xviii.–xix. ) to the practices of the Rechabites throughout the Scriptures, of persons abstaining -from the good things of this world, to see how the Essenes, without ( Jer. xxxv. 2 , &c.), and to the numerous instances which occur copying the Pythagoreans or any -other heathen fraternity, would naturally conclude that asceticism is conducive to -a devotional life. (2) As to the repudiation of animal sacrifice, animal food, wine, -&c, to which Zeller refers in the second point of comparison, I submit that the Essenes -<i>did not repudiate</i> animal sacrifices, but that they <i>could not</i> offer them on account of the different view which they had about holiness, as Josephus -most distinctly declares (<i lang="la">vide infra</i> <i>p.</i> 52), that neither Philo nor Josephus says a word about their objecting to eat animal -flesh or drink wine, and that their celibacy arose from an extension of a law contained -in the Pentateuch. Besides, it is not quite so certain that the Pythagoreans did not -offer animal sacrifices; Diogenes Laertius and others positively state that Pythagoras -himself sacrificed a hecatomb upon his discovering what is called the <span class="pageNum" id="pb17">[<a href="#pb17">17</a>]</span>Pythagoric theorem, <i>i.e.</i> that, in a right angled triangle, the square of the hypothenuse is equal to the sum -of the squares of the sides.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e645src" href="#xd31e645">4</a> (4) The fourth comparison about simplicity of life is involved in the first. (5) -The statement in the fifth comparison, that the Essenes refrain from warm baths, is -purely imaginary; (6, 7) whilst the white garments and the purifications mentioned -in the sixth and seventh parallels are strictly Jewish and Biblical. As symbolic of -purity the priests were required to clothe themselves in white linen ( Exod. xxviii. 39–42 ; Levit. vi. 10 ; xvi. 4 ), and the saints in heaven, washed and cleansed from all impurity, are to be clad -in white garments ( 4 Esdras ii. 39–45 ; Enoch lxi. 18 ; Rev. iii. 4 ; vi. 11 ; vii. 9, 14 ; xix. 8 ); soiled garments are regarded as emblematic of impurity ( Zech. iii. 3 , &c.) Inseparably connected therewith are the frequent purifications or washings -enjoined on the priests before entering into the presence of God to perform religious -acts ( Levit. xvi. 4 ; 2 Chron. xxx. 19 ), and on the people generally after coming in contact with anything impure ( Levit. xi. 25, 40 ; xv. 5–24 ). The white garments and the frequent purifications of the Essenes, who strove to -live after the highest degree of Levitical purity, were therefore in perfect harmony -with exaggerated Judaism. (8) As to the assertion in comparison 8 that the Pythagoreans -prohibited oaths, it is well known that they did use oaths on important occasions, -and that they held it to be most sacred to swear by the number four, which they represented -by ten dots in the form of a triangle, so that each side consisted of four dots, as -follows:— -</p> -<p class="center xxl xd31e710"> • <br> • • <br> • • • <br>• • • • -<span class="pageNum" id="pb18">[<a href="#pb18">18</a>]</span></p> -<p>The community of goods, the secresy about their institutions, the symbolic representation -of their doctrines, &c., mentioned in comparisons 9, 10, 11, 12, are the natural result -of their manner of life. (13) That they worshipped the sun is not borne out by fact, -(14) whilst their peculiar manner in performing the functions of nature is in accordance -with the injunction of Scripture ( Deut. xxiii. 13, 15 ), which the Essenes, as the spiritual host of the Lord, applied to themselves. (15) -As to their very peculiar belief in intermediate beings between the Deity and the -world, mentioned in the fifteenth point of comparison, I can only say that Philo and -Josephus say nothing about it. (16) Their devotedness to the study of the magic arts -was restricted to miraculous cures, and was not peculiar to them; since tradition -had made Solomon the author of books on magical cures and exorcisms, and Josephus -tells us (<i lang="la">vide infra</i>, <i>p.</i> 44, <i>note</i> 35) that he had seen other Jews performing these magic cures. (17) Neither is there -anything foreign in the opinion, that the power to foretel future events can only -be obtained by leading a life of preeminent holiness, for this was the common belief -of the Jews, though it is true that the Essenes were the only section of the Jewish -community who as a body strove to obtain the gift of prophecy. It, however, must not -be forgotten that others too laid claim to this gift. Josephus tells us that when -brought as prisoner of war before Vespasian, he addressed the Roman general as follows:—“Thou, -Vespasian thinkest that thou hast simply a prisoner of war in me, but I appear before -thee as a prophet of important future events. If I had not to deliver to thee a message -from God, I would have known what the Jewish law demands, and how a general ought -to die. Dost thou want to send me to Nero? For what? Will his successors, who ascend -the throne before thee, reign <span class="pageNum" id="pb19">[<a href="#pb19">19</a>]</span>long on it? No! thou, Vespasian, wilt be emperor and autocrat—thou, and this thy son.” -(<i>Jewish War</i>, iii. 8, § 9). This prophecy of Josephus is also recorded by the celebrated Roman -historian Dion Cassius who says: “Josephus, a Jew, was taken prisoner by him (i.e. -Vespasian), and put in chains; but he smilingly addressed him: ‘Thou puttest me now -in chains, but thou wilt loose them again, after twelve months, as emperor’ ” (<i>lib.</i> lxvi. <i>c.</i> 1); and by Tacitus (<i>lib.</i> v. <i>c.</i> 13). What Zeller says in comparisons 18 and 19 about their dualistic view of the -relationship of spirit and matter, good and evil, and their notions of the origin -of the soul, is entirely owing to Josephus’ colouring of the subject, as may be seen -from the notes on the extracts from this historian in the second part of this Essay. -</p> -<p>Having thus shown that the parallels between Pythagorism and Essenism are more imaginary -than real, and that the few things which might be considered as being <span class="corr" id="xd31e746" title="Source: analagous">analogous</span> are unimportant, and are such as will naturally develop themselves among any number -of enlightened men who devote themselves almost exclusively to a contemplative religious -life, I shall now point out some of the vital differences between the two brotherhoods. -1. The Pythagoreans were essentially polytheists; the Essenes were real monotheistic -Jews, worshippers of the Holy One of Israel. 2. The Pythagoreans clustered round Pythagoras -as the centre of their spiritual and intellectual life, and estimated the degree of -perfection of any of the members by the degree of intimacy which he enjoyed with Pythagoras: -the Essenes regarded the inspired Scriptures as their sole source of spiritual life, -and called no man master on earth, every one having the same right to teach, and being -alike eligible for all the offices in the commonwealth. 3. The Pythagoreans favored -matrimony, and we are told that Pythagoras himself had a wife and children; whilst -celibacy was the rule of <span class="pageNum" id="pb20">[<a href="#pb20">20</a>]</span>Essenism, marriage being the exception. 4. The Pythagoreans believed in the doctrine -of metempsychosis, which led them to abstain from eating animal flesh, because human -souls migrated into animals, and made Pythagoras once intercede in behalf of a dog -that was being beaten, because he recognised in its cries the voice of a departed -friend: the Essenes believed no such thing. 5. Scientific studies, such as mathematics, -astronomy, music, &c, formed an essential part of the Pythagorean system: Essenism -strictly forbade these studies as injurious to a devotional life. 6. Pythagorism was -occupied with instigating the problems of the origin and constitution of the universe: -Essenism regarded such inquiries as impious, and most implicitly looked upon God as -the creator of all things. 7. Pythagorism taught that man can control his fortune -and overrule his circumstances: Essenism maintained that fate governs all things, -and that nothing can befal man contrary to its determination and will. 8. Pythagorism -enjoined ointment to be used by its followers: the Essenes regarded it as defilement -9. The Pythagoreans had a sovereign contempt for all those who did not belong to their -ranks: the Essenes were most exemplary in their charity towards all men, and in their -unbounded kindness to those who were not of the brotherhood. 10. The Pythagoreans -were an aristocratical and exclusive club, and excited the jealousy and hatred not -only of the democratical party in Crotona, but also of a considerable number of the -opposite faction, so much so that it speedily led to their destruction: the Essenes -were meek and lowly in spirit, and were so much beloved by those who belonged to different -sects, that Pharisees and Sadducees, Greeks and Romans, Jews and Gentiles, joined -in lavishing the highest praise upon them.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e751src" href="#xd31e751">5</a> -<span class="pageNum" id="pb21">[<a href="#pb21">21</a>]</span></p> -<p>As to the relationship which Essenism bears to Judaism, the very fact that the Essenes, -like the other Jews, professed to he guided by the teachings of the Bible, and that -a rupture between them and the Jewish community at large is nowhere mentioned, but -that on the contrary they are always spoken of in the highest terms of commendation, -would of itself be sufficient to prove it. In doctrine, as well as in practice, the -Essenes and the Pharisees were nearly alike. Both had four classes of Levitical purity, -which were so marked that one who lived according to the higher degree of purity, -became impure by touching one who practised a lower degree, and could only regain -his purity by lustration. Both subjected every applicant for membership to a noviciate -of twelve months. Both gave their novices an apron in the first year of their probation. -Both refused to propound the mysteries of the cosmogony and cosmology to any one except -to members of the society. Both had stewards in every place where they resided to -supply the needy strangers of their order with articles of clothing and food. Both -regarded office as coming from God. Both looked upon their meal as a sacrament. Both -bathed before sitting down to the meal. Both wore a symbolic garment on the lower -part of the body whilst bathing. Amongst both the priest began and concluded the meal -with prayer. Both regarded ten persons as constituting a complete number for divine -worship, and held the assembly of such a number as sacred. Amongst both of them none -would spit to the right hand in the presence of such an assembly. Both washed after -performing the functions of nature. Both would not remove a vessel on the Sabbath. -And both abstained from using oaths, though it is true that the Essenes alone uniformly -observed it as a sacred principle. The differences between the Essenes and the Pharisees -are such as would naturally develope themselves in the course of time from the extreme -rigour with which the former sought to practise the Levitical laws of <span class="pageNum" id="pb22">[<a href="#pb22">22</a>]</span>purity. As contact with any one or with anything belonging to any one who did not -live according to the same degree of purity, rendered them impure according to the -strict application of their laws, the Essenes were in the first place obliged to withdraw -from intercourse with their other Jewish brethren, and form themselves into a separate -brotherhood. Accordingly the first difference between them and the others was that -they formed an isolated order. The second point of difference was on marriage. The -Pharisees regarded marriage as a most sacred institution, and laid it down as a rule -that every man is to take a wife at the age of eighteen (Comp. Aboth v. 21), whilst -the Essenes were celibates, which, as we have seen before, also arose from their anxiety -to avoid defilement. Hence the declaration in Aboth d. R. Nathan—“<i>there are eight kinds of Pharisees</i>; … <i>and those Pharisees who live in celibacy are Essenes</i>” (c. xxxvii.).<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e769src" href="#xd31e769">6</a> The third difference which existed between them and the Pharisees, and which was -also owing to the rigorous application of the Levitical laws of purity, was that they -did not frequent the temple and would not offer sacrifices. And fourthly, though they -firmly believed in the immortality of the soul, yet, unlike the Pharisees, they did -not believe in the resurrection of the body. -</p> -<p>The identity of many of the precepts and practices of <span class="pageNum" id="pb23">[<a href="#pb23">23</a>]</span>Essenism and Christianity is unquestionable. Essenism urged on its disciples to seek -first the kingdom of God and his righteousness: so Christ ( Matt. vi. 33 ; Luke xii. 31 ). The Essenes forbade the laying up of treasures upon earth: so Christ ( Matt. vi. 19–21 ). The Essenes demanded of those who wished to join them to sell all their possessions, -and to divide it among the poor brethren: so Christ ( Matt. xix. 21 ; Luke xii. 33 ). The Essenes had all things in common, and appointed one of the brethren as steward -to manage the common bag; so the primitive Christians ( Acts ii. 44, 45 ; iv. 32–34 ; John xii. 6 ; xiii. 29 ). Essenism put all its members on the same level, forbidding the exercise of authority -of one over the other, and enjoining mutual service; so Christ ( Matt. xx. 25–28 ; Mark ix. 35–37 ; x. 42–45 ). Essenism commanded its disciples to call no man master upon the earth; so Christ -( Matt. xxiii. 8–10 ). Essenism laid the greatest stress on being meek and lowly in spirit; so Christ -( Matt. v. 5 ; xi. 29 ). Christ commended the poor in spirit, those who hunger and thirst after righteousness, -the merciful, the pure in heart, and the peacemakers; so the Essenes. Christ combined -the healing of the body with that of the soul; so the Essenes. Like the Essenes, Christ -declared that the power to cast out evil spirits, to perform miraculous cures, &c., -should be possessed by his disciples as signs of their belief ( Mark xvi. 17 ; comp. also Matt. x. 8 ; Luke ix. 1, 2 ; x. 9 ). Like the Essenes, Christ commanded his disciples not to swear at all, but to say -yea, yea, and nay, nay. The manner in which Christ directed his disciples to go on -their journey ( Matt. x. 9, 10 ) is the same which the Essenes adopted when they started on a mission of mercy. The -Essenes, though repudiating offensive war, yet took weapons with them when they went -on a perilous journey; Christ enjoined his disciples to do the same thing ( Luke xxii. 36 ). Christ commended that elevated spiritual life, which enables <span class="pageNum" id="pb24">[<a href="#pb24">24</a>]</span>a man to abstain from marriage for the kingdom of heaven’s sake, and which cannot -be attained by all men save those to whom it is given ( Matt. xix. 10–12 ; comp. also 1 Cor. viii .); so the Essenes who, as a body, in waiting for the kingdom of heaven (<span lang="he" class="hebr">מלכות השמים</span>) abstained from connubial intercourse. The Essenes did not offer animal sacrifices, -but strove to present their bodies a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable unto God, -which they regarded as a reasonable service; the Apostle Paul exhorts the Romans to -do the same. ( Rom. xii. 1 ). It was the great aim of the Essenes to live such a life of purity and holiness -as to be the temples of the Holy Spirit, and to be able to prophesy: the apostle Paul -urges the Corinthians to covet to prophesy ( 1 Cor. xiv. 1, 39 ). When Christ pronounced John <i>to be Elias</i> ( Matt. xi. 14 ), he declared that the Baptist had already attained to that spirit and power which -the Essenes strove to obtain in their highest stage of purity.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e894src" href="#xd31e894">7</a> It will therefore hardly be doubted that our Saviour himself belonged to this holy -brotherhood. This will especially be apparent when we remember that the whole Jewish -community, at the advent of Christ, was divided into three parties, the Pharisees, -the Sadducees and the Essenes, and that every Jew had to belong to one of these sects. -Jesus who, in all things, conformed to the Jewish law, and who was holy, harmless, -undefiled, and separate from sinners, would therefore naturally associate himself -with that order of Judaism which was most congenial to his holy nature. Moreover, -the fact that Christ, with the exception of once, was not heard of in public till -his thirtieth year, implying that he lived in seclusion with this fraternity, and -that though he frequently rebuked the Scribes, Pharisees and Sadducees, he never denounced -the Essenes, strongly confirms this conclusion. There can be no difficulty in admitting -that the <span class="pageNum" id="pb25">[<a href="#pb25">25</a>]</span>Saviour of the world, who taught us lessons from the sparrows in the air, and the -lilies in the field, and who made the whole realm of nature tributary to his teachings, -would commend divine truth wherever it existed. But whilst Christ propounded some -of the everlasting truths which were to be found less adulterated and practised more -conscientiously among the Essenes than among the rest of the people, he repudiated -their extremes. They were ascetics; he ate and drank the good things of God ( Matt<span class="corr" id="xd31e901" title="Not in source">.</span>, xi. 19 ). They considered themselves defiled by contact with any one who practised a lower -degree of holiness than their own; Christ associated with publicans and sinners, to -teach them the way to heaven. They sacrificed the lusts of their flesh to gain spiritual -happiness for themselves; Christ sacrificed himself for the salvation of others. -</p> -<p>It is now impossible to ascertain the precise date when this order of Judaism first -developed itself. According to Philo, Moses himself instituted this order; Josephus -contents himself with saying that they existed “ever since the ancient time of the -fathers;” whilst Pliny assures us that, without any one being born among them, the -Essenes, incredible to relate, <span class="corr" id="xd31e906" title="Not in source">“</span>have prolonged their existence for <i>thousands of ages</i>.”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e910src" href="#xd31e910">8</a> Bating, however, these assertions, which are quite in harmony with the well known -ancient custom of ascribing some pre-Adamite period to every religious or philosophical -system, it must already have become apparent, from the description of it, that the -very nature of the Essenes precludes the possibility of tracing its date. The fact -that the Essenes developed themselves gradually, and at first imperceptibly, through -intensifying the prevalent religious notions, renders it impossible to say with exactness -at what degree of intensity they are to be considered as detached from the general -body. <span class="pageNum" id="pb26">[<a href="#pb26">26</a>]</span>The first mention we have of their existence is in the days of Jonathan the Maccabæan, -<span class="asc">B.C.</span> 166. (<i>Joseph. Antiq.</i> xiii. 5, 8). We then hear of them again in the reign of Aristobulus I., <span class="asc">B.C.</span> 106, in connection with a prophecy about the death of Antigonus, uttered by Judas -an Essene, of which Josephus gives the following account. “Judas, an Essene, whose -predictions had up to this time never deceived, caused great astonishment on this -occasion. When he saw at that time Antigonus pass through the temple, he called out -to his disciples, of whom he had no small number—‘Oh! it would be better for me to -die now, since truth died before me, and one of my prophecies has proved false. Antigonus, -who ought to have died this day, is alive; Strato’s Tower, which is six hundred furlongs -distance from here, is fixed for his murder, and it is already the fourth hour of -the day [ten o’clock]; time condemns the prophecy as a falsehood.’ Having uttered -these words, the aged man sunk into a long, dejected, and sorrowing silence. Soon -after, the report came that Antigonus was murdered in the subterranean passage which, -like Cesarea on the sea side, was also called Strato’s Tower. It was this circumstance -that misled the prophet.” (<i>Jewish War</i>, i. 3, § 5; <i>Antiq.</i> xiii. 11, § 2). The third mention of their existence we find in the well known prophecy -of the Essene Manahem, uttered to Herod when a boy.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e928src" href="#xd31e928">9</a> Now these accounts most unquestionably show that the Essenes existed at least two -centuries before the Christian era, and that they at first lived amongst the Jewish -community at large. Their residence at Jerusalem is also evident from the fact that -there was a gate named after them (<span class="trans" title="Essēnōn pylē"><span lang="grc" class="grek">Ἐσσηνῶν πύλη</span></span> <i>Joseph</i>. <i>Jewish War</i>, v. 4, § 2). When they ultimately withdrew themselves from the rest of the Jewish -nation, the majority of them settled on the north-west shore of the Dead Sea, sufficiently -distant to escape its noxious exhalations, and the rest lived in scattered communities -<span class="pageNum" id="pb27">[<a href="#pb27">27</a>]</span>throughout Palestine and Syria. Both Philo and Josephus estimated them to be above -four thousand in number. This must have been exclusive of women and children. We hear -very little of them after this period (i.e. 40 <span class="asc">A.D.</span>); and there can hardly be any doubt that, owing to the great similarity which existed -between their precepts and practices and those of the primitive Christians, the Essenes -as a body must have embraced Christianity. -</p> -<p>Having ascertained the character of the Essenes, we shall be better prepared to investigate -the origin of their name, which has been the cause of so much controversy, and which -was not known even to Philo and Josephus. There is hardly an expression the etymology -of which has called forth such a diversity of opinion as this name has elicited. The -Greek and the Hebrew, the Syriac and the Chaldee, names of persons and names of places, -have successively been tortured to confess the secret connected with this appellation, -and there are no less, if not more, than <i>twenty different</i> explanations of it, which I shall give in chronological order. Philo tells us that -some derived it from the Greek homonym <span class="trans" title="hosiotēs"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ὁσιότης</span></span> <i>holiness</i>, because the Essenes were above all others worshippers of God; but he rejects it -as incorrect (<i lang="la">vide infra</i>, <i>p.</i> 32) without giving us another derivation. 2. Josephus does not expressly give any -derivation of it, but simply says, “the third sect who really seem to practise holiness -(<span class="trans" title="ho dē kai dokei semnotēta askein"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ὁ δὴ καὶ δοκεῖ σεμνότητα ἀσκεῖν</span></span>) are called Essenes.” (<i lang="la">Vide infra</i> <i>p.</i> 41). From the addition, however, “who really seem to practise holiness or piety,” -Frankel<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e983src" href="#xd31e983">10</a> argues that the word must mean <i>holiness</i> or <i>piety</i>, because it appears to justify the name, and hence concludes that Josephus most probably -took it to be the Hebrew <span lang="he" class="hebr">חסידים</span> or <span lang="he" class="hebr">צנועים</span>. Whilst Jost<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e997src" href="#xd31e997">11</a> is of opinion that Josephus derived it from the Chaldee <span lang="he" class="hebr">חשא</span> <i>to be silent</i>, <i>to be mysterious</i>, <span class="pageNum" id="pb28">[<a href="#pb28">28</a>]</span>because <span lang="he" class="hebr">חשן</span> <i>the high priest’s breast-plate</i>, for which the Septuagint has <span class="trans" title="logeion"><span lang="grc" class="grek">λογεῖον</span></span> or <span class="trans" title="logion"><span lang="grc" class="grek">λόγιον</span></span> is translated by him <span class="trans" title="essēn"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ἐσσην</span></span>, or that he might have deduced this idea from <span lang="he" class="hebr">חשן</span> itself, and traced it to <span class="trans" title="logeion"><span lang="grc" class="grek">λογεῖον</span></span> or <span class="trans" title="logion"><span lang="grc" class="grek">λόγιον</span></span> as <i>endowed with the gift of prophecy</i>.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1061src" href="#xd31e1061">12</a> In Aboth of R. Nathan<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1129src" href="#xd31e1129">13</a> it is written <span lang="he" class="hebr">עשאני</span> from <span lang="he" class="hebr">עשה</span> <i>to do</i>, <i>to perform</i>, and accordingly denotes <i>the performers of the law</i>. 4. Epiphanius again calls them <span class="trans" title="Ossaioi"><span lang="grc" class="grek">Ὀσσαῖοι</span></span> and <span class="trans" title="Ossēnoi"><span lang="grc" class="grek">Ὀσσηνοι</span></span> and tells us that it etymologically signifies <span class="trans" title="stibaron genos"><span lang="grc" class="grek">στιβαρὸν γένος</span></span> <i>the stout</i> or <i>strong race</i>, evidently taking it for <span lang="he" class="hebr">חסין</span> or <span lang="he" class="hebr">עזים</span>. 5. In another place Epiphanius affirms that the Essenes borrowed their name from -<i>Jesse</i> the father of David, or from <i>Jesus</i>, whose doctrines he ascribes to them; explaining the name Jesus to signify in Hebrew -<i>a physician</i>; and calls them <i>Jesseans</i>.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1189src" href="#xd31e1189">14</a> In this he is followed by Petitus who makes them so related to David that they were -obliged to take the name of his father <i>Jesus</i> or <i>Jesse</i>;<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1197src" href="#xd31e1197">15</a> although Jesus does not signify physician but <i>God-help</i>. 6. Suidas (<i>Lex s. v.</i>) and Hilgenfeld (<i lang="de">Die jüdische Apokal.</i> <i>p.</i> 278), make it out to be the form <span lang="he" class="hebr">חזין</span> = <span class="trans" title="theōrētikoi"><span lang="grc" class="grek">θεωρητικοί</span></span> <i>seers</i>, and the latter maintains that this name was given to them because they pretended -to see visions and to prophesy. 7. Josippon b. Gorion<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1226src" href="#xd31e1226">16</a> (<i>lib.</i> iv. <i>sects.</i> 6, 7, <i>p.p.</i> 274 <i>and</i> 278, <i>ed. Breithaupt</i>), and <span class="pageNum" id="pb29">[<a href="#pb29">29</a>]</span>Gale (<i>Court of the Gentiles</i>, <i>part</i> ii., <i>p.</i> 147), take it for the Hebrew <span lang="he" class="hebr">חסידים</span> <i>the pious</i>, <i>the puritans</i>. 8. De Rossi<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1266src" href="#xd31e1266">17</a> (<i>Meor Enaim</i>, 82 <i>a</i>), Gfrörer (Philo, ii. <i>p.</i> 341), Herzfeld (<i lang="de">Geschichte d. V. Israel</i> ii. <i>p.</i> 397), and others, insist that it is the Aramaic <span lang="he" class="hebr">אסיא</span> = <span class="trans" title="therapeutēs"><span lang="grc" class="grek"><span class="corr" id="xd31e1294" title="Source: δεραπευτής">θεραπευτής</span></span></span> <i>physician</i>, and that this name was given to them because of the spiritual or physical cures -they performed. Indeed, De Rossi and Herzfeld will have it that the sect <i>Baithusians</i> <span lang="he" class="hebr">ביתוסים</span> mentioned in the Talmud is nothing but a contraction of <span lang="he" class="hebr">בית אסי</span> <i>the school</i> or <i>sect of physicians</i>, just as <span lang="he" class="hebr">בית הילל</span> stands for <i>the school of Hillel</i>. 9. Salmasius affirms that the Essenes derived their name from the town called <i>Essa</i>, situated beyond the Jordan, which is mentioned by Josephus (<i>Antiq.</i> xiii. 15, § 2), or from the place <i>Vadi Ossis</i>.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1330src" href="#xd31e1330">18</a> 10. Rappaport (<i>Erech Milln</i>, <i>p.</i> 41), says that it is the Greek <span class="trans" title="isos"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ἰσος</span></span> <i>an associate</i>, <i>a fellow of the fraternity</i>. 11. Frankel (<i lang="de">Zeitschrift</i>, 1846, <i>p.</i> 449, <i>&c.</i>), and others think that it is the Hebrew expression <span lang="he" class="hebr">צנועים</span> <i>the retired</i>. 12. Ewald (<i lang="de">Geschichte d. Volkes Israel</i>, iv. <i>p.</i> 420), is sure that it is the Rabbinic <span lang="he" class="hebr">חזן</span> servant (<i>of God</i>), and that the name was given to them because it was their only desire to be <span class="trans" title="therapeutai theou"><span lang="grc" class="grek">θεραπευταὶ θεοῦ</span></span>. 13. Graetz (<i lang="de">Geschichte der Juden</i> iii. <i>p.</i> 468, <i>second ed.</i>) will have it that it is from the Aramaic <span lang="he" class="hebr">סחא</span> <i>to bathe</i>, with Aleph prostheticum, and that it is the shorter form for <span lang="he" class="hebr">אסחאי צפרא</span> = <span lang="he" class="hebr">טובלי שחרית</span> <span class="trans" title="hēmierbaptistai"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ἡμιερβαπτισταί</span></span> <i>hemerobaptists</i>; the Greek form <span class="trans" title="Essaios"><span lang="grc" class="grek">Ἐσσαῖος</span></span>, <span class="trans" title="Essaioi"><span lang="grc" class="grek">Ἐσσαῖοι</span></span> being nothing but <span class="sc">Assaï</span> or <span class="sc">Essaï</span> with <span lang="he" class="hebr">ח</span> elided. 14. Dr. Löw (<i>Ben Chananja</i> vol. i. p. 352) never doubts but that they were called <i>Essenes</i> after their founder, whose name he tells us was <span lang="he" class="hebr">ישי</span>, the disciple of Rabbi Joshua ben Perachja. 15. Dr. Adler (<i lang="de">Volkslehrer</i>, vi. <i>p.</i> 50), again submits that it is from the <span class="pageNum" id="pb30">[<a href="#pb30">30</a>]</span>Hebrew <span lang="he" class="hebr">אסר</span> <i>to bind together</i>, <i>to associate</i>, and that they were called <span lang="he" class="hebr">אסרים</span> because they united together to keep the law. 16. Dr. Cohen suggests the Chaldee -root <span lang="he" class="hebr">עשן</span> <i>to be strong</i>, and that they were called <span lang="he" class="hebr">עשיני</span> because of their strength of mind to endure sufferings and to subdue their passions. -(<i>Comp. Frankel’s <span lang="de">Monatschrift</span></i> viii. <i>p.</i> 272). 17. Oppenheim thinks that it may be the form <span lang="he" class="hebr">עושין</span> and stand for <span lang="he" class="hebr">עושין טהרת הקדש</span> or <span lang="he" class="hebr">עושין טהרת חטאת</span> <i>observers of the laws of purity and holiness</i>. (<i>Ibid</i>). 18. Jellinek (<i>Ben Chananja</i> iv. 374), again derives it from the Hebrew <span lang="he" class="hebr">חצן</span> <i>sinus</i>, <span class="trans" title="perizōma"><span lang="grc" class="grek">περίζωμα</span></span>, alluding to <i>the apron</i> which the Essenes wore; whilst, 19, Others again derived it from <span lang="he" class="hebr">חסיא</span> <i>pious</i>. The two last-mentioned explanations seem to have much to recommend them, they are -natural and expressive of the characteristics of the brotherhood. I, however, incline -to prefer the last, because it plainly connects the Essenes with an ancient Jewish -brotherhood called <i>Chassidim</i> <span lang="he" class="hebr">חסידים</span> <i>the pious</i>, who preceded the Essenes, and from whom the latter took their rise. Those who wish -to trace this connection, will find an article on <i>the Chassidim</i> in Dr. Alexander’s edition of <span class="sc">Kitto’s Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature</span>. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb31">[<a href="#pb31">31</a>]</span> </p> -</div> -</div> -<div class="div2 section"> -<div class="divHead"> -<h3 class="main">II.</h3> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">I shall now give in chronological order the description of the Essenes found in the -writings of Philo, Pliny, Josephus, Solinus, Porphyry, Eusebius and Epiphanius, and -subjoin such notes as will explain the difficulties, and show the historical value -of the respective documents. -</p> -<p>As Philo is the oldest in point of time, we will begin with him. The exact date of -the birth of this celebrated Jewish-Alexandrian philosopher is not known. It is, however, -generally agreed that he was born in Alexandria between the years 20 and 1 <span class="asc">B.C.</span>, and died about 60 <span class="asc">A.D.</span> Having resided all his lifetime in Alexandria, his information about the Essenes, -who lived in Palestine, was derived from hearsay. This will account for some of the -inaccuracies in his description of this remarkable brotherhood. He has given us two -accounts of them, one in his treatise, entitled <i>Every Virtuous Man is Free</i>, and the other in his treatise, called <i>Apology for the Jews</i>. The latter is no longer extant, but Eusebius has preserved the fragments which speak -of the Essenes in his work, entitled <i lang="la">Præparatio Evangelica</i> viii. 11. The description of the so-called contemplative Essenes, or Therapeutæ, -which is generally appealed to as illustrating the doctrines and practices of the -brotherhood in question, has nothing whatever to do with the real Palestinian Essenes; -and it is almost certain that it is one of the many apocryphal productions fathered -upon Philo, as may be seen from Graetz’s elaborate and masterly analysis of it.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1550src" href="#xd31e1550">19</a> Philo’s first account is contained in his treatise entitled <i>Every Virtuous Man is Free</i>, and is as follows:<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1555src" href="#xd31e1555">20</a> -<span class="pageNum" id="pb32">[<a href="#pb32">32</a>]</span></p> -<p>“Palestine, and Syria too, which are inhabited by no slight portion of the numerous -population of the Jews, are not barren of virtue. There are some among them called -Essenes (<span class="trans" title="Essaioi"><span lang="grc" class="grek">Ἐσσαῖοι</span></span>),—in number more than four thousand,—from, as I think, an incorrect derivation from -the Greek homonym <i>hosiotes</i>, holiness (<span class="trans" title="parōnymoi hosiotētos"><span lang="grc" class="grek">παρώνυμοι ὁσιότητος</span></span>), because they are above all others worshippers of God (<span class="trans" title="therapeutai theou"><span lang="grc" class="grek">θεραπευταὶ θεοῦ</span></span>). They do not sacrifice any animate, but rather endeavour to make their own minds -fit for holy offering (<span class="trans" title="hieroprepeis dianoias"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ἱεροπρεπεῖς διανοίας</span></span>).<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1601src" href="#xd31e1601">21</a> They, in the first place, live in villages, avoiding cities on account of the habitual -wickedness of the citizens, being sensible that as disease is contracted from breathing -an impure atmosphere, so an incurable impression is made on the soul in such evil -company.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1666src" href="#xd31e1666">22</a> Some of them cultivate the earth, others are engaged in those diverse arts which -promote peace, thus <span class="pageNum" id="pb33">[<a href="#pb33">33</a>]</span>benefiting themselves and their neighbours. They do not lay up treasures of gold or -silver,<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1677src" href="#xd31e1677">23</a> nor do they acquire large portions of land out of a desire for revenues, but provide -themselves only with the absolute necessities of life. Although they are almost the -only persons of all mankind who are without wealth and possessions—and this by their -own choice rather than want of success—yet they regard themselves as the richest, -because they hold that the supply of our wants, and contentment of mind, are riches, -as in truth they are.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1683src" href="#xd31e1683">24</a> -</p> -<p>“No maker of arrows, darts, spears, swords, helmets, breastplates, or shields—no manufacturer -of arms or engines of war, nor any man whatever who makes things belonging to war, -or even such things as might lead to wickedness in times of peace, is to be found -among them.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1694src" href="#xd31e1694">25</a> Traffic, innkeeping, or navigation, they never so much as dream of, because they -repudiate every inducement to covetousness. There is not a single slave to be found -among them, for all are free, and mutually serve each other. They condemn owners of -slaves, not only as unjust, inasmuch as they corrupt the principle of equality, but -also as impious, because they destroy the law of nature, which like a mother brought -forth and nourished all alike, and made them all legitimate brethren, not only in -word but in deed; but this relationship, treacherous covetousness, rendered overbearing -by success, has destroyed by engendering enmity instead of cordiality, and hatred -instead of love. -</p> -<p>“They leave the logical part of philosophy, as in no respect necessary for the acquisition -of virtue, to the word catchers; and the natural part, as being too difficult for -human nature, to the astrological babblers, excepting that part of it which treats -upon the existence of God and the origin of the <span class="pageNum" id="pb34">[<a href="#pb34">34</a>]</span>universe;<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1704src" href="#xd31e1704">26</a> but the ethical part they thoroughly work out themselves, using as their guides the -laws which their fathers inherited, and which it would have been impossible for the -human mind to devise without divine inspiration. Herein they instruct themselves at -all times, but more especially on the seventh day. For the seventh day is held holy, -on which they abstain from all other work, and go to the sacred places called synagogues, -sit according to order, the younger below the elder, and listen with becoming attention. -Then one takes the Bible and reads it, and another of those who have most experience -comes forward and expounds it, passing over that which is not generally known, for -they philosophise on most things in symbols according to the ancient zeal. -</p> -<p>“They are instructed in piety, holiness, righteousness, economy, politics, in knowledge -of what is truly good, bad and indifferent, to choose things that are necessary, and -to avoid the contrary. They use therein a threefold rule and definition, viz.: love -of God, love of virtue, and love of mankind.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1712src" href="#xd31e1712">27</a> Of their love to God, they give innumerable demonstrations—<i>e.g.</i> their constant and unalterable holiness (<span class="trans" title="hagneia"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ἁγνεία</span></span>) throughout the whole of their life; their avoidance of oaths<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1728src" href="#xd31e1728">28</a> and falsehoods, and their firm belief that God is the source of all good, but of -nothing evil. Of their love of virtue they give proofs in their contempt for money, -fame, and pleasures, <span class="pageNum" id="pb35">[<a href="#pb35">35</a>]</span>their continence, endurance, in their satisfying their wants easily, simplicity, cheerfulness -of temper, modesty, order, firmness, and every thing of the kind. As instances of -their love to man, are to be mentioned, their benevolence, equality, and their having -all things in common, which is beyond all description, and about which it will not -be out of place to speak here a little. -</p> -<p>“First then, no one has his own house, so that it also belongs to all. For, besides -that, they all live together in sodalities; it is also open to those of the brotherhood -who come from other places. Moreover, they have all one common treasury and store -of provisions, common garments, and common food for all who eat together. Such a mode -of sleeping together, living together, and eating together, could not be so easily -established in fact among any other people; and indeed it would be impossible. For -whatever they receive daily, if they work for wages, they do not retain it as their -own, but give it to the common stock, and let every one that likes make common use -of it.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1758src" href="#xd31e1758">29</a> Those that are sick are not neglected because they can earn nothing, but have what -is necessary for their aid from the common stock, so that they ever fare richly without -wanting anything. They manifest respect, reverence and care for the aged, just as -children do for their parents, administering to them a thousand times with all plentifulness -both with their hands and their counsels in their old age. -</p> -<p>“Such champions of virtue does a philosophy produce which is free from the subtlety -of Greek word-splitting, and which deals with subjects tending to the exercise of -praiseworthy actions, and giving rise to invincible freedom. This was seen in the -fact that many tyrants have arisen from time to time in that country, differing in -character and conduct. <span class="pageNum" id="pb36">[<a href="#pb36">36</a>]</span>Some of them endeavoured to surpass in ferocity wild beasts; they omitted no manner -of barbarity, they sacrificed the vanquished in whole troops, or, like butchers, cut -off pieces and limbs of those that were still living, and did not leave off till retributive -justice, which governs the affairs of man, plunged them into similar miseries. Others, -again, converted their frenzy and madness into a different kind of wickedness. They -adopted an inexpressible bitterness, spake gently, and betrayed a ferocious temper -under the mask of gentle language;<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1771src" href="#xd31e1771">30</a> they fawned like poisonous dogs, and brought about irremediable miseries, leaving -behind them in the cities, as monuments of their impiety and hatred of mankind, the -never to be forgotten miseries. But neither the cruel tyrant nor the wily hypocrite -could get any advantage over the said brotherhood of Essenes or <i>holy ones</i> (<span class="trans" title="Essaiōn ē hosiōn"><span lang="grc" class="grek">Ἐσσαίων <span class="corr" id="xd31e1782" title="Source: ἤ">ἢ</span> ὁσίων</span></span>), but disarmed by the virtues of these men, all recognised them as independent and -free by nature, praised their common meals and their community of goods, which surpasses -all description, and is an evident proof of a perfect and very happy life.” -</p> -<p>Philo’s second account, which has been preserved by Eusebius in his <i>Praep. Evàng.</i>, viii, 11, from the lost treatise entitled <i>Apology for the Jews</i>, is as follows:—<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1800src" href="#xd31e1800">31</a> -</p> -<p>“Our lawgiver, Moses, formed innumerable (<span class="trans" title="myrious"><span lang="grc" class="grek">μυρίους</span></span>) disciples into a fellowship called Essenes,<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1817src" href="#xd31e1817">32</a> who, as it appears, obtained this appellation by virtue of their holiness (<span class="trans" title="para tēn hosiotēta"><span lang="grc" class="grek">παρὰ τὴν ὁσιότητα</span></span>). They dwell in many cities of Judea, and in villages, and <span class="pageNum" id="pb37">[<a href="#pb37">37</a>]</span>in large and populous communities. Their order is not founded upon natural descent, -but upon admiration for virtue and sincere love for man. Hence there are properly -speaking no newly born ones among the Essenes, no children, no youths, as the dispositions -of these are unstable and liable to change from the imperfections incident to their -age;<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1838src" href="#xd31e1838">33</a> but they are all full grown men who are already approaching old age; and are no longer -carried away by the impetuosity of their bodily passions, but possess the genuine -and the only true and real liberty. A proof of their freedom is to be found in their -life. None of them strives to acquire any private property, house, slave, farm, flocks, -herds, or anything which might be regarded as a source of riches, but they all give -everything to the common stock from which the common wants of all are alike supplied. -</p> -<p>“They all dwell together in the same place, form themselves into companies, societies, -combinations and unions,<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1851src" href="#xd31e1851">34</a> and work together all their life for the common good of the brotherhood. The different -members of the order are engaged in different employment; they work cheerfully and -industriously, and never try to leave their employment on account of cold, heat, or -any change of weather. They go to their daily work before the sun rises, and do not -leave off till some time after it has set, when they return home rejoicing no less -than those who have been exercising themselves in gymnastic contests.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1857src" href="#xd31e1857">35</a> They believe that their employment is a sort of gymnastic exercise of more benefit -to life, greater pleasure both to soul and body, and of a more enduring advantage -than any mere athletic labours, because they can cheerfully continue in their <span class="pageNum" id="pb38">[<a href="#pb38">38</a>]</span>work as a recreation even when youth and bodily strength are gone. Those who are acquainted -with the cultivation of the land are engaged in agriculture; others, again, who understand -the management of animals, attend to the flocks; some are skillful in the management -of bees; and others again, are artizans and manufacturers, thus guarding against the -want of anything. They do not omit anything which is requisite to supply the absolute -necessities of life. -</p> -<p>“The appointed steward and general manager receives the wages which the different -people get for their respective employments, and forthwith buys plenty of food and -other necessaries of life. They eat at the same table, and have every day the same -food, being lovers of frugality and moderation, and averse to luxury and extravagance -as a disease of both mind and body. Not only is their table in common, but their dress -too is in common. They have a store of rough cloaks in the winter, and in the summer -cheap garments without sleeves, to which every one can go and freely take whichever -kind he wants, for whatever belongs to one belongs to all, and whatever belongs to -all belongs to each individual. -</p> -<p>“If one of them is sick, he is cured from the common resources, and is attended to -by the general care and anxiety of the whole body. The old men, even if they happen -to be childless,<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1868src" href="#xd31e1868">36</a> end their lives in a most happy, prosperous and tenderly cared for old age, as if -they were not only the fathers of many children, but were even also particularly happy -in an affectionate offspring. They are looked upon by such a number of people as worthy -of so much honour and provident regard, that they think themselves bound to care for -them even more from inclination than from any tie of natural affection. -</p> -<p>“Perceiving, with more than ordinary acuteness and accuracy, what is alone, or at -least above all other things, calculated <span class="pageNum" id="pb39">[<a href="#pb39">39</a>]</span>to dissolve such connections, they repudiate marriage; and at the same time practice -continence in an eminent degree. For no one of the Essenes marries a wife, because -woman is a selfish and excessively jealous creature, and has great power to destroy -the morals of man, and to mislead with continual tricks; for she is always devising -flattering speeches and other kinds of hypocrisy as on a stage; bewitching the eyes -and the ears; and when they are subjugated like things stultified, she proceeds to -undermine the ruling intellect.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1880src" href="#xd31e1880">37</a> -</p> -<p>“But when she has children, the woman becomes full of pride and arrogance, audaciously -speaks out that which she previously merely indicated in treacherous disguise, and -without any shame compels one to do whatever is hostile to the brotherhood; for he -who is chained by the charms of a woman or cares for children by necessity of nature, -is no longer the same person to others, but is entirely changed, having unawares become -a slave instead of a free man. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb40">[<a href="#pb40">40</a>]</span></p> -<p>“Such is the enviable system of life of the Essenes, so that not only private individuals -but even mighty kings have admired them, venerated their brotherhood, and rendered -their dignity and nobleness still higher by the praise and honours which they lavished -upon them.” -</p> -<p>Next, in point of time, is Caius Plinius Secundus, called Major, or the elder, the -celebrated author of the <i lang="la">Historia Naturalis</i>, who was born in <span class="asc">A.D.</span> 23, and died <span class="asc">A.D.</span> 79. Pliny’s notice of the Essenes, which is to be found in his Natural History, book -v., chap, xvii., is as follows: -</p> -<p>“Towards the west [of the sea] and sufficiently distant from it, so as to escape its -noxious exhalations (<i lang="la">ab occidente litora Esseni fugiunt, usque qua nocent</i>), are the Essenes. They are a hermitical society, marvellous beyond all others throughout -the whole earth. They live without any women, without gratifying sensual desires, -without money, and in the company of palm trees. Their ranks are daily made up by -multitudes of new comers who resort to them; and who being weary of life, and driven -by the surges of ill-fortune, adopt their manner of life. Thus it is that, through -thousands of ages (<i lang="la">per saeculorum millia</i>),<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1955src" href="#xd31e1955">38</a> incredible to relate, this people prolongs its existence without any one being born -among them: so fruitful to them are the weary lives of others.” -</p> -<p>Next in point of time is Josephus, or Joseph ben Matthias, better known by the name -Flavius Josephus, who was born in Jerusalem about 37, <span class="asc">A.D.</span> The description which this learned Jewish warrior and historian gives us of the Essenes, -although somewhat marred by being made to harmonise with the systems of Greek philosophy, -is very important, inasmuch as Josephus was not only a Palestinian Jew, but at one -period of his life had actually joined the brotherhood. He tells us in his autobiography, -that when sixteen years old he determined to <span class="pageNum" id="pb41">[<a href="#pb41">41</a>]</span>examine for himself the respective merits of the three predominant sects, viz., of -the Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes, with the view of making a selection from among -them. His accounts of the Essenes are dispersed through his works. The following is -the first description contained in his <i>Jewish War</i>, book ii, chap. viii, sec. 2–13. -</p> -<p>“§ 2. There are three sects of philosophers among the Jews. The followers of the first -are called Pharisees, of the second Sadducees, and of the third, who really seem to -practise holiness, Essenes.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1976src" href="#xd31e1976">39</a> Jews by birth, they love each other more than the others.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e1984src" href="#xd31e1984">40</a> They reject pleasure as an evil, and regard continence and not yielding to passions -as virtues. They despise marriage, and adopt the children of others while still tender -and susceptible of instruction,<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2010src" href="#xd31e2010">41</a> and regard them as their own relations, and train them in their practices. They do -not, however, repudiate marriage, and its consequent, succession of the race in themselves; -but they are afraid of the lasciviousness of women, and are persuaded that none of -them preserve their fidelity to one man.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2025src" href="#xd31e2025">42</a> -</p> -<p>“§ 3. They despise riches, have all things in common in a very admirable manner, and -there is not one to be found among them who is richer than another; for it is a law -that those who enter the sect must give up their possessions to the <span class="pageNum" id="pb42">[<a href="#pb42">42</a>]</span>society as common property,<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2038src" href="#xd31e2038">43</a> so that there is not to be seen among them all, either the abjectness of poverty -or the distinction of riches; but as every man’s goods are cast into a common treasury, -they all, like brothers, have one patrimony. They regard ointment as defiling; and -if one happens to be anointed against his will, he immediately wipes it off his body.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2053src" href="#xd31e2053">44</a> To be unadorned but dressed in white they regard as commendable. They have stewards -of their common property, appointed by general election, and every one without distinction -is proposed for all the offices. -</p> -<p>“§ 4. They have no separate city, but some of them live anywhere; and if any of the -society come from other places, whatever they have lies open for them, just as if -it were their own; and they go to those whom they have never seen before as if they -had been most intimate. Hence they take nothing with them when they go on a journey,<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2065src" href="#xd31e2065">45</a> but arms for defence against robbers. A steward is appointed in every city of this -order to provide strangers with clothes and other necessaries.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2074src" href="#xd31e2074">46</a> The keeping and appearance of their body are such as of children brought up in fear; -they change neither garments nor shoes till they are worn out or made unfit by time.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2085src" href="#xd31e2085">47</a> They neither sell nor buy anything among themselves, but everyone gives of that which -he has to him that wants, and gets from <span class="pageNum" id="pb43">[<a href="#pb43">43</a>]</span>him that which he needs; and even without requital they can freely take whatever they -want. -</p> -<p>“§ 5. Their piety towards God is extraordinary, for they never speak about worldly -matters before the sun rises, but offer up, with their faces towards it, some of the -prayers transmitted by their forefathers, as if they supplicated it to rise.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2095src" href="#xd31e2095">48</a> Hereupon, they are all sent by the overseers, every one to work in the department -in which he is skilled; and, having diligently laboured till the fifth hour, assemble -again together in one place, girt round with their linen apron, and have a baptism -with cold water.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2133src" href="#xd31e2133">49</a> After this lustration they resort to a special house, in which no one of another -faith is admitted, and go to the refectory purified as into a holy temple.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2146src" href="#xd31e2146">50</a> Having quietly taken their seats the baker gives every one a loaf of bread according -to order, and the cook places before each one a dish with one sort of food. The priest -commences with prayer, and no one is allowed to taste his food before grace is said. -He also returns thanks after the meal; for both at the commencement and at the conclusion -they praise God as the giver of their food.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2159src" href="#xd31e2159">51</a> <span class="pageNum" id="pb44">[<a href="#pb44">44</a>]</span>Whereupon they put off their white garments as if they were sacred, and betake themselves -again to their work till evening. On returning again they take their supper together, -at which strangers, who happen to be in the place, are allowed to sit down with them. -No noise or tumult ever desecrates their house, but they let every one take part in -the conversation in turn; and the silence of those who are within appears to those -that are without as some awful mystery. The cause of this is the uninterrupted sobriety, -as well as the fact that their eating and drinking are so measured out as just to -suffice the cravings of nature. -</p> -<p>“§ 6. Whilst they do nothing without the injunctions of their overseers, yet there -are two things in which they have free action, viz., helping the needy, and shewing -mercy; to help the deserving when they are in want, and to give food to the hungry, -they have perfect liberty; but to give anything to their relations they are not allowed -without the permission of the overseers. They are just dispensers of their anger, -curbers of their passions, representatives of fidelity, ministers of peace; and every -word with them is of more force than an oath. They avoid taking an oath, and regard -it as worse than perjury; for they say that he who is not believed without calling -on God to witness is already condemned of falsehood.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2166src" href="#xd31e2166">52</a> They take extraordinarily great pains in studying the writings of the ancients, and -select that especially which is beneficial both for the soul and body; hence they -investigate medical roots and the property of minerals for the cure of distempers.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2172src" href="#xd31e2172">53</a> -</p> -<p>“§ 7. When any one desires to enter the sect, he is not immediately admitted, but -although he has to remain a whole <span class="pageNum" id="pb45">[<a href="#pb45">45</a>]</span>year without, yet he is obliged to observe their ascetic rules of living, and they -give him an axe, an apron as mentioned above, and a white garment.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2210src" href="#xd31e2210">54</a> If he has given proof of continence during this time, he approaches nearer to their -life and partakes of the holier water of purification; but is still not as yet admitted -to their common table. Having thus given proof of his perseverance, his conduct is -tested two more years, and, if found worthy, he is admitted into the society. But -before he touches the common meal, he swears, by most awful oaths,<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2232src" href="#xd31e2232">55</a> first to fear God, and next to exercise justice towards all men—neither to wrong -any one of his own accord nor by the command of others; always to detest the wicked -and side with the righteous; ever to keep faith inviolable with all men, especially -with those in authority, for no one comes to office without the will of God;<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2235src" href="#xd31e2235">56</a> not to be proud of his power nor to outshine his subordinates, either in his garments -or greater finery, if he himself should <span class="pageNum" id="pb46">[<a href="#pb46">46</a>]</span>attain to office; always to love truth and strive to reclaim all liars; to keep his -hands clear from stealing, and his mind from unholy gain; not to conceal anything -from the brotherhood, nor disclose anything belonging to them to those without, though -it were at the hazard of his life. He has, moreover, to swear not to communicate to -any one their doctrines in any other way than he has received them;<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2246src" href="#xd31e2246">57</a> to abstain from robbing the commonwealth; and equally to preserve the writings of -the society and the names of the angels.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2249src" href="#xd31e2249">58</a> By such oaths they bind those who enter the brotherhood. -</p> -<p>“§ 8. Such as are caught in heinous sins are excommunicated from the society; and -the excommunicated frequently die a miserable death. For, being bound by oaths and -customs, they cannot receive food from any out of the society, so that they are forced -to eat herbs till, their bodies being famished with hunger, they perish.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2259src" href="#xd31e2259">59</a> Hence they compassionately receive many of them again when they are at their last -gasp, thinking that suffering, approaching unto death, is sufficient for their sins. -</p> -<p>“§ 9. In their verdicts they are most exact and just, and never give sentence if there -are less than a hundred of the <span class="pageNum" id="pb47">[<a href="#pb47">47</a>]</span>brotherhood present: but what is then decreed is irrevocable. Next to God they have -the highest veneration for the name of the lawgiver, Moses, and punish with death -any one who blasphemes it. To submit to the elders and to the majority they regard -as a duty: hence, when ten of them sit together, no one will speak if the other nine -do not agree to it. They avoid spitting before the face, or to the right hand,<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2284src" href="#xd31e2284">60</a> and are also stricter than all other Jews not to touch any labour on the Sabbath -day—for they not only prepare their Sabbath-day’s food the day before, that they may -not kindle a fire on that day, but they will not move a vessel out of its place<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2295src" href="#xd31e2295">61</a> nor go to ease nature. On all other days they dig a pit of a foot deep with the spade -(such an one being given to the novice), and having covered it all round with a cover, -that it may not offend the Divine rays, they set themselves over it, and then put -the earth, that was dug out again into the pit; and do this, after having chosen the -most lonely places. And although the voiding of bodily excrements is natural, yet -it is their custom to bathe after it, as if they had been defiled.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2303src" href="#xd31e2303">62</a> -</p> -<p>“§ 10. They are divided, according to the time of leading this mode of life, into -four different classes, and the juniors are so much inferior to the seniors, that -the latter must wash themselves when they happen to touch the former, as if they had -been defiled by a stranger.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2312src" href="#xd31e2312">63</a> They live to a great age, so <span class="pageNum" id="pb48">[<a href="#pb48">48</a>]</span>that many of them live to above a hundred years—arising from the simplicity of their -diet, as it appears to me, and from their order. They despise suffering, and overcome -pain by fortitude. Death, if connected with honour, they look upon as better than -long life. Of the firmness of their minds in all cases the war with the Romans has -given ample proof; in which, though they were tortured, racked, burned, squeezed, -and subjected to all the instruments of torment, that they might be forced to blaspheme -the lawgiver or eat what was forbidden, yet they could not be made to do either of -them; nor would they even once flatter their tormentors or shed a tear, but, smiling -through their torments and mocking their tormentors, they cheerfully yielded up their -souls, as those who would soon receive them back again.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2319src" href="#xd31e2319">64</a> -</p> -<p>“§ 11. For they firmly believe that the bodies perish and their substance is not enduring, -but that the souls are immortal—continue for ever and come out of the most subtile -ether—are enveloped by their bodies, to which they are attracted through a natural -inclination, as if by hedges—and that when freed from the bonds of the body, they, -as if released from a long servitude, rejoice and mount upwards. In harmony with the -opinion of the Greeks,<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2328src" href="#xd31e2328">65</a> they say that for the good souls there is a life beyond the ocean, and a region which -is never molested either with showers or snow or intense heat—is always refreshed -with the gentle gales of wind constantly breathing from the ocean; whilst to the wicked -souls they assign a dark and cold corner, full of never-ceasing punishments. And it -seems to be according to the same opinion that the Greeks assigned to their valiant -men, whom they called heroes and demigods, the Island of the Blessed, but to the souls -of the wicked the regions of the impious in Hades; <span class="pageNum" id="pb49">[<a href="#pb49">49</a>]</span>as also their fables speak of several there punished, as Sisyphus and Tantalus and -Ixion and Tityus. This they teach, partly because they believe that the souls are -immortal, and partly for the encouragement of virtue and the discouragement of vice. -For good men are made better in their lives by the hope of reward after their death, -whilst the passions of the wicked are restrained by the fear they are in that, although -they should be concealed in this life, after death they must suffer everlasting punishment. -This is the doctrine of the Essenes about the soul—possessing thereby an irresistible -bait for those who have once tasted their philosophy. -</p> -<p>“§ 12. There are also some among them who undertake to foretell future events, having -been brought up from their youth in the study of the sacred Scripture, in divers purifications, -and in the sayings of the prophets; and it is very seldom that they fail in their -predictions. -</p> -<p>“§ 13. There is also another order of Essenes who, in their way of living, customs, -and laws exactly agree with the others, excepting only that they differ from them -about marriage. For they believe that those who do not marry cut off the principal -part of human life—that is, succession—especially that, if all were of the same opinion, -the whole race would soon be extinguished. They, however, try their spouses for three -years, and after giving evidence, by three natural purgations, that they are fit to -bear children, they marry them. They have no connubial intercourse with them when -with child, to show that they do not marry to gratify lust, but only to have children. -The women, too, have their garments on when they have baths, just as the men have -on their aprons. Such are the customs of this brotherhood.” -</p> -<p>The next mention which Josephus makes of them is in his Antiq. Book xiii. chap. v. -§ 9, and is as follows:— -</p> -<p>“§ 9. At this time [166 <span class="asc">B.C.</span>] there were three sects (<span class="trans" title="haireseis"><span lang="grc" class="grek">αἱρέσεις</span></span>) <span class="pageNum" id="pb50">[<a href="#pb50">50</a>]</span>among the Jews, differing in their opinion about human affairs. The first was called -the sect of the Pharisees, the second the sect of the Sadducees, and the third the -sect of the Essenes. The Pharisees affirm that some things only, but not all, are -the work of fate (<span class="trans" title="tēs heimarmenēs"><span lang="grc" class="grek">τῆς εἱμαρμένης</span></span>), and some are in our own power, whether they should take place or whether they should -not occur; the sect of the Essenes maintain that fate governs all things,<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2360src" href="#xd31e2360">66</a> and that nothing can befal man contrary to its determination and will (<span class="trans" title="psēphos"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ψῆφος</span></span>); whilst the Sadducees reject fate, saying that there is no such thing, and that -human events do not proceed from it, and ascribe all to ourselves, so that we ourselves -are the cause of our fortunes, and receive what is evil from our own inconsiderateness. -However, I have given a more minute description of this in the second book of the -Jewish War.” -</p> -<p>He speaks of them again in Antiq. Book xv. chap. x. § 4, towards the end, and § 5, -as follows:— -</p> -<p>“§ 4. The Essenes, as we call them, were also exempted from this necessity [of taking -an oath of allegiance to Herod]. These men live the same kind of life which among -the Greeks has been ordered by Pythagoras.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2399src" href="#xd31e2399">67</a> I have discoursed more fully about them elsewhere. The reason, however, why Herod -had the Essenes in such honour, and thought more highly of them than of mortal nature, -is worthy of record. For this account, too, is not unsuitable for this history, inasmuch -as it shows the people’s opinion about the Essenes. -</p> -<p>“§ 5. There was a certain Essene, named Menahem (<span class="trans" title="Menaēmos"><span lang="grc" class="grek">Μενάημος</span></span> <span class="pageNum" id="pb51">[<a href="#pb51">51</a>]</span>= <span lang="he" class="hebr">מנחם</span>) who was celebrated not only for the uprightness of his conduct, but also for the -fore-knowledge of the future proceeding from God. When he once saw Herod, as a boy -going to school, he addressed him by the name of ‘King of the Jews.’<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2422src" href="#xd31e2422">68</a> Herod thought that he did not know him or that he jested, and reminded him that he -was of common origin. But Menahem smiled on him most <span class="corr" id="xd31e2429" title="Source: friendlily">friendly</span>, clapped him on the back with his hand, and said—‘Thou wilt, nevertheless, be king, -and wilt begin thy reign happily, for God has found thee worthy of it. And remember -the blows that Menahem has given thee, as being the symbol of the change of thy fortune. -For this assurance will be salutary for thee when thou wilt love justice and piety -towards God and equity towards thy citizens. However, I know that thou wilt not be -such a one, for I can perceive it all. Thou wilt, indeed, excel more than any one -in happiness, and obtain an everlasting reputation, but thou wilt forget piety and -justice. This will not be concealed from God, for he will visit thee with his wrath -for it, towards the end of thy life.’ Herod paid very little attention to it at that -time, as he had no hope of it. But as he soon afterwards advanced to the dignity of -king and was happy, he ordered Menahem to come to him in the height of his dominion, -and asked him how long he should reign; but Menahem did not tell him. Seeing that -he was silent, he asked again whether he should reign ten years. Whereupon he replied, -‘Yes; twenty, nay, thirty years;’ but did not determine the exact limit of his reign. -Herod, rejoicing on it, gave Menahem his hand and dismissed him, and from that time -continued to honour the Essenes. I thought of relating this to the readers (though -to some it may seem incredible), and of making <span class="pageNum" id="pb52">[<a href="#pb52">52</a>]</span>it known, as it concerns us, because many of the Essenes are highly esteemed for their -virtuous conduct and knowledge of Divine things.” -</p> -<p>Josephus also relates instances in which Essenes foretold future events, in Antiq., -book xviii., chap, ii., § 2; book xviii., chap. xiii. § 3; and Jewish War, book 1, -chap. iii., § 5. -</p> -<p>The last account which Josephus gives us is to be found in his Antiq., book xviii., -chap, i., § 2 and 5. -</p> -<p>“§ 2. There have been three philosophies among the Jews ever since the ancient time -of the fathers (<span class="trans" title="ek tou pany archaiou tōn patriōn"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ἐκ τοῦ <span class="corr" id="xd31e2443" title="Source: πάνυἀρχαίου">πάνυ ἀρχαίου</span> τῶν πατρίων</span></span>), that of the Essenes, and that of the Sadducees, and a third which the so-called -Pharisees followed. Although I have already spoken of them in the second book of the -Jewish War, yet will I mention here also something about them. -</p> -<p>“§ 5. The doctrine of the Essenes delights in leaving all to God (<span class="trans" title="Theō katalipein philei ta panta"><span lang="grc" class="grek">Θεῷ καταλιπεῖν φιλεῖ τὰ πάντα</span></span>). They regard the soul as immortal, and say that the attainment to virtue must be -fought for with all our might. Although they send consecrated gifts to the Temple, -yet they never bring any sacrifice on account of the different rules of purity which -they observe; hence, being excluded from the common sanctuary, they offer sacrifices -in themselves (spiritually). Otherwise, they are in their manner of life the best -of men, and employ themselves wholly in the labour of agriculture. Their uprightness -is to be admired above all others who endeavour to practice virtue; such uprightness, -which is by no means to be found among the Greeks and foreigners, is not of recent -date, but has existed among them from times of yore (<span class="trans" title="ek palaiou"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ἐκ παλαιοῦ</span></span>), striving most scrupulously not to disturb the community of goods, and that the -rich should not enjoy more of the common property than the poor. This is the conduct -of this people who are more than four thousand in number. They never marry wives, -nor endeavour after the possession of property; <span class="pageNum" id="pb53">[<a href="#pb53">53</a>]</span>for they believe that the latter leads to injustice, and the former yields opportunities -for domestic discord. Living by themselves they serve each other. They choose good -men, who are also priests, to be the stewards of their incomes and the produce of -the fields, as well as to procure the corn and food. They do not differ at all in -their living, but are more like those whom the Dacae call Polistae.” -</p> -<p>We notice next the account of Caius Julius Solinus, the author of the Geographical -compendium called <i>Polyhistor</i>, who flourished about 238 <span class="asc">A.D.</span> His accounts, which are to be found in chap. xxxv. § 7–10 of his work, are evidently -derived from Pliny. -</p> -<p>“In the interior of Judea, towards the west, are the Essenes, who differ from the -usages of all other nations in their marvellous constitutions, and who, according -to my opinion, have been appointed by divine providence for this mode of life. No -woman is to be found there; connubial pleasures they have entirely renounced; money -they know not, and palm-berries are their food.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2484src" href="#xd31e2484">69</a> Not a single birth takes place there, and yet there is no want of population. The -place itself is devoted to modesty. Although a very large number of persons run to -it from all quarters, yet none is admitted who is not thought to possess purity, fidelity -and innocence; for, if one has been guilty of the slightest misdemeanour, though he -endeavour to obtain admission by offering never so large a fortune, he is excluded -by a divine decree. Thus it is that through an immense space of ages (<i lang="la">per immensum spatium saeculorum</i>), incredible to relate,<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2501src" href="#xd31e2501">70</a> this society is perpetuated though no child is born among them.” -<span class="pageNum" id="pb54">[<a href="#pb54">54</a>]</span></p> -<p>The next account is that of Porphyry, the neo-Platonic philosopher and celebrated -antagonist of Christianity, who was born 233 <span class="asc">A.D.</span> and died about 306 <span class="asc">A.D.</span> His description of the Essenes, which is given in his treatise <i>On the Abstinence from Animal Food</i> (<i lang="la">Lugduni ap. Morillon</i>, 1620, <i>p.</i> 381, <i>&c.</i>), is, as he himself tells us, taken from Josephus. He has, however, made some alterations, -as may be seen from the following: -</p> -<p>“There were three sorts of philosophers among the Jews, the first were headed by the -Pharisees, the second by the Sadducees, and the third, who seemed the most honourable -(<span class="trans" title="semnotatē"><span lang="grc" class="grek">σεμνοτάτη</span></span>), by the Essenes. The latter formed such a society as Josephus has described it in -different parts of his works, as well as in the second book of the Jewish History, -which he composed in seven books, as in the eighteenth book of his Antiquities, which -he composed in twenty books, and in the second part to the Greeks.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2534src" href="#xd31e2534">71</a> -</p> -<p>“The Essenes are Jews by birth, and love one another more than other people. They -avoid sensual enjoyments as vices, and regard continence and the power to resist the -passions as the first virtue; they despise marriage and adopt the children of strangers, -whilst still young and suitable for instruction, regard them as their own, and train -them in their usages. They do not repudiate matrimony and child birth in themselves, -but they guard against the sensuality of women. They despise riches, and there is -a wonderful community of goods among them. There is no one found among them who occupies -a distinguished position through his wealth; for they have a law that those who enter -the society give up their possessions to the brotherhood, so that there is no such -thing among them as abjectness of poverty or arrogance of riches; but the possessions -of all put together form a fraternal and common property. If one of them happens to -be inadvertently <span class="pageNum" id="pb55">[<a href="#pb55">55</a>]</span>anointed, he immediately washes his whole body; for they regard it as praiseworthy -to have a dry skin, and they are always dressed in white. They appoint stewards to -manage their common property; and every one, without distinction, is eligible for -all the offices. -</p> -<p>“They are not confined to one city, but live in different places, and everything they -have is at the service of the members who happen to come from another city. Though -meeting for the first time they at once salute each other as intimate friends (<span class="trans" title="isasin hōsper synētheis"><span lang="grc" class="grek"><span class="corr" id="xd31e2546" title="Source: ἵσασιν">ἴσασιν</span> ὥσπερ συνήθεις</span></span>); hence they travel without taking anything with them. They do not change either -garments or sandals till they are torn or worn out by age; they neither buy nor sell, -but every one gives of that which he has to him that wants it, and receives that which -he needs; but even without receiving anything in return they freely communicate to -him that wants. Their piety towards God is extraordinary. None of them speak about -anything profane before the sun rises; but they offer to it some of the prayers transmitted -to them by their forefathers, as if they supplicated it to rise, &c., &c.” He repeats -almost literally the whole of § 5 of Josephus <i>On the Jewish War</i>, book ii. chap. viii., which we have given above, p, 43. -</p> -<p>Porphyry omits § 6 of Josephus, but gives, with a few verbal alterations, both the -whole of § 7, which describes the admission into the order, and § 8, which describes -the punishment. He omits the greater part of § 9, and adds the following statement, -which is not to be found in Josephus. “Their food is so poor and scanty that they -do not require to ease nature on the Sabbath,<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2561src" href="#xd31e2561">72</a> which they devote to singing praises to God and to rest.” He omits from § 10 the -description of the division of the Essenes into four classes, and <span class="pageNum" id="pb56">[<a href="#pb56">56</a>]</span>simply mentions firmness in suffering and death. He also omits from § 11 the whole -piece beginning with the words “In harmony with the opinion of the Greeks, &c.;” whilst -he not only gives the whole of § 12, but has also the following addition, “With such -a manner of life, and with their firm adhesion to truthfulness and piety, there are -naturally many among them who can foretel future events, &c.;” and concludes with -the words, “This is the nature of the order of the Essenes among the Jews,” omitting -altogether what Josephus says in § 13 about those Essenes who marry. -</p> -<p>Epiphanius, bishop of Constantia and metropolitan of Cyprus, who was born in Bezanduca, -a small town of Palestine, in the first part of the fourth century, and died in 403, -has also given us some brief notices of the Essenes in his celebrated work <i>Against the Heretics</i>. His first notice is to be found in <i>Adver. Haer.</i>, lib. i. ord. x. p. 28, ed. Col., 1682, under the title <i>Against the Essenes and the Samaritans</i>, and is as follows: -</p> -<p>“The Essenes continue in their first position, and have not altered at all. According -to them there have been some dissensions among the Gorthenes, in consequence of some -difference of opinion which has taken place among them—I mean among the Sebuens, Essenes -and Gorthenes. The difference of opinion relates to the following matter. The law -of Moses commands the Israelites of all places to come up to Jerusalem to the three -festivals, viz., the feasts of the Passover, Pentecost and Tabernacles. As the Jews -in Judea and Samaria were largely dispersed, it is supposed that those of them who -made their pilgrimage to Jerusalem went through Samaritan cities, and as the Samaritans -assemble at the same time to celebrate the festivals, a conflict arose between them.” -</p> -<p>Epiphanius speaks of them again (<i>Adv. Haer.</i>, lib. i. ord. xix. p. 39), and under the title, <i>Against the Ossenes</i> (<span class="trans" title="kata Ossēnōn"><span lang="grc" class="grek">κατὰ Ὀσσηνῶν</span></span>), as follows: -<span class="pageNum" id="pb57">[<a href="#pb57">57</a>]</span></p> -<p>“Next follow the Ossenes, who were closely connected with the former sect. They too -are Jews, hypocrites in their demeanour, and peculiar people in their conceits.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2592src" href="#xd31e2592">73</a> They originated, according to the tradition which I received, in the regions of Nabatea, -Itruria, Moabitis and Antilis, (<span class="trans" title="Arēïlitis"><span lang="grc" class="grek">Ἀρηϊλίτις</span></span>), in the surrounding neighbourhood of the so-called Dead Sea.… The name Ossenes, -according to its etymology, signifies <i>the stout race</i> (<span class="trans" title="stibyron genos"><span lang="grc" class="grek">στιβυρὸν γένος</span></span>).… A certain person named Elxai joined them at the time of the Emperor Trajan, after -the advent of the Saviour, who was a false prophet. He wrote a so-called prophetical -book, which he pretended to be according to divine wisdom. He had a brother named -<span class="sic">Jeeus</span>, who also misled people in their manner of life, and caused them to err with his -doctrine. A Jew by birth, and professing the Jewish doctrines, he did not live according -to the Mosaic law, but introduced quite different things, and misled his own sect.… -He joined the sect of the Ossenes, of which some remnants are still to be found in -the same regions of Nabatea and Perea towards Moabitis. These people are now called -<i>Simseans</i>.”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2618src" href="#xd31e2618">74</a> -</p> -<p>“But hear the Sadducee’s nonsense (<i>comp. ibid.</i>, <i>p.</i> 42): he rejects the sacrificial and altar services, as repulsive to the Deity, and -as things which, according to the meaning of the fathers and the Mosaic law, were -never offered to the Lord in a worthy manner. Yet he says that we must pray with our -faces to Jerusalem, where the sacrificial altar and the sacrifices have their place. -He rejects the eating of animal flesh which is common among the Jews, and other things; -nay, even the sacrificial altar and the sacrificial fire, as being foreign to the -<span class="pageNum" id="pb58">[<a href="#pb58">58</a>]</span>Deity. The purifying water, he says, is worthy of God, but the fire is unworthy, because -of the declaration of the prophet: ‘Children, go ye not there to see the fire of the -sacrifices, for ye err; yea, it is already an error to think such a thing.’ ‘If you -look at the fire very closely,’ says he, ‘it is still far off. Moreover, go ye not -to look at the sacrificial fire, but go ye rather to the doctrine of the water.…’ -There is much more of such idle talk to be found among the Ossenes.”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2638src" href="#xd31e2638">75</a> -</p> -<p>These are the sources from which writers upon the Essenes have, till within very lately, -drawn their information. As to the account of Eusebius (<i>comp. <span lang="la">Hist. Ecclesiast.</span></i>, <i>lib.</i> ii, <i>cap.</i> xvii), to which appeal is often made, it is nothing but a Christianized reproduction -of the so-called Philonic description of the Therapeutae. It would therefore be useless -to give it. In looking through these accounts, it will be seen that there are only -three independent ones among them, namely—Philo’s, Josephus’s and Pliny’s; as the -notice of Solinus is merely a repetition of Pliny, the description of Porphyry is -almost a literal reproduction of Josephus; whilst the distorted scraps of Epiphanius -are not only worse than useless, but are unworthy of him, and the account of Eusebius -is simply misleading, inasmuch as it is a repetition of an apocryphal story, which -has nothing to do with the Essenes. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb59">[<a href="#pb59">59</a>]</span> </p> -</div> -</div> -<div class="div2 last-child section"> -<div class="divHead"> -<h3 class="main">III.</h3> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">Having given the ancient documents, all that now remains is that I should give a brief -sketch of the most important modern literature on the Essenes. In doing this part -of my task, as in the former, I shall try as much as it is possible to follow the -chronological order. -</p> -<p>1513–1577.—Accordingly De Rossi occupies the first position. In his erudite work, -called <i>Meor Enajim</i>, i.e., <i>The Light of the Eyes</i>, which is a Cyclopœdia of Biblical literature and criticism, this profound critic -gives us a brief notice of this brotherhood, in which he maintains that the Essenes -are identical with the Greek sect called <i>Baithusians</i> in the Talmud, and <i>Therapeutae</i> by Philo. His account is as follows: “It has often appeared to me strange that the -Talmud should say nothing whatever about that sect which obtained a good report among -the nations. I therefore examined the works of our sages, to ascertain whether I could -find in them any distinction made between the Sadducees and the Baithusians. And it -appeared to me that though both alike denied the traditional law (<span lang="he" class="hebr">התורה שעל פה</span>), yet the Baithusians are no where charged with the sin of denying, like the Sadducees, -the immortality of the soul and future judgment. Moreover, I thought of the similarity -of the names Baithusians and Essenes (<span lang="he" class="hebr">ביתוסים איסיאי</span>), and especially of the manner in which the ancients changed names. Now, owing to -the word <span lang="he" class="hebr">בית</span> being so frequently found prefixed to names of schools and families, the appellation -<span lang="he" class="hebr">ביתוסים</span> might easily have originated from a junction of the words <span lang="he" class="hebr">בית איסיאי</span>. I also saw the passage in the Talmud, Sabbath, cap. viii, fol. 108, as quoted also -in Sopherim, cap. i, which is as follows:—‘A Baithusian <span class="pageNum" id="pb60">[<a href="#pb60">60</a>]</span>asked R. Joshuah whence do we know that phylacteries must not be written upon the -skin of an unclean animal?’ To which he replied—‘It is written that the Lord’s law -may be in thy mouth, ( Exod. xiii, 9 ) this signifies that phylacteries must be written upon the skin of an animal which -thou canst take into thy mouth, i.e., eat.’ To this he said—‘This being the case, -we must also not write the phylacteries upon the skin of an animal which died;’ [for -an Israelite is as much forbidden to taste the flesh of it, as to eat an unclean animal.] -Hereupon the Rabbi replied—‘I will tell thee a parable, to make the thing clear. Two -men are condemned to death: the one the king kills, and the other is killed by the -executioner: now, which of the two dost thou esteem higher? Surely the one whom the -king himself has executed. So the animal which died, [i.e., which the King of Kings -caused to die] must be preferred to the others.’ Whereupon the Baithusian said—‘Accordingly, -we ought also to eat it.’ R. Joshuah replied—‘The Bible prohibits it ( Deut. xiv ), and dost thou want to eat it?’ The Baithusian then said—‘<span lang="he" class="hebr">קלוס</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e2694" title="Not in source">.’</span> This expression Rashi of blessed memory rightly says is Greek; i.e. <span class="corr" id="xd31e2696" title="Not in source">‘</span><span class="trans" title="kalon"><span lang="grc" class="grek">καλὸν</span></span>.’ Hence it is to be inferred that the Baithusian was a Greek; and, indeed, we know -from Philo and Josephus that the Essenes were also Greek Jews, living in Alexandria.… -From all these things I easily quieted my mind, and concluded that the Baithusians -are the same as the Essenes.’<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2705src" href="#xd31e2705">76</a> Now, from a careful perusal of the account given by Josephus of the Essenes, it will -be seen that he never describes them as Greek Jews. Besides, this is utterly at variance -with ancient tradition, as the Talmudic authorities most positively declare that the -Baithusians and Sadducees were both alike in doctrine, that both derived their names -from the founder of these sects, Baithos (<span lang="he" class="hebr">ביתוס</span>) and Zadok (<span lang="he" class="hebr">צדיק</span>), the disciples of Antigonus of Soho, and that they gave rise to these sects, through -misinterpreting <span class="pageNum" id="pb61">[<a href="#pb61">61</a>]</span>the following saying of their master<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2717src" href="#xd31e2717">77</a> which he had received from Simon the Just:—“Be not like servants who serve their -master for the sake of receiving a reward, but be ye like servants who serve their -master without the view of receiving a reward,” recorded in Aboth. i. 3. Upon this -Aboth d. R. Nathan (cap. v.) remarks, “Antigonus’ two disciples at first continued -implicitly to teach this saying to their disciples, and these again to their disciples. -At last, however, they began to ponder over it, and said—‘What did our fathers mean -by this saying? Is a labourer to labour all day and not receive his wages in the evening? -Now if our fathers had believed that there is another world, and a resurrection of -the dead, they would not have spoken thus.’ Hence they dissented from the law, and -from them originated the two sects, the Sadducees and the Baithusians, the Sadducees -from Sadok and the Baithusians from Baithus. They used gold and silver vessels all -the days of their life, not because they were proud, but because they said that the -Pharisees themselves have a tradition that they afflict themselves in this world, -and have nothing in the world to come.” From this we see that 1. The Baithusians, -like the Sadducees, derived their appellation from the proper name of their founder, -which is <i>Baithus</i> <span lang="he" class="hebr">ביתוס</span> so that the first part of the name <span lang="he" class="hebr">בית</span> cannot be separated from it. 2. Like the Sadducees, the Baithusians denied the immortality -of the soul and the existence of angels, whereas the Essenes firmly believed in the -immortality of the soul, and made the angels play a very important part in their creed. -That the Sadducees and the Baithusians were considered to be identical, or, at all -events, to <span class="pageNum" id="pb62">[<a href="#pb62">62</a>]</span>hold similar doctrines is also evident from the fact that what is in one place of -the Talmud ascribed to the former, is in another place ascribed to the latter. Thus, -for instance, in Succa 48 <i>b</i>. the Sadducees are said to have questioned the necessity of bringing a libation of -water on the Feast of Tabernacles; in Tosifta Succa cap. iii. it is ascribed to the -Baithusians. In Maccoth, 5, <i>b</i>. Chagiga, 16 <i>b</i>. it is said that the Sadducees urged that a false witness should only then be executed -if the individual whom he had falsely accused had already been executed; in Tosifta -Sanhedrin, cap. vi. the same thing is ascribed to the Baithusians. According to Joma, -19 <i>b</i>. 53 <i>a</i>, the Sadducees would have it that the High Priest should put the incense on the fire -outside the Sanctuary on the great Day of Atonement, in Tosifta Joma, cap. 1, and -Jerusalem Joma, i. 5, this is also ascribed to the Baithusians. Comp. also 115, b., -Megillath Taanith, cap. vi., with Tosifta Jadajim cap<span class="corr" id="xd31e2743" title="Not in source">.</span> ii. And 4. The Baithusians are constantly spoken of as heretics and false witnesses -(<i>comp. Jerusalem Rosh Ha-Shana</i>, ii, 1; <i>Babl. ibid.</i> 226), which is utterly at variance with the high character given to the Essenes even -by those who belonged to opposite sects. -</p> -<p>1587–1643.—Our learned countryman, Dr. Thomas Godwyn occupies the next position. In -his interesting and erudite volume, entitled <i>Moses and Aaron</i>: which was first published in London 1625, Godwyn devotes <i>the twelfth chapter of the first book</i> to the Essenes. The etymology of this name he takes to be the Syriac <span lang="he" class="hebr">אסא</span> <i>to heal</i>, <i>to cure diseases</i>, and submits that they were called <span class="sc">Essenes</span> = <span class="trans" title="therapeutai"><span lang="grc" class="grek">θεραπευται</span></span> <i>physicians</i>, because they cultivated the study of medicine. His summary of their doctrines and -practices is made from Josephus’ description of them as well as from Philo’s reputed -account of <i>the Therapeutae</i> which has nothing to do with the Palestinian Essenes. Godwyn also gives a number -of supposed parallels between the doctrines and practices of <span class="pageNum" id="pb63">[<a href="#pb63">63</a>]</span>Essenism and Pythagorism. He does not attempt to account for these resemblances, nor -does he try to trace the origin of the brotherhood. He is, however, certain that they -existed in the time of Judas Maccabæus and “continued until the day of our Saviour -and after; for Philo and Josephus speak of them as living in their time.” He assigns -the following reasons for their not being mentioned in the New Testament 1. Their -being small in number. 2. “They were peaceable and quiet, not opposing any; and therefore -not so liable to reproof as the Pharisees and Sadducees, who opposed each other, and -both joined against Christ.” 3. They were passed over in silence in the New Testament -just “as the Rechabites in the Old Testament, of whom there is mention only once and -that obliquely, although their order continued about three hundred years, before this -testimony was given of them by the Prophet Jeremiah.” And 4. “Though the name of the -<i>Essenes</i> be not found in Scripture, yet we shall find in St. Paul’s Epistles many things reproved, -which were taught in the school of the Essenes. Of this nature was that advice given -unto Timothy:—‘<i>Drink no longer water, but use a little wine</i>.’ ( 1 Tim. v. 23 ). Again, ‘<i>Forbidding to marry, and commanding to abstain from meats is a doctrine of devils</i>’ ( 1 Tim. iv. 3 ); but especially <i>Colossians</i> ii. , in many passages the Apostle seemeth directly to point at them, ‘Let no man condemn -you in meat and drink’ (verse 16 ): ‘Let no man bear rule over you, by humbleness of mind and worshipping of angels’ -(verse 18 ) ‘Why are ye subject to ordinances (<span class="trans" title="ti dogmatizesthe"><span lang="grc" class="grek">τί δογματίζεσθε</span></span> verse 20 )?’ The Apostle useth the word <span class="trans" title="dogmata"><span lang="grc" class="grek">δόγματα</span></span> which was applied by the Essenes to denote their <i>ordinances aphorisms</i> or <i>constitutions</i>. In the verse following he gives an instance of some particulars, ‘<i>Touch not, taste not, handle not</i>’ (ver. 21 ). Now the junior company of Essenes might not <i>touch</i> the seniors. And in their diet their taste was limited to bread, salt, water <span class="pageNum" id="pb64">[<a href="#pb64">64</a>]</span>and hyssop. And these ordinances they undertook <span class="trans" title="dia pothon"><span lang="grc" class="grek">διὰ πόθον</span></span> <span class="trans" title="sophias"><span lang="grc" class="grek">σοφίας</span></span> saith Philo, <i>for the love of wisdom</i>; but the Apostle concludeth (ver. 23 ) that these things had only <span class="trans" title="logon sophias"><span lang="grc" class="grek">λόγον σοφίας</span></span> a show of <i>wisdom</i>. And whereas Philo termeth the religion of the Essenes by the name of <span class="trans" title="therapeia"><span lang="grc" class="grek">θεράπεια</span></span> which word signifieth <i>religious worship</i>; the Apostle termeth in the same verse <span class="trans" title="ethilethrekeian"><span lang="grc" class="grek">εθιλεθρεκείαν</span></span> <i>voluntary religious worship</i> or <i>will worship</i>; yea, where he termeth their doctrine <span class="trans" title="patrōn philosophias"><span lang="grc" class="grek">πάτρων φιλοσοφιας</span></span> a kind of <i>philosophy received</i> from their forefathers by tradition; St. Paul biddeth them beware of <i>philosophy</i> (ver. 8 ).” I have given this extract in full because succeeding writers have with more or -less exactness based their opinion upon it. In animadverting upon it, I need only -refer to the former part of this Essay, where it will be seen that some of the things -here mentioned, are not peculiar to the Essenes, and others do not belong to them -at all, whilst the last quotation from Philo describes the <i>Therapeutae</i> and not the Essenes.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2910src" href="#xd31e2910">78</a> -</p> -<p>1628–1678.—Next in point of time is Theophilus Gale, who gives us a description of -the Essenes in his famous work called <i>The Court of the Gentiles</i>, part ii. (Oxford, 1671), book ii. § 9, p. 146–156. As might be expected from this -learned writer, who wrote this elaborate work to demonstrate that “the original of -all human literature, both philology and philosophy, is from the Scriptures and the -Jewish Church,” he endeavours to prove that Pythagoras took the whole of his philosophic -system from the Essenes. “As for the origination of their name,” Gale tells us, “they -were called <span lang="he" class="hebr">חסדים</span> i.e. according to the Greek <span class="trans" title="katharoi"><span lang="grc" class="grek">καθαροὶ</span></span> and according to our English dialect <i>pure</i>. Now the origination or rise of these Essenes I conceive (by the best conjectures -I can make from antiquity), to be in or immediately after the Babylonian captivity -(though some make them later), and the occasion of their separation <span class="pageNum" id="pb65">[<a href="#pb65">65</a>]</span>and consociation seems this. Many of the carnal Jews defiling themselves either by -being too deeply plunged in worldly affairs, even to the neglect of their religion, -or, which was worse, by sensual compliances with their idolatrous lords, thereby to -secure their carnal interests, these <span lang="he" class="hebr">חסדים</span> or Essenes, to preserve themselves from these common pollutions, separated and retired -themselves from the crowd of worldly affairs into an holy solitude, and private condition -of life; where they entered into a strict confederation or consociation to lead together -a collegiate devout life.”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2936src" href="#xd31e2936">79</a> He then gives an epitome of their doctrines and practices, and finally endeavours -to shews that Pythagoras got his system from them. In doing this, Gale mixes up the -Therapeutae with the Essenes, and follows largely the description of Godwyn. -</p> -<p>1643–1724.—We then come to Dean Prideaux, who has a lengthy description of the Essenes -in <i>The Old and New Testaments Connected</i>, part ii. book v., which first appeared in London, 1717. The chief value of Prideaux’s -work on this subject consists in the fact, that he has given in English Philo and -Josephus on the Essenes, as well as the short notice from Pliny. In his own remarks, -which follow these extracts, he, in common with his predecessors, mixes up the Therapeutae -with the Essenes, and tries to repel the Romanists who adopted the assertion of Eusebius -(<i lang="la">Hist. Ecclesiast.</i> <i>lib.</i> ii. <i>c.</i> 17), that these Therapeutae or contemplative Essenes were Christian monks instituted -by St. Mark. He also endeavours to expose the folly of the Deists, who infer, from -the agreement between the Christian religion and the documents of the Essenes, that -Christ and his followers were no other than a sect branched out from that of the Essenes. -Among the accusations which the Dean brings against the Essenes for violating the -law of God, is the charge that they “absolutely condemned servitude which the holy -Scriptures of the <span class="pageNum" id="pb66">[<a href="#pb66">66</a>]</span>New Testament ( Philemon 9–21 ), as well as the Old, allow.”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2956src" href="#xd31e2956">80</a> Instead of blaming them for repudiating slavery, we believe that the civilized world -in the present day will be unanimous in pronouncing it to have been one of the glorious -features of Essenism, anticipating the spirit of Christianity and the philanthropy -of the nineteenth century. -</p> -<p>1653–1723.—Basnage gives a very lengthy account of the Essenes in his History of the -Jews <i>lib.</i> ii. <i>chaps.</i> xii. xiii. Those who are acquainted with the writings of this learned Frenchman, -know that he could not write on anything without bringing together a mass of useful -information. He, however, mistook the character of the Essenes, as well as the value -of the documents upon which he relies. Preferring Philo’s account to that of Josephus, -though the latter lived amongst the Essenes, Basnage confounds the brotherhood with -the Therapeutae, and hence asserts that “they borrowed several superstitions from -the Egyptians, among whom they retired.” Through this, he is led to occupy by far -the greater part of his description with the needless discussion of the question “Whether -the Essenes from being Jews were converted to Christianity by St. Mark, and founded -a monastic life.”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2967src" href="#xd31e2967">81</a> -</p> -<p>1692–1762.—Dr. Jennings’ chapter on the Essenes is simply a commentary on Godwyn’s -account. Jennings disputes some of the imaginary parallels between Essenism and Pythagorism -exhibited by Godwyn, and inclines to the opinion “that the Essenes begun a little -before the time of the Maccabees, when the faithful Jews were forced to fly from the -cruel persecutions of their enemies into deserts and caves, and by living in those -retreats, many of them being habituated to retirement, which thereby became most agreeable -to them, they chose to continue it, even when they might have appeared upon the public -<span class="pageNum" id="pb67">[<a href="#pb67">67</a>]</span>stage again, and accordingly formed themselves into recluses.” As to the difficulty -to account for “the absolute silence of the evangelical history concerning the Essenes,” -Jennings reiterates the remarks of Godwyn upon the subject.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2974src" href="#xd31e2974">82</a> -</p> -<p>In 1821, appeared in Berlin, Bellermann’s valuable little volume on the Essenes and -Therapeutae.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2979src" href="#xd31e2979">83</a> The author with characteristic German industry and perseverance, brought together -in this monograph the ancient documents on the Essenes. His critical acumen, however, -is not commensurate to his industry, and while his little volume will deservedly continue -to be a useful manual for the student who wishes to acquaint himself with what Philo, -Pliny, Josephus, Solinus, Porphyry, Epiphanius and Eusebius said upon this subject, -it is to be questioned whether Bellermann’s conclusions will be shared by many. He -is of opinion that “the Essenes and Baithusians are the same both in name and doctrine,” -and that “the Essenes have four other names in history besides their proper name, -viz.:—they are called, 1, <i>Therapeutae</i> by the Greek Alexandrians. 2. <i>Hiketeans</i> by Philo, in the superscription to the Treatise on contemplative life. 3. <i>Ossenes</i> or <i>Ossens</i>, by Epiphanius. And 4, <i>Baithusians</i> in the Talmud, and by several Rabbins. As this notion, which has been advanced by -De Rossi three centuries and a half ago, has already been refuted, it would be needless -to repeat the arguments here. -</p> -<p>1825.—Neander, whose first instalment of his gigantic Church History appeared in 1825, -now began to grapple with this mysterious brotherhood. In the introductory chapter -of this history, in which a description is given of the religious condition of the -world at the advent of Christ, he gives a very <span class="pageNum" id="pb68">[<a href="#pb68">68</a>]</span>brief but very pregnant sketch of the Essenes. With that deep penetration, which was -one of the chief characteristics of this sagacious critic, he repudiates the notion -that the Essenes originated under foreign influences, and maintains that “it is a -gross error to infer from the resemblance of certain religious phenomena the relationship -of which is to be traced to a common inward cause, inherent in the nature of the human -mind, that they have an external origin, having been copied from the other.” Hence, -he submits that Essenism arose out of the deeper religious meaning of the Old Testament, -that it afterwards adopted some of the old Oriental, Parsee, and Chaldean notions, -and that it had no Alexandrian elements. Neander moreover most justly cautions against -the accounts of Philo and Josephus, saying that they clothed the opinions of the Essenes -in a garb peculiarly Grecian, which we might rightly consider as not originally belonging -to them.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2997src" href="#xd31e2997">84</a> -</p> -<p>1829.—The difficulty which perplexed Christian writers, arising from the fact that -the Essenes are not mentioned in the New Testament, did not affect Jewish writers, -although it is true that this name is also not to be found in the ancient Jewish writings. -For if it be granted that this appellation is a corruption of an Aramaic word, the -Essenes must be looked for in the Talmud and Midrashim, which are chiefly written -in Aramaic, under their original designation whatever that might be. The clue to it -must, of course, be the identity of the features ascribed to them by Philo and Josephus -and those ascribed in the ancient Jewish volumes to any order of Judaism. To this -task Rappaport, the corypheus of Jewish critics, betook himself. Knowing that the -Essenes were no distinct sect, in the strict sense of the word, but simply an order -of Judaism, and that there never was a rupture between them and the rest of the Jewish -community, Rappaport most <span class="pageNum" id="pb69">[<a href="#pb69">69</a>]</span>justly does not expect that they would be spoken of under a fixed denominational name. -He therefore rejects De Rossi’s notion that the Baithusians, so frequently denounced -in the Talmud and Midrashim, are the Essenes described by Philo and Josephus, and -sought to identify them by their peculiar practices, expecting to find that they would -be spoken of by different names. He soon found that what Philo and Josephus describe -as peculiarities of the Essenes tallies with what the Mishna, the Talmud, and the -Midrashim record of the <i>Chassidim</i> (<span lang="he" class="hebr">חסדים</span>), and that they are most probably the so-called <i>old believers</i> (<span lang="he" class="hebr">ותיקין</span>), who are also described in the Talmud as <i>the holy community in Jerusalem</i> (<span lang="he" class="hebr">קהלא קדישא דבירושלים</span>). He rightly recognised in them an intensified form of Pharisaism, and remarks that -what is said in the Mishna about the moderation observed in eating and drinking, the -great humility, endurance under sufferings, zeal for everything that is holy, community -of goods, &c, refers to this holy community, or the Essenes. He also quotes the following -remark from the Midrash Coheleth, on Eccles. ix, 9 , about this holy community; “Rabi repeated from the traditions of the holy community -(<span lang="he" class="hebr">עדה קדושה</span>) ‘acquire a trade in connection with the study of the Scriptures, &c.’—[Query] ‘Why -are they called holy community?’ [Reply] ‘Because they divided the day into three -divisions—devoting one-third to the study of the Scriptures, another to prayer, and -the third to work. Some say that they devoted the whole of the winter to studying -the Scriptures and the summer to work.’ ” He, too, was the first who pointed out that -the prayer which Josephus tells us the Essenes offered up at the rising of the sun, -is the national hymn of praise, which still constitutes a part of the Jewish daily -service, and is as follows:— -</p> -<blockquote> -<p class="first">He in mercy causes His light to shine upon the earth and upon the inhabitants thereof; -and in His goodness unfailingly renews every day the work of creation. How numerous -are Thy works, O Lord! Thou hast made them all in wisdom; the earth is full of Thy -possessions. <span class="pageNum" id="pb70">[<a href="#pb70">70</a>]</span>O King, Thou only art the exalted one from everlasting, the praised and glorified -and extolled since the days of yore! Lord of the universe, in Thy great mercy have -mercy upon us! Lord our might, fortress of our strength, shield of our salvation, -defend us! O Lord, be Thou praised, Thou great in wisdom, who hast ordained and created -the rays of the sun: the Infinitely Good has formed a glorious testimony for His name. -He surrounded His majesty with luminaries<span class="corr" id="xd31e3031" title="Not in source">.</span> The chiefs of His heavenly hosts are holy beings; they glorify the Almighty; they -continually declare the glory of God and his holiness. Blessed be the Lord our God, -for the excellency of the works of Thy hands, and for the shining luminaries which -Thou hast. They shall glorify Thee for ever. -</p> -<p>God, the Lord of all created things, is praised and blessed in the mouths of all the -living. His power and goodness fill the universe; wisdom and intelligence are round -about Him. He exalts himself above the angels, and beams in glory upon his chariot-throne. -Interceding goodness and rectitude are before His throne, loving-kindness and mercy -before his majesty. Benign are the luminaries which our God has created. He has formed -them in wisdom, intelligence, and understanding; He has endowed them with power and -strength, to bear rule in the midst of the world. Filled with splendour and brightness, -their glory illuminates all the world; rejoicing in rising and joyous in setting they -perform with awe the will of their Creator. They give praise and glory to His name, -joy and song to the memory of His kingdom. He called the sun, and light rose; He saw -and shaped the form of the moon. Praise Him all ye heavenly hosts; ascribe glory and -majesty to Him ye seraphim, ophanim, and holy angels.</p> -</blockquote><p> -</p> -<p>These, as Rappaport rightly remarks, are some of the remains of the ancient prayer -used by the Essenes. It will be seen that these hymns of praise contain not only thanksgiving -for the renewal of the light, to which Josephus refers, but they also refer to the -mysterious cosmogony (<span lang="he" class="hebr">מעשה בראשית</span>) and theosophy (<span lang="he" class="hebr">מעשה מרכבה</span>), as well as to the angels which played such an important part among this brotherhood.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3044src" href="#xd31e3044">85</a> -</p> -<p>1835.—The difficulty of reading Rabbinical Hebrew in which Rappaport’s profound remarks -are written, must have prevented Gfrörer from seeing what this erudite Jewish critic -had written on the Essenes; for, although the second edition of vol. i. part 11 of -his <i>Critical History of Primitive Christianity</i>, containing an account of the Essenes, appeared in 1835, yet he positively states -“that the Essenes and the Therapeutae are the same sect and hold the same views” (p. -299). <span class="pageNum" id="pb71">[<a href="#pb71">71</a>]</span>According to him, the development of Essenism is as follows. In the third century -before Christ, the Jews in Alexandria formed societies according to the Pythagorean -model, and thus originated the sect called the Therapeutae, from these Egyptian Therapeutae -again Essenism developed itself in Palestine about 130 <span class="asc">B.C.</span> Hence Essenism is the channel through which the Alexandrian theosophy was first transplanted -into Palestinian soil. The reason why the Essenes kept their doctrines secret is that -the Palestinian priests were hostile to this foreign importation, and persecuted those -who received this contraband. Accordingly, the relationship of Pythagorism, Therapeutism -and Essenism, to use Gfrörer’s own figure, is that of grandmother, mother and daughter. -“So perfect is the agreement between the Therapeutae and the Essenes, that it even -extends to their names. For the word <span class="trans" title="Essains"><span lang="grc" class="grek">Ἐσσαῖνς</span></span> according to the most correct etymology, is derived from the Syro-Chaldaic verb <span lang="he" class="hebr">אסא</span> which denotes <i>to cure</i>, <i>to nurse</i>, and hence is nothing but a literal translation of <span class="trans" title="therapeutēs"><span lang="grc" class="grek">θεραπευτὴς</span></span>.”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3080src" href="#xd31e3080">86</a> -</p> -<p>1843.—Similar in spirit is the elaborate article on the Essenes in <i lang="de">Ersch und Gruber’s Cyclopœdia</i>, written by Dähne, who maintains that “Essenism is the produce of the Jewish-Alexandrian -philosophy, and that it is only when viewed from this stand-point that the deviations -from the rest of their Jewish co-religionists, and their peculiar institutions, doctrines, -and precepts appear in the clearest light.” It is not surprising that holding such -an opinion Dähne should feel perplexed to account for the existence of this thoroughly -Jewish-Alexandrian order, as he makes the Essenes to be, in the very heart of Palestine. -All that he can say upon this subject is, that they somehow got there in the middle -of the second century before Christ. The affiliation of Essenism to the Jewish-Alexandrian -<span class="pageNum" id="pb72">[<a href="#pb72">72</a>]</span>philosophy brings it into most intimate relationship with Therapeutism, and necessarily -devolves upon Dähne to define this family connection which he does in the following -manner.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3090src" href="#xd31e3090">87</a> <span class="corr" id="xd31e3093" title="Not in source">“</span>The difference between the Therapeutae and the Essenes, both of whom are followers -of the Jewish-Alexandrian moral <span class="corr" id="xd31e3095" title="Source: philosphy">philosophy</span>, is that the former devoted themselves entirely to a contemplative life, whilst the -latter gave themselves more especially to a practical life. Hence though both rest -upon the same foundation, the Therapeutae gave themselves up absolutely to the highest -aim of man, as they marked it out, the contemplation of God; whilst the Essenes to -some extent voluntarily lingered in the outer court of the Holy of Holies, placed -themselves intentionally for the good of the brethren in more frequent contact with -the world than the requirements of nature demanded, thereby generously, but certainly -unphilosophically, temporarily retarding their own highest perfection and happiness.” -Like De Rossi, Bellermann, Gfrörer and others, Dähne derives the name from the Chaldee -<span lang="he" class="hebr">אסא</span> <i>to heal</i>, and says “accordingly the term Essenes denotes <i>spiritual physicians</i>, or men who strive in the highest sense to lead back the spirit to its natural (i.e. -truly divine) character and activity.”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3106src" href="#xd31e3106">88</a> -</p> -<p>1846.—A new epoch began in the history of the Essenes with the investigation of Frankel -on this subject, which <span class="pageNum" id="pb73">[<a href="#pb73">73</a>]</span>appeared in his <i lang="de">Zeitschrift für die religiözen Interesse des Judenthums</i>, 1846. Taking up the idea of Rappaport, that the Essenes must be looked for in the -body of the Jews and not as a separate sect, Frankel refers to the fact that, whilst -the <i>Assideans</i> = <i>Chassidim</i> are referred to in 1 Macc. ii. 24 ; 2 Macc. xiv. 6 , &c., the <i>Perushim</i> = <i>Pharisees</i> are never mentioned, to show that no such marked and denominational divisions existed -at first in the community, and rightly remarks, that it “is only after a longer development -that sects appear in their separation, and sharply defined features, when that which -originally formed a united whole is now divided and parted into various branches. -And even this partition and separation only shew themselves to the analysing mind, -and especially when the analysis is conducted after a foreign fashion, as Josephus -has done it, who reduced the Jewish sects into Greek schools, and made the Essenes -correspond to the Pythagoreans. But in reality even these divisions flow one into -another, and do not stand in opposition to one another, but are simply to be distinguished -by their different shades of colour, and by the greater stringency or laxity with -which the same rules are regarded, so that they do not form separate sects, but some -individuals keep to these rules with greater anxiety, whilst others, though considering -them as binding, do not regard them as having such a wide application. Now in early -times there were only <i>Essenes</i> = <i>Chassidim</i> (<span lang="he" class="hebr">חסדים</span>), the name of <i>Perush</i> = <i>Pharisee</i> (<span lang="he" class="hebr">פרוש</span>) was not as yet known; it was only afterwards when in succeeding periods some became -more rigid in their manner of life and views of religion, that the name Pharisees -(<span lang="he" class="hebr">פרושים</span>) appears to denote the less strict Jews, whilst the others were in a special degree -denominated by the old, respectable appellation <i>Chassidim</i> = <i>Essenes</i> (<span lang="he" class="hebr">חסדים</span>).” This, Frankel corroborates by showing most clearly that many of the vital principles -which Josephus describes as peculiar to Essenism, are at the very basis of <span class="pageNum" id="pb74">[<a href="#pb74">74</a>]</span>Pharisaism, and that the Essenes are frequently mentioned in the Mishna, Talmud, and -Midrashim by the names <span lang="he" class="hebr">חסדים הראשונים</span> <i>the original Assideans</i> = <i>Chassidim</i>, <span lang="he" class="hebr">חברים</span> <i>the associates</i>, <span lang="he" class="hebr">ותיקין</span> <i>those who have enfeebled their bodies through much study</i>; <span lang="he" class="hebr">דבירושלים</span> <i>the retired ones</i>; <span lang="he" class="hebr">צנועין קהלא קדישא</span> <i>the holy congregation in Jerusalem</i>; <span lang="he" class="hebr">טובלי שחרית</span> <i>hemerobaptists</i>. Frankel concluded his essay with the promise to return to this subject on some future -occasion.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3193src" href="#xd31e3193">89</a> -</p> -<p>1847.—Within twelve months of the publication of Frankel’s elaborate Essay, an article -appeared in the American Quarterly entitled <i>The Biblical Repository</i>. As there was not sufficient time for this German production to become known in the -New World, Mr. Hall, the writer of the article, could not avail himself of it, and -was therefore obliged to derive his information from the writings of Dr. Neander. -But though Mr. Hall has thrown no light on the Essenes, yet his reflections upon their -moral character and their connection with Christianity are so just, sensible and candid, -that we subjoin them to show that good Christians may honestly acknowledge the good -in Essenism without detracting from Christianity. -</p> -<blockquote> -<p class="first">“Let us give the Essene credit for all that he was as a worshipper of the true God, -and as a man striving after moral purity in a corrupt age. The Gospel that breathed -new life into the higher nature of man, can afford to allow all his virtues. We know -that the Spirit of Christ opens the eye to the excellencies of others. Truth rejoices -in truth, and as all truth is from the same source, the lustre of one development -can never be increased by hiding the glory of another. We would not enhance the necessity -of our Lord’s appearance by depreciating the moral condition of mankind at that period. -Those ascetic Jews deserve well of mankind for the light they gave out in a dark age. -We admire the humanity and justice of their principles; their disapproval of war and -slavery in the midst of a world lying in wickedness, and the noble example of industry, -frugality and moderation in the things of this life they set before all. We honour -their honest endeavours to combine the <i lang="la">vita contemplativa</i> and the <i lang="la">vita activa</i>,—to escape the bondage of the senses, to maintain the supremacy of the spirit, and -to unite themselves with the Highest. But in all these respects, they are only the -true children of monotheism, the legitimate offspring of the Jewish theocracy. They -could have sprung up nowhere else. In the phenomenon of the Essenes let us <span class="pageNum" id="pb75">[<a href="#pb75">75</a>]</span>therefore adore the provident wisdom of Jehovah, and recognize the secret working -of his love in carrying forward the great, eternal economy of salvation. They exerted -an influence on their age which helped to pave the way for the Christ. Conscience -spoke, and was spoken to, through them; and the dying sense of virtue was kept alive. -Thus were they stars which emitted an humble though useful light before, but grew -pale and became invisible after, the coming of the Sun of Righteousness.”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3211src" href="#xd31e3211">90</a></p> -</blockquote><p> -</p> -<p>1852.—Though Ewald published the second edition of the fourth volume of his Jewish -History in 1852, when Frankel’s Essay had been six years before the literary world, -yet he manifests total ignorance of it in his account of the Essenes, contained in -this volume. Still, this profound and merciless critic, without having access to the -Jewish information gathered from the Talmud and Midrashim, saw that Essenism was no -Greek plant transplanted into Palestine, but like Pharisaism grew out of the Chassidim. -He remarks that “people who left the great community in order to lead a specially -holy life, with the permission and under the direction of the law, were to be found -in Israel from the remotest times, yet in its first form there were only the Nazarites, -of whom each one lived for himself; and in the second, the Rechabites combined themselves -already into a larger union; but now the whole conscience of the people itself, as -it were, departed into solitude with numerous Essenes. For it cannot be denied that -they, proceeding from the Chassidim, represent the direct and legitimate development -of Judaism in the form which became the ruling one since Ezra.” “Their new features -and endeavours merely consisted in their intensely earnest and rigorous application -of the demands of the law, as understood and interpreted since Ezra. Finding that -the rigorous and logical application of these laws was impossible in the great community, -especially in that community as regulated by the Pharisees, they preferred to congregate -and <span class="pageNum" id="pb76">[<a href="#pb76">76</a>]</span>live in solitude.”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3218src" href="#xd31e3218">91</a> Very unfortunate is Ewald’s derivation of Essene from the Rabbinic <span lang="he" class="hebr">חזן</span> <i>servant</i> (of God), and the assertion that this name was given to them because it was their -only desire to be <span class="trans" title="therapeutai theou"><span lang="grc" class="grek"><span class="corr" id="xd31e3229" title="Source: θεραπενταὶ">θεραπευταὶ</span> θεοῦ</span></span>. -</p> -<p>1853.—Nearly seven years had now elapsed since Frankel published his masterly Essay -on the Essenes, and promised to return to this subject at some future time. True to -his promise, he now gave another elaborate treatise, in which he substantiated, by -numerous quotations from the Talmud, his former conclusions, that the Essenes are -the offspring of Judaism, that they are nothing but stationary, or more correctly -speaking consequential Chassidim, that they were therefore not so far distant from -the Pharisees as to be regarded as a separate sect, but, on the contrary, that they -formed a branch of Pharisaism.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3242src" href="#xd31e3242">92</a> -</p> -<p>1856.—So convincing was Frankel’s Treatise, that Graetz, who published the third volume -of his masterly History of the Jews in 1856, in which he gives an elaborate account -of this brotherhood, remarks:<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3247src" href="#xd31e3247">93</a> “I completely accept these results about this sect being based upon critical investigation, -and shall only add a few supplementary points by way of illustration.”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3250src" href="#xd31e3250">94</a> The additions consist of a very able analysis of Philo’s reputed Treatise entitled -<i lang="la">De Vita Contemplativa</i>, showing that it is spurious, and of an attempt to show that the Essenes were <i>perpetual Nazarites</i> (<span lang="he" class="hebr">נזירי עולם</span>). His remarks are as follow—“There were great masses of Nazarites in the <span class="pageNum" id="pb77">[<a href="#pb77">77</a>]</span>post-exile period (<i>Tosifta Nasir</i>, <i>c.</i> iv.; <i>Babbi Berachoth</i>, 48 <i>a</i>; 1 <i>Macc.</i> ii. 49; <i>Joseph. Antiq.</i> xviii. vi.), but they were of a different character to those of the Biblical period; -they were <i>Nazarites for the whole life</i> (<i>Nasir</i> 4 <i>a.</i>) The Mishna presupposed their existence; the magical in Nazaritism, which was connected -with the growing of the hair in the Nazarites of the Bible, gradually recedes into -the back ground or loses its significance altogether; whereas the Levitical, the guarding -against defilement, appears more and more in the foreground among the life-long Nazarites. -The Essenes then were such Nazarites as represented in private life the highest priestly -consecration. The connection between the Nazarites and Essenes has already been indicated -in obscure passages in the Talmud, that one consecrated himself to be a perpetual -Nazarite if he simply wished to be a Nazarite in order that he <span class="pageNum" id="pb78">[<a href="#pb78">78</a>]</span>might be able to preserve the secrets of disgraceful family circumstances. (<i>Tosifta Nasir</i>, <i>b.</i> i. 6; <i>Kidushim</i> 71 <i>a.</i>)<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3389src" href="#xd31e3389">95</a> -</p> -<p>1857.—The learned historian Jost, who published the first volume of his History of -Judaism in 1857, was also perfectly convinced by the results of Frankel’s researches, -and made them the basis of his excellent description of the Essenes, in which he maintains -that they grew out of Pharisaism or from the ancient <i>Chassidim</i>. “The Essenes,” he submits, “are exactly the same that the other Rabbis wished to -be who endeavoured to practise the Levitical law of purity, as leading to higher consecration. -They have neither another creed nor another law, but simply institutions peculiar -to this brotherhood, and endeavour to reach the highest consecration by their manner -of life, in defining the different stages, according to preliminary exercises and -certain years of preparation. Their views and tenets are therefore also to be found -in the utterances of the learned and the Rabbis who did not enter their order, so -that they did not look upon the Essenes as opponents or apostates, but, on the contrary, -as holding the same opinions with increased claims and some fewer enjoyments, whom -many out of their own midst joined, and who were called <i>Chassidim</i> or <i>Zenuim</i>.”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3400src" href="#xd31e3400">96</a> -</p> -<p>1857.—The comparatively few and unessential deviations from Judaism to be found in -Essenism were, however, more than Herzfeld could tolerate, without characterising -the innovators as heretics and smugglers of contraband opinions. Dissatisfied with -the modern researches of Frankel and Graetz on this subject, this learned historian, -and chief Rabbi of Brunswick, returned to the old notion of De Rossi, that the Essenes -of Josephus and Philo are identical with the Baithusians mentioned in the Talmud. -Still he thinks that De Rossi’s <span class="pageNum" id="pb79">[<a href="#pb79">79</a>]</span>opinion “must be better proved than he had done it,” and therefore remarks—“first -of all, seeing that the prefixed <span lang="he" class="hebr">בית</span> denotes school or sect in the appellations Beth-Shammai, Beth-Hillel; that <span lang="he" class="hebr">בית הכותים</span> in Tosifta Helem ii. b, and <span lang="he" class="hebr">בי כותאי</span> in Chullin 6 a, denotes <i>the sect</i> or <i>the land</i> of Cuttim; and then that <span lang="he" class="hebr">בית סין</span> stands twice Tosifta Succa, cap. iii., and Tosifta Menachoth cap. x. for Baithusians, -can it mean anything else than <i>house</i> or <i>sect of Essenes</i>? When <span lang="he" class="hebr">אסי</span> <i>physician</i> became the name of a sect, an Essene could not so well be called <span lang="he" class="hebr">אסי</span> without ambiguity; he was therefore described as one of <span lang="he" class="hebr">בית אסי</span>.”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3440src" href="#xd31e3440">97</a> Thus much for the origin of the name, and now let us hear Dr. Herzfeld’s theory about -the brotherhood itself. It is simply this<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3487src" href="#xd31e3487">98</a>—“A Jew, who became acquainted with the allegorical exegesis prevalent among the Alexandrian -Jews, and with its mother the Greek wisdom, but who, like Pythagoras, Plato and Herodotus, -had also found <span class="pageNum" id="pb80">[<a href="#pb80">80</a>]</span>an opportunity to learn some things from Egyptian priests, conceived and carried out -the plan, eclectically to form from it and from Judaism a speculative and ascetic -system, as well as to organise, according to its model, a sect from the Jewish ascetics.”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3502src" href="#xd31e3502">99</a> This Alexandrianized Palestinian Jew founded the order of the Essenes in Palestine -about 230 <span class="asc">B.C.</span> -</p> -<p>1857.—Another effort was made in this year to explain the origin of this mysterious -brotherhood. Professor Hilgenfeld of Jena, who maintains their genuine Jewish origin, -starts the notion that the Essenes belonged to the Apocalytical school, and that they -must be regarded as the successors of the ancient prophets, and as constituting the -prophetic school. It is only when we view them from this stand point that their precepts -and practices can be understood, and that the high antiquity ascribed to them by Josephus -(Antiq. xviii. 1, 2) and Pliny (Hist. Nat. v. 17), can be comprehended. This he moreover -assures us gives the clue to the explanation of their name. The Hebrew prophets were -also called <span lang="he" class="hebr">חזים</span> <i>seers</i>, which, being in the Aramaic pronunciation <span lang="he" class="hebr">חזין</span>, easily gave rise through Greek change of vowels to the name <span class="trans" title="Essaiou, Essēnoi"><span lang="grc" class="grek">Ἐσσαῖου, Ἐσσηνοί</span></span>. Hilgenfeld manifests an almost inexcusable ignorance of the labours of Frankel and -Graetz on the Essenes.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3527src" href="#xd31e3527">100</a> -</p> -<p>1860.—A necessarily brief but interesting article on the Essenes, written by the able -Mr. Westcott, appeared in Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible. The writer wisely availed -himself of the labours of Frankel and Jost, and properly traced the origin of the -brotherhood to the Chassidim. His fear, however, lest any shining virtues in the Essenes -might be thought by some to pale some of the brightness of the Sun of Righteousness, -prevented him from appreciating the true <span class="pageNum" id="pb81">[<a href="#pb81">81</a>]</span>character of this order, as well as from seeing that they paved the way to Christianity. -</p> -<p>1863.—Graetz again, in the second edition of the third volume of his History of the -Jews, in which he has an additional chapter on the Rise and Progress of Christianity, -goes to the other extreme, and maintains that <span class="corr" id="xd31e3537" title="Not in source">“</span>Jesus simply appropriated to himself the essential features of Essenism,”<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3539src" href="#xd31e3539">101</a> and that primitive Christianity was nothing but an offshoot from Essenism. -</p> -<p>1862.—Of the article on the Essenes in Dr. Alexander’s valuable edition of Kitto’s -Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature, being written by me, I can do no more than say -that it embodies the substance of this Essay. -</p> -<p>1863.—The description of the Essenes in the new edition of Dean Milman’s History of -the Jews, gives a very imperfect idea both of the development and morality of this -brotherhood.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3545src" href="#xd31e3545">102</a> The learned Dean seems to be wholly unacquainted with the researches of Frankel and -Graetz on this subject. He, however, rightly rejects the notion that Essenism had -its origin in Pythagorism. -</p> -<hr class="tb"><p> -</p> -<p>1847.—After the above was printed, I found a notice of the Essenes in Hirschfeld’s -work on the <i>Hagadic Exegesis</i>, in which he submits that the name Essene may be derived from the Greek <span class="trans" title="ēthos"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ἦθος</span></span> <i>manners</i>, <i>morality</i>, <i>virtue</i>, that though the Essenes had several things in common with the Therapeutae, yet there -was a great difference between the two sects, and that the former rested more on the -Bible and on Judaism. Still he affirms that “some Neo-Platonic, Pythagorean and Persian -ideas found their way among the Essenes, <span class="pageNum" id="pb82">[<a href="#pb82">82</a>]</span>and brought with them some practices and institutions which this brotherhood mixed -up with the Jewish views of religion, and amongst which are to be classed their extension -of the laws of purification, &c.” Hirschfeld, moreover, maintains that, “like the -Alexandrians, but only from a different standpoint, the Essenes aimed to reconcile -religion with science.” As this opinion has already been discussed in this Essay, -it is needless to repeat the objections against it.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3571src" href="#xd31e3571">103</a> -</p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div class="footnotes"> -<hr class="fnsep"> -<div class="footnote-body"> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e202"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e202src">1</a></span> According to tradition there were four degrees of purity. 1. The ordinary purity required -of every worshipper in the temple (<span lang="he" class="hebr">טהרת חולין</span>). 2. The higher degree of purity necessary for eating of the heave-offering (<span lang="he" class="hebr">טהרת תרומה</span>). 3. The still higher degree requisite for partaking of the sacrifices (<span lang="he" class="hebr">טהרת הקודש</span>). And 4. The degree of purity required of those who sprinkle the water absolving -from sin (<span lang="he" class="hebr">טהרת חטאת</span>). Each degree of purity required a greater separation from the impurities described -in Leviticus xi, 24 – xv, 28 . These impure subjects were termed <i>the fathers of impurity</i>; that which was touched by them was designated <i>the first generation of impurity</i>; what was touched by this again, was called <i>the second generation of impurity</i>; and so on. Now, heave-offerings—the second degree of holiness—became impure when -touched by <i>the third generation</i>; the flesh of sacrifices—the third degree of holiness—when coming in contact with -the fourth generation; and so on. These degrees of purity had even to be separated -from each other; because the lower degree was, in respect to the higher one, regarded -as impure, and any one who lived according to a higher degree of purity became impure -by touching one who lived according to a lower degree, and could only regain his purity -by lustrations (<span lang="he" class="hebr">טבילה</span>). The first degree was obligatory upon every one, the other grades were voluntary. -Before partaking of the heave-offering, the washing of hands was required; and before -eating of the flesh of sacrifices, immersion of the whole body was required—<i>Comp. Babylonian Talmud, Tract Chagiga</i>, 18 <i>b</i>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e202src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e604"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e604src">2</a></span> <span lang="de">Geschichte der Philosophie</span>, vol. iii, part ii, p. 583 ff. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e604src" title="Return to note 2 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e611"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e611src">3</a></span> The figures before each point of comparison do not exit in the original German; I -have inserted them in the translation in order to facilitate the references to these -different points of comparison. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e611src" title="Return to note 3 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e645"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e645src">4</a></span> Comp. <span lang="la">Diog. Laert. de Vitis Philosophorum, lib. viii. Vit. Pythagor. xii.</span> It is true that Cicero represents Cotta as giving no credit to this story, because, -as <span class="pageNum" id="pb18n">[<a href="#pb18n">18</a>]</span>he apprehends, Pythagoras never offered animal sacrifices (<i lang="la">De Natura Deorum</i>, <i>lib.</i> iii. <i>cap.</i> xxxvi.), but it is also related by Athenaeus (<i>Deipnosoph.</i> <i>lib.</i> x.), Plutarch and others. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e645src" title="Return to note 4 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e751"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e751src">5</a></span> An excellent account of the Pythagorean system is given by Zeller, <span lang="de">Geschichte der Philosophie. Erster Theil</span>, Tübingen, 1856, pp. 206–365; Grote, History of Greece, vol. iv. London, 1857, pp. -527–553; and Mason, in Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, -Article <span class="sc">Pythagoras</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e751src" title="Return to note 5 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e769"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e769src">6</a></span> R. Nathan, the Babylonian as he is called, was Vice-President of the College in Palestine, -under the Presidency of Simon III. b. Gamaliel II. <span class="asc">A.D.</span> 140. The above-quoted work of which he is the reputed author, as indicated by its -title, <span lang="he" class="hebr">אבות דרבי נתן</span> i.e. <i>the Aboth of R. Nathan</i>, is a compilation of the apothegms and moral sayings of the Jewish fathers (<span lang="he" class="hebr">אבות</span>), interspersed with traditional explanations of divers texts of Scripture, consisting -of forty-one chapters. Both the historian and moral philosopher will find this work -an important contribution to the literary and philosophical history of antiquity. -It is printed in the different editions of the Talmud, and has also been published -separately with various commentaries, in Venice, 1622: Amsterdam, 1778, &c., &c.; -and a Latin translation of it was published by our learned countryman, Francis Taylor, -under the title of <i lang="la">R. Nathanis Tractatus de Patribus, latine cum Notis</i>. <i>London</i>, 1654, 4<i>to.</i> Comp. Zunz, <span lang="de">Die gottesdienstlichen Vorträge der Juden</span>. Berlin, 1832, p.p. 108, 109; Fürst, <span lang="de">Kultur- und Literaturgeschichte der Juden in Asien</span>. Leipzig, 1849, p. 16 ff; by the same author, <span lang="la">Bibliotheca Judaica</span>, volume iii. Leipzig, 1863, p. 19 ff; Steinschneider, Catalogus Libr. Hebr. in Bibliotheca -Bodleiana col. 2,032 ff. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e769src" title="Return to note 6 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e894"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e894src">7</a></span> For the passages embodying the sentiments of the Essenes, which constitute the above -comparisons, we must refer to the second part of this Essay and the notes. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e894src" title="Return to note 7 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e910"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e910src">8</a></span> Compare the account of Philo, p. 36; Pliny, p. 40; Josephus, p. 52; in the second -part of this Essay. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e910src" title="Return to note 8 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e928"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e928src">9</a></span> This prophecy is given in full in the second part of this Essay, p. 50. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e928src" title="Return to note 9 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e983" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e983src">10</a></span> Zeitschrift für die religiösen Interessen des Judenthums. Berlin, 1856, p. 449. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e983src" title="Return to note 10 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e997" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e997src">11</a></span> Geschichte des Judenthums und seiner Secten, vol. 1, Leipzig, 1857, p. 207. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e997src" title="Return to note 11 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1061"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1061src">12</a></span> As Mr. Westcott, the writer of the article <span class="sc">Essenes</span> in <i>Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible</i>, has misunderstood this passage and wrongly represented Jost himself as deriving -this name from <span lang="he" class="hebr">חשאין</span> <i>the silent</i>, <i>the mysterious</i>, we give Jost’s own words:—“<span lang="de">Uns will scheinen, dass Josephus den Namen allerdings von <span lang="he" class="hebr">חשא</span> <i>schweigen</i>, <i>geheimnissvoll sein</i>, ableitet; dahin führt seine Uebertragung des Wortes <span lang="he" class="hebr">חשן</span> in die griechischen Buchstaben <span class="trans" title="essēn"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ἐσσην</span></span> Ed. Hav. Ant. 1, 147, welches Wort die LXX <span class="trans" title="logeion"><span lang="grc" class="grek">λογεῖον</span></span> übersetzen. Da das Wort <span lang="he" class="hebr">חשאין</span> seinen Zeitgenossen sehr geläufig war, so konnte er annehmen, dass man sich unter -dem Namen der Sekte einen angemessenen Begriff dachte und er keiner Erläuterung bedürfe. -Ja, es wäre möglich, dass er den Begriff aus <span lang="he" class="hebr">חשן</span> selbst ableitet, und auf <span class="trans" title="logeion"><span lang="grc" class="grek">λογεῖον</span></span> oder <span class="trans" title="logion"><span lang="grc" class="grek">λογίον</span></span>, als mit Weissagung begabte, zurückführte. Vergleichte Gfrörer, Philo 1, 196.</span>” <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1061src" title="Return to note 12 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1129"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1129src">13</a></span> Aboth di. R. Nathan, cap. xxxvi. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1129src" title="Return to note 13 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1189"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1189src">14</a></span> Comp. Epiphan. Haeres. xix. lib. i. tom. ii. sect. 4, p. 120, ed. Petav. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1189src" title="Return to note 14 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1197"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1197src">15</a></span> Comp. <span lang="la">Petite Variae Lectiones</span>, c. xxviii. p. 2600. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1197src" title="Return to note 15 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1226"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1226src">16</a></span> <i>Josippon b. Gorion</i> also called <i>Gorionides</i>, lived in Italy about the middle of the tenth century. He is the compiler of the -celebrated Hebrew Chronicle called <i>Josippon</i>, or the Hebrew Josephus. His real character and the value of his Chronicle are discussed -under the article <span class="sc"><span class="sic">Jossippon</span></span> in <i>Dr. Alexander’s edition of Kitto’s Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature</i>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1226src" title="Return to note 16 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1266"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1266src">17</a></span> De Rossi, also called <i>Asarja min Ha-Adomim</i>, was born at Mantua in 1513, and died 1577. For an account of this eminent Jewish -scholar, who may be regarded as the father of Biblical criticism at the time of the -Reformation, see <i>Dr. Alexander’s edition of Kitto’s Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature</i>, Article <span class="sc">Rossi</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1266src" title="Return to note 17 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1330" lang="la"> -<p class="footnote" lang="la"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1330src">18</a></span> Salmas. Plinian. exercitat. in Solinum cap. xxxv. p. 432, edit. Ultraject. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1330src" title="Return to note 18 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1550" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1550src">19</a></span> Comp. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden. Dritter Band, Zweite Auflage, Leipzig. 1863, p. -464, &c.; Frankel, Programm des jüdisch-theol. Seminars von 1854. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1550src" title="Return to note 19 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1555"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1555src">20</a></span> Comp. <span lang="la">Philonis Opera</span>, ed. Mangey. London, 1742, vol. ii pp. <span class="sic">457–45</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1555src" title="Return to note 20 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1601"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1601src">21</a></span> Josephus, who also mentions this fact, distinctly says that their not offering sacrifices -in the temple is owing to the different degree of holiness which they practised. (<i lang="la">Vide infra</i> <i>p.</i> 228.) From the repeated declarations in the Bible, that a life of uniform obedience -and faithful service is far more acceptable to God than the cattle of a thousand hills -( 1 Sam. xv. 22 ; Ps. xl. 7 ; l. 7–14 ; li. 17 ; Prov. xxxi. 3 ; Isa. i. 11 , 17 ; lxv. 3 ; Jer. vii. 21–23 ; Hos. vi. 6 ; xiv. 3 ; Micah, vi. 6–8 ), the Essenes could easily be reconciled to their abstaining from offering animal -sacrifices, and would be led to attach infinitely greater importance to the presenting -of their bodies a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God. (Comp. also Rom. xii. 1 ). This circumstance led Petitius to the conclusion that Herod, who was friendly to -the Essenes in consequence of the favorable prophecy about him uttered by the Essene -Menahem (<i lang="la">vide infra</i> <i>p.</i> 50), employed them to translate the Prophets and the Psalms into Greek, and that -they availed themselves of the opportunity to introduce their tenets and rites into -this version, now called the Septuagint. Thus, for instance, when David said “Sacrifice -and burnt offering thou didst not desire, mine ears hast thou opened” ( Ps. xl. 6 ), the Essenes rendered it “Sacrifice and burnt offering thou dost not desire, but -a body hast thou prepared me,” interpolating three of their tenets. 1. They made the -Prophet speak absolutely, as if God had entirely rejected sacrifices because they -would offer him none. 2. By dropping the words, “<i>mine ears hast thou opened</i>,” they showed their disapprobation of slavery. (Comp. Exod. xxi ). And 3, by substituting “<i>a body</i> hast thou prepared me,” they understood the college of devout Essenes, who met together -as a body, and whom God appointed instead of sacrifice. Comp. Basnage, History of -the Jews, English translation. London, 1708, p. 128. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1601src" title="Return to note 21 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1666"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1666src">22</a></span> This is not the only reason why the Essenes withdrew from cities. Their observance -of the Levitical laws of purity which rendered them impure when they came in contact -with those who did not live according to the same rules, was the principal cause of -their living separately. (<i>Vide supra</i> <i>p.</i> 7, <i>note</i> 1.) Philo, however, states the first reason because the Greeks, for whom he wrote, -understood it better than the second, which is so peculiarly Jewish in its character. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1666src" title="Return to note 22 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1677"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1677src">23</a></span> The same thing Christ urged on his disciples. Comp. Matth. vi. 19–21 . <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1677src" title="Return to note 23 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1683"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1683src">24</a></span> This simple desire for the supply of our daily bread, and the contentment of mind -here spoken of, are also commended by our Saviour. ( Matth. vi. 11 , 25–34 .) <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1683src" title="Return to note 24 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1694"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1694src">25</a></span> Believing that all they that take the sword shall perish with the sword, Comp. Matth. xxvi. 52 . <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1694src" title="Return to note 25 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1704"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1704src">26</a></span> The Apostle Paul, too, admonished the Colossians to “beware lest any man spoil you -through philosophy.” ( Col. ii. 8 .) <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1704src" title="Return to note 26 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1712"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1712src">27</a></span> Thus also Christ, when he was asked which was the greatest commandment in the law, -declared, love to God and love to our neighbour, and that on these two hang all the -law and the prophets. (Comp. Matth. xxii. 36–40 .) <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1712src" title="Return to note 27 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1728"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1728src">28</a></span> Although the taking of oaths was discountenanced by the Jews generally (<i>Comp. Ecclus.</i> xxiii 11, &c.; and especially <i lang="la">Philo De decem oraculis</i> § 17, Opp. Tom. ii. p. 194, &c., ed. Mangey); and the Pharisees took great care to -abstain as much as possible from using them (<i>Comp. Shevuoth</i> 39, <i>b</i>; <i>Gittin</i> 35, <i>a</i>; <i>Bemidbar Rabba</i> <i>c.</i> xxii); yet the Essenes were the only order who laid it down as a principle not to -swear at all, but to say yea, yea, and nay, nay. So firmly and conscientiously did -they adhere to it that Herod, who on ascending the throne had exacted an oath of allegiance -from all the rest of the Jews, was obliged to absolve the Essenes from it. (<i>Comp. Joseph. Antiq.</i> book xv. chap. x. § 4). Christ too, laid it down as a principle for his disciples -not to swear at all, but to say yea, yea, and nay, nay. (Comp. Matth. v. 38–37 .) <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1728src" title="Return to note 28 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1758"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1758src">29</a></span> This community of goods was also adopted by the early Christians, who, as we are told, -“sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all as every man needed.”—(Comp. -Acts, ii. 45 , iv. 34, 35. ) <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1758src" title="Return to note 29 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1771"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1771src">30</a></span> The account here given of the sufferings of the Essenes bears a very striking resemblance -to the description in <i>the Epistle to the Hebrews</i> xi. 36–38; and it may be that the Apostle refers to this extraordinary brotherhood. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1771src" title="Return to note 30 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1800"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1800src">31</a></span> This fragment which Eusebius has preserved is given in Philo’s Works, ed. Mangey, -vol. ii., p<span class="corr" id="xd31e1802" title="Source: ,">.</span> 622, <i>seq.</i> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1800src" title="Return to note 31 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1817"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1817src">32</a></span> The tracing of this brotherhood to Moses is in accordance with the practice which -generally prevailed among the Jews of ascribing the origin of every law, mystical -doctrine or system, which came into vogue in the course of time, either to Ezra, Moses, -Noah or Adam. Thus we are told in the Jerusalem Talmud (<i>Pea</i>, ii. 6), and the Midrash (<i>Coheleth</i>, 96 <i>d.</i>), that all the Scriptural learning which developed itself in course of time, and -everything which a <i>Talmid Vatic</i> might bring to light, were revealed to Moses beforehand on Mount Sinai. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1817src" title="Return to note 32 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1838"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1838src">33</a></span> This refers to juvenile <i>members of the fraternity</i>, as the Essenes did adopt children, and trained them up to the practices of the order. -<i lang="la">Vide infra</i> <i>p.</i> 41. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1838src" title="Return to note 33 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1851"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1851src">34</a></span> The four companies here mentioned most probably refer to the four different classes -into which the Essenes were divided, described more minutely by Josephus. <i lang="la">Vide infra</i>, p. 47, note 45. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1851src" title="Return to note 34 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1857"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1857src">35</a></span> So also the Apostle Paul recommends us not to be slothful in business, but fervent -in spirit, serving the Lord.—( Rom. xii, 11 .) <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1857src" title="Return to note 35 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1868"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1868src">36</a></span> That is if he belongs to the class of Essenes who practised celibacy; for there were -those among them who had wives and families. <i lang="la">Vide infra</i> <i>p.</i> 49. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1868src" title="Return to note 36 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1880"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1880src">37</a></span> The Mosaic law regards conjugal intercourse as polluting, and enjoins bathing after -it ( Levit<span class="corr" id="xd31e1884" title="Not in source">.</span> xv. 18 .) Hence, when the children of Israel had to sanctify themselves in the highest degree, -so as to be fit to receive the law from Mount Sinai, they were commanded not to approach -their wives ( Exod. xix. 15 ). Hence, also, those who had the charge of the shew-bread polluted the sacred loaves -by going to their wives ( 1 Sam. xxi. 4 ). And hence the remark of the Apostle Paul, that in order to give themselves to fasting -and prayer, man and wife may keep aloof from each other by mutual consent ( 1 Cor. vii. 5 ). The same laws obtained among all nations of antiquity. Thus, among the Egyptians, -Babylonians, Arabians, Greeks and Romans, both man and wife had to bathe after connubial -intercourse (<i>Herod.</i><span class="corr" id="xd31e1897" title="Not in source">,</span> i. 198). No one was allowed to go after it to the temple without bathing (<i>Herod.</i><span class="corr" id="xd31e1901" title="Not in source">,</span> ii. 64; <i>Suet. Aug.</i> xciv. 5; <i>Pers.</i> ii. 50, <i>&c.</i>); and the priests had to abstain from approaching their wives when they were ministering -in holy things (<i lang="la">Porphyrius, de Abstinentia</i>, lib. ii. 50; iv. 7; <i lang="la">Plutarch. Sympos.</i> iii. 6; <i>Tibul.</i> lib. ii. Eleg. 1, 11, <i>&c.</i>; <i lang="la">Ovid. Metam.</i> x. 434, <i>&c.</i>) Now, as the Essenes strove to be in a perpetual state of sanctification, regarded -their refectory as a sanctuary and their meals as sacraments, and most anxiously avoided -contact with every thing that defiled, they had of necessity to extend these Mosaic -laws, which enjoin abstinence from connubial intercourse as a means of sanctification, -and which regard those who indulged in it as defiled, to the whole course of their -life; and they had therefore to be celibates. This extension of the Mosaic law was -moreover deemed desirable in consequence of the general conviction which the Jews -entertained, in common with other nations, that no woman remains faithful to her husband, -and that they all defile the bed of marriage. Philo, in the passage before us, and -Josephus, as we shall see afterwards (<i lang="la">vide infra</i> <i>p.</i> 41, § 2), only give the latter reason, to suit their Greek readers who could both -understand it better and sympathise with it more than with the former. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1880src" title="Return to note 37 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1955"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1955src">38</a></span> This is simply a repetition of what the Essenes themselves said about their origin, -in accordance with a common practice among the Jews.—<i lang="la">Vide supra</i> <i>p.</i> 36, <i>note</i> 14. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1955src" title="Return to note 38 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1976"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1976src">39</a></span> This representation of the three Jewish sects as different philosophical schools, -and the supposed resemblance of the Essenes to the Pythagoreans, which he mentions -afterwards, (<i lang="la">vide infra</i> <i>Antiq.</i> xv. 10; § 4, p. 50) and which have misled modern writers, are nothing but a desire -on the part of Josephus to make the divers teachings of his co-religionists correspond -to the different systems of Greek philosophy. It is this anxiety to shew the Gentiles, -for whom he wrote, how much the Jews resemble them both in doctrine and practice, -which detracts from the merits of Josephus’ history. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1976src" title="Return to note 39 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e1984"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e1984src">40</a></span> This love for the brotherhood, which the Essenes possessed to so extraordinary a degree, -was also urged by the Evangelists and Apostles on the early Christians (comp. John xiv. 17 ; Rom. xiii. 8 ; 1 Tim. iv. 9 ; 1 Peter i. 28<span class="corr" id="xd31e1997" title="Not in source">;</span> xi. 17; 1 John iii. 23 ; iv. 7, 11 ; v. 2 ). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e1984src" title="Return to note 40 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2010"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2010src">41</a></span> This does not contradict Philo’s remark (<i lang="la">vide supra</i> <i>p.</i> 37), as Herzfeld supposes, (<i lang="de">Geschichte des Volkes Israel</i>, vol<span class="corr" id="xd31e2020" title="Not in source">.</span> ii. p. 375); since the two statements refer to two different things. The former affirms -that they do not receive children into the noviciate, whilst the latter speaks of -their adopting and educating them, which is a distinct thing from <i>becoming a novice</i>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2010src" title="Return to note 41 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2025"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2025src">42</a></span> <i lang="la">Vide supra</i>, <i>p.</i> 39, <i>note</i> 19. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2025src" title="Return to note 42 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2038"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2038src">43</a></span> So our Lord urged on the young man, who lived so exemplary a life in the performance -of God’s law, and whom he loved, that unless he gave up his property he could not -follow him (comp. Matth. xix. 21 ; Mark x. 21 ; Luke xviii. 22 ), and commanded his disciples to sell all their possessions and distribute the money -among the poor (comp. Luke xii. 33 .) <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2038src" title="Return to note 43 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2053"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2053src">44</a></span> Ointment being a luxury (comp. Eccl. ix. 8 ; Dan. x. 2 ), the Essenes regarded the use of it as extravagance, and contrary to the simplicity -of their manner of life. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2053src" title="Return to note 44 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2065"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2065src">45</a></span> The manner in which Christ commanded his disciples to depart on their journey ( Mark vi. 8–10 ) is the same which these pious Essenes are here said to have adopted. This also explains -the injunction given by our Saviour to his disciples in Luke xxii. 36 , about taking arms with them, which has so greatly perplexed commentators who were -unacquainted with the customs of the Essenes. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2065src" title="Return to note 45 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2074"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2074src">46</a></span> The Pharisees, too, had a steward in every place to supply the needy with clothing -and food. (<i>Comp. Pea</i> viii. 7; <i>Baba Bathra</i> 8 <i>a</i>; <i>Sabbath</i> 118.) <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2074src" title="Return to note 46 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2085"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2085src">47</a></span> Comp. also Luke x. 4 , &c. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2085src" title="Return to note 47 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2095"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2095src">48</a></span> Some translate it “they offer prayer (<span class="trans" title="eis ton hēlion"><span lang="grc" class="grek">εἰς τὸν ἥλιον</span></span>) <i>to</i> the sun.” But it is utterly inconceivable that the Essenes, who were such thorough -Jews, and so exemplary for their adoration of the Holy One of Israel, would be guilty -of idolatry by worshipping the sun. Besides, the prayer in question is described as -one transmitted by the fathers. And can it be imagined that there existed among the -Jews a national prayer to this luminary in direct violation of the first commandment, -and of what is so expressly forbidden in Deut. iv. 10 ? The prayer therefore here spoken of is the well known national morning hymn of praise -(<span lang="he" class="hebr">המאיר לארץ</span>) for the return of the light of the day, which still forms a part or the Jewish service -to the present day. <i>Comp<span class="corr" id="xd31e2115" title="Not in source">.</span> Berachoth</i> 9 <i>b</i>; <i>Rappaport in the Bikure Ha-Ittim</i>, <i>vol.</i> x., <i>Vienna</i> 1829, <i>p.</i> 115, and <i lang="la">infra</i> p. 69. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2095src" title="Return to note 48 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2133"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2133src">49</a></span> This practice of bathing before meals was also common among the Pharisees (comp. <i>Chagiga</i>, 18, <i>b</i>), and as the Essenes covered themselves with their aprons so the Pharisees put on -their <i>Talith</i> during their baptisms. (<i>Comp. Berachoth</i> 24, <i>b</i>.) <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2133src" title="Return to note 49 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2146"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2146src">50</a></span> The Pharisees, too, regarded the refectory as a sanctuary, and compared its table -to the altar in the temple, because the altar in the temple is represented as the -table of the Lord ( Ezekiel xli, 22 ). Hence, R. Jochanan and R. Eleazar remark—“As long as the temple stood the altar -atoned for the sins of Israel, but now it is man’s table which atones for his sins.” -(<i>Talmud Berachoth</i>, 55<i>a</i>). Hence the Chaldee paraphrase of Ezekiel xii. 22 , and the remarks of Rashi and Kimchi on this passage, which cannot be understood -unless this traditional interpretation is borne in mind. Comp. also Aboth iii, 3. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2146src" title="Return to note 50 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2159"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2159src">51</a></span> This was also the practice of the Pharisees, and is to the present day the custom -among the orthodox Jews. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2159src" title="Return to note 51 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2166"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2166src">52</a></span> This paragraph almost embodies the sentiments uttered by our Saviour in Matth. chap. v . <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2166src" title="Return to note 52 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2172"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2172src">53</a></span> These ancient books on magical cures and exorcisms were the reputed works of Solomon, -who, according to the Talmud as well as the Byzantine and Arabian writers, composed -treatises on miraculous cures and driving out evil spirits. (<i>Comp. Pesachim</i> 56 <i>a</i>; <i>Fabricius</i>, <i lang="la">Codex pseudepigraphus Vet. Test.</i> <i>p.</i> 1042, <i>&c.</i>; <i>Weil</i>, <i lang="de"><span class="corr" id="xd31e2191" title="Source: Bibliblische">Biblische</span> Legenden der Muselmänner</i>, <i>p.</i> 225–279). Josephus tells <span class="pageNum" id="pb45n">[<a href="#pb45n">45</a>]</span>us elsewhere that some of these Solomonic productions still existed in his own days, -and that he had actually seen demons driven out and people cured by their aid. (<i>Comp. Antiq.</i> book viii. chap. ii. § 5.) This account most strikingly illustrates what Christ says -in Matth. xii. 27 . <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2172src" title="Return to note 53 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2210"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2210src">54</a></span> This custom has its origin in the extension of a Mosaic law. The hosts of the Lord -are commanded in Deut. xxiii 13, 15 , to have spades among the martial instruments in order to bury therewith their excrements -without the camp, and thus to keep themselves pure from every pollution, and to be -a holy camp, because the Holy One of Israel dwells in the midst thereof. Now as the -Essenes strove to be, in a pre-eminent sense, the spiritual hosts of the Lord, every -one of them was obliged to have this spade in order to guard their sacred camp from -defilement. For this reason the apron was also given to cover their nakedness in their -numerous baptisms, and thus to keep their thoughts from dwelling upon anything which -might lead to impurity; whilst the white garment was the symbol of their holiness. -This, however, was not peculiar to the Essenes, as the Talmud tells us that when any -one applied to become a member of the Pharisaic order (<span lang="he" class="hebr">חבר</span>), he had to pass through a noviciate of twelve months, at the expiration of which -he received a sort of garment called <span lang="he" class="hebr">כנפים</span>, and having duly qualified himself in this stage, he was afterwards admitted to the -holier lustrations (<span lang="he" class="hebr">מקבלין לכנסּים ואחר כד מקבלין לטהרות</span>). (<i>Comp. Tosifta Demai e.</i> 11; <i>Jerusalem Demai</i> ii. 3; <i>Babylonian Becharoth</i> 30, 6). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2210src" title="Return to note 54 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2232"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2232src">55</a></span> This was the only occasion on which the Essenes were permitted to take an oath. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2232src" title="Return to note 55 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2235"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2235src">56</a></span> This does not refer to governments generally, as Gfrörer will have it (<i lang="de">Philo und die jüdisch-alexandrinische Theosophie</i>, vol. ii, p. 333, &c.), but to the office of overseer or steward <i>among the brotherhood</i>, as is evident from the immediately following statement, which most unquestionably -pledges every Essene to retain his simplicity of character if he should ever attain -to any official position or stewardship in the order. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2235src" title="Return to note 56 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2246"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2246src">57</a></span> This is not peculiar to the Essenes. The Pharisees, too, would not indiscriminately -propound the mysteries of the cosmogony and the theosophy, which, according to them, -are contained in the history of the Creation and in the vision of Ezekiel, except -to those who were regularly initiated in the order. Comp. Mishna Chagiga, ii, 1. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2246src" title="Return to note 57 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2249"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2249src">58</a></span> This evidently refers to the secrets of the <i>Tetragrammaton</i>, and the angelology which played so important a part among the Jewish mystics from -time immemorial. Comp. Wisdom of Solomon vii. 20 ; Mishna Chagiga, ii, 1. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2249src" title="Return to note 58 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2259"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2259src">59</a></span> The reason why he ate herbs and not bread, or the simple dish which the order generally -took, is that, being bound by an oath to observe the practices of the brotherhood, -he could only accept meals from those who lived according to the highest degree of -purity (<span lang="he" class="hebr">על טהרת חטאת</span>), and who, as a matter of course, kept their meals according to this degree. But -as such a mode of life was of very uncommon occurrence, the excommunicated Essene -was obliged to live on herbs or vegetables which he had to pluck himself; for, according -to the Talmud, plants are only then considered unclean when they are <i>cut off</i> and water is poured upon them (<span lang="he" class="hebr">משהוכשרו לקבל טומאה משנתלשו</span>). As for Josephus’ saying that he died a miserable death, and that he could only -eat <i>grass</i> (<span class="trans" title="poiēphagōn"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ποιηφάγων</span></span>), this is simply another instance of his exaggerating and colouring his subject. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2259src" title="Return to note 59 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2284"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2284src">60</a></span> The Pharisees, too, regarded ten persons as constituting a complete number for divine -worship, held the assembling of such a number as sacred, and would not spit in their -presence. (<i>Comp. Berâchoth</i> 51 <i>a</i>; <i>Jerusalem Berachoth</i> iii. 5; <i>Aboth</i> iii. 6.) <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2284src" title="Return to note 60 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2295"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2295src">61</a></span> This is not peculiar to the Essenes; for the Pharisees, too, would not remove a vessel -on the Sabbath (comp. <i>Tosifta Succa</i>, iii); and the orthodox Jews, to the present day, will not even carry a handkerchief -on the Sabbath; they tie it round the body to serve as a girdle, so that it might -not be said that they carry the weight of even so small a thing on the sacred day. -Comp. also Mark xi, 16 . <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2295src" title="Return to note 61 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2303"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2303src">62</a></span> Neither is this peculiar to the Essenes; for not only did the Pharisees of old do -the same (comp. <i>Ioma</i> 28, <i>a</i>); but the orthodox Jews of the present day wash after performing the duties of nature. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2303src" title="Return to note 62 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2312"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2312src">63</a></span> This division of the brotherhood into four classes, as well as the impurity contracted -by the higher class when touching one who belonged to a lower class of purity, also -existed among the Pharisees. (<i>Vide supra</i>, p. 7, note 1.) <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2312src" title="Return to note 63 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2319"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2319src">64</a></span> Philo, too, speaks of this fact. (<i>Vide supra</i> <i>p.</i> 36.) <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2319src" title="Return to note 64 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2328"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2328src">65</a></span> This is another instance of the anxiety of Josephus to make the different phases of -Judaism harmonise with the Greek mode of thinking. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2328src" title="Return to note 65 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2360"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2360src">66</a></span> It is evident that Josephus, as an orthodox and pious Jew, cannot mean by <span class="trans" title="heimarmenē"><span lang="grc" class="grek">εἱμαρμένη</span></span> the <i>Fatum</i> of the Stoics, which was above the deities; but intends to convey thereby the idea -of <i>eternal counsels</i> and <i>predestination</i> spoken of in the Bible. Indeed, elsewhere Josephus tells us distinctly that “the -doctrine of the Essenes delights to leave all things to God” (<i lang="la">vide infra</i> <i>p.</i> 52); so that that which is in the one case ascribed to <i>fate</i>, is in the other ascribed to <i>God</i>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2360src" title="Return to note 66 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2399"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2399src">67</a></span> No more regard is to be paid to this remark, that the Essenes are like the Pythagoreans, -than to the assertion which Josephus makes afterwards that they are related in their -manner of life to the Polistae, (<i lang="la">vide infra</i> <i>p.</i> 53), as his aim was to shew how much the Jewish sects resembled the Greek systems -of philosophy. Comp. p. 41, note 21. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2399src" title="Return to note 67 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2422"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2422src">68</a></span> The fact that Menahem saw Herod in Jerusalem, and that the Essene Judah, as Josephus -tells us elsewhere (<i>comp. Jewish War</i>, book i. chap. iii. § 5; <i>Antiq.</i> book xiii. chap. xi. § 2), foretold in the temple the death of Antigones, clearly -shows that the Essenes did not at first form a separate community, but lived together -with the rest of their Jewish brethren. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2422src" title="Return to note 68 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2484"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2484src">69</a></span> Pliny, whom Solinus copies, simply says that the Essenes live in the society of palm-trees -(<i lang="la">socia palmarum</i>), to form an antithesis with the appellation <i>a solitary community</i> (<i lang="la">sola gens</i>); and this is perfectly correct. But Solinus’ alteration of it into “palm-berries -are their food” (<i lang="la">palmis victitant</i>) is incorrect, inasmuch as they lived from the cultivation of the land, bees, &c. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2484src" title="Return to note 69 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2501"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2501src">70</a></span> This is simply a reiteration of what Pliny says about the antiquity of the Essenes. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2501src" title="Return to note 70 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2534"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2534src">71</a></span> This work of Josephus, addressed to the Greeks, is no longer extant. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2534src" title="Return to note 71 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2561"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2561src">72</a></span> This is simply imaginary; the real reason for it was, that they could not dig on the -Sabbath the hole that was requisite for it without, as they thought, violating the -sanctity of the day, as to do so was considered a labour. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2561src" title="Return to note 72 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2592"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2592src">73</a></span> This unjust remark about the Essenes, whose exemplary virtues and self-denying life -elicited the unqualified admiration of Jews, Greeks, and Romans, is just what might -be expected from the bigoted persecutor of heretics, amongst whom he put no less a -person than St. Chrysostom. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2592src" title="Return to note 73 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2618"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2618src">74</a></span> This name may be derived from the Hebrew <i>Shemesh</i> (<span lang="he" class="hebr">שמש</span>) <i>sun</i>, and was most probably given to the Essenes, because of the erroneous notion that -they <i>worshipped the sun</i>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2618src" title="Return to note 74 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2638"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2638src">75</a></span> The whole of this account is worse than useless, inasmuch as it not only gives us -no information whatever about this interesting order, but is positively misleading. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2638src" title="Return to note 75 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2705"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2705src">76</a></span> Comp. Meor Enajim, edit. Mantua. 1547, fol. 88 b. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2705src" title="Return to note 76 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2717"> -<p class="footnote rtl"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2717src">77</a></span> <span lang="he" class="hebr">אנטיגנוס איש סוכו קבל משמעון הצדיק הוא היה אמר אל תהיו כעבדים המשמשים את הרב על מנת -לקבל פרס אלא היו כעברים המשמשים את הרב שלא על מנת לקבל פרס ויהי מורא שמיס עליכם כדי -שיהיה שכרכם כפול: לעתיד לבא: אנטיגנוס איש סוכו היו לו שני תלמידים שהיו שונין בדבריו -שונין היו לתלמידים ותלמידים לתלמידיהם עמרו ודקדקו אחריהן ואמרו מה ראו אבותינו לומר -אפשר שיעשה פועל מלאכה כל היום ולא יטול שכרו ערבית אלא אילו יודעין אבותינו שיש העולם -(אחר) ויש תחיית המתים לא היו אומרים כך עמדו ופירשו מי התורה ונפרצו מהם שתי פרצות צדוקים -וביתוסין צדוקים על שום צדוק ביתוסין על שום ביתוס שהיה משתמש בכלי זהב וכלי כסף כל ימיו -לא היתה דעתו גסה עליו אלא צדוקים אומרים מסורה בית פרושים שהן מצערין עצמן בעולם הזה -ובעולם הבא אין להם כלום</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2717src" title="Return to note 77 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2910"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2910src">78</a></span> Comp. Moses and Aaron: Civil and Ecclesiastical Rites used by the Ancient Hebrews, -eighth edition (London, 1672), book i, chap, xii, p. 50–59. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2910src" title="Return to note 78 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2936"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2936src">79</a></span> The Court of the Gentiles. Pt. ii of “Philosophy,” Oxford, 1671, p. 147, &c. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2936src" title="Return to note 79 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2956"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2956src">80</a></span> The Old and New Testaments Connected, seventeenth editions, vol<span class="corr" id="xd31e2958" title="Not in source">.</span> iii. London, 1815, part ii, book v, p. 406–431. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2956src" title="Return to note 80 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2967"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2967src">81</a></span> The History of the Jews, from Jesus Christ to the present day. London, 1708, p. 125–137. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2967src" title="Return to note 81 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2974"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2974src">82</a></span> Jewish Antiquities; or a Course of Lectures on the two first books of Godwyn’s Moses -and Aaron, ninth edition. London, 1837, book i., chap. xii, p. 281–287. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2974src" title="Return to note 82 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2979" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2979src">83</a></span> Geschichtliche Nachrichten aus dem Alterthume über Essäer und Therapeuten. Berlin, -1821. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2979src" title="Return to note 83 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2997"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2997src">84</a></span> General History of the Christian Religion and Church, English Translation, Clark’s -Theological Library, vol. i, Edinburgh, 1851, p. 58–66. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2997src" title="Return to note 84 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3044"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3044src">85</a></span> Rappaport, in the Hebrew Annual, entitled Bikure Ha-Ittim, vol. x, Vienna, 1829, p. -118 ff. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3044src" title="Return to note 85 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3080" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3080src">86</a></span> Comp. Kritische Geschichte des Urchristenthums. 1 Theil Philo und die jüdish-alexandrianische -Theosophie, 11 Abtheilung. Stuttgart, 1835. p. 299–356. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3080src" title="Return to note 86 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3090" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3090src">87</a></span> Diese Trennung nun aber unter ben Anhängern der jüdisch-alexandrinischen Religionsphilosophie -selbst in solche, welche sich ausschliesslich dem beschaulichen und in Andere, welche -sich vorzugsweise dem praktischen Leben widmeten, ist es eben, welche sich in unserem -fraglichen Doppelorden auch äusserlich repräsentirte, sodass, wenn schon beide ganz -auf derselben philosophischen Unterlage ruhten, die Therapeuten sich möglichst ausschliesslich -und unmittelbar dem höchsten von ihnen angestrebten menschlichen Lebensziele, der -Anschauung Gottes selbst, hingaben, während die Essäer gewissermassen freiwillig in -dem Vorhofe zum Allerheiligsten zögernd, sich absichtlich und zum Besten der Brüder -häufiger in Berührung setzten mit dem Sinnlichen, als es die Naturnothwendigkeit foderte -und so ihre eigene höchste Vollkommenheit und Seligkeit zwar grossmuthig, aber gewiss -auch unphilosophisch genug augenblicklich noch verkümmerten. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3090src" title="Return to note 87 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3106" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3106src">88</a></span> Comp. Ersch und Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyklopädie, section i. vol. xxxviii, p. 173–192. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3106src" title="Return to note 88 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3193" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3193src">89</a></span> Comp. Frankel, Zeitschrift für die religiösen Interessen des Judenthums, vol. iii. -Berlin, 1846, p. 441–461. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3193src" title="Return to note 89 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3211"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3211src">90</a></span> Comp. The Biblical Repository and Classical Review. New York, 1847, p. 162–173. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3211src" title="Return to note 90 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3218" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3218src">91</a></span> Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vierter Band. Göttingen, 1852, p. 419–428. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3218src" title="Return to note 91 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3242" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3242src">92</a></span> Comp. Monatschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums, Zweiter Jahrgang. -Leipzig, 1853, p. 30–40; 61–73. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3242src" title="Return to note 92 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3247" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3247src">93</a></span> Ich nehme diese auf kritischer Forschung, beruhenden Resultate über diese Secte vollständig -an und werde nur noch einige Pünkte nachträglich beleuchten. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3247src" title="Return to note 93 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3250" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3250src">94</a></span> Die Eigenthümlichkeiten der Essäer lassen sich nicht genügend aus dem Wesen der im -Talmud vorkommenden <span lang="he" class="hebr">חסידים</span> oder <span lang="he" class="hebr">חסידים הראשנים</span> und der in der Makkabäerzeit auftretenden “Assidäer” erklären; man muss auch auf -das nasiräische Wesen Rücksicht nehmen. Nasiräer gab es in der nachexilischen Zeit -eine grosse Menge (<i>Tosifta Nasir</i> <i>c.</i> iv. <i>Babli Berachot</i> 48 <i>a.</i> 1 <i>Makkab.</i> ii, 49. <i>Jos. Alterth.</i> xviii, 6, 1). Aber sie trugen zugleich einen andern Charakter, als <span class="pageNum" id="pb77n">[<a href="#pb77n">77</a>]</span>die der biblischen Zeit: sie waren Nasiräer fürs ganze Leben <span lang="he" class="hebr">נזיר עולם</span> (<i>Nasir</i> 4 <i>a</i>). Die Mischna setzt das Vorhandensein solcher ohne Weiteres voraus, und das Magische -an dem Nasiräerthum, das sich bei den biblischen Nasiräern an den Haarwuchs knüpfte, -tritt immer mehr zurück, oder hat vielmehr gar keine Bedeutung mehr. <span lang="he" class="hebr">נזיר עולם הכביד שערו מיקל בשער</span> (das.). Hingegen tritt bei den lebenslänglichen Nasiräern das Levitische, die Hut -vor Verunreinigung, immer mehr in den Vordergrund (das.)<span class="corr" id="xd31e3284" title="Not in source">.</span> Die Essäer werden also solche Nasiräer gewesen sein, welche in ihrem Privatleben -die höchste <span class="corr" id="xd31e3286" title="Source: priesterilische">priesterliche</span> Weihe darstellen wollten. Den Zusammenhang zwischen Nasiräern and Essäern deutet -schon eine dunkle talmudische Stelle an, dass Jemand sich dadurch schon dem vollständigen -Nasireat weiht, wenn er auch nur insofern Nasiräer sein will, um die Geheimnisse entehrender -Familienverhältnisse bewahren zu können: <span lang="he" class="hebr">הריני נזיר אם לא אגלה משפחות הרי זו נזיר ולא יגלה משפחות</span> (<i>Tosifta Nasir</i> <i>c.</i> 1 <i>b</i> <i>Kiduschim</i> 71 <i>a</i>). Die Erklärung dieser Stelle durch den Essenismus hat schon Edeles (<span lang="he" class="hebr">מהרש״א</span>) in seinem Agadacommentar z. St. geahnt. Diesen Zusammenhang zwischen Nasiräerthum -und Essenismus haben Epiphanius und die arabischen Schriftsteller Makrisi und Abulfarag’ -geahnt; wenn auch Epiphanius die <span class="trans" title="Nazaraioi"><span lang="grc" class="grek">Ναζαραῖοι</span></span> von den <span class="trans" title="Ossēnoi"><span lang="grc" class="grek">Ὀσσηνοί</span></span> unterscheidet, so sind die Eigenheiten, die er von den Erstern berichtet, doch ganz -essäisch. Ebenso hat Makrisi die Essäer in drei Secten zerspalten, in die Täufer (<span lang="he" class="hebr">מנטהרון</span> = <span class="trans" title="hēmerobaptistai"><span lang="grc" class="grek">ἡμεροβαπτισταί</span></span>), die Essäer (<span lang="he" class="hebr">אסאניון</span>) und in die Nasiräer (<span lang="he" class="hebr">מתחשפון</span>) (in <i>de Sacy Chrestomathie Arabe</i> Ausgabe von 1806, arabischer Theil 172 und <i>tome</i> ii, 218). Das arabische Makkabäerbuch bezeichnet die Essäer durch Chassidäer (c. -xxv); in Josippon fehlen an der Stelle, wo er von den drei Secten spricht, gerade -die Essäer (iv, 6, Breithaupt) Die Identität von Nasiräern, Essäern und Assidäern -wird also von vielen Seiten bestätigt. Auch aus Josephus’ Angabe, die Essäer hätten -eigne Bücher gehabt (jüd. Kr. ii, 8, 7), lässt sich ihre Identität mit den Assidäern -erweisen. Im Talmud (Jeruschalmi Barachot, Ende) wird aus einem Buchs der Chassidäer -der Satz mitgetheilt: “Verlässt du sie einen Tag, so verlässt sie dich zwei Tage”: -<span lang="he" class="hebr">כתוב בספר חסידים אם תעובה יום יומים תעובך</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3250src" title="Return to note 94 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3389" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3389src">95</a></span> Geschichte der Juden, vol. iv. Leipzig, 1856, p. 96–106; 518–528. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3389src" title="Return to note 95 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3400" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3400src">96</a></span> Geschichte des Judenthums und seiner Secten, vol. 1. Leipzig, 1857, p. 207–215. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3400src" title="Return to note 96 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3440" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3440src">97</a></span> Die Essäer waren die Baitusim, wie schon R. Asarja de’ Rossi vermuthet hat; es muss -dies nur besser begründet werden, als von ihm geschehen ist. Ich bemerke zu dem Ende -erstens, dass wie das vorgesetzte <span lang="he" class="hebr">בית</span> auch in den Benennungen Bet-Schammaj, Bet-Hillel Schule oder Fraction bedeutet, so -<i>Tosifta Kelim</i> ii, 6 <span lang="he" class="hebr">בית הכותים</span>, <i>Chulin</i> 6, <i>a</i> <span lang="he" class="hebr">בי כותאי</span> für die Sekte oder das Land der Cutim vorkommt; sodann dass <i>Tosifta Succa</i>, K. iii zweimal und <i>Tosifta Menachot</i> K. z. für Baitusim <span lang="he" class="hebr">בית סין</span> stehet: kann dies wohl etwas Anderes als Haus, Sekte der Essener bedeuten? Als <span lang="he" class="hebr">אסי</span> (Arzt) Sektenname wurde, konnte man den Essäer nicht gut mehr schlechthin <span lang="he" class="hebr">אסי</span> nennen, ohne undeutlich zu werden, man umschrieb ihn daher wohl als Einen vom <span lang="he" class="hebr">בית אסי</span>, bildete danach auch mit Zugrundelegung der Form Essener, das nachgewiesene <span lang="he" class="hebr">בית סין</span> and zog dann Jenes zusammen, um den einzelnen Essäer zu bezeichnen, gab aber dieser -Form den u-Laut, entweder nachdem man das syrische Wort <span lang="he" class="hebr">אסי</span> zuweilen nach syrischer Weise <i>ôsseh</i>, also dunkel ausgesprochen hatte, woher die <span class="corr" id="xd31e3483" title="Source: Ausprache">Aussprache</span> Ossener bei Epiphanius herrühren mag, oder was mir noch wahrscheinlicher ist, indem -man dem Worte Peruschim conform Zedukim und Baitusim bildete. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3440src" title="Return to note 97 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3487" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3487src">98</a></span> Nach allem diesen scheint es, dass ein Jude, welcher mit der unter den alexandrinischen -Juden aufblühenden allegorischen Exegese und mit deren Erzeugerin, der griechischen -Weisheit, bekannt geworden war, daneben aber auch Gelegenheit gefunden hatte, von -ägyptischen Priestern Manches zu lernen, wie Pythagoras selbst, Platon und Herodot, -den Plan gefasst und ausgeführt habe, eklektisch hieraus und aus dem Judenthume ein -speculatives und asketisches System sowie nach demselben aus judäischen Asketen eine -Sekte zu bilden. Dass es an Solchen nicht gefehlt habe, verbürgt das Vorkommen von -Nasiräern, z. B. nach <i>Tosifta Nasir</i> K. iv unter Schimon dem Gerechten, ferner 1 Mack. iii, 49, und von ihrer 300 auf -einmal unter Schimon ben Schatach nach <i>Nasir jer.</i> v, 3. Dass er aber nicht mit jüdischen Asketen in <span class="corr" id="xd31e3493" title="Source: Aegypten">Ägypten</span> diesen Versuch machte, geschah vielleicht, weil es damals dort noch an solchen Asketen -<span class="corr" id="xd31e3496" title="Source: fehate">fehlte</span>, oder weil er selbst aus Judäa gebürtig sein mochte. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3487src" title="Return to note 98 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3502" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3502src">99</a></span> Geschichte des Volkes Israel von Vollendung des Zweiten Tempels bis zur Einsetzung -des Mackabäers Schimon zum hohen Priester und Fürsten, Zweiter Band. Nordhausen, 1857, -p. 368–377; 387–409. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3502src" title="Return to note 99 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3527" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3527src">100</a></span> Die jüdische Apokalyptik in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung. Jena, 1857, p. 245–278. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3527src" title="Return to note 100 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3539" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3539src">101</a></span> Geschichte der Juden, Dritter Band Zweite Auflage. Leipzig, 1863, p. 216–252. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3539src" title="Return to note 101 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3545"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3545src">102</a></span> The History of the Jews from the earliest period down to modern times. London, 1863, -vol. ii. p. 110–115. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3545src" title="Return to note 102 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3571" lang="de"> -<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3571src">103</a></span> “Sie lieferte zwar nicht wissenschaftliche Resultate, aber ihr Leben deutet sattsam -darauf hin, dass ihre Bestrebungen darauf gerichtet waren, wie in Alexandrien, nur -von einem andern Standpunct ans, die Religion und die Wissenschaft zu versöhnen.” -Der Geist der ersten Schriftauslegungen order: Die hagadische Exegese. Berlin, 1847, -p. 114, &c. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3571src" title="Return to note 103 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div class="back"> -<p></p> -<div class="div1 index"> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="main">INDEX.</h2> -<table class="tocList"> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum xs">PAGE.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Essenes, their cardinal doctrines and practices </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb6" class="pageref">6</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">—— observance of Sabbath </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb10" class="pageref">10</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">—— sections and orders </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb11" class="pageref">11</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">—— origin of the sect </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb14" class="pageref">14</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">—— parallelism with Pythagorism </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb15" class="pageref">15</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">—— date of </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb25" class="pageref">25</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">—— derivation of name </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb27" class="pageref">27</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">—— Philo’s description of </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb31" class="pageref">31</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">—— Pliny’s ditto </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb40" class="pageref">40</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">—— Josephus’ ditto </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb40" class="pageref">40</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">—— Solinus’ ditto </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb53" class="pageref">53</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">—— Porphyry’s ditto </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb54" class="pageref">54</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">—— Epiphanius’ ditto </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb56" class="pageref">56</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">—— Modern literature on the </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb59" class="pageref">59</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">De Rossi </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb59" class="pageref">59</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Dr. Thomas Godwyn </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb62" class="pageref">62</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Theophilus Gale </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb64" class="pageref">64</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Dean Prideaux </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb65" class="pageref">65</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Basnage </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb66" class="pageref">66</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Dr. Jennings </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb66" class="pageref">66</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Bellermann </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb67" class="pageref">67</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Neander </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb67" class="pageref">67</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Rappaport </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb68" class="pageref">68</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Gfrörer </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb70" class="pageref">70</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Dähne </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb71" class="pageref">71</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Frankel </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb72" class="pageref">72</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Hall </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb74" class="pageref">74</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Ewald </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb76" class="pageref">76</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Graetz </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb76" class="pageref">76</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Jost </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb78" class="pageref">78</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Herzfeld </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb78" class="pageref">78</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Hilgenfeld </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb80" class="pageref">80</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Westcott </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb80" class="pageref">80</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Milman </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb81" class="pageref">81</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7">Hirschfeld </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#pb81" class="pageref">81</a></td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> -</div> -<div class="transcriberNote"> -<h2 class="main">Colophon</h2> -<h3 class="main">Availability</h3> -<p class="first">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project -Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at <a class="seclink xd31e41" title="External link" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/">www.gutenberg.org</a>. -</p> -<p>This eBook is produced by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at <a class="seclink xd31e41" title="External link" href="https://www.pgdp.net/">www.pgdp.net</a>. -</p> -<p>Scans of this book are available from the Internet Archive (copy 1 , 2 ). -</p> -<h3 class="main">Metadata</h3> -<table class="colophonMetadata" summary="Metadata"> -<tr> -<td><b>Title:</b></td> -<td>The Essenes</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><b>Author:</b></td> -<td>Christian David Ginsburg (1831–1914)</td> -<td>Info <span class="externalUrl">https://viaf.org/viaf/11054330/</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><b>File generation date:</b></td> -<td>2022-10-16 17:18:51 UTC</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><b>Language:</b></td> -<td>English</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><b>Original publication date:</b></td> -<td>1864</td> -<td></td> -</tr> </table> -<h3 class="main">Revision History</h3> -<ul> -<li>2022-09-15 Started. </li> -</ul> -<h3 class="main">External References</h3> -<p>Project Gutenberg does not use active external links in its ebooks. -</p> -<h3 class="main">Corrections</h3> -<p>The following corrections have been applied to the text:</p> -<table class="correctionTable" summary="Overview of corrections applied to the text."> -<tr> -<th>Page</th> -<th>Source</th> -<th>Correction</th> -<th>Edit distance</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e276">11</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">ό</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">ὁ</td> -<td class="bottom">1 / 0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e325">11</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">περίξωμα</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">περίζωμα</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e364">11</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">καθαρώτέρων</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">καθαρωτέρων</td> -<td class="bottom">1 / 0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e400">12</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e516">12</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">ὅς</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">ὃς</td> -<td class="bottom">1 / 0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e442">12</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">secresy</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">secrecy</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e456">12</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">τἀ</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">τὰ</td> -<td class="bottom">1 / 0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e501">12</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">πἔροσιὼν</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">περουσιῶν</td> -<td class="bottom">3 / 1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e543">13</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">τερίζωμα</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">περίζωμα</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e746">19</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">analagous</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">analogous</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e901">25</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1884">39</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e2020">41</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e2115">43</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e2743">62</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e2958">66</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3031">70</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3284">77</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">.</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e906">25</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3093">72</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3537">81</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">“</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1294">29</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">δεραπευτής</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">θεραπευτής</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1782">36</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">ἤ</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">ἢ</td> -<td class="bottom">1 / 0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1802">36</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">,</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">.</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1897">39</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1901">39</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">,</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1997">41</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">;</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e2191">44</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="de">Bibliblische</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="de">Biblische</td> -<td class="bottom">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e2429">51</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">friendlily</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">friendly</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e2443">52</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">πάνυἀρχαίου</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">πάνυ ἀρχαίου</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e2546">55</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">ἵσασιν</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">ἴσασιν</td> -<td class="bottom">1 / 0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e2694">60</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">.’</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e2696">60</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">‘</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3095">72</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">philosphy</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">philosophy</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3229">76</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">θεραπενταὶ</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="grc">θεραπευταὶ</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3286">77</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="de">priesterilische</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="de">priesterliche</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3483">79</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="de">Ausprache</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="de">Aussprache</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3493">79</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="de">Aegypten</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="de">Ägypten</td> -<td class="bottom">2 / 1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3496">79</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="de">fehate</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="de">fehlte</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> -</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ESSENES ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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