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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-25 01:16:08 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-25 01:16:08 -0800 |
| commit | a3c5c8739cce6929e31fed2e1b2c90e4a1d19378 (patch) | |
| tree | 894a9ec0fd51a185092ce340e21671bb61575960 /old/69147-h/69147-h.htm | |
| parent | 27bb3d4ed9cbffe1afe76c30d2cde03811142641 (diff) | |
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visibility: hidden;} - - /* ]]> */ </style> -</head> - -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Darwinism stated by Darwin himself, by Charles Darwin</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Darwinism stated by Darwin himself</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>Characteristic passages from the writings of Charles Darwin</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Charles Darwin</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Compiler: Nathan Sheppard</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: October 13, 2022 [eBook #69147]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Tim Lindell, Charlie Howard, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DARWINISM STATED BY DARWIN HIMSELF ***</div> - -<h1>DARWINISM<br /> - -<span class="smaller">STATED BY DARWIN HIMSELF.</span></h1> - -<p class="p2 center larger wspace"><i>CHARACTERISTIC PASSAGES<br /> -FROM THE WRITINGS OF CHARLES DARWIN.</i></p> - -<p class="p2 center wspace smaller">SELECTED AND ARRANGED</p> - -<p class="p1 center vspace"><span class="small">BY</span><br /> -<span class="larger gesperrt">NATHAN SHEPPARD,</span></p> - -<p class="center xsmall wspace">AUTHOR OF<br /> -“SHUT UP IN PARIS,” EDITOR OF “THE DICKENS READER,” “CHARACTER READINGS<br /> -FROM GEORGE ELIOT,” AND “GEORGE ELIOT’S ESSAYS.”</p> - -<p class="p2 smaller">“There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been -originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one; and that, while -this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so -simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been -and are being evolved.”—<i>The Origin of Species</i>, page 429.</p> - -<p class="p2 center vspace larger wspace">NEW YORK:<br /> -D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,<br /> -<span class="smaller">1, 3, <span class="allsmcap">AND</span> 5 BOND STREET.</span><br /> -1884.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<p class="newpage p4 center smaller"> -<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1884,<br /> -By</span> D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.<br /> -</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2> -</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">While</span> these selections can not but be useful to those -who are perfectly familiar with the writings of Darwin, -they are designed especially for those who know little, -or nothing, about his line of research and argument, -and yet would like to obtain a general idea of it in a -form which shall be at once authentic, brief, and inexpensive.</p> - -<p>This volume contains, of course, only an outline of -the contents of the twelve volumes from which it is -compiled, and for which it is by no means intended as -a substitute. It will, on the contrary, we should hope, -create an appetite which can be satisfied only by a careful -reading of the works themselves.</p> - -<p>Darwin’s repetitions, necessitated by his method of -investigation and publication, and his unexampled candor -in controversy, have been something of an embarrassment -in the classification of these passages; so that -we have been obliged in some instances to sacrifice continuity -to perspicuity. But, as one object of this book -is to correct misrepresentations by giving Darwin’s views<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">iv</span> -in his own language, some of his own repetitions must -be given also, in order to leave no doubt as to precisely -what he said and did not say. It will probably be a -long while before the dispute over the theory that he -advocated will cease, but there is certainly no excuse -for a difference of opinion with regard to the language -that he used, and the meaning he attached to it. That -language and that meaning will be found in these -pages. Darwinism stated by its opponents is one thing, -Darwinism stated by Darwin himself will be found to -be quite another thing, for, to use his own exclamation, -“great is the power of steady misrepresentation!”</p> - -<p>The order followed in the arrangement of these extracts -is not that of the books, but the one naturally -suggested by our plan, which is designed to conduct the -reader through the vegetable up to the animal kingdom, -and up from the lowest to the highest animal, man, -“the wonder and glory of the universe.”</p> - -<p>The references are to the American edition of Darwin’s -works published by D. Appleton & Co., New -York.</p> - -<p>It is no part of our purpose to discuss the theory -expounded here, but we can not refrain from joining -in the general expression of admiration for its illustrious -expounder. Lord Derby says, “He was one of half a -dozen men of this century who will be remembered a -century hence”; and yet his friends were “more impressed -with the dignified simplicity of his nature than -by the great work he had done.” Professor Huxley<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span> -compares him to Socrates in wisdom and humility; and -there could be no better authority than Mr. A. R. Wallace -for the statement that “there are none to stand -beside him as equals in the whole domain of science.” -He has been extolled, since his death, by a host of religious -leaders in press and pulpit (some of whose utterances -will be found on another page), and we concur -with them in the opinion that science never had a -champion whose temper and behavior were more nearly -in accord with the practical injunctions of the Christian -religion. Whatever we or any one may think of Darwin’s -scientific theories, no one can gainsay the value -of his personal example, and few can be so prejudiced -as to resist the fascination that will always be felt at the -mention of his name.</p> - -<p class="p1"><span class="smcap">New York</span>, <i>February 1, 1884</i>.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTORY_PASSAGES_QUOTED_BY_DARWIN_IN">INTRODUCTORY PASSAGES QUOTED BY DARWIN IN -HIS “ORIGIN OF SPECIES.”</h2> -</div> - -<div class="smaller1"> -<p><span class="firstword">“But</span> with regard to the material world, we can at least go so -far as this—we can perceive that events are brought about not -by insulated interpositions of divine power, exerted in each particular -case, but by the establishment of general laws.”—<span class="smcap">Whewell</span>: -<i>Bridgewater Treatise</i>.</p> - -<p>“The only distinct meaning of the word ‘natural’ is <em>stated</em>, -<em>fixed</em>, or <em>settled</em>; since what is natural as much requires and presupposes -an intelligent agent to render it so, i. e., to effect it continually -or at stated times, as what is supernatural or miraculous -does to effect it for once.”—<span class="smcap">Butler</span>: <cite>Analogy of Revealed Religion</cite>.</p> - -<p>“To conclude, therefore, let no man out of a weak conceit of -sobriety, or an ill-applied moderation, think or maintain, that a -man can search too far or be too well studied in the book of God’s -word, or in the book of God’s works; divinity or philosophy; -but rather let men endeavor an endless progress or proficience in -both.”—<span class="smcap">Bacon</span>: <cite>Advancement of Learning</cite>.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="DARWIN_AND_HIS_THEORIES_FROM_A_RELIGIOUS">DARWIN AND HIS THEORIES FROM A RELIGIOUS -POINT OF VIEW.</h2> -</div> - -<div class="smaller1"> -<p>“Surely in such a man lived that true charity which is the very -essence of the true spirit of Christ.”—Canon <span class="smcap">Prothero</span>.</p> - -<p>“The moral lesson of his life is perhaps even more valuable -than is the grand discovery which he has stamped on the world’s -history.”—<cite>The Observer</cite> (London).</p> - -<p>“Darwin’s writings may be searched in vain for an irreverent -or unbelieving word.”—<cite>The Church Review.</cite></p> - -<p>“The doctrine of evolution with which Darwin’s name would -always be associated lent itself at least as readily to the old promise -of God as to more modern but less complete explanations of the -universe.”—Canon <span class="smcap">Barry</span>.</p> - -<p>“The fundamental doctrine of the theist is left precisely as it -was. The belief in the great Creator and Ruler of the Universe -is, as we have seen, confessed by the author of these doctrines. -The grounds remain untouched of faith in the personal Deity who -is in intimate relation with individual souls, who is their guide -and helper in life, and who can be trusted in regard to the great -hereafter.”—<cite>The Church Quarterly Review.</cite></p> - -<p>“It appears impossible to overrate the gain we have won in the -stupendous majesty of this (Darwin’s) idea of the Creator and -creation.”—<cite>Sunday-School Chronicle.</cite></p> - -<p>“It is certain that Mr. Darwin’s books contain a marvelous -store of patiently accumulated and most interesting facts. Those -facts seem to point in the direction of the belief that the Great -Spirit of the Universe has wrought slowly and with infinite patience, -through innumerable ages, rather than by abrupt intervention<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span> -and by means of great catastrophes, in the production of the -results, in the animate and inanimate world, which now offer to -the student of nature boundless scope for observation and inquiry.”—<cite>The -Christian World.</cite></p> - -<p>“Let us see, in the funeral honors paid within these holy precincts -to our greatest naturalist, a happy trophy of the reconciliation -between faith and science.”—<cite>The Guardian.</cite></p> - -<p>“That there is some truth in the theory of evolution, however, -most scientists, including those of Christian faith, believe, and -Mr. Darwin certainly has done much to make the facts plain; but -no scientific principle established by him ever has undermined any -truth of the Gospel.”—<cite>The Congregationalist.</cite></p> - -<p>“Christian believers are found among the ranks of evolutionists -without apparent prejudice to their faith. Professor Mivart, -the zoölogist; Professor Asa Gray, the botanist; Professor Le -Conte and Professor Winchell, the geologists, may be named as -among these.”—<cite>The Presbyterian.</cite></p> - -<p>“In all his simple and noble life Mr. Darwin was influenced -by the profoundly religious conviction that nothing was beneath -the earnest study of man which had been worthy of the mighty -hand of God.”—Canon <span class="smcap">Farrar</span>.</p> - -<p>“He has not one word to say against religion; ... by-and-by -it may be seen that he has done much to put religious faith as -well as scientific knowledge on a higher plane.”—<cite>Independent.</cite></p> - -<p>“A celebrated author and divine has written to me that ‘he -has gradually learned to see that it is just as noble a conception -of the Deity to believe that he created a few original forms capable -of self-development into other and needful forms, as to believe -that he required a fresh act of creation to supply the voids caused -by the action of his laws.’”—<cite>Origin of Species</cite>, page 422.</p> - -<p>“I am at the head of a college where to declare against it -[evolution] would perplex my best students. They would ask me -which to give up, science or the Bible.... It is but the evolution -of Genesis when each ‘brings forth after its kind.’ Science -tells the same story. But what is the limit of the fixedness of the -law? I believe that the evolution of new species is a question in -science, and not of religion. It should be left to scientific men.”—President -<span class="smcap">McCosh</span>.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - -<table id="toc"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap b0" colspan="2">I.</td> -</tr> -<tr class="small"> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub p0" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Movements and Habits of Plants.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Movement of Plants in Relation to their Wants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_1">2</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Power of Movement in Animal and Plant compared</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_2">4</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Advantages of Cross-Fertilization</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_3">6</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Potency of the Sexual Elements in Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_4">6</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Experiments in Crossing</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_5">8</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Struggle for Existence among Seeds</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_6">9</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Practical Application of these Views</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_7">9</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Marriages of First Cousins</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_8">11</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Development of the Two Sexes in Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_9">12</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Why the Sexes have been reseparated</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_10">14</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Comparative Fertility of Male and Female Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_11">15</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Effect of Climate on Reproduction</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_12">16</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Causes of Sterility among Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_13">17</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">An “Ideal Type” or Inevitable Modification</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_14">18</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Special Adaptations to a Changing Purpose</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_15">19</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">An Illustration</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_16">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">As interesting on the Theory of Development as on that of Direct Interposition</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_17">22</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Sleep of the Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_18">24</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Self-Protection during Sleep</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_19">25</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Influence of Light upon Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_20">28</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Influence of Gravitation upon Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_21">29</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Power of Digestion in Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_22">31</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Diverse Means by which Plants gain their Subsistence</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_23">34</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How a Plant preys upon Animals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_24">35</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">II.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Part played by Worms in the History of this Planet.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">They preserve Valuable Ruins</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_25">42</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">They prepare the Ground for Seed</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_26">43</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Intelligence of Worms</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_27">45</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">III.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Laws of Variability with respect to Animals and Plants.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Inherited Effect of Changed Habits</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_28">48</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Effects of the Use and Disuse of Parts</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_29">50</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Vague Origin of our Domestic Animals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_30">52</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Descent of the Domestic Pigeon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_31">53</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Origin of the Dog</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_32">55</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Origin of the Horse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_33">57</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Causes of Modifications in the Horse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_34">58</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">“Making the Works of God a mere Mockery”</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_35">59</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Variability of Cultivated Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_36">61</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Savage Wisdom in the Cultivation of Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_37">62</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Unknown Laws of Inheritance</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_38">64</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Laws of Inheritance that are fairly well established</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_39">66</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Inherited Peculiarities in Man</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_40">67</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Inherited Diseases</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_41">68</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Causes of Non-Inheritance</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_42">69</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Steps by which Domestic Races have been produced</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_43">71</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Unconscious Selection</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_44">73</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Adaptation of Animals to the Fancies of Man</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_45">74</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Doubtful Species</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_46">75</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Species an Arbitrary Term</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_47">77</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The True Plan of Creation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_48">79</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">IV.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Struggle for Existence.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Death inevitable in the Fight for Life</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_49">82</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">“Inexplicable on the Theory of Creation”</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_50">84</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Obscure Checks to Increase</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_51">85</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Climate as a Check to Increase</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_52">86</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Influence of Insects in the Struggle for Existence</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_53">88</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">No such Thing as Change in the Result of the Struggle</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_54">90</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">V.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Natural Selection; or, the Survival of the Fittest.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">An Invented Hypothesis</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_55">93</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How far the Theory may be extended</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_56">94</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Is there any Limit to what Selection can effect?</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_57">96</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Has Organization advanced?</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_58">97</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">A Higher Workmanship than Man’s</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_59">99</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Why Habits and Structure are not in Agreement</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_60">102</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">No Modification in one Species designed for the Good of Another</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_61">103</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Illustrations of the Action of Natural Selection</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_62">106</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Divergence of Character</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_63">108</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Evolution of the Human Eye</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_64">110</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">VI.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Geographical Distribution of Organic Beings.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Isolated Continents never were united</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_65">115</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Means of Dispersal</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_66">116</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">These Means of Transport not accidental</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_67">118</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dispersal during the Glacial Period</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_68">119</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Theory of Creation inadequate</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_69">122</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Causes of a Glacial Climate</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_70">123</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Difficulties not yet removed</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_71">124</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Identity of the Species of Islands with those of the Mainland explained only by this Theory</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_72">125</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">VII.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Evidence of the Descent of Man from some Lower Form.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Points of Correspondence between Man and the other Animals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_73">129</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The facts of Embryology and the Theory of Development</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_74">131</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Two Principles that explain the Facts</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_75">134</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Embryology against Abrupt Changes</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_76">135</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Rudimentary Organs only to be explained on the Theory of Development</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_77">137</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">“No other Explanation has ever been given”</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_78">139</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Unity of Type explained by Relationship</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_79">140</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Inexplicable on the Ordinary View of Creation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_80">142</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Descent with Modification the only Explanation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_81">143</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">xii</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The History of Life on the Theory of Descent with Modification</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_82">144</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Letters retained in the Spelling but Useless in Pronunciation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_83">146</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Man’s Deficiency in Tail</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_84">147</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Points of Resemblance between Man and Monkey</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_85">149</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Variability of Man</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_86">152</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Causes of Variability in Domesticated Man</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_87">153</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Action of Changed Conditions</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_88">155</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Inherited Effects of the Increased and Diminished Use of Parts</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_89">156</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Reversion as a Factor in the Development of Man</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_90">158</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Reversion in the Human Family</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_91">160</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Prepotence in the Transmission of Character</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_92">162</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Natural Selection in the Development of Man</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_93">163</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How Man became upright</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_94">165</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Brain enlarges as the Mental Faculties develop</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_95">167</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Nakedness of the Skin</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_96">169</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Is Man the most helpless of the Animals?</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_97">171</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">VIII.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Mental Powers of Man and the Lower Animals compared.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Fundamental Intuitions the same in Man and the other Animals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_98">175</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Man and the Lower Animals excited by the same Emotions</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_99">177</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">All Animals possess some Power of Reasoning</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_100">179</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Power of Association in Dog and Savage</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_101">181</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Lower Animals progress in Intelligence</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_102">182</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Power of Abstraction</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_103">183</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Evolution of Language</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_104">185</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Development of Languages and Species compared</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_105">188</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Sense of Beauty</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_106">191</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Development of the Ear for Music</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_107">192</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">IX.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Development of the Moral Sense.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">From the Social Instincts to the Moral Sense</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_108">195</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Human Sympathy among Animals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_109">197</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Love of Approbation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_110">199</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Fellow-Feeling for our Fellow-Animals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_111">200</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Development of the Golden Rule</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_112">201</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Regret peculiar to Man, and why</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_113">202</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Remorse explained</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_114">204</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Development of Self-Control</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_115">205</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Variability of Conscience</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_116">207</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Progress not an Invariable Rule</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_117">209</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">All Civilized Nations are the Descendants of Barbarians</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_118">210</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">“The Ennobling Belief in God”</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_119">213</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">X.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Genealogy of Man.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Man a Sub-Order</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_120">218</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Birthplace of Man</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_121">221</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Origin of the Vertebrata</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_122">224</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">From no Bone to Backbone</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_123">226</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Does Mankind consist of Several Species?</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_124">228</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Races graduate into each other</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_125">229</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Was the First Man a Speaking Animal?</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_126">231</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Theory of a Single Pair</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_127">231</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Civilized out of Existence</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_128">233</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">XI.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Sexual Selection as an Agency to account for the Differences between the Races of Man.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Struggle of the Males for the Possession of the Females</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_129">236</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Courtship among the Lower Animals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_130">237</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Why the Male plays the more Active Part in Courting</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_131">239</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Transmission of Sexual Characteristics</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_132">240</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">An Objection answered</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_133">242</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Difference between the Sexes created by Sexual Selection</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_134">243</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How Woman could be made to reach the Standard of Man</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_135">246</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">“Characteristic Selfishness of Man”</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_136">247</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">No Universal Standard of Beauty among Mankind</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_137">248</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Development of the Beard</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_138">249</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Development of the Marriage-Tie</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_139">250</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Unnatural Selection in Marriage</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_140">252</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Modifying Influences in Both Sexes</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_141">254</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">“Grounds that will never be shaken”</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_142">256</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">xiv</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">XII.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Expression of the Emotions in Man and other Animals.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Principle of Associated Habit</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_143">258</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Principle of Antithesis</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_144">261</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Origin of the Principle of Antithesis</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_145">263</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Principle of the Action of the Excited Nervous System on the Body</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_146">265</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">XIII.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Means of the Expression of the Emotions.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Vocal Organs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_147">268</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Erection of the Hair</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_148">269</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Erection of the Ears</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_149">270</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">A Startled Horse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_150">271</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Monkey-Shines</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_151">271</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Weeping of Man and Brute</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_152">272</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Grief-Muscles</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_153">275</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Voluntary Power over the Grief-Muscles</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_154">276</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">“Down in the Mouth”</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_155">278</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Laughter</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_156">279</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Expression of the Devout Emotions</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_157">282</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Frowning</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_158">284</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Pouting</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_159">285</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Decision at the Mouth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_160">287</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Anger</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_161">287</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Sneering</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_162">288</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Disgust</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_163">289</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Shrugging the Shoulders</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_164">290</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Blushing</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_165">291</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Blushing not necessarily an Expression of Guilt</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_166">293</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Blushing accounted for</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_167">294</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">A New Argument for a Single Parent-Stock</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_168">296</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">XIV.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Provisional Hypothesis of Pangenesis.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Functional Independence of the Units of the Body</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_169">299</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Necessary Assumptions</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_170">302</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Two Objections answered</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_171">305</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Effect of Morbid Action</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_172">306</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Transmission limited</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_173">307</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">XV.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Objections to the Theory of Descent with Modification considered.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Misrepresentations corrected</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_174">310</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lapse of Time and Extent of Area</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_175">311</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Why the Higher Forms have not supplanted the Lower</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_176">313</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Amount of Life must have a Limit</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_177">316</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Broken Branches of the Tree of Life</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_178">317</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Why we do not find Transitional Forms</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_179">319</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How could the Transitional Form have subsisted?</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_180">322</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Why Nature takes no Sudden Leaps</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_181">323</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Imperfect Contrivances of Nature accounted for</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_182">324</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Instincts as a Difficulty</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_183">325</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Some Instincts acquired and some lost</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_184">327</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Innumerable Links necessarily lost</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_185">329</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Plenty of Time for the Necessary Gradations</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_186">331</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Wide Intervals of Time between the Geological Formations</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_187">334</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Sudden Appearance of Groups of Allied Species</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_188">336</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How little we know of Former Inhabitants of the World</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_189">337</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Extinction of Species involved in Mystery</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_190">338</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dead Links between Living Species</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_191">340</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Living Descendants of Fossil Species</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_192">342</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Unnecessary to explain the Cause of each Individual Difference</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_193">343</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">“Face to Face with an Insoluble Difficulty”</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_194">344</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Why distasteful?</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_195">346</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">“Accords better with what we know of the Creator’s Laws”</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_196">347</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Grandeur of this View of Life</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_197">348</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Not incompatible with the Belief in Immortality</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_198">349</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="DARWINISM"><span class="larger">DARWINISM<br /> - -<span class="subhead">STATED BY DARWIN HIMSELF.</span></span></h2> -</div> - -<hr class="narrow x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="I">I.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE MOVEMENTS AND HABITS OF PLANTS.</span></h2> - -<div class="sidenote">The Power -of Movement -in Plants,<br /> -page 1.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> most widely prevalent movement is -essentially of the same nature as that of the -stem of a climbing plant, which bends successively -to all points of the compass, so that the tip -revolves. This movement has been called by Sachs “revolving -nutation”; but we have found it much more -convenient to use the terms <em>circumnutation</em> and <em>circumnutate</em>. -As we shall have to say much about this -movement, it will be useful here briefly to describe its -nature. If we observe a circumnutating stem, which -happens at the time to be bent, we will say toward the -north, it will be found gradually to bend more and more -easterly, until it faces the east; and so onward to the -south, then to the west, and back again to the north. If -the movement had been quite regular, the apex would -have described a circle, or rather, as the stem is always -growing upward, a circular spiral. But it generally describes -irregular elliptical or oval figures; for the apex, -after pointing in any one direction, commonly moves -back to the opposite side, not, however, returning along<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> -the same line. Afterward other irregular ellipses or ovals -are successively described, with their longer axes directed -to different points of the compass. While describing -such figures, the apex often travels in a zigzag line, or -makes small subordinate loops or triangles. In the case -of leaves the ellipses are generally narrow.</p> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 3.</div> - -<p>Even the stems of seedlings before they -have broken through the ground, as well as -their buried radicles, circumnutate, as far as the pressure -of the surrounding earth permits. In this universally -present movement we have the basis or groundwork for -the acquirement, according to the requirements of the -plant, of the most diversified movements.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_1">THE MOVEMENT OF PLANTS IN RELATION TO THEIR -WANTS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">The Movements -and -Habits of -Climbing -Plants,<br /> -page 202.</div> - -<p>The most interesting point in the natural -history of climbing plants is the various kinds -of movement which they display in manifest -relation to their wants. The most different -organs—stems, branches, flower-peduncles, petioles, mid-ribs -of the leaf and leaflets, and apparently aërial roots—all -possess this power.</p> - -<p>1. The first action of a tendril is to place itself in a -proper position. For instance, the tendril of <i>Cobæa</i> first -rises vertically up, with its branches divergent and with -the terminal hooks turned outward; the young shoot at -the extremity of the stem is at the same time bent to one -side, so as to be out of the way. The young leaves of -clematis, on the other hand, prepare for action by temporarily -curving themselves downward, so as to serve as -grapnels.</p> - -<p>2. If a twining plant or a tendril gets by any accident -into an inclined position, it soon bends upward, though<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span> -secluded from the light. The guiding stimulus no doubt -is the attraction of gravity, as Andrew Knight showed to -be the case with germinating plants. If a shoot of any -ordinary plant be placed in an inclined position in a glass -of water in the dark, the extremity will, in a few hours, -bend upward; and, if the position of the shoot be then -reversed, the downward-bent shoot reverses its curvature; -but if the stolon of a strawberry, which has no tendency -to grow upward, be thus treated, it will curve downward -in the direction of, instead of in opposition to, the force -of gravity. As with the strawberry, so it is generally with -the twining shoots of the <i>Hibbertia dentata</i>, which climbs -laterally from bush to bush; for these shoots, if placed -in a position inclined downward, show little and sometimes -no tendency to curve upward.</p> - -<p>3. Climbing plants, like other plants, bend toward -the light by a movement closely analogous to the incurvation -which causes them to revolve, so that their revolving -movement is often accelerated or retarded in traveling -to or from the light. On the other hand, in a few -instances tendrils bend toward the dark.</p> - -<p>4. We have the spontaneous revolving movement -which is independent of any outward stimulus, but is -contingent on the youth of the part, and on vigorous -health; and this again, of course, depends on a proper -temperature and other favorable conditions of life.</p> - -<p>5. Tendrils, whatever their homological nature may -be, and the petioles or tips of the leaves of leaf-climbers, -and apparently certain roots, all have the power of movement -when touched, and bend quickly toward the touched -side. Extremely slight pressure often suffices. If the -pressure be not permanent, the part in question straightens -itself and is again ready to bend on being touched.</p> - -<p>6. Tendrils, soon after clasping a support, but not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> -after a mere temporary curvature, contract spirally. If -they have not come into contact with any object, they -ultimately contract spirally, after ceasing to revolve; but -in this case the movement is useless, and occurs only after -a considerable lapse of time.</p> - -<p>With respect to the means by which these various -movements are effected, there can be little doubt, from -the researches of Sachs and H. de Vries, that they are -due to unequal growth; but, from the reasons already -assigned, I can not believe that this explanation applies to -the rapid movements from a delicate touch.</p> - -<p>Finally, climbing plants are sufficiently numerous to -form a conspicuous feature in the vegetable kingdom, -more especially in tropical forests. America, which so -abounds with arboreal animals, as Mr. Bates remarks, -likewise abounds, according to Mohl and Palm, with -climbing plants; and, of the tendril-bearing plants examined -by me, the highest developed kinds are natives of -this grand continent, namely, the several species of <i>Bignonia</i>, -<i>Eccremocarpus</i>, <i>Cobæa</i>, and <i>Ampelopsis</i>. But even -in the thickets of our temperate regions the number of -climbing species and individuals is considerable, as will -be found by counting them.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_2">THE POWER OF MOVEMENT IN ANIMAL AND PLANT -COMPARED.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 206.</div> - -<p>It has often been vaguely asserted that -plants are distinguished from animals by not -having the power of movement. It should rather be said -that plants acquire and display this power only when it is -of some advantage to them; this being of comparatively -rare occurrence, as they are affixed to the ground, and -food is brought to them by the air and rain. We see -how high in the scale of organization a plant may rise,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> -when we look at one of the more perfect tendril-bearers. -It first places its tendrils ready for action, as a polypus -places its tentacula. If the tendril be displaced, it is -acted on by the force of gravity and rights itself. It is -acted on by the light, and bends toward or from it, or -disregards it, whichever maybe most advantageous. During -several days the tendrils or internodes, or both, spontaneously -revolve with a steady motion. The tendril -strikes some object, and quickly curls round and firmly -grasps it. In the course of some hours it contracts into -a spire, dragging up the stem, and forming an excellent -spring. All movements now cease. By growth the tissues -soon become wonderfully strong and durable. The -tendril has done its work, and has done it in an admirable -manner.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote">The Power -of Movement -in Plants,<br /> -page 571.</div> - -<p>It is impossible not to be struck with the -resemblance between the foregoing movements -of plants and many of the actions performed -unconsciously by the lower animals. With plants an astonishingly -small stimulus suffices; and even with allied -plants one may be highly sensitive to the slightest continued -pressure, and another highly sensitive to a slight -momentary touch. The habit of moving at certain periods -is inherited both by plants and animals; and several -other points of similitude have been specified. But the -most striking resemblance is the localization of their -sensitiveness, and the transmission of an influence from -the excited part to another which consequently moves. -Yet plants do not, of course, possess nerves or a central -nervous system; and we may infer that with animals -such structures serve only for the more perfect transmission -of impressions, and for the more complete intercommunication -of the several parts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_3">ADVANTAGES OF CROSS-FERTILIZATION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">The Effects -of Cross and -Self Fertilization -in the -Vegetable -Kingdom,<br /> -page 443.</div> - -<p>There are two important conclusions which -may be deduced from my observations: 1. -That the advantages of cross-fertilization do -not follow from some mysterious virtue in the -mere union of two distinct individuals, but -from such individuals having been subjected during previous -generations to different conditions, or to their having -varied in a manner commonly called spontaneous, so that -in either case their sexual elements have been in some degree -differentiated; and, 2. That the injury from self-fertilization -follows from the want of such differentiation -in the sexual elements. These two propositions are fully -established by my experiments. Thus, when plants of -the <i>Ipomœa</i> and of the <i>Mimulus</i>, which had been self-fertilized -for the seven previous generations, and had been -kept all the time under the same conditions, were intercrossed -one with another, the offspring did not profit in -the least by the cross.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 451.</div> - -<p>The curious cases of plants which can fertilize -and be fertilized by any other individual -of the same species, but are altogether sterile with their -own pollen, become intelligible, if the view here propounded -is correct, namely, that the individuals of the -same species growing in a state of nature near together -have not really been subjected during several previous -generations to quite the same conditions.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_4">POTENCY OF THE SEXUAL ELEMENTS IN PLANTS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 446.</div> - -<p>It is obvious that the exposure of two sets -of plants during several generations to different -conditions can lead to no beneficial results, as far as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> -crossing is concerned, unless their sexual elements are -thus affected. That every organism is acted on to a certain -extent by a change in its environment will not, I presume, -be disputed. It is hardly necessary to advance -evidence on this head; we can perceive the difference between -individual plants of the same species which have -grown in somewhat more shady or sunny, dry or damp -places. Plants which have been propagated for some generations -under different climates or at different seasons -of the year transmit different constitutions to their seedlings. -Under such circumstances, the chemical constitution -of their fluids and the nature of their tissues are -often modified. Many other such facts could be adduced. -In short, every alteration in the function of a part is -probably connected with some corresponding, though -often quite imperceptible, change in structure or composition.</p> - -<p>Whatever affects an organism in any way, likewise -tends to act on its sexual elements. We see this in the -inheritance of newly acquired modifications, such as those -from the increased use or disuse of a part, and even from -mutilations if followed by disease. We have abundant -evidence how susceptible the reproductive system is to -changed conditions, in the many instances of animals rendered -sterile by confinement; so that they will not unite, -or, if they unite, do not produce offspring, though the -confinement may be far from close; and of plants rendered -sterile by cultivation. But hardly any cases afford -more striking evidence how powerfully a change in the -conditions of life acts on the sexual elements than those -already given, of plants which are completely self-sterile -in one country, and, when brought to another, yield, even -in the first generation, a fair supply of self-fertilized -seeds.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span></p> - -<p>But it may be said, granting that changed conditions -act on the sexual elements, How can two or more plants -growing close together, either in their native country or -in a garden, be differently acted on, inasmuch as they -appear to be exposed to exactly the same conditions?</p> - -<h3 id="sec_5">EXPERIMENTS IN CROSSING.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 447.</div> - -<p>In my experiments with <i>Digitalis purpurea</i>, -some flowers on a wild plant were self-fertilized, -and others were crossed with pollen from -another plant growing within two or three feet distance. -The crossed and self-fertilized plants raised from the -seeds thus obtained produced flower-stems in number as -100 to 47, and in average height as 100 to 70. Therefore, -the cross between these two plants was highly beneficial; -but how could their sexual elements have been differentiated -by exposure to different conditions? If the progenitors -of the two plants had lived on the same spot during -the last score of generations, and had never been crossed -with any plant beyond the distance of a few feet, in all -probability their offspring would have been reduced to -the same state as some of the plants in my experiments—such -as the intercrossed plants of the ninth generation -of <i>Ipomœa</i>, or the self-fertilized plants of the eighth generation -of <i>Mimulus</i>, or the offspring from flowers on the -same plant; and in this case a cross between the two -plants of <i>Digitalis</i> would have done no good. But seeds -are often widely dispersed by natural means, and one of -the above two plants, or one of their ancestors, may have -come from a distance, from a more shady or sunny, dry -or moist place, or from a different kind of soil containing -other organic seeds or inorganic matter.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_6">THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE AMONG SEEDS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 449.</div> - -<p>Seeds often lie dormant for several years -in the ground, and germinate when brought -near the surface by any means, as by burrowing animals. -They would probably be affected by the mere circumstance -of having long lain dormant; for gardeners -believe that the production of double flowers, and of -fruit, is thus influenced. Seeds, moreover, which were -matured during different seasons will have been subjected -during the whole course of their development to different -degrees of heat and moisture.</p> - -<p>It has been shown that pollen is often carried by -insects to a considerable distance from plant to plant. -Therefore, one of the parents or ancestors of our two -plants of <i>Digitalis</i> may have been crossed by a distant -plant growing under somewhat different conditions. -Plants thus crossed often produce an unusually -large number of seeds; a striking instance of this fact -is afforded by the <i>Bignonia</i>, which was fertilized by -Fritz Müller with pollen from some adjoining plants -and set hardly any seed, but, when fertilized with pollen -from a distant plant, was highly fertile. Seedlings from -a cross of this kind grow with great vigor, and transmit -their vigor to their descendants. These, therefore, -in the struggle for life, will generally beat and exterminate -the seedlings from plants which have long grown near -together under the same conditions, and will thus tend -to spread.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_7">PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THESE VIEWS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 458.</div> - -<p>Under a practical point of view, agriculturists -and horticulturists may learn something -from the conclusions at which we have arrived. Firstly,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -we see that the injury from the close breeding of animals -and from the self-fertilization of plants does not necessarily -depend on any tendency to disease or weakness of -constitution common to the related parents, and only indirectly -on their relationship, in so far as they are apt to -resemble each other in all respects, including their sexual -nature. And, secondly, that the advantages of cross-fertilization -depend on the sexual elements of the parents -having become in some degree differentiated by the exposure -of their progenitors to different conditions, or from -their having intercrossed with individuals thus exposed; -or, lastly, from what we call in our ignorance spontaneous -variation. He therefore who wishes to pair closely related -animals ought to keep them under conditions as different -as possible.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 459.</div> - -<p>As some kinds of plants suffer much more -from self-fertilization than do others, so it -probably is with animals from too close interbreeding. -The effects of close interbreeding on animals, judging -again from plants, would be deterioration in general vigor, -including fertility, with no necessary loss of excellence -of form; and this seems to be the usual result.</p> - -<p>It is a common practice with horticulturists to obtain -seeds from another place having a very different soil, so -as to avoid raising plants for a long succession of generations -under the same conditions; but, with all the species -which freely intercross by the aid of insects or the wind, -it would be an incomparably better plan to obtain seeds -of the required variety, which had been raised for some -generations under as different conditions as possible, and -sow them in alternate rows with seeds matured in the old -garden. The two stocks would then intercross, with a -thorough blending of their whole organizations, and with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> -no loss of purity to the variety; and this would yield far -more favorable results than a mere exchange of seeds. -We have seen in my experiments how wonderfully the -offspring profited in height, weight, hardiness, and fertility, -by crosses of this kind. For instance, plants of -<i>Ipomœa</i> thus crossed were to the intercrossed plants of -the same stock, with which they grew in competition, as -100 to 78 in height, and as 100 to 51 in fertility; and -plants of <i>Eschscholtzia</i> similarly compared were as 100 to -45 in fertility. In comparison with self-fertilized plants -the results are still more striking; thus cabbages derived -from a cross with a fresh stock were to the self-fertilized -as 100 to 22 in weight.</p> - -<p>Florists may learn, from the four cases which have -been fully described, that they have the power of fixing -each fleeting variety of color, if they will fertilize the -flowers of the desired kind with their own pollen for -half a dozen generations, and grow the seedlings under -the same conditions. But a cross with any other individual -of the same variety must be carefully prevented, -as each has its own peculiar constitution. After a dozen -generations of self-fertilization, it is probable that the -new variety would remain constant even if grown under -somewhat different conditions; and there would no longer -be any necessity to guard against intercrosses between -the individuals of the same variety.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_8">MARRIAGES OF FIRST COUSINS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 460.</div> - -<p>With respect to mankind, my son George -has endeavored to discover by a statistical investigation -whether the marriages of first cousins are at -all injurious, although this is a degree of relationship -which would not be objected to in our domestic animals; -and he has come to the conclusion from his own researches,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> -and those of Dr. Mitchell, that the evidence as -to any evil thus caused is conflicting, but on the whole -points to its being very small. From the facts given in -this volume we may infer that with mankind the marriages -of nearly related persons, some of whose parents -and ancestors had lived under very different conditions, -would be much less injurious than that of persons who -had always lived in the same place and followed the same -habits of life. Nor can I see reason to doubt that the -widely different habits of life of men and women in -civilized nations, especially among the upper classes, -would tend to counterbalance any evil from marriages -between healthy and somewhat closely related persons.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_9">DEVELOPMENT OF THE TWO SEXES IN PLANTS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 461.</div> - -<p>Under a theoretical point of view it is some -gain to science to know that numberless structures -in hermaphrodite plants, and probably in hermaphrodite -animals, are special adaptations for securing an -occasional cross between two individuals; and that the -advantages from such a cross depend altogether on the -beings which are united, or their progenitors, having -had their sexual elements somewhat differentiated, so -that the embryo is benefited in the same manner as is a -mature plant or animal by a slight change in its conditions -of life, although in a much higher degree.</p> - -<p>Another and more important result may be deduced -from my observations. Eggs and seeds are highly serviceable -as a means of dissemination, but we now know -that fertile eggs can be produced without the aid of the -male. There are also many other methods by which -organisms can be propagated asexually. Why then have -the two sexes been developed, and why do males exist<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> -which can not themselves produce offspring? The answer -lies, as I can hardly doubt, in the great good which -is derived from the fusion of two somewhat differentiated -individuals; and with the exception of the lowest organisms -this is possible only by means of the sexual elements, -these consisting of cells separated from the body, containing -the germs of every part, and capable of being -fused completely together.</p> - -<p>It has been shown in the present volume that the -offspring from the union of two distinct individuals, -especially if their progenitors have been subjected to very -different conditions, have an immense advantage in height, -weight, constitutional vigor and fertility over the self-fertilized -offspring from one of the same parents. And -this fact is amply sufficient to account for the development -of the sexual elements, that is, for the genesis of -the two sexes.</p> - -<p>It is a different question why the two sexes are sometimes -combined in the same individual, and are sometimes -separated. As with many of the lowest plants and animals -the conjugation of two individuals, which are either -quite similar or in some degree different is a common -phenomenon, it seems probable, as remarked in the last -chapter, that the sexes were primordially separate. The -individual which receives the contents of the other, may -be called the female; and the other, which is often smaller -and more locomotive, may be called the male; though -these sexual names ought hardly to be applied as long as -the whole contents of the two forms are blended into -one. The object gained by the two sexes becoming united -in the same hermaphrodite form probably is to allow of -occasional or frequent self-fertilization, so as to insure -the propagation of the species, more especially in the -case of organisms affixed for life to the same spot.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> -There does not seem to be any great difficulty in understanding -how an organism, formed by the conjugation -of two individuals which represented the two incipient -sexes, might have given rise by budding first to a monœcious -and then to an hermaphrodite form; and in the -case of animals even without budding to an hermaphrodite -form, for the bilateral structure of animals perhaps -indicates that they were aboriginally formed by the fusion -of two individuals.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_10">WHY THE SEXES HAVE BEEN RESEPARATED.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 463.</div> - -<p>It is a more difficult problem why some -plants, and apparently all the higher animals, -after becoming hermaphrodites, have since had their sexes -reseparated. This separation has been attributed by some -naturalists to the advantages which follow from a division -of physiological labor. The principle is intelligible when -the same organ has to perform at the same time diverse -functions; but it is not obvious why the male and female -glands, when placed in different parts of the same compound -or simple individual, should not perform their -functions equally well as when placed in two distinct individuals. -In some instances the sexes may have been -reseparated for the sake of preventing too frequent self-fertilization; -but this explanation does not seem probable, -as the same end might have been gained by other -and simpler means, for instance, dichogamy. It may be -that the production of the male and female reproductive -elements and the maturation of the ovules was too great -a strain and expenditure of vital force for a single individual -to withstand, if endowed with a highly complex -organization; and that at the same time there was no -need for all the individuals to produce young, and consequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> -that no injury, on the contrary, good, resulted -from half of them, or the males, failing to produce offspring.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_11">COMPARATIVE FERTILITY OF MALE AND FEMALE -PLANTS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">The Different -Forms of -Flowers,<br /> -page 290.</div> - -<p>Thirteen bushes (of the spindle-tree) growing -near one another in a hedge consisted of -eight females quite destitute of pollen, and -of five hermaphrodites with well-developed anthers. In -the autumn the eight females were well covered with -fruit, excepting one which bore only a moderate number. -Of the five hermaphrodites, one bore a dozen or two -fruits, and the remaining four bushes several dozen; -but their number was as nothing compared with those -on the female bushes, for a single branch, between two -and three feet in length, from one of the latter, yielded -more than any one of the hermaphrodite bushes. The -difference in the amount of fruit produced by the two -sets of bushes is all the more striking, as from the -sketches above given it is obvious that the stigmas of the -polleniferous flowers can hardly fail to receive their own -pollen; while the fertilization of the female flowers depends -on pollen being brought to them by flies and the -smaller <i>Hymenoptera</i>, which are far from being such efficient -carriers as bees.</p> - -<p>I now determined to observe more carefully during -successive seasons some bushes growing in another place -about a mile distant. As the female bushes were so -highly productive, I marked only two of them with the -letters A and B, and five polleniferous bushes with the -letters C to G. I may premise that the year 1865 was -highly favorable for the fruiting of all the bushes, especially -for the polleniferous ones, some of which were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> -quite barren, except under such favorable conditions. -The season of 1864 was unfavorable. In 1863 the female -A produced “some fruit”; in 1864 only nine; and in -1865 ninety-seven fruit. The female B in 1863 was -“covered with fruit”; in 1864 it bore twenty-eight; -and in 1865 “innumerable very fine fruits.” I may add -that three other female trees growing close by were observed, -but only during 1863, and they then bore abundantly. -With respect to the polleniferous bushes, the one -marked C did not bear a single fruit during the years -1863 and 1864, but during 1865 it produced no less than -ninety-two fruit, which, however, were very poor. I selected -one of the finest branches with fifteen fruit, and -these contained twenty seeds, or on an average 1·33 per -fruit. I then took by hazard fifteen fruit from an adjoining -female bush, and these contained forty-three -seeds; that is, more than twice as many, or on an average -2·86 per fruit. Many of the fruits from the female -bushes included four seeds, and only one had a single -seed; whereas, not one fruit from the polleniferous -bushes contained four seeds. Moreover, when the two -lots of seeds were compared, it was manifest that those -from the female bushes were the larger. The second -polleniferous bush, D, bore in 1863 about two dozen -fruit, in 1864 only three very poor fruit, each containing -a single seed; and in 1865, twenty equally poor fruit. -Lastly, the three polleniferous bushes, E, F, and G, did -not produce a single fruit during the three years 1863, -1864, and 1865.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_12">EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON REPRODUCTION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 293.</div> - -<p>A tendency to the separation of the sexes -in the cultivated strawberry seems to be much -more strongly marked in the United States than in Europe;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> -and this appears to be the result of the direct action -of climate on the reproductive organs. In the best account -which I have seen, it is stated that many of the -varieties in the United States consist of three forms, -namely, females, which produce a heavy crop of fruit; -of hermaphrodites, which “seldom produce other than -a very scanty crop of inferior and imperfect berries”; and -of males, which produce none. The most skillful cultivators -plant “seven rows of female plants, then one -row of hermaphrodites, and so on throughout the field.” -The males bear large, the hermaphrodites mid-sized, and -the females small flowers. The latter plants produce few -runners, while the two other forms produce many; consequently, -as has been observed both in England and in -the United States, the polleniferous forms increase rapidly -and tend to supplant the females. We may therefore -infer that much more vital force is expended in the production -of ovules and fruit than in the production of -pollen.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_13">CAUSES OF STERILITY AMONG PLANTS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">The Different -Forms of -Flower,<br /> -page 345.</div> - -<p>If the sexual elements belonging to the -same form are united, the union is an illegitimate -one, and more or less sterile. With dimorphic -species two illegitimate unions, and with trimorphic -species twelve are possible. There is reason to believe -that the sterility of these unions has not been specially -acquired, but follows as an incidental result from the -sexual elements of the two or three forms having been -adapted to act on one another in a particular manner, -so that any other kind of union is inefficient, like that -between distinct species. Another and still more remarkable -incidental result is that the seedlings from an illegitimate -union are often dwarfed and more or less completely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> -barren, like hybrids from the union of two widely -distinct species.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_14">AN “IDEAL TYPE” OR INEVITABLE MODIFICATION?</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Fertilization -of Orchids -by Insects,<br /> -page 245.</div> - -<p>It is interesting to look at one of the magnificent -exotic species (orchids), or, indeed, at -one of our humblest forms, and observe how -profoundly it has been modified, as compared with all -ordinary flowers—with its great labellum, formed of one -petal and two petaloid stamens; with its singular pollen-masses, -hereafter to be referred to; with its column -formed of seven cohering organs, of which three alone -perform their proper function, namely, one anther and -two generally confluent stigmas; with the third stigma -modified into the rostellum and incapable of being fertilized; -and with three of the anthers no longer functionally -active, but serving either to protect the pollen of the -fertile anther or to strengthen the column, or existing -as mere rudiments, or entirely suppressed. What an -amount of modification, cohesion, abortion, and change -of function do we here see! Yet hidden in that column, -with its surrounding petals and sepals, we know that -there are fifteen groups of vessels, arranged three within -three, in alternate order, which probably have been preserved -to the present time from being developed at a very -early period of growth, before the shape or existence of -any part of the flower is of importance for the well-being -of the plant.</p> - -<p>Can we feel satisfied by saying that each orchid was -created, exactly as we now see it, on a certain “ideal -type”; that the omnipotent Creator, having fixed on one -plan for the whole order, did not depart from this plan; -that he, therefore, made the same organ to perform diverse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> -functions—often of trifling importance compared -with their proper function—converted other organs into -mere purposeless rudiments, and arranged all as if they -had to stand separate, and then made them cohere? Is -it not a more simple and intelligible view that all the -<i>Orchideæ</i> owe what they have in common to descent -from some monocotyledonous plant, which, like so many -other plants of the same class, possessed fifteen organs, -arranged alternately, three within three, in five whorls; -and that the now wonderfully changed structure of the -flower is due to a long course of slow modification—each -modification having been preserved which was useful to -the plant, during the incessant changes to which the organic -and inorganic world has been exposed?</p> - -<h3 id="sec_15">SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS TO A CHANGING PURPOSE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Fertilization -of Orchids,<br /> -page 282.</div> - -<p>It has, I think, been shown that the <i>Orchideæ</i> -exhibit an almost endless diversity of -beautiful adaptations. When this or that part -has been spoken of as adapted for some special purpose, it -must not be supposed that it was originally always formed -for this sole purpose. The regular course of events seems -to be, that a part which originally served for one purpose -becomes adapted by slow changes for widely different -purposes. To give an instance: in all the <i>Ophreæ</i>, -the long and nearly rigid caudicle manifestly serves for -the application of the pollen-grains to the stigma, when -the pollinia are transported by insects to another flower; -and the anther opens widely in order that the pollinium -should be easily withdrawn; but, in the <i>Bee ophrys</i>, the -caudicle, by a slight increase in length and decrease in its -thickness, and by the anther opening a little more widely, -becomes specially adapted for the very different purpose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> -of self-fertilization, through the combined aid of the -weight of the pollen-mass and the vibration of the flower -when moved by the wind. Every gradation between -these two states is possible—of which we have a partial -instance in <i>O. aranifera</i>.</p> - -<p>Again, the elasticity of the pedicel of the pollinium -in some <i>Vandeæ</i> is adapted to free the pollen-masses from -their anther-cases; but, by a further slight modification, -the elasticity of the pedicel becomes specially adapted to -shoot out the pollinium with considerable force, so as to -strike the body of the visiting insect. The great cavity -in the labellum of many <i>Vandeæ</i> is gnawed by insects, -and thus attracts them; but in <i>Mormodes ignea</i> it is -greatly reduced in size, and serves in chief part to keep -the labellum in its new position on the summit of the -column. From the analogy of many plants we may infer -that a long, spur-like nectary is primarily adapted to -secrete and hold a store of nectar; but in many orchids -it has so far lost this function that it contains fluid only -in the intercellular spaces. In those orchids in which -the nectary contains both free nectar and fluid in the -intercellular spaces, we can see how a transition from the -one state to the other could be effected, namely, by less -and less nectar being secreted from the inner membrane, -with more and more retained within the intercellular -spaces. Other analogous cases could be given.</p> - -<p>Although an organ may not have been originally -formed for some special purpose, if it now serves for this -end, we are justified in saying that it is specially adapted -for it. On the same principle, if a man were to make a -machine for some special purpose, but were to use old -wheels, springs, and pulleys, only slightly altered, the -whole machine, with all its parts, might be said to be -specially contrived for its present purpose. Thus throughout<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> -nature almost every part of each living being has -probably served, in a slightly modified condition, for -diverse purposes, and has acted in the living machinery -of many ancient and distinct specific forms.</p> - -<p>In my examination of orchids, hardly any fact has -struck me so much as the endless diversities of structure—the -prodigality of resources—for gaining the very same -end, namely, the fertilization of one flower by pollen -from another plant. This fact is to a large extent intelligible -on the principle of natural selection. As all -the parts of a flower are co-ordinated, if slight variations -in any one part were preserved from being beneficial to -the plant, then the other parts would generally have to -be modified in some corresponding manner. But these -latter parts might not vary at all, or they might not vary -in a fitting manner, and these other variations, whatever -their nature might be, which tended to bring all the parts -into more harmonious action with one another, would be -preserved by natural selection.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_16">AN ILLUSTRATION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 284.</div> - -<p>To give a simple illustration: in many -orchids the ovarium (but sometimes the foot-stalk) -becomes for a period twisted, causing the labellum -to assume the position of a lower petal, so that insects -can easily visit the flower; but from slow changes in the -form or position of the petals, or from new sorts of insects -visiting the flowers, it might be advantageous to -the plant that the labellum should resume its normal -position on the upper side of the flower, as is actually -the case with <i>Malaxis paludosa</i>, and some species of -<i>Catasetum</i>, etc. This change, it is obvious, might be -simply effected by the continued selection of varieties -which had their ovaria less and less twisted; but, if the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> -plant only afforded varieties with the ovarium more -twisted, the same end could be attained by the selection -of such variations, until the flower was turned completely -round on its axis. This seems to have actually -occurred with <i>Malaxis paludosa</i>, for the labellum has acquired -its present upward position by the ovarium being -twisted twice as much as is usual.</p> - -<p>Again, we have seen that in most <i>Vandeæ</i> there is a -plain relation between the depth of the stigmatic chamber -and the length of the pedicel, by which the pollen-masses -are inserted; now, if the chamber became slightly less -deep from any change in the form of the column, or -other unknown cause, the mere shortening of the pedicel -would be the simplest corresponding change; but, if the -pedicel did not happen to vary in shortness, the slightest -tendency to its becoming bowed from elasticity, as in -<i>Phalænopsis</i>, or to a backward hygrometric movement, -as in one of the <i>Maxillarias</i>, would be preserved, and the -tendency would be continually augmented by selection; -thus the pedicel, as far as its action is concerned, would -be modified in the same manner as if it had been shortened. -Such processes carried on during many thousand -generations in various ways, would create an endless diversity -of co-adapted structures in the several parts of -the flower for the same general purpose. This view -affords, I believe, the key which partly solves the problem -of the vast diversity of structure adapted for closely -analogous ends in many large groups of organic beings.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_17">AS INTERESTING ON THE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT AS -ON THAT OF DIRECT INTERPOSITION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 285.</div> - -<p>The more I study nature, the more I become -impressed, with ever-increasing force, -that the contrivances and beautiful adaptations slowly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> -acquired through each part occasionally varying in a -slight degree but in many ways, with the preservation of -those variations which were beneficial to the organism -under complex and ever-varying conditions of life, transcend -in an incomparable manner the contrivances and -adaptations which the most fertile imagination of man -could invent.</p> - -<p>The use of each trifling detail of structure is far from -a barren search to those who believe in natural selection. -When a naturalist casually takes up the study of an organic -being, and does not investigate its whole life (imperfect -though that study will ever be), he naturally -doubts whether each trifling point can be of any use, or, -indeed, whether it be due to any general law. Some -naturalists believe that numberless structures have been -created for the sake of mere variety and beauty—much -as a workman would make different patterns. I, for -one, have often and often doubted whether this or that -detail of structure in many of the <i>Orchideæ</i> and other -plants could be of any service; yet, if of no good, these -structures could not have been modeled by the natural -preservation of useful variations; such details can only -be vaguely accounted for by the direct action of the conditions -of life, or the mysterious laws of correlated growth.</p> - -<div class="sidenote">Fertilization -of Orchids,<br /> -page 2.</div> - -<p>This treatise affords me also an opportunity -of attempting to show that the study of organic -beings may be as interesting to an observer -who is fully convinced that the structure of each -is due to secondary laws as to one who views every trifling -detail of structure as the result of the direct interposition -of the Creator.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_18">THE SLEEP OF THE PLANTS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">The Power -of Movement -in Plants,<br /> -page 280.</div> - -<p>The so-called sleep of leaves is so conspicuous -a phenomenon that it was observed as early -as the time of Pliny; and since Linnæus published -his famous essay, “Somnus Plantarum,” it has -been the subject of several memoirs. Many flowers close -at night, and these are likewise said to sleep; but we are -not here concerned with their movements, for although -effected by the same mechanism as in the case of young -leaves, namely, unequal growth on the opposite sides (as -first proved by Pfeffer), yet they differ essentially in being -excited chiefly by changes of temperature instead of light; -and in being effected, as far as we can judge, for a different -purpose. Hardly any one supposes that there is any -real analogy between the sleep of animals and that of -plants, whether of leaves or flowers. It seems, therefore, -advisable to give a distinct name to the so-called sleep-movements -of plants. These have also generally been confounded, -under the term “periodic,” with the slight daily -rise and fall of leaves, as described in the fourth chapter; -and this makes it all the more desirable to give some distinct -name to sleep-movements. Nyctitropism and nyctitropic, -i. e., night-turning, may be applied both to leaves -and flowers, and will be occasionally used by us; but it -would be best to confine the term to leaves.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 281.</div> - -<p>Leaves, when they go to sleep, move either -upward or downward, or, in the case of the -leaflets of compound leaves, forward, that is, toward the -apex of the leaf, or backward, that is, toward its base; or, -again, they may rotate on their own axis without moving -either upward or downward. But in almost every -case the plane of the blade is so placed as to stand nearly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> -or quite vertically at night. Therefore the apex, or the -base, or either lateral edge, may be directed toward the -zenith. Moreover, the upper surface of each leaf, and -more especially of each leaflet, is often brought into -close contact with that of the opposite one; and this is -sometimes effected by singularly complicated movements. -This fact suggests that the upper surface requires more -protection than the lower one. For instance, the terminal -leaflet in trifolium, after turning up at night so as -to stand vertically, often continues to bend over until the -upper surface is directed downward, while the lower surface -is fully exposed to the sky; and an arched roof is -thus formed over the two lateral leaflets, which have their -upper surfaces pressed closely together. Here we have -the unusual case of one of the leaflets not standing vertically, -or almost vertically, at night.</p> - -<p>Considering that leaves in assuming their nyctitropic -positions often move through an angle of 90°; that the -movement is rapid in the evening; that in some cases it -is extraordinarily complicated; that with certain seedlings, -old enough to bear true leaves, the cotyledons move -vertically upward at night, while at the same time the -leaflets move vertically downward; and that in the same -genus the leaves or cotyledons of some species move -upward, while those of other species move downward—from -these and other such facts, it is hardly possible to -doubt that plants must derive some great advantage from -such remarkable powers of movement.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_19">SELF-PROTECTION DURING SLEEP.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 284.</div> - -<p>The fact that the leaves of many plants -place themselves at night in widely different -positions from what they hold during the day, but with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> -the one point in common, that their upper surfaces avoid -facing the zenith, often with the additional fact that -they come into close contact with opposite leaves or leaflets, -clearly indicates, as it seems to us, that the object -gained is the protection of the upper surfaces from being -chilled at night by radiation. There is nothing improbable -in the upper surface needing protection more than -the lower, as the two differ in function and structure. -All gardeners know that plants suffer from radiation. It -is this, and not cold winds, which the peasants of Southern -Europe fear for their olives. Seedlings are often protected -from radiation by a very thin covering of straw; -and fruit-trees on walls by a few fir-branches, or even by -a fishing-net, suspended over them. There is a variety -of the gooseberry, the flowers of which, from being produced -before the leaves, are not protected by them from -radiation, and consequently often fail to yield fruit. An -excellent observer has remarked that one variety of the -cherry has the petals of its flowers much curled backward, -and after a severe frost all the stigmas were killed; -while, at the same time, in another variety with incurved -petals, the stigmas were not in the least injured.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 285.</div> - -<p>We are far from doubting that an additional -advantage may be thus gained; and -we have observed with several plants, for instance, <i>Desmodium -gyrans</i>, that while the blade of the leaf sinks -vertically down at night, the petiole rises, so that the -blade has to move through a greater angle in order to -assume its vertical position than would otherwise have -been necessary; but with the result that all the leaves -on the same plant are crowded together, as if for mutual -protection.</p> - -<p>We doubted at first whether radiation would affect in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> -any important manner objects so thin as are many cotyledons -and leaves, and more especially affect differently -their upper and lower surfaces; for, although the temperature -of their upper surfaces would undoubtedly fall -when freely exposed to a clear sky, yet we thought that -they would so quickly acquire by conduction the temperature -of the surrounding air, that it could hardly make -any sensible difference to them whether they stood horizontally, -and radiated into the open sky, or vertically, -and radiated chiefly in a lateral direction toward neighboring -plants and other objects. We endeavored, therefore, -to ascertain something on this head, by preventing -the leaves of several plants from going to sleep, and by -exposing to a clear sky, when the temperature was beneath -the freezing-point, these as well as the other leaves -on the same plants, which had already assumed their -nocturnal vertical position. Our experiments show that -leaves thus compelled to remain horizontal at night suffered -much more injury from frost than those which were -allowed to assume their normal vertical position. It may, -however, be said that conclusions drawn from such observations -are not applicable to sleeping plants, the inhabitants -of countries where frosts do not occur. But in -every country, and at all seasons, leaves must be exposed -to nocturnal chills through radiation, which might be in -some degree injurious to them, and which they would escape -by assuming a vertical position.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote">The Power -of Movement -in Plants,<br /> -page 403.</div> - -<p>Any one who had never observed continuously -a sleeping plant would naturally suppose -that the leaves moved only in the evening -when going to sleep, and in the morning when awaking; -but he would be quite mistaken, for we have found no -exception to the rule that leaves which sleep continue to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -move during the whole twenty-four hours; they move, -however, more quickly when going to sleep and when -awaking than at other times.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_20">INFLUENCE OF LIGHT UPON PLANTS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">The Power -of Movement -in Plants,<br /> -page 565.</div> - -<p>The extreme sensitiveness of certain seedlings -to light is highly remarkable. The -cotyledons of <i>Phalaris</i> became curved toward -a distant lamp, which emitted so little light that a pencil -held vertically close to the plants did not cast any -shadow which the eye could perceive on a white card. -These cotyledons, therefore, were affected by a difference -in the amount of light on their two sides, which the eye -could not distinguish. The degree of their curvature -within a given time toward a lateral light did not correspond -at all strictly with the amount of light which -they received; the light not being at any time in excess. -They continued for nearly half an hour to bend toward a -lateral light, after it had been extinguished. They bend -with remarkable precision toward it, and this depends on -the illumination of one whole side, or on the obscuration -of the whole opposite side. The difference in the amount -of light which plants at any time receive in comparison -with what they have shortly before received seems in all -cases to be the chief exciting cause of those movements -which are influenced by light. Thus seedlings brought -out of darkness bend toward a dim lateral light, sooner -than others which had previously been exposed to daylight. -We have seen several analogous cases with the -nyctitropic movements of leaves. A striking instance -was observed in the case of the periodic movements of -the cotyledons of a cassia: in the morning a pot was -placed in an obscure part of a room, and all the cotyledons -rose up closed; another pot had stood in the sunlight,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> -and the cotyledons of course remained expanded; -both pots were now placed close together in the middle -of the room, and the cotyledons which had been exposed -to the sun immediately began to close, while the others -opened; so that the cotyledons in the two pots moved in -exactly opposite directions while exposed to the same -degree of light.</p> - -<p>We found that if seedlings, kept in a dark place, were -laterally illuminated by a small wax-taper for only two -or three minutes at intervals of about three quarters of -an hour, they all became bowed to the point where the -taper had been held. We felt much surprised at this -fact, and, until we had read Wiesner’s observations, we -attributed it to the after-effects of the light; but he has -shown that the same degree of curvature in a plant may -be induced in the course of an hour by several interrupted -illuminations lasting altogether for twenty minutes as -by a continuous illumination of sixty minutes. We believe -that this case, as well as our own, may be explained -by the excitement from light being due not so much to -its actual amount, as to the difference in amount from -that previously received; and in our case there were repeated -alternations from complete darkness to light. In -this and in several of the above-specified respects, light -seems to act on the tissues of plants almost in the same -manner as it does on the nervous system of animals.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_21">INFLUENCE OF GRAVITATION UPON PLANTS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 567.</div> - -<p>Gravitation excites plants to bend away -from the center of the earth, or toward it, or -to place themselves in a transverse position with respect -to it. Although it is impossible to modify in any direct -manner the attraction of gravity, yet its influence could -be moderated indirectly, in the several ways described in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> -the tenth chapter; and under such circumstances the -same kind of evidence as that given in the chapter on -heliotropism showed in the plainest manner that apogeotropic -and geotropic, and probably diageotropic movements, -are all modified forms of circumnutation.</p> - -<p>Different parts of the same plant and different species -are affected by gravitation in widely different degrees and -manners. Some plants and organs exhibit hardly a trace -of its action. Young seedlings, which, as we know, circumnutate -rapidly, are eminently sensitive; and we have -seen the hypocotyl of <i>Beta</i> bending upward through 109° -in three hours and eight minutes. The after-effects of -apogeotropism last for above half an hour; and horizontally-laid -hypocotyls are sometimes thus carried temporarily -beyond an upright position. The benefits derived -from geotropism, apogeotropism, and diageotropism, are -generally so manifest that they need not be specified. -With the flower-peduncles of <i>Oxalis</i>, epinasty causes them -to bend down, so that the ripening pods may be protected -by the calyx from the rain. Afterward they are -carried upward by apogeotropism in combination with -hyponasty, and are thus enabled to scatter their seeds -over a wider space. The capsules and flower-heads of -some plants are bowed downward through geotropism, -and they then bury themselves in the earth for the protection -and slow maturation of the seeds. This burying -process is much facilitated by the rocking movement due -to circumnutation.</p> - -<p>In the case of the radicles of several, probably of all -seedling plants, sensitiveness to gravitation is confined to -the tip, which transmits an influence to the adjoining -upper part, causing it to bend toward the center of the -earth. That there is transmission of this kind was proved -in an interesting manner when horizontally extended<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> -radicles of the bean were exposed to the attraction of -gravity for an hour or an hour and a half, and their tips -were then amputated. Within this time no trace of curvature -was exhibited, and the radicles were now placed -pointing vertically downward; but an influence had already -been transmitted from the tip to the adjoining -part, for it soon became bent to one side, in the same -manner as would have occurred had the radicle remained -horizontal and been still acted on by geotropism. Radicles -thus treated continued to grow out horizontally for -two or three days, until a new tip was reformed; and -this was then acted on by geotropism, and the radicle -became curved perpendicularly downward.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_22">THE POWER OF DIGESTION IN PLANTS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Insectivorous -Plants,<br /> -page 85.</div> - -<p>As we have seen that nitrogenous fluids act -very differently on the leaves of <i>Drosera</i> from -non-nitrogenous fluids, and as the leaves remain -clasped for a much longer time over various organic -bodies than over inorganic bodies, such as bits of glass, cinder, -wood, etc., it becomes an interesting inquiry whether -they can only absorb matter already in solution, or render -it soluble; that is, have the power of digestion. We -shall immediately see that they certainly have this power, -and that they act on albuminous compounds in exactly -the same manner as does the gastric juice of mammals; -the digested matter being afterward absorbed. This fact, -which will be clearly proved, is a wonderful one in the -physiology of plants.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 86.</div> - -<p>It may be well to premise, for the sake of -any reader who knows nothing about the digestion -of albuminous compounds by animals, that this -is effected by means of a ferment, pepsin, together with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> -weak hydrochloric acid, though almost any acid will -serve. Yet neither pepsin nor an acid by itself has -any such power. We have seen that when the glands -of the disk are excited by the contact of any object, especially -of one containing nitrogenous matter, the outer -tentacles and often the blade become inflected; the leaf -being thus converted into a temporary cup or stomach. -At the same time the discal glands secrete more copiously, -and the secretion becomes acid. Moreover, they transmit -some influence to the glands of the exterior tentacles, -causing them to pour forth a more copious secretion, -which also becomes acid or more acid than it was before.</p> - -<p>As this result is an important one, I will give the -evidence. The secretion of many glands on thirty leaves, -which had not been in any way excited, was tested with -litmus-paper; and the secretion of twenty-two of these -leaves did not in the least affect the color, whereas that of -eight caused an exceedingly feeble and sometimes doubtful -tinge of red. Two other old leaves, however, which -appeared to have been inflected several times, acted much -more decidedly on the paper. Particles of clean glass -were then placed on five of the leaves, cubes of albumen -on six, and bits of raw meat on three, on none of which -was the secretion at this time in the least acid. After -an interval of twenty-four hours, when almost all the -tentacles on these fourteen leaves had become more or -less inflected, I again tested the secretion, selecting glands -which had not as yet reached the center or touched any -object, and it was now plainly acid. The degree of -acidity of the secretion varied somewhat on the glands -of the same leaf. On some leaves a few tentacles did -not, from some unknown cause, become inflected, as -often happens; and in five instances their secretion was -found not to be in the least acid; while the secretion of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> -the adjoining and inflected tentacles on the same leaf was -decidedly acid. With leaves excited by particles of glass -placed on the central glands, the secretion which collects -on the disk beneath them was much more strongly acid -than that poured forth from the exterior tentacles, which -were as yet only moderately inflected. When bits of albumen -(and this is naturally alkaline) or bits of meat -were placed on the disk, the secretion collected beneath -them was likewise strongly acid. As raw meat moistened -with water is slightly acid, I compared its action on litmus-paper -before it was placed on the leaves, and afterward -when bathed in the secretion; and there could not -be the least doubt that the latter was very much more -acid. I have indeed tried hundreds of times the state of -the secretion on the disks of leaves which were inflected -over various objects, and never failed to find it acid. We -may, therefore, conclude that the secretion from unexcited -leaves, though extremely viscid, is not acid or -only slightly so, but that it becomes acid, or much more -strongly so, after the tentacles have begun to bend over -any inorganic or organic object; and still more strongly -acid after the tentacles have remained for some time -closely clasped over any object.</p> - -<p>I may here remind the reader that the secretion appears -to be to a certain extent antiseptic, as it checks the -appearance of mold and infusoria, thus preventing for a -time the discoloration and decay of such substances as the -white of an egg, cheese, etc. It therefore acts like the -gastric juice of the higher animals, which is known to -arrest putrefaction by destroying the microzymes.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 98.</div> - -<p>Cubes of about one twentieth of an inch -(1·27 millimetre) of moderately roasted meat -were placed on five leaves, which became in twelve hours<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> -closely inflected. After forty-eight hours I gently opened -one leaf, and the meat now consisted of a minute central -sphere, partially digested, and surrounded by a thick envelope -of transparent viscid fluid. The whole, without -being much disturbed, was removed and placed under the -microscope. In the central part the transverse striæ on -the muscular fibers were quite distinct; and it was interesting -to observe how gradually they disappeared, when -the same fiber was traced into the surrounding fluid. -They disappeared by the striæ being replaced by transverse -lines formed of excessively minute dark points, -which toward the exterior could be seen only under a -very high power; and ultimately these points were lost.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 134.</div> - -<p>Finally, the experiments recorded in this -chapter show us that there is a remarkable -accordance in the power of digestion between the gastric -juice of animals, with its pepsin and hydrochloric acid, -and the secretion of <i>Drosera</i> with its ferment and acid belonging -to the acetic series. We can, therefore, hardly -doubt that the ferment in both cases is closely similar.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_23">DIVERSE MEANS BY WHICH PLANTS GAIN THEIR SUBSISTENCE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Insectivorous -Plants,<br /> -page 452.</div> - -<p>Ordinary plants of the higher classes procure -the requisite inorganic elements from the -soil by means of their roots, and absorb carbonic -acid from the atmosphere by means of their leaves and -stems. But we have seen in a previous part of this work -that there is a class of plants which digest and afterward -absorb animal matter, namely, all the <i>Droseraceæ</i>, <i>Pinguicula</i>, -and, as discovered by Dr. Hooker, <i>Nepenthes</i>, and -to this class other species will almost certainly soon be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> -added. These plants can dissolve matter out of certain -vegetable substances, such as pollen, seeds, and bits of -leaves. No doubt their glands likewise absorb the salts -of ammonia brought to them by the rain. It has also -been shown that some other plants can absorb ammonia -by their glandular hairs; and these will profit by that -brought to them by the rain. There is a second class of -plants which, as we have just seen, can not digest, but -absorb, the products of the decay of the animals which -they capture, namely, <i>Utricularia</i> and its close allies; -and, from the excellent observations of Dr. Mellichamp -and Dr. Canby, there can scarcely be a doubt that <i>Sarracenia</i> -and <i>Darlingtonia</i> may be added to this class, -though the fact can hardly be considered as yet fully -proved. There is a third class of plants which feed, as -is now generally admitted, on the products of the decay -of vegetable matter, such as the bird’s-nest orchid (<i>Neottia</i>), -etc. Lastly, there is the well-known fourth class -of parasites (such as the mistletoe), which are nourished -by the juices of living plants. Most, however, of the -plants belonging to these four classes obtain part of their -carbon, like ordinary species, from the atmosphere. Such -are the diversified means, as far as at present known, by -which higher plants gain their subsistence.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_24">HOW A PLANT PREYS UPON ANIMALS.</h3> - -<p><i>The genus described is Genlisea ornata.</i></p> - -<div class="sidenote">Insectivorous -Plants,<br /> -page 446.</div> - -<p>The utricle is formed by a slight enlargement -of the narrow blade of the leaf. A hollow -neck, no less than fifteen times as long as -the utricle itself, forms a passage from the transverse slit-like -orifice into the cavity of the utricle. A utricle which -measured 1/36 of an inch (·795 millimetre) in its longer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> -diameter had a neck 15/36 (10·583 millimetres) in length, -and 1/100 of an inch (·254 millimetre) in breadth. On -each side of the orifice there is a long spiral arm, or tube; -the structure of which will be best understood by the following -illustration: Take a narrow ribbon and wind it -spirally round a thin cylinder, so that the edges come -into contact along its whole length; then pinch up the two -edges so as to form a little crest, which will, of course, -wind spirally round the cylinder, like a thread round a -screw. If the cylinder is now removed, we shall have a -tube like one of the spiral arms. The two projecting edges -are not actually united, and a needle can be pushed in easily -between them. They are indeed in many places a little -separated, forming narrow entrances into the tube; but -this may be the result of the drying of the specimens. -The lamina of which the tube is formed seems to be a -lateral prolongation of the lip of the orifice; and the -spiral line between the two projecting edges is continuous -with the corner of the orifice. If a fine bristle is pushed -down one of the arms, it passes into the top of the hollow -neck. Whether the arms are open or closed at their extremities -could not be determined, as all the specimens -were broken; nor does it appear that Dr. Warming ascertained -this point.</p> - -<p>So much for the external structure. Internally the -lower part of the utricle is covered with spherical papillæ, -formed of four cells (sometimes eight, according to Dr. -Warming), which evidently answer to the quadrifid processes -within the bladders of <i>Utricularia</i>. These papillæ -extend a little way up the dorsal and ventral surfaces -of the utricle; and a few, according to Warming may -be found in the upper part. This upper region is covered -by many transverse rows, one above the other, of -short, closely approximate hairs, pointing downward.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> -These hairs have broad bases, and their tips are formed -by a separate cell. They are absent in the lower part of -the utricle where the papillæ abound. The neck is likewise -lined throughout its whole length with transverse -rows of long, thin, transparent hairs, having broad bulbous -bases, with similarly constructed sharp points. They -arise from little projecting ridges, formed of rectangular -epidermic cells. The hairs vary a little in length, but -their points generally extend down to the row next below; -so that, if the neck is split open and laid flat, the -inner surface resembles a paper of pins—the hairs representing -the pins, and the little transverse ridges representing -the folds of paper through which the pins are -thrust. These rows of hairs are indicated in the previous -figure by numerous transverse lines crossing the neck. -The inside of the neck is also studded with papillæ; -those in the lower part are spherical and formed of four -cells, as in the lower part of the utricle; those in the -upper part are formed of two cells, which are much elongated -downward beneath their points of attachment. -These two-celled papillæ apparently correspond with the -bifid process in the upper part of the bladders of <i>Utricularia</i>. -The narrow transverse orifice is situated between -the bases of the two spiral arms. No valve could be -detected here, nor was any such structure seen by Dr. -Warming. The lips of the orifice are armed with many -short, thick, sharply pointed, somewhat incurved hairs -or teeth.</p> - -<p>The two projecting edges of the spirally-wound lamina, -forming the arms, are provided with short incurved hairs -or teeth, exactly like those on the lips. These project -inward at right angles to the spiral line of junction between -the two edges. The inner surface of the lamina -supports two-celled, elongated papillæ, resembling those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> -in the upper part of the neck, but differing slightly from -them, according to Warming, in their footstalks being -formed by prolongations of large epidermic cells; whereas -the papillæ within the neck rest on small cells sunk -amid the larger ones. These spiral arms form a conspicuous -difference between the present genus and <i>Utricularia</i>.</p> - -<p>Lastly, there is a bundle of spiral vessels which, running -up the lower part of the linear leaf, divides close -beneath the utricle. One branch extends up the dorsal -and the other up the ventral side of both the utricle and -neck. Of these two branches, one enters one spiral arm, -and the other branch the other arm.</p> - -<p>The utricles contained much <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">débris</i>, or dirty matter, -which seemed organic, though no distinct organisms could -be recognized. It is, indeed, scarcely possible that any -object could enter the small orifice and pass down the -long, narrow neck, except a living creature. Within the -necks, however, of some specimens, a worm, with retracted -horny jaws, the abdomen of some articulate animal, and -specks of dirt, probably the remnants of other minute -creatures, were found. Many of the papillæ within both -the utricles and necks were discolored, as if they had absorbed -matter.</p> - -<p>From this description it is sufficiently obvious how -genlisea secures its prey. Small animals entering the -narrow orifice—but what induces them to enter is not -known any more than in the case of <i>Utricularia</i>—would -find their egress rendered difficult by the sharp incurved -hairs on the lips, and, as soon as they passed some way -down the neck, it would be scarcely possible for them to -return, owing to the many transverse rows of long, straight, -downward-pointing hairs, together with the ridges from -which these project. Such creatures would, therefore,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span> -perish either within the neck or utricle; and the quadrifid -and bifid papillæ would absorb matter from their decayed -remains. The transverse rows of hairs are so numerous -that they seem superfluous merely for the sake of preventing -the escape of prey, and, as they are thin and -delicate, they probably serve as additional absorbents, in -the same manner as the flexible bristles on the infolded -margins of the leaves of aldrovanda. The spiral arms, -no doubt, act as accessory traps. Until fresh leaves are -examined, it can not be told whether the line of junction -of the spirally-wound lamina is a little open along -its whole course or only in parts, but a small creature -which forced its way into the tube at any point -would be prevented from escaping by the incurved hairs, -and would find an open path down the tube into the -neck, and so into the utricle. If the creature perished -within the spiral arms, its decaying remains would be absorbed -and utilized by the bifid papillæ. We thus see -that animals are captured by genlisea, not by means of -an elastic valve, as with the foregoing species, but by a -contrivance resembling an eel-trap, though more complex.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="II">II.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE PART PLAYED BY WORMS IN THE -HISTORY OF THIS PLANET.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">The Formation -of Vegetable -Mold -through the -Action of -Earthworms,<br /> -page 305.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">Worms</span> have played a more important part -in the history of the world than most persons -would at first suppose. In almost all humid -countries they are extraordinarily numerous, -and for their size possess great muscular -power. In many parts of England a weight of more than -ten tons (10,516 kilogrammes) of dry earth annually -passes through their bodies and is brought to the surface -on each acre of land; so that the whole superficial bed -of vegetable mold passes through their bodies in the -course of every few years. From the collapsing of the -old burrows the mold is in constant though slow movement, -and the particles composing it are thus rubbed together. -By these means fresh surfaces are continually -exposed to the action of the carbonic acid in the soil, -and of the humus-acids which appear to be still more -efficient in the decomposition of rocks. The generation -of the humus-acids is probably hastened during the digestion -of the many half-decayed leaves which worms consume. -Thus the particles of earth, forming the superficial -mold, are subjected to conditions eminently favorable -for their decomposition and disintegration. Moreover,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> -the particles of the softer rocks suffer some amount -of mechanical trituration in the muscular gizzards of -worms, in which small stones serve as mill-stones.</p> - -<p>The finely levigated castings, when brought to the -surface in a moist condition, flow during rainy weather -down any moderate slope; and the smaller particles are -washed far down even a gently inclined surface. Castings -when dry often crumble into small pellets, and these -are apt to roll down any sloping surface. Where the -land is quite level and is covered with herbage, and where -the climate is humid so that much dust can not be blown -away, it appears at first sight impossible that there should -be any appreciable amount of subaërial denudation; but -worm-castings are blown, especially while moist and viscid, -in one uniform direction by the prevalent winds -which are accompanied by rain. By these several means -the superficial mold is prevented from accumulating to a -great thickness; and a thick bed of mold checks in many -ways the disintegration of the underlying rocks and fragments -of rock.</p> - -<p>The removal of worm-castings by the above means -leads to results which are far from insignificant. It has -been shown that a layer of earth, ·2 of an inch in thickness, -is in many places annually brought to the surface -per acre; and if a small part of this amount flows, or -rolls, or is washed, even for a short distance down every -inclined surface, or is repeatedly blown in one direction, -a great effect will be produced in the course of ages. It -was found by measurements and calculations that on a -surface with a mean inclination of 9° 26’, 2·4 cubic inches -of earth which had been ejected by worms crossed, in the -course of a year, a horizontal line one yard in length; so -that 240 cubic inches would cross a line a hundred yards -in length. This latter amount in a damp state would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -weigh eleven and a half pounds. Thus a considerable -weight of earth is continually moving down each side of -every valley, and will in time reach its bed. Finally, this -earth will be transported by the streams flowing in the -valleys into the ocean, the great receptacle for all matter -denuded from the land. It is known from the amount -of sediment annually delivered into the sea by the Mississippi, -that its enormous drainage-area must on an average -be lowered ·00263 of an inch each year; and this would -suffice in four and a half million years to lower the whole -drainage-area to the level of the sea-shore. So that, if a -small fraction of the layer of fine earth, ·2 of an inch in -thickness, which is annually brought to the surface by -worms, is carried away, a great result can not fail to be -produced within a period which no geologist considers -extremely long.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_25">THEY PRESERVE VALUABLE RUINS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 308.</div> - -<p>Archæologists ought to be grateful to -worms, as they protect and preserve for an -indefinitely long period every object, not liable to decay, -which is dropped on the surface of the land, by burying -it beneath their castings. Thus, also, many elegant and -curious tesselated pavements and other ancient remains -have been preserved; though no doubt the worms have -in these cases been largely aided by earth washed and -blown from the adjoining land, especially when cultivated. -The old tesselated pavements have, however, -often suffered by having subsided unequally from being -unequally undermined by the worms. Even old massive -walls may be undermined and subside; and no building -is in this respect safe, unless the foundations lie six or -seven feet beneath the surface, at a depth at which worms<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> -can not work. It is probable that many monoliths and -some old walls have fallen down from having been undermined -by worms.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_26">THEY PREPARE THE GROUND FOR SEED.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 309.</div> - -<p>Worms prepare the ground in an excellent -manner for the growth of fibrous-rooted plants -and for seedlings of all kinds. They periodically expose -the mold to the air, and sift it so that no stones larger -than the particles which they can swallow are left in it. -They mingle the whole intimately together, like a gardener -who prepares fine soil for his choicest plants. In -this state it is well fitted to retain moisture and to absorb -all soluble substances, as well as for the process of nitrification. -The bones of dead animals, the harder parts of -insects, the shells of land-mollusks, leaves, twigs, etc., -are before long all buried beneath the accumulating castings -of worms, and are thus brought in a more or less -decayed state within reach of the roots of plants. Worms -likewise drag an infinite number of dead leaves and other -parts of plants into their burrows, partly for the sake of -plugging them up and partly as food.</p> - -<p>The leaves which are dragged into the burrows as -food, after being torn into the finest shreds, partially digested, -and saturated with the intestinal and urinary secretions, -are commingled with much earth. This earth -forms the dark-colored, rich humus which almost everywhere -covers the surface of the land with a fairly well-defined -layer or mantle. Von Hensen placed two worms -in a vessel eighteen inches in diameter, which was filled -with sand, on which fallen leaves were strewed; and -these were soon dragged into their burrows to a depth of -three inches. After about six weeks an almost uniform -layer of sand, a centimetre (·4 inch) in thickness, was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> -converted into humus by having passed through the alimentary -canals of these two worms. It is believed by -some persons that worm-burrows, which often penetrate -the ground almost perpendicularly to a depth of five or -six feet, materially aid in its drainage; notwithstanding -that the viscid castings piled over the mouths of the burrows -prevent or check the rain-water directly entering -them. They allow the air to penetrate deeply into the -ground. They also greatly facilitate the downward passage -of roots of moderate size; and these will be nourished -by the humus with which the burrows are lined. Many -seeds owe their germination to having been covered by castings; -and others buried to a considerable depth beneath -accumulated castings lie dormant, until at some future -time they are accidentally uncovered and germinate.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 313.</div> - -<p>When we behold a wide, turf-covered expanse, -we should remember that its smoothness, -on which so much of its beauty depends, is mainly -due to all the inequalities having been slowly leveled by -worms. It is a marvelous reflection that the whole of -the superficial mold over any such expanse has passed, -and will again pass, every few years through the bodies -of worms. The plow is one of the most ancient and most -valuable of man’s inventions; but long before he existed -the land was in fact regularly plowed, and still continues -to be thus plowed, by earth-worms. It may be doubted -whether there are many other animals which have played -so important a part in the history of the world as have -these lowly organized creatures. Some other animals, -however, still more lowly organized, namely corals, have -done far more conspicuous work in having constructed -innumerable reefs and islands in the great oceans; but -these are almost confined to the tropical zones.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_27">INTELLIGENCE OF WORMS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 91.</div> - -<p>We can hardly escape from the conclusion -that worms show some degree of intelligence -in their manner of plugging up their burrows. Each -particular object is seized in too uniform a manner, and -from causes which we can generally understand, for the -result to be attributed to mere chance. That every object -has not been drawn in by its pointed end, may be -accounted for by labor having been saved through some -being inserted by their broader or thicker ends. No -doubt worms are led by instinct to plug up their burrows; -and it might have been expected that they would have -been led by instinct how best to act in each particular -case, independently of intelligence. We see how difficult -it is to judge whether intelligence comes into play, for -even plants might sometimes be thought to be thus directed; -for instance, when displaced leaves redirect their -upper surfaces toward the light by extremely complicated -movements and by the shortest course. With animals, -actions appearing due to intelligence may be performed -through inherited habit without any intelligence, although -aboriginally thus acquired. Or the habit may have been -acquired through the preservation and inheritance of -beneficial variations of some other habit; and in this -case the new habit will have been acquired independently -of intelligence throughout the whole course of its development. -There is no <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">a priori</i> improbability in worms -having acquired special instincts through either of these -two latter means. Nevertheless, it is incredible that instincts -should have been developed in reference to objects, -such as the leaves or petioles of foreign plants, wholly unknown -to the progenitors of the worms which act in the -described manner. Nor are their actions so unvarying -or inevitable as are most true instincts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span></p> - -<p>As worms are not guided by special instincts in each -particular case, though possessing a general instinct to -plug up their burrows, and, as chance is excluded, the -next most probable conclusion seems to be that they try -in many different ways to draw in objects, and at last succeed -in some one way. But it is surprising that an animal -so low in the scale as a worm should have the capacity -for acting in this manner, as many higher animals have -no such capacity.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 95.</div> - -<p>Mr. Romanes, who has specially studied the -minds of animals, believes that we can safely -infer intelligence only when we see an individual profiting -by its own experience. Now, if worms try to drag -objects into their burrows first in one way and then in -another, until they at last succeed, they profit at least in -each particular instance by experience.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 98.</div> - -<p>One alternative alone is left, namely, that -worms, although standing low in the scale of -organization, possess some degree of intelligence. This -will strike every one as very improbable; but it may be -doubted whether we know enough about the nervous system -of the lower animals to justify our natural distrust -of such a conclusion. With respect to the small size of -the cerebral ganglia, we should remember what a mass of -inherited knowledge, with some power of adapting means -to an end, is crowded into the minute brain of a worker-ant.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="III">III.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE LAWS OF VARIABILITY WITH RESPECT -TO ANIMALS AND PLANTS.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">The Variation -of Animals -and -Plants under -Domestication,<br /> -vol. i, -page 3.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">I shall</span> in this volume treat, as fully as my -materials permit, the whole subject of variation -under domestication. We may thus hope -to obtain some light, little though it be, on the -causes of variability, on the laws which govern -it—such as the direct action of climate and food, the -effects of use and disuse, and of correlation of growth—and -on the amount of change to which domesticated organisms -are liable.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>Although man does not cause variability and can not -even prevent it, he can select, preserve, and accumulate -the variations given to him by the hand of Nature almost -in any way which he chooses; and thus he can certainly -produce a great result. Selection may be followed either -methodically and intentionally, or unconsciously and unintentionally. -Man may select and preserve each successive -variation, with the distinct intention of improving and -altering a breed, in accordance with a preconceived idea; -and by thus adding up variations, often so slight as to -be imperceptible by an uneducated eye, he has effected -wonderful changes and improvements. It can, also, be -clearly shown that man, without any intention or thought<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> -of improving the breed, by preserving in each successive -generation the individuals which he prizes most, and -by destroying the worthless individuals, slowly, though -surely, induces great changes. As the will of man thus -comes into play, we can understand how it is that domesticated -breeds show adaptation to his wants and pleasures. -We can further understand how it is that domestic -races of animals and cultivated races of plants often exhibit -an abnormal character, as compared with natural -species; for they have been modified not for their own -benefit, but for that of man.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_28">INHERITED EFFECT OF CHANGED HABITS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br />page 5.</div> - -<p>When we compare the individuals of the -same variety or subvariety of our older cultivated -plants and animals, one of the first points -which strikes us is, that they generally differ more from -each other than do the individuals of any one species or -variety in a state of nature. And if we reflect on the -vast diversity of the plants and animals which have been -cultivated, and which have varied during all ages under -the most different climates and treatment, we are driven to -conclude that this great variability is due to our domestic -productions having been raised under conditions of life -not so uniform as, and somewhat different from, those to -which the parent species had been exposed under nature.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 8.</div> - -<p>Changed habits produce an inherited effect, -as in the period of the flowering of plants -when transported from one climate to another. With -animals the increased use or disuse of parts has had a -more marked influence; thus I find in the domestic duck -that the bones of the wing weigh less and the bones of -the leg more, in proportion to the whole skeleton, than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> -do the same bones in the wild-duck; and this change may -be safely attributed to the domestic duck flying much less, -and walking more, than its wild parents. The great and -inherited development of the udders in cows and goats in -countries where they are habitually milked, in comparison -with these organs in other countries, is probably another -instance of the effects of use. Not one of our domestic -animals can be named which has not in some country -drooping ears; and the view which has been suggested -that the drooping is due to the disease of the muscles of -the ear, from the animals being seldom much alarmed, -seems probable.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 9.</div> - -<p>From facts collected by Heusinger, it appears -that white sheep and pigs are injured -by certain plants, while dark-colored individuals escape, -Professor Wyman has recently communicated to me a -good illustration of this fact: on asking some farmers in -Virginia how it was that all their pigs were black, they -informed him that the pigs ate the paint-root (<i>Lachnanthes</i>), -which colored their bones pink, and which -caused the hoofs of all but the black varieties to drop -off; and one of the “crackers” (i. e., Virginia squatters) -added, “We select the black members of a litter for raising, -as they alone have a good chance of living.” Hairless -dogs have imperfect teeth; long-haired and coarse-haired -animals are apt to have, as is asserted, long or -many horns; pigeons with feathered feet have skin between -their outer toes; pigeons with short beaks have -small feet, and those with long beaks large feet. Hence, -if man goes on selecting, and thus augmenting, any peculiarity, -he will almost certainly modify unintentionally -other parts of the structure, owing to the mysterious laws -of correlation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_29">EFFECTS OF THE USE AND DISUSE OF PARTS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 108.</div> - -<p>From the facts alluded to in the first chapter, -I think there can be no doubt that use in -our domestic animals has strengthened and -enlarged certain parts, and disuse diminished them, and -that such modifications are inherited. Under free nature -we have no standard of comparison by which to judge of -the effects of long-continued use or disuse, for we know -not the parent forms; but many animals possess structures -which can be best explained by the effects of disuse. As -Professor Owen has remarked, there is no greater anomaly -in nature than a bird that can not fly; yet there are several -in this state. The logger-headed duck of South -America can only flap along the surface of the water, and -has its wings in nearly the same condition as the domestic -Aylesbury duck: it is a remarkable fact that the young -birds, according to Mr. Cunningham, can fly, while the -adults have lost this power. As the larger ground-feeding -birds seldom take flight, except to escape danger, it is -probable that the nearly wingless condition of several -birds, now inhabiting or which lately inhabited several -oceanic islands, tenanted by no beast of prey, has been -caused by disuse. The ostrich, indeed, inhabits continents, -and is exposed to danger from which it can not -escape by flight, but it can defend itself by kicking its -enemies as efficiently as many quadrupeds. We may believe -that the progenitor of the ostrich genus had habits -like those of the bustard, and that, as the size and weight -of its body were increased during successive generations, -its legs were used more, and its wings less, until they became -incapable of flight.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span></p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 109.</div> - -<p>The insects in Madeira which are not -ground-feeders, and which, as certain flower-feeding -<i>Coleoptera</i> and <i>Lepidoptera</i>, must habitually use -their wings to gain their subsistence, have, as Mr. Wollaston -suspects, their wings not at all reduced, but even -enlarged. This is quite compatible with the action of -natural selection. For, when a new insect first arrived on -the island, the tendency of natural selection to enlarge or -to reduce the wings would depend on whether a greater -number of individuals were saved by successfully battling -with the winds, or by giving up the attempt and rarely -or never flying. As with mariners shipwrecked near a -coast, it would have been better for the good swimmers if -they had been able to swim still farther, whereas it would -have been better for the bad swimmers if they had not -been able to swim at all and had stuck to the wreck.</p> - -<p>The eyes of moles and of some burrowing rodents are -rudimentary in size, and in some cases are quite covered -by skin and fur. This state of the eyes is probably due -to gradual reduction from disuse, but aided, perhaps, by -natural selection. In South America a burrowing rodent—the -tuco-tuco, or ctenomys—is even more subterranean -in its habits than the mole; and I was assured by a Spaniard, -who had often caught them, that they were frequently -blind. One which I kept alive was certainly in -this condition, the cause, as appeared on dissection, having -been inflammation of the nictitating membrane. As -frequent inflammation of the eyes must be injurious to -any animal, and as eyes are certainly not necessary to animals -having subterranean habits, a reduction in their size, -with the adhesion of the eyelids and growth of fur over -them, might in such case be an advantage; and, if so, -natural selection would aid the effects of disuse.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_30">VAGUE ORIGIN OF OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 13.</div> - -<p>In the case of most of our anciently domesticated -animals and plants, it is not possible -to come to any definite conclusion whether -they are descended from one or several wild species. The -argument mainly relied on by those who believe in the -multiple origin of our domestic animals is, that we find -in the most ancient times, on the monuments of Egypt, -and in the lake-habitations of Switzerland, much diversity -in the breeds; and that some of these ancient breeds -closely resemble or are even identical with, those still -existing. But this only throws far backward the history -of civilization, and shows that animals were domesticated -at a much earlier period than has hitherto been supposed. -The lake-inhabitants of Switzerland cultivated several -kinds of wheat and barley, the pea, the poppy for oil, and -flax; and they possessed several domesticated animals. -They also carried on commerce with other nations. All -this clearly shows, as Heer has remarked, that they had -at this early age progressed considerably in civilization; -and this again implies a long-continued previous period -of less advanced civilization, during which the domesticated -animals, kept by different tribes in different -districts, might have varied and given rise to distinct -races. Since the discovery of flint tools in the superficial -formations of many parts of the world, all geologists believe -that barbarian man existed at an enormously remote -period; and we know that at the present day there is -hardly a tribe so barbarous as not to have domesticated at -least the dog.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>The origin of most of our domestic animals will probably -forever remain vague.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span></p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 12.</div> - -<p>In attempting to estimate the amount of -structural difference between allied domestic -races, we are soon involved in doubt, from not knowing -whether they are descended from one or several parent -species. This point, if it could be cleared up, would be -interesting; if, for instance, it could be shown that the -greyhound, bloodhound, terrier, spaniel, and bull-dog, -which we all know propagate their kind truly, were the -offspring of any single species. Then such facts would -have great weight in making us doubt about the immutability -of the many closely allied natural species—for -instance, of the many foxes—inhabiting different quarters -of the world.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_31">DESCENT OF THE DOMESTIC PIGEON.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 17.</div> - -<p>Great as are the differences between the -breeds of the pigeon, I am fully convinced that -the common opinion of naturalists is correct, -namely, that all are descended from the rock-pigeon -(<i>Columba livia</i>), including under this term several geographical -races or sub-species, which differ from each -other in the most trifling respects. As several of the reasons -which have led me to this belief are in some degree -applicable in other cases, I will here briefly give them. -If the several breeds are not varieties, and have not proceeded -from the rock-pigeon, they must have descended -from at least seven or eight aboriginal stocks; for it is -impossible to make the present domestic breeds by the -crossing of any lesser number: how, for instance, could -a pouter be produced by crossing two breeds unless one -of the parent-stocks possessed the characteristic enormous -crop? The supposed aboriginal stocks must all have been -rock-pigeons—that is, they did not breed or willingly -perch on trees. But besides <i>C. livia</i>, with its geographical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> -sub-species, only two or three other species of rock-pigeons -are known, and these have not any of the characters of -the domestic breeds. Hence the supposed aboriginal -stocks must either still exist in the countries where they -were originally domesticated, and yet be unknown to ornithologists—and -this, considering their size, habits, and -remarkable characters, seems improbable—or they must -have become extinct in the wild state. But birds breeding -on precipices, and good fliers, are unlikely to be exterminated; -and the common rock-pigeon, which has the -same habits with the domestic breeds, has not been exterminated -even on several of the smaller British islets, or -on the shores of the Mediterranean. Hence the supposed -extermination of so many species having similar habits -with the rock-pigeon seems a very rash assumption. Moreover, -the several above-named domesticated breeds have -been transported to all parts of the world, and therefore -some of them must have been carried back again into -their native country; but not one has become wild or -feral, though the dovecot-pigeon, which is the rock-pigeon -in a very slightly altered state, has become feral in several -places. Again, all recent experience shows that it is difficult -to get wild animals to breed freely under domestication; -yet, on the hypothesis of the multiple origin of our -pigeons, it must be assumed that at least seven or eight -species were so thoroughly domesticated in ancient times -by half-civilized man as to be quite prolific under confinement.</p> - -<p>An argument of great weight, and applicable in several -other cases, is, that the above-specified breeds, though -agreeing generally with the wild rock-pigeon in constitution, -habits, voice, coloring, and in most parts of their -structure, yet are certainly highly abnormal in other parts; -we may look in vain through the whole great family of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> -<i>Columbidæ</i> for a beak like that of the English carrier, or -that of the short-faced tumbler, or barb; for reversed -feathers like those of the Jacobin; for a crop like that of -the pouter; for tail-feathers like those of the fantail. -Hence it must be assumed not only that half-civilized -man succeeded in thoroughly domesticating several species, -but that he intentionally or by chance picked out -extraordinarily abnormal species; and, further, that these -very species have since all become extinct or unknown. -So many strange contingencies are improbable in the -highest degree.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_32">ORIGIN OF THE DOG.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Animals and -Plants under -Domestication,<br /> -vol. i, page 15.</div> - -<p>The first and chief point of interest in this -chapter is, whether the numerous domesticated -varieties of the dog have descended from a single -wild species, or from several. Some authors -believe that all have descended from the wolf, or -from the jackal, or from an unknown and extinct species. -Others again believe, and this of late has been the favorite -tenet, that they have descended from several species, -extinct and recent, more or less commingled together. -We shall probably never be able to ascertain their origin -with certainty. Paleontology does not throw much light -on the question, owing, on the one hand, to the close -similarity of the skulls of extinct as well as living wolves -and jackals, and owing, on the other hand, to the great -dissimilarity of the skulls of the several breeds of the -domestic dogs. It seems, however, that remains have -been found in the later tertiary deposits more like those -of a large dog than of a wolf, which favors the belief of -De Blainville that our dogs are the descendants of a -single extinct species. On the other hand, some authors -go so far as to assert that every chief domestic breed must<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> -have had its wild prototype. This latter view is extremely -improbable: it allows nothing for variation; it passes -over the almost monstrous character of some of the -breeds; and it almost necessarily assumes that a large -number of species have become extinct since man domesticated -the dog; whereas we plainly see that wild members -of the dog-family are extirpated by human agency -with much difficulty; even so recently as 1710 the wolf -existed in so small an island as Ireland.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 18.</div> - -<p>At a period between four and five thousand -years ago, various breeds—viz., pariah dogs, -greyhounds, common hounds, mastiffs, house-dogs, lap-dogs, -and turnspits—existed, more or less closely resembling -our present breeds. But there is not sufficient evidence -that any of these ancient dogs belonged to the same -identical sub-varieties with our present dogs. As long as -man was believed to have existed on this earth only about -six thousand years, this fact of the great diversity of the -breeds at so early a period was an argument of much -weight that they had proceeded from several wild sources, -for there would not have been sufficient time for their divergence -and modification. But now that we know, from -the discovery of flint tools imbedded with the remains of -extinct animals, in districts which have since undergone -great geographical changes, that man has existed for an -incomparably longer period, and bearing in mind that -the most barbarous nations possess domestic dogs, the -argument from insufficient time falls away greatly in -value.</p> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 26.</div> - -<p>From this resemblance of the half-domesticated -dogs in several countries to the wild -species still living there—from the facility with which -they can often be crossed together—from even half-tamed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> -animals being so much valued by savages—and from the -other circumstances previously remarked on which favor -their domestication, it is highly probable that the domestic -dogs of the world are descended from two well-defined -species of wolf (viz., <i>C. lupus</i> and <i>C. latrans</i>), and from -two or three other doubtful species (namely, the European, -Indian, and North African wolves); from at least -one or two South American canine species; from several -races or species of jackal; and perhaps from one or more -extinct species.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_33">ORIGIN OF THE HORSE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Animals and -Plants under -Domestication,<br /> -vol. i, page 51.</div> - -<p>The history of the horse is lost in antiquity. -Remains of this animal in a domesticated condition -have been found in the Swiss lake-dwellings, -belonging to the Neolithic period. At -the present time the number of breeds is great, as may -be seen by consulting any treatise on the horse. Looking -only to the native ponies of Great Britain, those of the -Shetland Isles, Wales, the New Forest, and Devonshire -are distinguishable; and so it is, among other instances, -with each separate island in the great Malay Archipelago. -Some of the breeds present great differences in size, shape -of ears, length of mane, proportions of the body, form of -the withers and hind-quarters, and especially in the head. -Compare the race-horse, dray-horse, and a Shetland pony -in size, configuration, and disposition; and see how much -greater the difference is than between the seven or eight -other living species of the genus <i>Equus</i>.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 52.</div> - -<p>Horses have often been observed, according -to M. Gaudry, to possess a trapezium and -a rudiment of a fifth metacarpal bone, so that “one sees<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> -appearing by monstrosity, in the foot of the horse, structures -which normally exist in the foot of the hipparion”—an -allied and extinct animal. In various countries horn-like -projections have been observed on the frontal bones -of the horse: in one case described by Mr. Percival they -arose about two inches above the orbital processes, and -were “very like those in a calf from five to six months -old,” being from half to three quarters of an inch in -length.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_34">CAUSES OF MODIFICATIONS IN THE HORSE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 54.</div> - -<p>With respect to the causes of the modifications -which horses have undergone, the conditions -of life seem to produce a considerable direct effect. -Mr. D. Forbes, who has had excellent opportunities of -comparing the horses of Spain with those of South -America, informs me that the horses of Chili, which -have lived under nearly the same conditions as their -progenitors in Andalusia, remain unaltered, while the -Pampas horses and the Puno ponies are considerably -modified. There can be no doubt that horses become -greatly reduced in size and altered in appearance by living -on mountains and islands; and this apparently is -due to want of nutritious or varied food. Every one -knows how small and rugged the ponies are on the -northern islands and on the mountains of Europe. Corsica -and Sardinia have their native ponies; and there -were, or still are, on some islands on the coast of Virginia, -ponies like those of the Shetland Islands, which -are believed to have originated through exposure to unfavorable -conditions. The Puno ponies, which inhabit -the lofty regions of the Cordillera, are, as I hear from -Mr. D. Forbes, strange little creatures, very unlike their -Spanish progenitors. Farther south, in the Falkland<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span> -Islands, the offspring of the horses imported in 1764 -have already so much deteriorated in size and strength, -that they are unfitted for catching wild cattle with the -lasso; so that fresh horses have to be brought for this -purpose from La Plata at a great expense. The reduced -size of the horses bred on both southern and northern -islands, and on several mountain-chains, can hardly have -been caused by the cold, as a similar reduction has occurred -on the Virginian and Mediterranean islands.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 56.</div> - -<p>It is scarcely possible to doubt that the -long-continued selection of qualities serviceable -to man has been the chief agent in the formation of -the several breeds of the horse. Look at a dray-horse, -and see how well adapted he is to draw heavy weights, -and how unlike in appearance to any allied wild animal. -The English race-horse is known to be derived from the -commingled blood of Arabs, Turks, and Barbs; but selection, -which was carried on during very early times in -England, together with training, have made him a very -different animal from his parent stocks.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_35">“MAKING THE WORKS OF GOD A MERE MOCKERY.”</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 130.</div> - -<p>We see several distinct species of the horse-genus -becoming, by simple variation, striped -on the legs like a zebra, or striped on the -shoulders like an ass. In the horse we see this tendency -strong whenever a dun tint appears—a tint that approaches -to that of the general coloring of the other species -of the genus. The appearance of the stripes is not -accompanied by any change of form or by any other new -character. We see this tendency to become striped most -strongly displayed in hybrids from between several of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> -most distinct species. Now observe the case of the several -breeds of pigeons: they are descended from a pigeon -(including two or three sub-species or geographical races) -of a bluish color, with certain bars and other marks; and, -when any breed assumes by simple variation a bluish tint, -these bars and other marks invariably reappear; but without -any other change of form or character. When the -oldest and truest breeds of various colors are crossed, we -see a strong tendency for the blue tint and bars and marks -to reappear in the mongrels. I have stated that the most -probable hypothesis to account for the reappearance of -very ancient characters is—that there is a <i>tendency</i> in -the young of each successive generation to produce the -long-lost character, and that this tendency, from unknown -causes, sometimes prevails. And we have just seen that -in several species of the horse-genus the stripes are either -plainer or appear more commonly in the young than in -the old. Call the breeds of pigeons, some of which have -bred true for centuries, species; and how exactly parallel -is the case with that of the species of the horse-genus! -For myself, I venture confidently to look back thousands -on thousands of generations, and I see an animal striped -like a zebra, but perhaps otherwise very differently constructed, -the common parent of our domestic horse -(whether or not it be descended from one or more wild -stocks), of the ass, the hemionus, quagga, and zebra.</p> - -<p>He who believes that each equine species was independently -created, will, I presume, assert that each species -has been created with a tendency to vary, both under -nature and under domestication, in this particular manner, -so as often to become striped like the other species of -the genus; and that each has been created with a strong -tendency, when crossed with species inhabiting distant -quarters of the world, to produce hybrids resembling in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> -their stripes, not their own parents, but other species of -the genus. To admit this view is, as it seems to me, to -reject a real for an unreal, or at least for an unknown, -cause. It makes the works of God a mere mockery and -deception; I would almost as soon believe with the old -and ignorant cosmogonists, that fossil shells had never -lived, but had been created in stone so as to mock the -shells living on the sea-shore.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_36">VARIABILITY OF CULTIVATED PLANTS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Animals and -Plants,<br /> -vol. i, page 322.</div> - -<p>I shall not enter into so much detail on -the variability of cultivated plants as in the -case of domesticated animals. The subject is -involved in much difficulty. Botanists have generally -neglected cultivated varieties, as beneath their notice. In -several cases the wild prototype is unknown or doubtfully -known; and in other cases it is hardly possible to distinguish -between escaped seedlings and truly wild plants, so -that there is no safe standard of comparison by which to -judge of any supposed amount of change. Not a few -botanists believe that several of our anciently cultivated -plants have become so profoundly modified that it is not -possible now to recognize their aboriginal parent-forms. -Equally perplexing are the doubts whether some of them -are descended from one species, or from several inextricably -commingled by crossing and variation. Variations -often pass into, and can not be distinguished from, monstrosities; -and monstrosities are of little significance for -our purpose. Many varieties are propagated solely by -grafts, buds, layers, bulbs, etc., and frequently it is not -known how far their peculiarities can be transmitted by -seminal generation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span></p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 325.</div> - -<p>From innumerable experiments made -through dire necessity by the savages of every -land, with the results handed down by tradition, the nutritious, -stimulating, and medicinal properties of the -most unpromising plants were probably first discovered. -It appears, for instance, at first an inexplicable fact that -untutored man, in three distant quarters of the world, -should have discovered, among a host of native plants, -that the leaves of the tea-plant and mattee, and the berries -of the coffee, all included a stimulating and nutritious -essence, now known to be chemically the same. We can -also see that savages suffering from severe constipation -would naturally observe whether any of the roots which -they devoured acted as aperients. We probably owe our -knowledge of the uses of almost all plants to man having -originally existed in a barbarous state, and having been -often compelled by severe want to try as food almost -everything which he could chew and swallow.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_37">SAVAGE WISDOM IN THE CULTIVATION OF PLANTS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 326.</div> - -<p>The savage inhabitants of each land, having -found out by many and hard trials what -plants were useful, or could be rendered useful by various -cooking processes, would after a time take the first step -in cultivation by planting them near their usual abodes. -Livingstone states that the savage Batokas sometimes left -wild fruit-trees standing in their gardens, and occasionally -even planted them, “a practice seen nowhere else -among the natives.” But Du Chaillu saw a palm and -some other wild fruit-trees which had been planted; and -these trees were considered private property. The next -step in cultivation, and this would require but little forethought, -would be to sow the seeds of useful plants; and,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> -as the soil near the hovels of the natives would often be -in some degree manured, improved varieties would sooner -or later arise. Or a wild and unusually good variety of a -native plant might attract the attention of some wise old -savage; and he would transplant it, or sow its seed. -That superior varieties of wild fruit-trees occasionally are -found is certain, as in the case of the American species of -hawthorns, plums, cherries, grapes, and hickories, specified -by Professor Asa Gray.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 336.</div> - -<p>We now know that man was sufficiently -civilized to cultivate the ground at an immensely -remote period; so that wheat might have been -improved long ago up to that standard of excellence -which was possible under the then existing state of agriculture. -One small class of facts supports this view of -the slow and gradual improvement of our cereals. In the -most ancient lake-habitations of Switzerland, when men -employed only flint-tools, the most extensively cultivated -wheat was a peculiar kind, with remarkably small ears -and grains. “While the grains of the modern forms are -in section from seven to eight millimetres in length, the -larger grains from the lake-habitations are six, seldom -seven, and the smaller ones only four. The ear is thus -much narrower, and the spikelets stand out more horizontally, -than in our present forms.” So again with barley, -the most ancient and most extensively cultivated -kind had small ears, and the grains were “smaller, -shorter, and nearer to each other, than in that now -grown; without the husk they were two and one half -lines long, and scarcely one and one half broad, while -those now grown have a length of three lines, and almost -the same in breadth.” These small-grained varieties of -wheat and barley are believed by Heer to be the parent-forms<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> -of certain existing allied varieties, which have supplanted -their early progenitors.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_38">UNKNOWN LAWS OF INHERITANCE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 10.</div> - -<p>The laws governing inheritance are for the -most part unknown. No one can say why the -same peculiarity in different individuals of the -same species, or in different species, is sometimes inherited -and sometimes not so; why the child often reverts in certain -characters to its grandfather or grandmother or more -remote ancestor; why a peculiarity is often transmitted -from one sex to both sexes, or to one sex alone, more commonly -but not exclusively to the like sex. It is a fact of -some importance to us that peculiarities appearing in the -males of our domestic breeds are often transmitted either -exclusively, or in a much greater degree, to the males -alone. A much more important rule, which I think may -be trusted, is that, at whatever period of life a peculiarity -first appears, it tends to reappear in the offspring at a -corresponding age, though sometimes earlier. In many -cases this could not be otherwise: thus the inherited peculiarities -in the horns of cattle could appear only in the -offspring when nearly mature; peculiarities in the silk-worm -are known to appear at the corresponding caterpillar -or cocoon stage. But hereditary diseases and some -other facts make me believe that the rule has a wider extension, -and that, when there is no apparent reason why -a peculiarity should appear at any particular age, yet that -it does tend to appear in the offspring at the same period -at which it first appeared in the parent. I believe this -rule to be of the highest importance in explaining the -laws of embryology. These remarks are, of course, confined -to the first <em>appearance</em> of the peculiarity, and not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> -to the primary cause which may have acted on the ovules -or on the male element; in nearly the same manner as -the increased length of the horns in the offspring from a -short-horned cow by a long-horned bull, though appearing -late in life, is clearly due to the male element.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Variation of -Animals and -Plants,<br /> -vol. i, page 445.</div> - -<p>If animals and plants had never been domesticated, -and wild ones alone had been observed, -we should probably never have heard -the saying that “like begets like.” The proposition would -have been as self-evident as that all the buds on the same -tree are alike, though neither proposition is strictly true. -For, as has often been remarked, probably no two individuals -are identically the same. All wild animals recognize -each other, which shows that there is some difference -between them; and, when the eye is well practiced, the -shepherd knows each sheep, and man can distinguish a -fellow-man out of millions on millions of other men.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 446.</div> - -<p>The subject of inheritance is wonderful. -When a new character arises, whatever -its nature may be, it generally tends to be inherited, -at least in a temporary and sometimes in a most persistent -manner. What can be more wonderful than that some -trifling peculiarity, not primordially attached to the species, -should be transmitted through the male or female -sexual cells, which are so minute as not to be visible -to the naked eye, and afterward through the incessant -changes of a long course of development, undergone either -in the womb or in the egg, and ultimately appear in the -offspring when mature, or even when quite old, as in the -case of certain diseases? Or, again, what can be more -wonderful than the well-ascertained fact that the minute -ovule of a good milking-cow will produce a male, from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> -whom a cell, in union with an ovule, will produce a -female, and she, when mature, will have large mammary -glands, yielding an abundant supply of milk, and even -milk of a particular quality? Nevertheless, the real subject -of surprise is, as Sir H. Holland has well remarked, -not that a character should be inherited, but that any -should ever fail to be inherited.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_39">LAWS OF INHERITANCE THAT ARE FAIRLY WELL ESTABLISHED.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Animals and -Plants,<br />vol. ii, page 61.</div> - -<p>Though much remains obscure with respect -to inheritance, we may look at the following -laws as fairly well established: Firstly, a tendency -in every character, new and old, to be transmitted -by seminal and bud generation, though often counteracted -by various known and unknown causes. Secondly, reversion -or atavism, which depends on transmission and -development being distinct powers: it acts in various -degrees and manners through both seminal and bud generation. -Thirdly, prepotency of transmission, which may be -confined to one sex, or be common to both sexes. Fourthly, -transmission, as limited by sex, generally to the same -sex in which the inherited character first appeared; and -this in many, probably most cases, depends on the new -character having first appeared at a rather late period of -life. Fifthly, inheritance at corresponding periods of -life, with some tendency to the earlier development of the -inherited character. In these laws of inheritance, as displayed -under domestication, we see an ample provision for -the production, through variability and natural selection, -of new specific forms.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_40">INHERITED PECULIARITIES IN MAN.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Animals and -Plants,<br />vol. i, page 450.</div> - -<p>Gait, gestures, voice, and general bearing, -are all inherited, as the illustrious Hunter and -Sir A. Carlisle have insisted. My father communicated -to me some striking instances, in one of which -a man died during the early infancy of his son, and my -father, who did not see this son until grown up and out -of health, declared that it seemed to him as if his old -friend had risen from the grave, with all his highly peculiar -habits and manners. Peculiar manners pass into -tricks, and several instances could be given of their inheritance; -as in the case, often quoted, of the father who -generally slept on his back, with his right leg crossed over -the left, and whose daughter, while an infant in the -cradle, followed exactly the same habit, though an attempt -was made to cure her. I will give one instance -which has fallen under my own observation, and which is -curious from being a trick associated with a peculiar state -of mind, namely, pleasurable emotion. A boy had the -singular habit, when pleased, of rapidly moving his fingers -parallel to each other, and, when much excited, of -raising both hands, with the fingers still moving, to the -sides of his face on a level with the eyes: when this boy -was almost an old man, he could still hardly resist this -trick when much pleased, but from its absurdity concealed -it. He had eight children. Of these, a girl, when -pleased, at the age of four and a half years, moved her -fingers in exactly the same way, and, what is still odder, -when much excited, she raised both her hands, with her -fingers still moving, to the sides of her face, in exactly -the same manner as her father had done, and sometimes -even still continued to do so when alone. I never heard -of any one, excepting this one man and his little daughter,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> -who had this strange habit; and certainly imitation -was in this instance out of the question.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_41">INHERITED DISEASES.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Animals and -Plants,<br />vol. ii, page 54.</div> - -<p>Large classes of diseases usually appear at -certain ages, such as St. Vitus’s dance in youth, -consumption in early mid-life, gout later, and -apoplexy still later; and these are naturally inherited at -the same period. But, even in diseases of this class, instances -have been recorded, as with St. Vitus’s dance, -showing that an unusually early or late tendency to the disease -is inheritable. In most cases the appearance of any -inherited disease is largely determined by certain critical -periods in each person’s life, as well as by unfavorable -conditions. There are many other diseases, which are -not attached to any particular period, but which certainly -tend to appear in the child at about the same age at which -the parent was first attacked. An array of high authorities, -ancient and modern, could be given in support of -this proposition. The illustrious Hunter believed in it; -and Piorry cautions the physician to look closely to the -child at the period when any grave inheritable disease -attacked the parent. Dr. Prosper Lucas, after collecting -facts from every source, asserts that affections of all kinds, -though not related to any particular period of life, tend -to reappear in the offspring at whatever period of life they -first appeared in the progenitor.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 55.</div> - -<p>Esquirol gives several striking instances of -insanity coming on at the same age as that of -a grandfather, father, and son, who all committed suicide -near their fiftieth year. Many other cases could be given, -as of a whole family who became insane at the age of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> -forty. Other cerebral affections sometimes follow the -same rule—for instance, epilepsy and apoplexy. A woman -died of the latter disease when sixty-three years old; one -of her daughters at forty-three, and the other at sixty-seven: -the latter had twelve children, who all died from -tubercular meningitis. I mention this latter case because -it illustrates a frequent occurrence, namely, a change in -the precise nature of an inherited disease, though still -affecting the same organ.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>Two brothers, their father, their paternal uncles, seven -cousins, and their paternal grandfather, were all similarly -affected by a skin-disease, called pityriasis versicolor; -“the disease, strictly limited to the males of the family -(though transmitted through the females), usually appeared -at puberty, and disappeared at about the age of -forty or forty-five years.” The second case is that of four -brothers, who, when about twelve years old, suffered -almost every week from severe headaches, which were -relieved only by a recumbent position in a dark room. -Their father, paternal uncles, paternal grandfather, and -grand-uncles all suffered in the same way from headaches, -which ceased at the age of fifty-four or fifty-five in all -those who lived so long. None of the females of the -family were affected.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_42">CAUSES OF NON-INHERITANCE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Animals and -Plants,<br />vol. i, page 470.</div> - -<p>A large number of cases of non-inheritance -are intelligible on the principle that a strong -tendency to inheritance does exist, but that it -is overborne by hostile or unfavorable conditions of life. -No one would expect that our improved pigs, if forced -during several generations to travel about and root in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> -ground for their own subsistence, would transmit, as truly -as they now do, their short muzzles and legs, and their -tendency to fatten. Dray-horses assuredly would not -long transmit their great size and massive limbs, if compelled -to live in a cold, damp, mountainous region; we -have, indeed, evidence of such deterioration in the horses -which have run wild on the Falkland Islands. European -dogs in India often fail to transmit their true character. -Our sheep in tropical countries lose their wool in a few -generations. There seems also to be a close relation between -certain peculiar pastures and the inheritance of an -enlarged tail in fat-tailed sheep, which form one of the -most ancient breeds in the world. With plants, we have -seen that tropical varieties of maize lose their proper -character in the course of two or three generations, when -cultivated in Europe; and conversely so it is with European -varieties cultivated in Brazil. Our cabbages, which -here come so true by seed, can not form heads in hot -countries. According to Carrière, the purple-leafed beech -and barberry transmit their character by seed far less -truly in certain districts than in others. Under changed -circumstances, periodical habits of life soon fail to be -transmitted, as the period of maturity in summer and -winter wheat, barley, and vetches. So it is with animals: -for instance, a person, whose statement I can trust, procured -eggs of Aylesbury ducks from that town, where -they are kept in houses, and are reared as early as possible -for the London market; the ducks bred from these eggs -in a distant part of England, hatched their first brood on -January 24th, while common ducks, kept in the same yard -and treated in the same manner, did not hatch till the -end of March; and this shows that the period of hatching -was inherited. But the grandchildren of these Aylesbury -ducks completely lost their habit of early incubation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> -and hatched their eggs at the same time with the -common ducks of the same place.</p> - -<p>Many cases of non-inheritance apparently result from -the conditions of life continually inducing fresh variability. -We have seen that when the seeds of pears, plums, -apples, etc., are sown, the seedlings generally inherit some -degree of family likeness. Mingled with these seedlings, -a few, and sometimes many, worthless, wild-looking plants -commonly appear, and their appearance may be attributed -to the principle of reversion. But scarcely a single seedling -will be found perfectly to resemble the parent-form; -and this may be accounted for by constantly recurring -variability induced by the conditions of life.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_43">STEPS BY WHICH DOMESTIC RACES HAVE BEEN PRODUCED.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 22.</div> - -<p>Some effect may be attributed to the direct -and definite action of the external conditions -of life, and some to habit; but he would be a -bold man who would account by such agencies for the -differences between a dray and race horse, a greyhound -and blood-hound, a carrier and tumbler pigeon. One of -the most remarkable features in our domesticated races is -that we see in them adaptation, not, indeed, to the animal’s -or plant’s own good, but to man’s use or fancy. -Some variations useful to him have probably arisen suddenly, -or by one step; many botanists, for instance, believe -that the fuller’s teasel, with its hooks, which can not -be rivaled by any mechanical contrivance, is only a variety -of the wild <i>Dipsacus</i>; and this amount of change may -have suddenly arisen in a seedling. So it has probably -been with the turnspit-dog; and this is known to have -been the case with the ancon sheep. But when we compare -the dray-horse and race-horse, the dromedary and camel,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> -the various breeds of sheep fitted either for cultivated -land or mountain-pasture, with the wool of one breed -good for one purpose, and that of another breed for another -purpose; when we compare the many breeds of -dogs, each good for man in different ways; when we compare -the game-cock, so pertinacious in battle, with other -breeds so little quarrelsome, with “everlasting layers” -which never desire to sit, and with the bantam, so small -and elegant; when we compare the host of agricultural, -culinary, orchard, and flower-garden races of plants, most -useful to man at different seasons and for different purposes, -or so beautiful in his eyes—we must, I think, look -further than to mere variability. We can not suppose -that all the breeds were suddenly produced as perfect and -as useful as we now see them; indeed, in many cases, -we know that this has not been their history. The key -is man’s power of accumulative selection: Nature gives -successive variations; man adds them up in certain directions -useful to him. In this sense he may be said to have -made for himself useful breeds.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 23.</div> - -<p>If selection consisted merely in separating -some very distinct variety, and breeding from -it, the principle would be so obvious as hardly to be worth -notice; but its importance consists in the great effect -produced by the accumulation in one direction, during -successive generations, of differences absolutely inappreciable -by an uneducated eye—differences which I for one -have vainly attempted to appreciate. Not one man in a -thousand has accuracy of eye and judgment sufficient to -become an eminent breeder. If gifted with these qualities, -and he studies his subject for years, and devotes his -lifetime to it with indomitable perseverance, he will succeed, -and may make great improvements; if he wants<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> -any of these qualities, he will assuredly fail. Few would -readily believe in the natural capacity and years of practice -requisite to become even a skillful pigeon-fancier.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_44">UNCONSCIOUS SELECTION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 25.</div> - -<p>A man who intends keeping pointers naturally -tries to get as good dogs as he can, and -afterward breeds from his own best dogs, but -he has no wish or expectation of permanently altering the -breed. Nevertheless, we may infer that this process, continued -during centuries, would improve and modify any -breed, in the same way as Bakewell, Collins, etc., by this -very same process, only carried on more methodically, did -greatly modify, even during their lifetimes, the forms -and qualities of their cattle. Slow and insensible changes -of this kind can never be recognized unless actual measurements -or careful drawings of the breeds in question -have been made long ago, which may serve for comparison. -In some cases, however, unchanged or but little -changed individuals of the same breed exist in less civilized -districts, where the breed has been less improved. -There is reason to believe that King Charles’s spaniel has -been unconsciously modified to a large extent since the -time of that monarch. Some highly competent authorities -are convinced that the setter is directly derived from -the spaniel, and has probably been slowly altered from it. -It is known that the English pointer has been greatly -changed within the last century, and in this case the -change has, it is believed, been chiefly effected by crosses -with the fox-hound; but what concerns us is, that the -change has been effected unconsciously and gradually, -and yet so effectually, that, though the old Spanish -pointer certainly came from Spain, Mr. Borrow has not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> -seen, as I am informed by him, any native dog in Spain -like our pointer.</p> - -<p>By a similar process of selection, and by careful training, -English race-horses have come to surpass in fleetness -and size the parent Arabs, so that the latter, by the regulations -for the Goodwood races, are favored in the weights -which they carry. Lord Spencer and others have shown -how the cattle of England have increased in weight and -in early maturity, compared with the stock formerly kept -in this country.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 26.</div> - -<p>If there exist savages so barbarous as never -to think of the inherited character of the offspring -of their domestic animals, yet any one animal particularly -useful to them, for any special purpose, would -be carefully preserved during famines and other accidents, -to which savages are so liable, and such choice -animals would thus generally leave more offspring than -the inferior ones; so that in this case there would be a -kind of unconscious selection going on. We see the -value set on animals even by the barbarians of Tierra del -Fuego, by their killing and devouring their old women, -in times of dearth, as of less value than their dogs.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_45">ADAPTATION OF ANIMALS TO THE FANCIES OF MAN.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 28.</div> - -<p>On the view here given of the important -part which selection by man has played, it becomes -at once obvious how it is that our domestic races -show adaptation in their structure or in their habits to -man’s wants or fancies. We can, I think, further understand -the frequently abnormal character of our domestic -races, and likewise their differences being so great in external -characters, and relatively so slight in internal parts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> -or organs. Man can hardly select, or only with much -difficulty, any deviation of structure excepting such as -is externally visible; and, indeed, he rarely cares for -what is internal. He can never act by selection, excepting -on variations which are first given to him in some -slight degree by nature. No man would ever try to make -a fantail till he saw a pigeon with a tail developed in -some slight degree in an unusual manner, or a pouter till -he saw a pigeon with a crop of somewhat unusual size; -and the more abnormal or unusual any character was -when it first appeared, the more likely it would be to -catch his attention. But to use such an expression as -trying to make a fantail is, I have no doubt, in most -cases, utterly incorrect. The man who first selected a -pigeon with a slightly larger tail, never dreamed what -the descendants of that pigeon would become through -long-continued, partly unconscious and partly methodical, -selection. Perhaps the parent-bird of all fantails -had only fourteen tail-feathers somewhat expanded, like -the present Java fantail, or like individuals of other and -distinct breeds, in which as many as seventeen tail-feathers -have been counted. Perhaps the first pouter-pigeon -did not inflate its crop much more than the turbit now -does the upper part of its œsophagus—a habit which is -disregarded by all fanciers, as it is not one of the points -of the breed.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_46">DOUBTFUL SPECIES.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 36.</div> - -<p>The forms which possess in some considerable -degree the character of species, but which -are so closely similar to other forms, or are so -closely linked to them by intermediate gradations, that -naturalists do not like to rank them as distinct species, -are in several respects the most important for us. We<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> -have every reason to believe that many of these doubtful -and closely allied forms have permanently retained their -characters for a long time; for as long, as far as we know, -as have good and true species. Practically, when a naturalist -can unite by means of intermediate links any two -forms, he treats the one as a variety of the other; ranking -the most common, but sometimes the one first described, -as the species, and the other as the variety. But -cases of great difficulty, which I will not here enumerate, -sometimes arise in deciding whether or not to rank one -form as a variety of another, even when they are closely -connected by intermediate links; nor will the commonly-assumed -hybrid nature of the intermediate forms always -remove the difficulty. In very many cases, however, one -form is ranked as a variety of another, not because the -intermediate links have actually been found, but because -analogy leads the observer to suppose either that they do -now somewhere exist, or may formerly have existed; and -here a wide door for the entry of doubt and conjecture is -opened.</p> - -<p>Hence, in determining whether a form should be -ranked as a species or a variety, the opinion of naturalists -having sound judgment and wide experience seems the -only guide to follow. We must, however, in many cases, -decide by a majority of naturalists, for few well-marked -and well-known varieties can be named which have not -been ranked as species by at least some competent -judges.</p> - -<p>That varieties of this doubtful nature are far from -uncommon can not be disputed. Compare the several -floras of Great Britain, of France, or of the United States, -drawn up by different botanists, and see what a surprising -number of forms have been ranked by one botanist as -good species, and by another as mere varieties. Mr. H.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> -C. Watson, to whom I lie under deep obligation for assistance -of all kinds, has marked for me one hundred and -eighty-two British plants, which are generally considered -as varieties, but which have all been ranked by botanists -as species; and in making this list he has omitted many -trifling varieties, but which nevertheless have been ranked -by some botanists as species, and he has entirely omitted -several highly polymorphic genera. Under genera, including -the most polymorphic forms, Mr. Babington gives -two hundred and fifty-one species, whereas Mr. Bentham -gives only one hundred and twelve—a difference of one -hundred and thirty-nine doubtful forms!</p> - -<h3 id="sec_47">SPECIES AN ARBITRARY TERM.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 41.</div> - -<p>Certainly no clear line of demarkation has -as yet been drawn between species and sub-species—that -is, the forms which in the opinion of some -naturalists come very near to, but do not quite arrive at, -the rank of species; or, again, between sub-species and -well-marked varieties, or between lesser varieties and individual -differences. These differences blend into each -other by an insensible series; and a series impresses the -mind with the idea of an actual passage.</p> - -<p>Hence I look at individual differences, though of -small interest to the systematist, as of the highest importance -for us, as being the first steps toward such slight -varieties as are barely thought worth recording in works -on natural history. And I look at varieties which are in -any degree more distinct and permanent as steps toward -more strongly-marked and permanent varieties; and at -the latter, as leading to sub-species, and then to species. -The passage from one stage of difference to another may, -in many cases, be the simple result of the nature of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> -organism, and of the different physical conditions to -which it has long been exposed; but with respect to the -more important and adaptive characters, the passage from -one stage of difference to another may be safely attributed -to the cumulative action of natural selection, hereafter -to be explained, and to the effects of the increased -use or disuse of parts. A well-marked variety may therefore -be called an incipient species; but whether this belief -is justifiable must be judged by the weight of the -various facts and considerations to be given throughout -this work.</p> - -<p>It need not be supposed that all varieties or incipient -species attain the rank of species. They may become extinct, -or they may endure as varieties for very long periods, -as has been shown to be the case by Mr. Wollaston -with the varieties of certain fossil land-shells in Madeira, -and with plants by Gaston de Saporta. If a variety were -to flourish so as to exceed in numbers the parent species, -it would then rank as the species, and the species as the -variety; or it might come to supplant and exterminate -the parent species; or both might coexist, and both rank -as independent species. But we shall hereafter return to -this subject.</p> - -<p>From these remarks it will be seen that I look at the -term species as one arbitrarily given, for the sake of convenience, -to a set of individuals closely resembling each -other, and that it does not essentially differ from the -term variety, which is given to less distinct and more -fluctuating forms. The term variety, again, in comparison -with mere individual differences, is also applied arbitrarily, -for convenience’ sake.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_48">THE TRUE PLAN OF CREATION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 425.</div> - -<p>When the views advanced by me in this -volume, and by Mr. Wallace, or when analogous -views on the origin of species are generally -admitted, we can dimly foresee that there will be a considerable -revolution in natural history. Systematists will be -able to pursue their labors as at present; but they will not -be incessantly haunted by the shadowy doubt whether -this or that form be a true species.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 426.</div> - -<p>Hereafter we shall be compelled to acknowledge -that the only distinction between species -and well-marked varieties is, that the latter are known, or -believed, to be connected at the present day by intermediate -gradations, whereas species were formerly thus connected. -Hence, without rejecting the consideration of the -present existence of intermediate gradations between any -two forms, we shall be led to weigh more carefully and to -value higher the actual amount of difference between them. -It is quite possible that forms now generally acknowledged -to be merely varieties may hereafter be thought worthy of -specific names; and in this case scientific and common -language will come into accordance. In short, we shall -have to treat species in the same manner as those naturalists -treat genera who admit that genera are merely artificial -combinations made for convenience. This may not -be a cheering prospect; but we shall at least be freed -from the vain search for the undiscovered and undiscoverable -essence of the term species.</p> - -<p>The other and more general departments of natural -history will rise greatly in interest. The terms used by -naturalists, of affinity, relationship, community of type, -paternity, morphology, adaptive characters, rudimentary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> -and aborted organs, etc., will cease to be metaphorical, -and will have a plain signification. When we no longer -look at an organic being as a savage looks at a ship, as -something wholly beyond his comprehension; when we -regard every production of nature as one which has had -a long history; when we contemplate every complex -structure and instinct as the summing up of many contrivances, -each useful to the possessor, in the same way -as any great mechanical invention is the summing up of -the labor, the experience, the reason, and even the blunders -of numerous workmen; when we thus view each -organic being, how far more interesting—I speak from -experience—does the study of natural history become!</p> - -<p>A grand and almost untrodden field of inquiry will be -opened, on the causes and laws of variation, on correlation, -on the effects of use and disuse, on the direct action -of external conditions, and so forth. The study of -domestic productions will rise immensely in value. A -new variety raised by man will be a more important and -interesting subject for study than one more species added -to the infinitude of already recorded species. Our classifications -will come to be, as far as they can be so made, -genealogies, and will then truly give what may be called -the plan of creation.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="IV">IV.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 50.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">A struggle</span> for existence inevitably follows -from the high rate at which all organic -beings tend to increase. Every being, which -during its natural lifetime produces several eggs or seeds, -must suffer destruction during some period of its life, -and during some season or occasional year, otherwise, on -the principle of geometrical increase, its numbers would -quickly become so inordinately great that no country -could support the product. Hence, as more individuals -are produced than can possibly survive, there must in -every case be a struggle for existence, either one individual -with another of the same species, or with the individuals -of distinct species, or with the physical conditions -of life. It is the doctrine of Malthus applied with -manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms; -for in this case there can be no artificial increase -of food, and no prudential restraint from marriage. Although -some species may be now increasing, more or less -rapidly, in numbers, all can not do so, for the world -would not hold them.</p> - -<p>There is no exception to the rule that every organic -being naturally increases at so high a rate, that, if not -destroyed, the earth would soon be covered with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> -progeny of a single pair. Even slow-breeding man has -doubled in twenty-five years, and at this rate, in less than -a thousand years, there would literally not be standing-room -for his progeny. Linnæus has calculated that if an -annual plant produced only two seeds—and there is no -plant so unproductive as this—and their seedlings next -year produced two, and so on, then in twenty years there -would be a million plants. The elephant is reckoned the -slowest breeder of all known animals, and I have taken -some pains to estimate its probable minimum rate of -natural increase; it will be safest to assume that it begins -breeding when thirty years old, and goes on breeding till -ninety years old, bringing forth six young in the interval, -and surviving till one hundred years old; if this be so, -after a period of from seven hundred and forty to seven -hundred and fifty years, there would be nearly nineteen -million elephants alive, descended from the first pair.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_49">DEATH INEVITABLE IN THE FIGHT FOR LIFE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 52.</div> - -<p>In a state of nature almost every full-grown -plant annually produces seed, and among -animals there are very few which do not annually pair. -Hence we may confidently assert that all plants and animals -are tending to increase at a geometrical ratio, that -all would rapidly stock every station in which they could -anyhow exist, and that this geometrical tendency to increase -must be checked by destruction at some period of -life. Our familiarity with the larger domestic animals -tends, I think, to mislead us: we see no great destruction -falling on them, but we do not keep in mind that thousands -are annually slaughtered for food, and that in a -state of nature an equal number would have somehow to -be disposed of.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span></p> - -<p>The only difference between organisms which annually -produce eggs or seeds by the thousand and those which -produce extremely few is, that the slow breeders would -require a few more years to people, under favorable conditions, -a whole district, let it be ever so large. The condor -lays a couple of eggs and the ostrich a score, and yet -in the same country the condor may be the more numerous -of the two; the Fulmar petrel lays but one egg, yet -it is believed to be the most numerous bird in the world. -One fly deposits hundreds of eggs, and another, like the -<i>Hippobosca</i>, a single one; but this difference does not -determine how many individuals of the two species can -be supported in a district. A large number of eggs is of -some importance to those species which depend on a fluctuating -amount of food, for it allows them rapidly to increase -in number. But the real importance of a large -number of eggs or seeds is to make up for much destruction -at some period of life; and this period in the great -majority of cases is an early one. If an animal can in -any way protect its own eggs or young, a small number -may be produced, and yet the average stock be fully kept -up; but, if many eggs or young are destroyed, many must -be produced, or the species will become extinct. It would -suffice to keep up the full number of a tree, which lived -on an average for a thousand years, if a single seed were -produced once in a thousand years, supposing that this -seed were never destroyed, and could be insured to germinate -in a fitting place. So that, in all cases, the average -number of any animal or plant depends only indirectly -on the number of its eggs or seeds.</p> - -<p>In looking at Nature, it is most necessary to keep the -foregoing considerations always in mind—never to forget -that every single organic being may be said to be striving -to the utmost to increase in numbers; that each lives by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> -a struggle at some period of its life; that heavy destruction -inevitably falls either on the young or old during -each generation or at recurrent intervals. Lighten any -check, mitigate the destruction ever so little, and the -number of the species will almost instantaneously increase -to any amount.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_50">“INEXPLICABLE ON THE THEORY OF CREATION.”</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 413.</div> - -<p>As each species tends by its geometrical -rate of reproduction to increase inordinately -in number, and as the modified descendants -of each species will be enabled to increase by as much as -they become more diversified in habits and structure, so -as to be able to seize on many and widely different places -in the economy of nature, there will be a constant tendency -in natural selection to preserve the most divergent -offspring of any one species. Hence, during a long-continued -course of modification, the slight differences characteristic -of varieties of the same species tend to be augmented -into the greater differences characteristic of the -species of the same genus. New and improved varieties -will inevitably supplant and exterminate the older, -less improved, and intermediate varieties; and thus species -are rendered to a large extent defined and distinct -objects. Dominant species belonging to the larger groups -within each class tend to give birth to new and dominant -forms; so that each large group tends to become still -larger, and at the same time more divergent in character. -But, as all groups can not thus go on increasing in size, -for the world would not hold them, the more dominant -groups beat the less dominant. This tendency in the -large groups to go on increasing in size and diverging in -character, together with the inevitable contingency of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> -much extinction, explains the arrangement of all the -forms of life in groups subordinate to groups, all within -a few great classes, which has prevailed throughout all -time. This grand fact of the grouping of all organic -beings under what is called the Natural System is utterly -inexplicable on the theory of creation.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_51">OBSCURE CHECKS TO INCREASE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 53.</div> - -<p>The causes which check the natural tendency -of each species to increase are most obscure. -Look at the most vigorous species; by -as much as it swarms in numbers, by so much will it -tend to increase still further. We know not exactly what -the checks are even in a single instance. Nor will this -surprise any one who reflects how ignorant we are on this -head, even in regard to mankind, although so incomparably -better known than any other animal.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>Eggs or very young animals seem generally to suffer -most, but this is not invariably the case. With plants -there is a vast destruction of seeds, but, from some observations -which I have made it appears that the seedlings -suffer most from germinating in ground already thickly -stocked with other plants. Seedlings, also, are destroyed -in vast numbers by various enemies; for instance, on a -piece of ground three feet long and two wide, dug and -cleared, and where there could be no choking from other -plants, I marked all the seedlings of our native weeds as -they came up, and out of 357 no less than 295 were destroyed, -chiefly by slugs and insects. If turf which has -long been mown, and the case would be the same with -turf closely browsed by quadrupeds, be let to grow, the -more vigorous plants gradually kill the less vigorous,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> -though fully grown plants; thus out of twenty species -growing on a little plot of mown turf (three feet by four) -nine species perished, from the other species being allowed -to grow up freely.</p> - -<p>The amount of food for each species, of course, gives -the extreme limit to which each can increase; but very -frequently it is not the obtaining food, but the serving as -prey to other animals, which determines the average -number of a species. Thus, there seems to be little doubt -that the stock of partridges, grouse, and hares on any -large estate depends chiefly on the destruction of vermin. -If not one head of game were shot during the next twenty -years in England, and, at the same time, if no vermin -were destroyed, there would, in all probability, be less -game than at present, although hundreds of thousands of -game animals are now annually shot. On the other hand, -in some cases, as with the elephant, none are destroyed -by beasts of prey; for even the tiger in India most rarely -dares to attack a young elephant protected by its dam.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_52">CLIMATE AS A CHECK TO INCREASE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 54.</div> - -<p>Climate plays an important part in determining -the average numbers of a species, and -periodical seasons of extreme cold or drought seem to be -the most effective of all checks. I estimated (chiefly from -the greatly reduced numbers of nests in the spring) that -the winter of 1854–’55 destroyed four fifths of the birds -in my own grounds; and this is a tremendous destruction, -when we remember that ten per cent is an extraordinarily -severe mortality from epidemics with man. The -action of climate seems at first sight to be quite independent -of the struggle for existence; but, in so far as -climate chiefly acts in reducing food, it brings on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> -most severe struggle between the individuals, whether of -the same or of distinct species, which subsist on the same -kind of food. Even when climate—for instance, extreme -cold—acts directly, it will be the least vigorous individuals, -or those which have got least food through the advancing -winter, which will suffer most. When we travel from -south to north, or from a damp region to a dry, we invariably -see some species gradually getting rarer and rarer, -and finally disappearing; and, the change of climate being -conspicuous, we are tempted to attribute the whole -effect to its direct action. But this is a false view: we -forget that each species, even where it most abounds, is -constantly suffering enormous destruction at some period -of its life, from enemies or from competitors for the same -place and food; and, if these enemies or competitors be -in the least degree favored by any slight change of climate, -they will increase in numbers; and, as each area is already -fully stocked with inhabitants, the other species must -decrease. When we travel southward and see a species -decreasing in numbers, we may feel sure that the cause -lies quite as much in other species being favored as in -this one being hurt. So it is when we travel northward, -but in a somewhat lesser degree, for the number of species -of all kinds, and therefore of competitors, decreases -northward; hence, in going northward, or in ascending a -mountain, we far oftener meet with stunted forms, due -to the <em>directly</em> injurious action of climate, than we do -in proceeding southward or in descending a mountain. -When we reach the Arctic regions, or snow-capped summits, -or absolute deserts, the struggle for life is almost -exclusively with the elements.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_53">INFLUENCE OF INSECTS IN THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 56.</div> - -<p>In several parts of the world insects determine -the existence of cattle. Perhaps Paraguay -offers the most curious instance of this; for here neither -cattle nor horses nor dogs have ever run wild, though they -swarm southward and northward in a feral state; and -Azara and Rengger have shown that this is caused by the -greater number in Paraguay of a certain fly, which lays its -eggs in the navels of these animals when first born. The -increase of these flies, numerous as they are, must be habitually -checked by some means, probably by other parasitic -insects. Hence, if certain insectivorous birds were to -decrease in Paraguay, the parasitic insects would probably -increase; and this would lessen the number of the navel-frequenting -flies; then cattle and horses would become -feral, and this would certainly greatly alter (as indeed I -have observed in parts of South America) the vegetation: -this again would largely affect the insects, and this, as we -have just seen in Staffordshire, the insectivorous birds, -and so onward in ever-increasing circles of complexity. -Not that under nature the relations will ever be as simple -as this. Battle within battle must be continually recurring -with varying success; and yet in the long run the -forces are so nicely balanced that the face of Nature remains -for long periods of time uniform, though assuredly -the merest trifle would give the victory to one organic -being over another. Nevertheless, so profound is our -ignorance, and so high our presumption, that we marvel -when we hear of the extinction of an organic being; and, -as we do not see the cause, we invoke cataclysms to desolate -the world, or invent laws on the duration of the -forms of life!</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span></p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 57.</div> - -<p>Nearly all our orchidaceous plants absolutely -require the visits of insects to remove -their pollen-masses and thus to fertilize them. I find -from experiments that humble-bees are almost indispensable -to the fertilization of the heart’s-ease (<i>Viola tricolor</i>), -for other bees do not visit this flower. I have also found -that the visits of bees are necessary for the fertilization of -some kinds of clover: for instance, 20 heads of Dutch -clover (<i>Trifolium repens</i>) yielded 2,290 seeds, but 20 other -heads protected from bees produced not one. Again, 100 -heads of red clover (<i>T. pratense</i>) produced 2,700 seeds, -but the same number of protected heads produced not a -single seed. Humble-bees alone visit red clover, as other -bees can not reach the nectar. It has been suggested that -moths may fertilize the clovers; but I doubt whether they -could do so in the case of the red clover, from their weight -not being sufficient to depress the wing-petals. Hence we -may infer as highly probable that, if the whole genus of -humble-bees became extinct or very rare in England, the -heart’s-ease and red clover would become very rare, or -wholly disappear. The number of humble-bees in any -district depends in a great measure on the number of -field-mice, which destroy their combs and nests; and -Colonel Newman, who has long attended to the habits -of humble-bees, believes that “more than two thirds -of them are thus destroyed all over England.” Now, -the number of mice is largely dependent, as every one -knows, on the number of cats; and Colonel Newman -says, “Near villages and small towns I have found -the nests of humble-bees more numerous than elsewhere, -which I attribute to the number of cats that -destroy the mice.” Hence it is quite credible that the -presence of a feline animal in large numbers in a district -might determine, through the intervention first of mice<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> -and then of bees, the frequency of certain flowers in -that district!</p> - -<h3 id="sec_54">NO SUCH THING AS CHANCE IN THE RESULT OF THE -STRUGGLE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 58.</div> - -<p>When we look at the plants and bushes -clothing an entangled bank, we are tempted to -attribute their proportional numbers and kinds to what -we call chance. But how false a view is this! Every -one has heard that, when an American forest is cut down, -a very different vegetation springs up; but it has been -observed that ancient Indian ruins in the Southern United -States, which must formerly have been cleared of trees, -now display the same beautiful diversity and proportion -of kinds as in the surrounding virgin forest. What a -struggle must have gone on during long centuries between -the several kinds of trees, each annually scattering its -seeds by the thousand; what war between insect and insect—between -insects, snails, and other animals with birds -and beasts of prey—all striving to increase, all feeding on -each other, or on the trees, their seeds and seedlings, or -on the other plants which first clothed the ground and -thus checked the growth of the trees! Throw up a handful -of feathers, and all fall to the ground according to -definite laws; but how simple is the problem where each -shall fall compared to that of the action and reaction of -the innumerable plants and animals which have determined, -in the course of centuries, the proportional numbers -and kinds of trees now growing on the old Indian -ruins!</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 61.</div> - -<p>It is good thus to try in imagination to give -to any one species an advantage over another. -Probably in no single instance should we know what to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> -do. This ought to convince us of our ignorance on the -mutual relations of all organic beings—a conviction as -necessary as it is difficult to acquire. All that we can -do is to keep steadily in mind that each organic being is -striving to increase in a geometrical ratio; that each at -some period of its life, during some season of the year, -during each generation or at intervals, has to struggle for -life and to suffer great destruction. When we reflect on -this struggle, we may console ourselves with the full belief -that the war of nature is not incessant, that no fear -is felt, that death is generally prompt, and that the vigorous, -the healthy, and the happy survive and multiply.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="V">V.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">NATURAL SELECTION: OR, THE SURVIVAL -OF THE FITTEST.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Variation of -Animals and -Plants under -Domestication,<br /> -vol. i, page 6.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">The</span> preservation, during the battle for -life, of varieties which possess any advantage -in structure, constitution, or instinct, I have -called Natural Selection; and Mr. Herbert -Spencer has well expressed the same idea by -the Survival of the Fittest. The term “natural selection” -is in some respects a bad one, as it seems to imply -conscious choice; but this will be disregarded after a little -familiarity. No one objects to chemists speaking of -“elective affinity”; and certainly an acid has no more -choice in combining with a base than the conditions of -life have in determining whether or not a new form be -selected or preserved. The term is so far a good one as -it brings into connection the production of domestic races -by man’s power of selection and the natural preservation -of varieties and species in a state of nature. For brevity -sake I sometimes speak of natural selection as an intelligent -power; in the same way as astronomers speak of the -attraction of gravity as ruling the movements of the -planets, or as agriculturists speak of man making domestic -races by his power of selection. In the one case, as in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> -the other, selection does nothing without variability, and -this depends in some manner on the action of the surrounding -circumstances in the organism. I have, also, -often personified the word Nature; for I have found it -difficult to avoid this ambiguity; but I mean by nature -only the aggregate action and product of many natural -laws, and by laws only the ascertained sequence of events.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_55">AN INVENTED HYPOTHESIS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Animals and -Plants,<br />vol. i, page 9.</div> - -<p>In scientific investigations it is permitted -to invent any hypothesis, and if it explains -various large and independent classes of facts -it rises to the rank of a well-grounded theory. The undulations -of the ether and even its existence are hypothetical, -yet every one now admits the undulatory theory -of light. The principle of natural selection may be looked -at as a mere hypothesis, but rendered in some degree -probable by what we positively know of the variability of -organic beings in a state of nature—by what we positively -know of the struggle for existence, and the consequent -almost inevitable preservation of favorable variations—and -from the analogical formation of domestic races. -Now, this hypothesis may be tested—and this seems to me -the only fair and legitimate manner of considering the -whole question—by trying whether it explains several -large and independent classes of facts; such as the geological -succession of organic beings, their distribution in -past and present times, and their mutual affinities and -homologies. If the principle of natural selection does -explain these and other large bodies of facts, it ought to -be received. On the ordinary view of each species having -been independently created, we gain no scientific explanation -of any one of these facts. We can only say that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> -it has so pleased the Creator to command that the past -and present inhabitants of the world should appear in a -certain order and in certain areas; that he has impressed -on them the most extraordinary resemblances, and has -classed them in groups subordinate to groups. But by -such statements we gain no new knowledge; we do not -connect together facts and laws; we explain nothing.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 12.</div> - -<p>These facts have as yet received no explanation -on the theory of independent creation; -they can not be grouped together under one point of view, -but each has to be considered as an ultimate fact. As the -first origin of life on this earth, as well as the continued -life of each individual, is at present quite beyond the -scope of science, I do not wish to lay much stress on the -greater simplicity of the view of a few forms or of only -one form having been originally created, instead of innumerable -miraculous creations having been necessary -at innumerable periods; though this more simple view -accords well with Maupertuis’s philosophical axiom of -“least action.”</p> - -<h3 id="sec_56">HOW FAR THE THEORY MAY BE EXTENDED.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 13.</div> - -<p>In considering how far the theory of natural -selection may be extended—that is, in determining -from how many progenitors the inhabitants of -the world have descended—we may conclude that at least -all the members of the same class have descended from a -single ancestor. A number of organic beings are included -in the same class, because they present, independently of -their habits of life, the same fundamental type of structure, -and because they graduate into each other. Moreover, -members of the same class can in most cases be -shown to be closely alike at an early embryonic age.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span> -These facts can be explained on the belief of their descent -from a common form; therefore it may be safely -admitted that all the members of the same class are -descended from one progenitor. But as the members -of quite distinct classes have something in common in -structure and much in common in constitution, analogy -would lead us one step further, and to infer as probable -that all living creatures are descended from a single prototype.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent of -Man, part I.,<br /> -page 61.</div> - -<p>Thus a large yet undefined extension may -safely be given to the direct and indirect results -of natural selection; but I now admit, -after reading the essay by Nägeli on plants, and the remarks -by various authors with respect to animals, more -especially those recently made by Professor Broca, that in -the earlier editions of my “Origin of Species” I perhaps -attributed too much to the action of natural selection or -the survival of the fittest. I have altered the fifth edition -of the “Origin” so as to confine my remarks to adaptive -changes of structure; but I am convinced, from the light -gained during even the last few years, that very many -structures which now appear to us useless will hereafter -be proved to be useful, and will therefore come -within the range of natural selection. Nevertheless, I -did not formerly consider sufficiently the existence of -structures, which, as far as we can at present judge, are -neither beneficial nor injurious; and this I believe to be -one of the greatest oversights as yet detected in my work. -I may be permitted to say, as some excuse, that I had -two distinct objects in view: firstly, to show that species -had not been separately created; and, secondly, that natural -selection had been the chief agent of change, though -largely aided by the inherited effects of habit, and slightly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> -by the direct action of the surrounding conditions. I -was not, however, able to annul the influence of my -former belief, then almost universal, that each species -had been purposely created; and this led to my tacit -assumption that every detail of structure, excepting rudiments, -was of some special, though unrecognized, service. -Any one with this assumption in his mind would naturally -extend too far the action of natural selection, either -during past or present times. Some of those who admit -the principle of evolution, but reject natural selection, -seem to forget, when criticising my book, that I had the -above two objects in view; hence if I have erred in giving -to natural selection great power, which I am very far -from admitting, or in having exaggerated its power, -which is in itself probable, I have at least, as I hope, -done good service in aiding to overthrow the dogma of -separate creations.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_57">IS THERE ANY LIMIT TO WHAT SELECTION CAN EFFECT?</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Animals and -Plants,<br />vol. ii, page 228.</div> - -<p>The foregoing discussion naturally leads to -the question, What is the limit to the possible -amount of variation in any part or quality, -and, consequently, is there any limit to what selection -can effect? Will a race-horse ever be reared fleeter than -Eclipse? Can our prize cattle and sheep be still further -improved? Will a gooseberry ever weigh more than that -produced by “London” in 1852? Will the beet-root in -France yield a greater percentage of sugar? Will future -varieties of wheat and other grain produce heavier crops -than our present varieties? These questions can not be -positively answered; but it is certain that we ought to -be cautious in answering them by a negative. In some -lines of variation the limit has probably been reached.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> -Youatt believes that the reduction of bone in some of our -sheep has already been carried so far that it entails great -delicacy of constitution.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 229.</div> - -<p>No doubt there is a limit beyond which -the organization can not be modified compatibly -with health or life. The extreme degree of fleetness, -for instance, of which a terrestrial animal is capable, -may have been acquired by our present race-horses; but, -as Mr. Wallace has well remarked, the question that interests -us “is not whether indefinite and unlimited change -in any or all directions is possible, but whether such -differences as do occur in nature could have been produced -by the accumulation of varieties by selection.” -And in the case of our domestic productions, there can -be no doubt that many parts of the organization, to -which man has attended, have been thus modified to a -greater degree than the corresponding parts in the natural -species of the same genera or even families. We see this -in the form and size of our light and heavy dogs or -horses, in the beak and many other characters of our -pigeons, in the size and quality of many fruits, in comparison -with the species belonging to the same natural -groups.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_58">HAS ORGANIZATION ADVANCED?</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br />page 308.</div> - -<p>The problem whether organization on the -whole has advanced is in many ways excessively -intricate. The geological record, at all -times imperfect, does not extend far enough back to -show with unmistakable clearness that within the known -history of the world organization has largely advanced. -Even at the present day, looking to members of the same -class, naturalists are not unanimous which forms ought<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> -to be ranked as highest: thus, some look at the selaceans -or sharks, from their approach in some important points -of structure to reptiles, as the highest fish; others look -at the teleosteans as the highest. The ganoids stand -intermediate between the selaceans and teleosteans; the -latter at the present day are largely preponderant in -number; but formerly selaceans and ganoids alone existed; -and in this case, according to the standard of -highness chosen, so will it be said that fishes have advanced -or retrograded in organization. To attempt to -compare members of distinct types in the scale of highness -seems hopeless; who will decide whether a cuttle-fish -be higher than a bee—that insect which the great -Von Baer believed to be “in fact more highly organized -than a fish, although upon another type”? In the complex -struggle for life it is quite credible that crustaceans, -not very high in their own class, might beat cephalopods, -the highest mollusks; and such crustaceans, -though not highly developed, would stand very high in -the scale of invertebrate animals, if judged by the most -decisive of all trials—the law of battle. Besides these -inherent difficulties in deciding which forms are the most -advanced in organization, we ought not solely to compare -the highest members of a class at any two periods—though -undoubtedly this is one and perhaps the most important -element in striking a balance—but we ought to compare -all the members, high and low, at the two periods. At -an ancient epoch the highest and lowest molluscoidal animals, -namely, cephalopods and brachiopods, swarmed in -numbers; at the present time both groups are greatly -reduced, while others, intermediate in organization, have -largely increased; consequently some naturalists maintain -that mollusks were formerly more highly developed -than at present; but a stronger case can be made out on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> -the opposite side, by considering the vast reduction of -brachiopods, and the fact that our existing cephalopods, -though few in number, are more highly organized than -their ancient representatives. We ought also to compare -the relative proportional numbers at any two periods of -the high and low classes throughout the world; if, for -instance, at the present day fifty thousand kinds of vertebrate -animals exist, and if we knew that at some former -period only ten thousand kinds existed, we ought -to look at this increase in number in the highest class, -which implies a great displacement of lower forms, as a -decided advance in the organization of the world. We -thus see how hopelessly difficult it is to compare with perfect -fairness, under such extremely complex relations, the -standard of organization of the imperfectly-known faunas -of successive periods.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 121.</div> - -<p>There may truly be said to be a constant -struggle going on between, on the one hand, -the tendency to reversion to a less perfect -state, as well as an innate tendency to new variations, -and, on the other hand, the power of steady selection to -keep the breed true. In the long run selection gains the -day, and we do not expect to fail so completely as to -breed bird as coarse as a common tumbler-pigeon from a -good short-faced strain. But, as long as selection is rapidly -going on, much variability in the parts undergoing modification -may always be expected.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_59">A HIGHER WORKMANSHIP THAN MAN’S.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 65.</div> - -<p>As man can produce, and certainly has -produced, a great result by his methodical and -unconscious means of selection, what may not -natural selection affect? Man can act only on external<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> -and visible characters: Nature, if I may be allowed to -personify the natural preservation or survival of the fittest, -cares nothing for appearances, except in so far as -they are useful to any being. She can act on every internal -organ, on every shade of constitutional difference, on -the whole machinery of life. Man selects only for his -own good: Nature only for that of the being which she -tends. Every selected character is fully exercised by her, -as is implied by the fact of their selection. Man keeps -the natives of many climates in the same country; he -seldom exercises each selected character in some peculiar -and fitting manner; he feeds a long and a short beaked -pigeon on the same food; he does not exercise a long-backed -or long-legged quadruped in any peculiar manner; -he exposes sheep with long and short wool to the same -climate. He does not allow the most vigorous males to -struggle for the females. He does not rigidly destroy all -inferior animals, but protects during each varying season, -as far as lies in his power, all his productions. He often -begins his selection by some half-monstrous form; or at -least by some modification prominent enough to catch -the eye or to be plainly useful to him. Under nature, the -slightest differences of structure or constitution may well -turn the nicely-balanced scale in the struggle for life, and -so be preserved. How fleeting are the wishes and efforts -of man! how short his time! and consequently how poor -will be his results, compared with those accumulated by -Nature during whole geological periods! Can we wonder, -then, that Nature’s productions should be far “truer” -in character than man’s productions; that they should be -infinitely better adapted to the most complex conditions -of life, and should plainly bear the stamp of far higher -workmanship?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span></p> - -<p>It may metaphorically be said that natural selection is -daily and hourly scrutinizing, throughout the world, the -slightest variations: rejecting those that are bad, preserving -and adding up all that are good; silently and -insensibly working, <em>whenever and wherever opportunity -offers</em>, at the improvement of each organic being in relation -to its organic and inorganic conditions of life. We -see nothing of these slow changes in progress, until the -hand of Time has marked the lapse of ages, and then so -imperfect is our view into long-past geological ages that -we see only that the forms of life are now different from -what they formerly were.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 66.</div> - -<p>Although natural selection can act only -through and for the good of each being, yet -characters and structures, which we are apt to consider -as of very trifling importance, may thus be acted on. -When we see leaf-eating insects green and bark-feeders -mottled-gray, the Alpine ptarmigan white in winter, the -red-grouse the color of heather, we must believe that -these tints are of service to these birds and insects in -preserving them from danger. Grouse, if not destroyed -at some period of their lives, would increase in countless -numbers; they are known to suffer largely from birds of -prey; and hawks are guided by eye-sight to their prey—so -much so, that on parts of the Continent persons are -warned not to keep white pigeons, as being the most -liable to destruction. Hence natural selection might be -effective in giving the proper color to each kind of grouse, -and in keeping that color, when once acquired, true and -constant. Nor ought we to think that the occasional -destruction of an animal of any particular color would -produce little effect: we should remember how essential<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> -it is in a flock of white sheep to destroy a lamb with the -faintest trace of black.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_60">WHY HABITS AND STRUCTURE ARE NOT IN AGREEMENT.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 142.</div> - -<p>He who believes that each being has been -created as we now see it must occasionally -have felt surprise when he has met with an -animal having habits and structure not in agreement. -What can be plainer than that the webbed feet of ducks -and geese are formed for swimming? Yet there are upland -geese with webbed feet which rarely go near the water; -and no one except Audubon has seen the frigate-bird, -which has all its four toes webbed, alight on the surface -of the ocean. On the other hand, grebes and coots are -eminently aquatic, although their toes are only bordered -by membrane. What seems plainer than that the long -toes, not furnished with membrane, of the <i>Grallatores</i>, -are formed for walking over swamps and floating plants?—the -water-hen and land-rail are members of this order, -yet the first is nearly as aquatic as the coot, and the -second nearly as terrestrial as the quail or partridge. In -such cases, and many others could be given, habits have -changed without a corresponding change of structure. -The webbed feet of the upland goose may be said to have -become almost rudimentary in function, though not in -structure. In the frigate-bird, the deeply-scooped membrane -between the toes shows that structure has begun to -change.</p> - -<p>He who believes in separate and innumerable acts of -creation may say that in these cases it has pleased the -Creator to cause a being of one type to take the place of -one belonging to another type; but this seems to me only -restating the fact in dignified language. He who believes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> -in the struggle for existence and in the principle of natural -selection, will acknowledge that every organic being -is constantly endeavoring to increase in numbers; and -that if any one being varies ever so little, either in habits -or structure, and thus gains an advantage over some -other inhabitant of the same country, it will seize on the -place of that inhabitant, however different that may be -from its own place. Hence it will cause him no surprise -that there should be geese and frigate-birds with webbed -feet, living on the dry land and rarely alighting on the -water; that there should be long-toed corn-crakes, living -in meadows instead of in swamps; that there should be -woodpeckers where hardly a tree grows; that there should -be diving thrushes and diving <i>Hymenoptera</i>, and petrels -with the habits of auks.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_61">NO MODIFICATION IN ONE SPECIES DESIGNED FOR THE -GOOD OF ANOTHER.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 162.</div> - -<p>Natural selection can not possibly produce -any modification in a species exclusively for -the good of another species; though throughout -nature one species incessantly takes advantage of, and -profits by, the structures of others. But natural selection -can and does often produce structures for the direct injury -of other animals, as we see in the fang of the adder, -and in the ovipositor of the ichneumon, by which its eggs -are deposited in the living bodies of other insects. If it -could be proved that any part of the structure of any one -species had been formed for the exclusive good of another -species, it would annihilate my theory, for such could not -have been produced through natural selection. Although -many statements may be found in works on natural history -to this effect, I can not find even one which seems to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> -me of any weight. It is admitted that the rattlesnake -has a poison-fang for its own defense, and for the destruction -of its prey; but some authors suppose that at -the same time it is furnished with a rattle for its own injury, -namely, to warn its prey. I would almost as soon -believe that the cat curls the end of its tail when preparing -to spring, in order to warn the doomed mouse. It is -a much more probable view that the rattlesnake uses its -rattle, the cobra expands its frill, and the puff-adder -swells while hissing so loudly and harshly, in order to -alarm the many birds and beasts which are known to -attack even the most venomous species. Snakes act on -the same principle which makes the hen ruffle her feathers -and expand her wings when a dog approaches her -chickens; but I have not space here to enlarge on the -many ways by which animals endeavor to frighten away -their enemies.</p> - -<p>Natural selection will never produce in a being any -structure more injurious than beneficial to that being, for -natural selection acts solely by and for the good of each. -No organ will be formed, as Paley has remarked, for the -purpose of causing pain or for doing an injury to its possessor. -If a fair balance be struck between the good and -evil caused by each part, each will be found on the whole -advantageous. After the lapse of time, under changing -conditions of life, if any part comes to be injurious, it -will be modified; or, if it be not so, the being will become -extinct as myriads have become extinct.</p> - -<p>Natural selection tends only to make each organic -being as perfect as, or slightly more perfect than, the -other inhabitants of the same country with which it comes -into competition. And we see that this is the standard -of perfection attained under nature. The endemic productions -of New Zealand, for instance, are perfect one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> -compared with another; but they are now rapidly yielding -before the advancing legions of plants and animals -introduced from Europe. Natural selection will not produce -absolute perfection, nor do we always meet, as far -as we can judge, with this high standard under nature. -The correction for the aberration of light is said by Müller -not to be perfect even in that most perfect organ, the -human eye.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 67.</div> - -<p>Natural selection will modify the structure -of the young in relation to the parent, and of -the parent in relation to the young. In social animals it -will adapt the structure of each individual for the benefit -of the whole community, if the community profits by -the selected change. What natural selection can not do -is, to modify the structure of one species, without giving -it any advantage, for the good of another species; and, -though statements to this effect may be found in works -of natural history, I can not find one case which will bear -investigation. A structure used only once in an animal’s -life, if of high importance to it, might be modified to any -extent by natural selection; for instance, the great jaws -possessed by certain insects, used exclusively for opening -the cocoon, or the hard tip to the beak of unhatched -birds, used for breaking the egg. It has been asserted -that, of the best short-beaked tumbler-pigeons, a greater -number perish in the egg than are able to get out of it, -so that fanciers assist in the act of hatching. Now, if -Nature had to make the beak of a full-grown pigeon very -short for the bird’s own advantage, the process of modification -would be very slow, and there would be simultaneously -the most rigorous selection of all the young birds -within the egg, which had the most powerful and hardest -beaks, for all with weak beaks would inevitably perish;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> -or, more delicate and more easily broken shells might be -selected, the thickness of the shell being known to vary -like every other structure.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_62">ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE ACTION OF NATURAL SELECTION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 70.</div> - -<p>In order to make it clear how, as I believe, -natural selection acts, I must beg permission -to give one or two imaginary illustrations. -Let us take the case of a wolf, which preys on various -animals, securing some by craft, some by strength, and -some by fleetness; and let us suppose that the fleetest -prey, a deer for instance, had from any change in the -country increased in numbers, or that other prey had decreased -in numbers, during that season of the year when -the wolf was hardest pressed for food. Under such circumstances -the swiftest and slimmest wolves would have -the best chance of surviving, and so be preserved or selected—provided -always that they retained strength to -master their prey at this or some other period of the year, -when they were compelled to prey on other animals. I -can see no more reason to doubt that this would be the -result, than that man should be able to improve the fleetness -of his greyhounds by careful and methodical selection, -or by that kind of unconscious selection which follows -from each man trying to keep the best dogs without -any thought of modifying the breed. I may add that, -according to Mr. Pierce, there are two varieties of the -wolf inhabiting the Catskill Mountains in the United -States, one with a light greyhound-like form, which pursues -deer, and the other more bulky, with shorter legs, -which more frequently attacks the shepherd’s flocks.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span></p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 73.</div> - -<p>Certain plants excrete sweet juice, apparently -for the sake of eliminating something injurious -from the sap: this is effected, for instance, by -glands at the base of the stipules in some <i>Leguminosæ</i>, -and at the backs of the leaves of the common laurel. -This juice, though small in quantity, is greedily sought -by insects; but their visits do not in any way benefit the -plant. Now, let us suppose that the juice or nectar was -excreted from the inside of the flowers of a certain number -of plants of any species. Insects in seeking the nectar -would get dusted with pollen, and would often transport -it from one flower to another. The flowers of two distinct -individuals of the same species would thus get -crossed; and the act of crossing, as can be fully proved, -gives rise to vigorous seedlings, which consequently would -have the best chance of flourishing and surviving. The -plants which produced flowers with the largest glands or -nectaries, excreting most nectar, would oftenest be visited -by insects, and would oftenest be crossed; and so in the -long run would gain the upper hand and form a local -variety. The flowers, also, which had their stamens and -pistils placed, in relation to the size and habits of the -particular insect which visited them, so as to favor in any -degree the transportal of the pollen, would likewise be -favored. We might have taken the case of insects visiting -flowers for the sake of collecting pollen instead of -nectar; and, as pollen is formed for the sole purpose of -fertilization, its destruction appears to be a simple loss -to the plant; yet if a little pollen were carried, at first -occasionally and then habitually, by the pollen-devouring -insects from flower to flower, and a cross thus -effected, although nine tenths of the pollen were destroyed, -it might still be a great gain to the plant to -be thus robbed; and the individuals which produced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> -more and more pollen, and had larger anthers, would -be selected.</p> - -<p>When our plant, by the above process long continued, -had been rendered highly attractive to insects, they would, -unintentionally on their part, regularly carry pollen from -flower to flower.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_63">DIVERGENCE OF CHARACTER.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 86.</div> - -<p>According to my view, varieties are species -in the process of formation, or are, as I have -called them, incipient species. How, then, does the -lesser difference between varieties become augmented into -the greater difference between species? That this does -habitually happen, we must infer from most of the innumerable -species throughout nature presenting well-marked -differences; whereas varieties, the supposed prototypes -and parents of future well-marked species, present -slight and ill-defined differences. Mere chance, as -we may call it, might cause one variety to differ in some -character from its parents, and the offspring of this variety -again to differ from its parent in the very same -character and in a greater degree; but this alone would -never account for so habitual and large a degree of -difference as that between the species of the same -genus.</p> - -<p>As has always been my practice, I have sought light -on this head from our domestic productions. We shall -here find something analogous. It will be admitted that -the production of races so different as short-horn and -Hereford cattle, race and cart horses, the several breeds -of pigeons, etc., could never have been effected by the -mere chance accumulation of similar variations during -many successive generations. In practice, a fancier is,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> -for instance, struck by a pigeon having a slightly shorter -beak; another fancier is struck by a pigeon having a -rather longer beak; and, on the acknowledged principle -that “fanciers do not and will not admire a medium -standard, but like extremes,” they both go on (as has -actually occurred with the sub-breeds of the tumbler-pigeon) -choosing and breeding from birds with longer -and longer beaks, or with shorter and shorter beaks. -Again, we may suppose that, at an early period of history, -the men of one nation or district required swifter horses, -while those of another required stronger and bulkier -horses. The early differences would be very slight; but, -in the course of time, from the continued selection of -swifter horses in the one case, and of stronger ones in the -other, the differences would become greater, and would -be noted as forming two sub-breeds. Ultimately, after -the lapse of centuries, these sub-breeds would become -converted into two well-established and distinct breeds. -As the differences became greater, the inferior animals -with intermediate characters, being neither very swift -nor very strong, would not have been used for breeding, -and will thus have tended to disappear. Here, then, we -see in man’s productions the action of what may be called -the principle of divergence, causing differences, at first -barely appreciable, steadily to increase, and the breeds to -diverge in character, both from each other and from their -common parent.</p> - -<p>But how, it may be asked, can any analogous principle -apply in nature? I believe it can and does apply -most efficiently (though it was a long time before I saw -how), from the simple circumstance that the more diversified -the descendants from any one species become in -structure, constitution, and habits, by so much will they -be better enabled to seize on many and widely diversified<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> -places in the polity of nature, and so be enabled to increase -in numbers.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 89.</div> - -<p>The advantage of diversification of structure -in the inhabitants of the same region is, -in fact, the same as that of the physiological division of -labor in the organs of the same individual body—a subject -so well elucidated by Milne-Edwards. No physiologist -doubts that a stomach adapted to digest vegetable -matter alone, or flesh alone, draws most nutriment from -these substances. So in the general economy of any land, -the more widely and perfectly the animals and plants are -diversified for different habits of life, so will a greater -number of individuals be capable of there supporting -themselves. A set of animals, with their organization -but little diversified, could hardly compete with a set more -perfectly diversified in structure. It may be doubted, -for instance, whether the Australian marsupials, which -are divided into groups differing but little from each -other, and feebly representing, as Mr. Waterhouse and -others have remarked, our carnivorous, ruminant, and -rodent mammals, could successfully compete with these -well-developed orders. In the Australian mammals, we -see the process of diversification in an early and incomplete -stage of development.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_64">EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN EYE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 143.</div> - -<p>To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable -contrivances for adjusting the focus -to different distances, for admitting different -amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and -chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural -selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> -degree. When it was first said that the sun stood still -and the world turned round, the common sense of mankind -declared the doctrine false; but the old saying of -<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">Vox populi vox Dei</i>, as every philosopher knows, can not -be trusted in science.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 145.</div> - -<p>Within the highest division of the animal -kingdom, namely, the <i>Vertebrata</i>, we can start -from an eye so simple that it consists, as in the lancelet, -of a little sac of transparent skin, furnished with a nerve -and lined with pigment, but destitute of any other apparatus. -In fishes and reptiles, as Owen has remarked, -“the range of gradations of dioptric structures is very -great.” It is a significant fact that even in man, according -to the high authority of Virchow, the beautiful -crystalline lens is formed in the embryo by an accumulation -of epidermic cells, lying in a sac-like fold -of the skin; and the vitreous body is formed from embryonic -subcutaneous tissue. To arrive, however, at a -just conclusion regarding the formation of the eye, with -all its marvelous yet not absolutely perfect characters, it -is indispensable that the reason should conquer the imagination; -but I have felt the difficulty far too keenly -to be surprised at others hesitating to extend the principle -of natural selection to so startling a length.</p> - -<p>It is scarcely possible to avoid comparing the eye with -a telescope. We know that this instrument has been perfected -by the long-continued efforts of the highest human -intellects; and we naturally infer that the eye has been -formed by a somewhat analogous process. But may not -this inference be presumptuous? Have we any right to -assume that the Creator works by intellectual powers like -those of man? If we must compare the eye to an optical -instrument, we ought in imagination to take a thick<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> -layer of transparent tissue, with spaces filled with fluid, -and with a nerve sensitive to light beneath, and then suppose -every part of this layer to be continually changing -slowly in density, so as to separate into layers of different -densities and thicknesses, placed at different distances -from each other, and with the surfaces of each layer slowly -changing in form. Further, we must suppose that there -is a power, represented by natural selection or the survival -of the fittest, always intently watching each slight -alteration in the transparent layers; and carefully preserving -each which, under varied circumstances, in any -way or in any degree, tends to produce a distincter image. -We must suppose each new state of the instrument to be -multiplied by the million; each to be preserved until a -better one is produced, and then the old ones to be all -destroyed. In living bodies, variation will cause the -slight alterations, generation will multiply them almost -infinitely, and natural selection will pick out with unerring -skill each improvement. Let this process go on for -millions of years; and during each year on millions of -individuals of many kinds; and may we not believe that -a living optical instrument might thus be formed as superior -to one of glass as the works of the Creator are to -those of man?</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VI">VI.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC -BEINGS.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 320.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">We</span> are thus brought to the question which -has been largely discussed by naturalists, namely, -whether species have been created at one or -more points of the earth’s surface. Undoubtedly there -are many cases of extreme difficulty in understanding how -the same species could possibly have migrated from some -one point to the several distant and isolated points where -now found. Nevertheless the simplicity of the view that -each species was first produced within a single region -captivates the mind. He who rejects it rejects the <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">vera -causa</i> of ordinary generation with subsequent migration, -and calls in the agency of a miracle. It is universally -admitted that in most cases the area inhabited by a -species is continuous; and that, when a plant or animal -inhabits two points so distant from each other, or with an -interval of such a nature, that the space could not have -been easily passed over by migration, the fact is given as -something remarkable and exceptional. The incapacity -of migrating across a wide sea is more clear in the case of -terrestrial mammals than perhaps with any other organic -beings; and, accordingly, we find no inexplicable instances -of the same mammals inhabiting distant points<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> -of the world. No geologist feels any difficulty in Great -Britain possessing the same quadrupeds with the rest of -Europe, for they were no doubt once united. But, if the -same species can be produced at two separate points, why -do we not find a single mammal common to Europe and -Australia or South America? The conditions of life are -nearly the same, so that a multitude of European animals -and plants have become naturalized in America and Australia; -and some of the aboriginal plants are identically -the same at these distant points of the northern and -southern hemispheres. The answer, as I believe, is, that -mammals have not been able to migrate, whereas some -plants, from their varied means of dispersal, have migrated -across the wide and broken interspaces. The -great and striking influence of barriers of all kinds is -intelligible only on the view that the great majority of -species have been produced on one side, and have not been -able to migrate to the opposite side. Some few families, -many sub-families, very many genera, and a still greater -number of sections of genera, are confined to a single -region: and it has been observed by several naturalists -that the most natural genera, or those genera in which -the species are most closely related to each other, are -generally confined to the same country, or, if they have -a wide range, that their range is continuous. What a -strange anomaly it would be, if a directly opposite rule -were to prevail, when we go down one step lower in the -series, namely, to the individuals of the same species, and -these had not been, at least at first, confined to some one -region!</p> - -<p>Hence it seems to me, as it has to many other naturalists, -that the view of each species having been produced -in one area alone, and having subsequently migrated from -that area as far as its powers of migration and subsistence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> -under past and present conditions permitted, is the most -probable. Undoubtedly many cases occur, in which we -can not explain how the same species could have passed -from one point to the other. But the geographical and -climatal changes, which have certainly occurred within -recent geological times, must have rendered discontinuous -the formerly continuous range of many species. So that -we are reduced to consider whether the exceptions to continuity -of range are so numerous and of so grave a nature -that we ought to give up the belief, rendered probable -by general considerations, that each species has been produced -within one area, and has migrated thence as far as -it could.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_65">ISOLATED CONTINENTS NEVER WERE UNITED.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 324.</div> - -<p>Whenever it is fully admitted, as it will -some day be, that each species has proceeded -from a single birthplace, and when in the -course of time we know something definite about the -means of distribution, we shall be enabled to speculate -with security on the former extension of the land. But -I do not believe that it will ever be proved that within -the recent period most of our continents which now -stand quite separate have been continuously, or almost -continuously, united with each other, and with the many -existing oceanic islands. Several facts in distribution, -such as the great difference in the marine faunas on the -opposite sides of almost every continent, the close relation -of the tertiary inhabitants of several lands and even -seas to their present inhabitants, the degree of affinity -between the mammals inhabiting islands with those of -the nearest continent, being in part determined (as we -shall hereafter see) by the depth of the intervening ocean, -these and other such facts are opposed to the admission<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> -of such prodigious geographical revolutions within the -recent period as are necessary on the view advanced by -Forbes and admitted by his followers. The nature and -relative proportions of the inhabitants of oceanic islands -are likewise opposed to the belief of their former continuity -with continents. Nor does the almost universally -volcanic composition of such islands favor the admission -that they are the wrecks of sunken continents; if they -had originally existed as continental mountain-ranges, -some at least of the islands would have been formed, like -other mountain-summits, of granite, metamorphic schists, -old fossiliferous and other rocks, instead of consisting of -mere piles of volcanic matter.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_66">MEANS OF DISPERSAL.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 326.</div> - -<p>Living birds can hardly fail to be highly -effective agents in the transportation of seeds. -I could give many facts showing how frequently birds of -many kinds are blown by gales to vast distances across -the ocean. We may safely assume that under such circumstances -their rate of flight would often be thirty-five -miles an hour; and some authors have given a far higher -estimate. I have never seen an instance of nutritious -seeds passing through the intestines of a bird; but hard -seeds of fruit pass uninjured through even the digestive -organs of a turkey. In the course of two months I -picked up in my garden twelve kinds of seeds out of the -excrement of small birds, and these seemed perfect, and -some of them, which were tried, germinated. But the -following fact is more important: the crops of birds do -not secrete gastric juice, and do not, as I know by trial, -injure in the least the germination of seeds; now, after -a bird has found and devoured a large supply of food, it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> -is positively asserted that all the grains do not pass into -the gizzard for twelve or even eighteen hours. A bird in -this interval might easily be blown to the distance of five -hundred miles, and hawks are known to look out for -tired birds, and the contents of their torn crops might -thus readily get scattered. Some hawks and owls bolt -their prey whole, and, after an interval of from twelve -to twenty hours, disgorge pellets, which, as I know from -experiments made in the Zoölogical Gardens, include -seeds capable of germination. Some seeds of the oat, -wheat, millet, canary, hemp, clover, and beet germinated -after having been from twelve to twenty-one hours in the -stomachs of different birds of prey; and two seeds of -beet grew after having been thus retained for two days -and fourteen hours. Fresh-water fish, I find, eat seeds -of many land and water plants: fish are frequently devoured -by birds, and thus the seeds might be transported -from place to place. I forced many kinds of seeds into -the stomachs of dead fish, and then gave their bodies to -fishing-eagles, storks, and pelicans; these birds, after an -interval of many hours, either rejected the seeds in pellets -or passed them in their excrement; and several of -these seeds retained the power of germination. Certain -seeds, however, were always killed by this process.</p> - -<p>Locusts are sometimes blown to great distances from -the land; I myself caught one three hundred and seventy -miles from the coast of Africa, and have heard of others -caught at greater distances.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 328.</div> - -<p>As icebergs are known to be sometimes -loaded with earth and stones, and have even -carried brushwood, bones, and the nest of a land-bird, it -can hardly be doubted that they must occasionally, as -suggested by Lyell, have transported seeds from one part<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> -to another of the Arctic and Antarctic regions, and during -the Glacial period from one part of the now temperate -regions to another. In the Azores, from the large number -of plants common to Europe, in comparison with the -species on the other islands of the Atlantic, which stand -nearer to the mainland, and (as remarked by Mr. H. C. -Watson) from their somewhat northern character in -comparison with the latitude, I suspected that these -islands had been partly stocked by ice-borne seeds during -the Glacial epoch.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_67">THESE MEANS OF TRANSPORT NOT ACCIDENTAL.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 329.</div> - -<p>These means of transport are sometimes -called accidental, but this is not strictly correct; -the currents of the sea are not accidental, nor is -the direction of prevalent gales of wind. It should be -observed that scarcely any means of transport would carry -seeds for very great distances: for seeds do not retain -their vitality when exposed for a great length of time to -the action of sea-water; nor could they be long carried -in the crops or intestines of birds. These means, however, -would suffice for occasional transport across tracts -of sea some hundred miles in breadth, or from island to -island, or from a continent to a neighboring island, but -not from one distant continent to another. The floras of -distant continents would not by such means become mingled; -but would remain as distinct as they now are. The -currents, from their course, would never bring seeds from -North America to Britain, though they might and do bring -seeds from the West Indies to our western shores, where, -if not killed by their very long immersion in salt-water, -they could not endure our climate. Almost every year, -one or two land-birds are blown across the whole Atlantic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> -Ocean, from North America to the western shores of Ireland -and England; but seeds could be transported by these -rare wanderers only by one means, namely, by dirt adhering -to their feet or beaks, which is in itself a rare accident. -Even in this case, how small would be the chance -of a seed falling on favorable soil and coming to maturity! -But it would be a great error to argue that, because a well-stocked -island, like Great Britain, has not, as far as is -known (and it would be very difficult to prove this), received -within the last few centuries, through occasional -means of transport, immigrants from Europe or any -other continent, a poorly-stocked island, though standing -more remote from the mainland, would not receive colonists -by similar means. Out of a hundred kinds of seeds -or animals transported to an island, even if far less well-stocked -than Britain, perhaps not more than one would -be so well fitted to its new home as to become naturalized. -But this is no valid argument against what would -be effected by occasional means of transport, during the -long lapse of geological time, while the island was being -upheaved, and before it had become fully stocked with -inhabitants. On almost bare land, with few or no destructive -insects or birds living there, nearly every seed -which chanced to arrive, if fitted for the climate, would -germinate and survive.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_68">DISPERSAL DURING THE GLACIAL PERIOD.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 434.</div> - -<p>The Glacial period is defined “as a period -of great cold and of enormous extension of ice -upon the surface of the earth. It is believed that glacial -periods have occurred repeatedly during the geological -history of the earth, but the term is generally applied to -the close of the Tertiary epoch, when nearly the whole of -Europe was subjected to an Arctic climate.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span></p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 330.</div> - -<p>The identity of many plants and animals, -on mountain-summits, separated from each -other by hundreds of miles of lowlands, where -Alpine species could not possibly exist, is one of the most -striking cases known of the same species living at distant -points, without the apparent possibility of their having -migrated from one point to the other. It is indeed a -remarkable fact to see so many plants of the same species -living on the snowy regions of the Alps or Pyrenees, and -in the extreme northern parts of Europe; but it is far -more remarkable that the plants on the White Mountains, -in the United States of America, are all the same with -those of Labrador, and nearly all the same, as we hear -from Asa Gray, with those on the loftiest mountains of -Europe. Even as long ago as 1747 such facts led Gmelin -to conclude that the same species must have been independently -created at many distinct points; and we might -have remained in this same belief, had not Agassiz and -others called vivid attention to the Glacial period, which, -as we shall immediately see, affords a simple explanation -of these facts. We have evidence of almost every conceivable -kind, organic and inorganic, that, within a very -recent geological period, Central Europe and North America -suffered under an Arctic climate. The ruins of a -house burned by fire do not tell their tale more plainly -than do the mountains of Scotland and Wales, with their -scored flanks, polished surfaces, and perched bowlders, -of the icy streams with which their valleys were lately -filled. So greatly has the climate of Europe changed, -that in Northern Italy gigantic moraines, left by -old glaciers, are now clothed by the vine and maize. -Throughout a large part of the United States erratic -bowlders and scored rocks plainly reveal a former cold -period.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span></p> - -<p>The former influence of the glacial climate on the distribution -of the inhabitants of Europe, as explained by -Edward Forbes, is substantially as follows. But we shall -follow the changes more readily by supposing a new glacial -period slowly to come on, and then pass away, as -formerly occurred. As the cold came on, and as each -more southern zone became fitted for the inhabitants of -the north, these would take the places of the former inhabitants -of the temperate regions. The latter, at the -same time, would travel farther and farther southward, -unless they were stopped by barriers, in which case they -would perish. The mountains would become covered -with snow and ice, and their former Alpine inhabitants -would descend to the plains. By the time that the cold -had reached its maximum, we should have an Arctic fauna -and flora, covering the central parts of Europe, as far -south as the Alps and Pyrenees, and even stretching into -Spain. The now temperate regions of the United States -would likewise be covered by Arctic plants and animals, -and these would be nearly the same with those of Europe; -for the present circumpolar inhabitants, which we suppose -to have everywhere traveled southward, are remarkably -uniform round the world.</p> - -<p>As the warmth returned, the Arctic forms would retreat -northward, closely followed up in their retreat by the -productions of the more temperate regions. And, as the -snow melted from the bases of the mountains, the Arctic -forms would seize on the cleared and thawed ground, -always ascending, as the warmth increased and the snow -still further disappeared, higher and higher, while their -brethren were pursuing their northern journey. Hence, -when the warmth had fully returned, the same species, -which had lately lived together on the European and -North American lowlands, would again be found in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> -Arctic regions of the Old and New Worlds, and on many -isolated mountain-summits far distant from each other.</p> - -<p>Thus we can understand the identity of many plants -at points so immensely remote as the mountains of the -United States and those of Europe.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_69">THE THEORY OF CREATION INADEQUATE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 334.</div> - -<p>As on the land, so in the waters of the sea, -a slow southern migration of a marine fauna, -which, during the Pliocene or even a somewhat earlier -period, was nearly uniform along the continuous shores of -the Polar Circle, will account, on the theory of modification, -for many closely allied forms now living in marine -areas completely sundered. Thus, I think, we can understand -the presence of some closely allied, still existing and -extinct tertiary forms on the eastern and western shores -of temperate North America; and the still more striking -fact of many closely allied crustaceans (as described in -Dana’s admirable work), some fish and other marine animals, -inhabiting the Mediterranean and the seas of Japan—these -two areas being now completely separated by the -breadth of a whole continent and by wide spaces of ocean.</p> - -<p>These cases of close relationship in species either now -or formerly inhabiting the seas on the eastern and western -shores of North America, the Mediterranean and -Japan, and the temperate lands of North America and -Europe, are inexplicable on the theory of creation. We -can not maintain that such species have been created -alike, in correspondence with the nearly similar physical -conditions of the areas; for, if we compare, for instance, -certain parts of South America with parts of South Africa -or Australia, we see countries closely similar in all their -physical conditions, with their inhabitants utterly dissimilar.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_70">CAUSES OF A GLACIAL CLIMATE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 336.</div> - -<p>Mr. Croll, in a series of admirable memoirs, -has attempted to show that a glacial condition -of climate is the result of various physical causes, brought -into operation by an increase in the eccentricity of the -earth’s orbit. All these causes tend toward the same end; -but the most powerful appears to be the indirect influence -of the eccentricity of the orbit upon oceanic currents. -According to Mr. Croll, cold periods regularly recur every -ten to fifteen thousand years; and these at long intervals -are extremely severe, owing to certain contingencies, of -which the most important, as Sir C. Lyell has shown, is -the relative position of the land and water. Mr. Croll -believes that the last great Glacial period occurred about -two hundred and forty thousand years ago, and endured -with slight alterations of climate for about one hundred -and sixty thousand years. With respect to more ancient -Glacial periods, several geologists are convinced from direct -evidence that such occurred during the Miocene and -Eocene formations, not to mention still more ancient formations. -But the most important result for us, arrived -at by Mr. Croll, is that, whenever the northern hemisphere -passes through a cold period, the temperature of the -southern hemisphere is actually raised, with the winters -rendered much milder, chiefly through changes in the -direction of the ocean-currents. So conversely it will be -with the northern hemisphere, while the southern passes -through a glacial period. This conclusion throws so -much light on geographical distribution that I am strongly -inclined to trust in it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_71">DIFFICULTIES NOT YET REMOVED.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 341.</div> - -<p>I am far from supposing that all the difficulties -in regard to the distribution and affinities -of the identical and allied species, which now live so -widely separated in the north and south, and sometimes -on the intermediate mountain-ranges, are removed on the -views above given. The exact lines of migration can not -be indicated. We can not say why certain species and -not others have migrated; why certain species have been -modified and have given rise to new forms, while others -have remained unaltered. We can not hope to explain -such facts, until we can say why one species and not another -becomes naturalized by man’s agency in a foreign -land; why one species ranges twice or thrice as far, and -is twice or thrice as common, as another species within -their own homes.</p> - -<p>Various special difficulties also remain to be solved; -for instance, the occurrence, as shown by Dr. Hooker, of -the same plants at points so enormously remote as Kerguelen -Land, New Zealand, and Fuegia; but icebergs, as -suggested by Lyell, may have been concerned in their -dispersal. The existence at these and other distant points -of the southern hemisphere of species which, though -distinct, belong to genera exclusively confined to the -south, is a more remarkable case. Some of these species -are so distinct that we can not suppose that there has -been time since the commencement of the last Glacial -period for their migration and subsequent modification to -the necessary degree. The facts seem to indicate that -distinct species belonging to the same genera have migrated -in radiating lines from a common center; and I -am inclined to look in the southern, as in the northern -hemisphere, to a former and warmer period, before the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> -commencement of the last Glacial period, when the Antarctic -lands, now covered with ice, supported a highly -peculiar and isolated flora. It may be suspected that, before -this flora was exterminated during the last Glacial -epoch, a few forms had been already widely dispersed to -various points of the southern hemisphere by occasional -means of transport, and by the aid, as halting-places, of -now sunken islands. Thus the southern shores of America, -Australia, and New Zealand, may have become slightly -tinted by the same peculiar forms of life.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_72">IDENTITY OF THE SPECIES OF ISLANDS WITH THOSE OF -THE MAINLAND EXPLAINED ONLY BY THIS THEORY.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 353.</div> - -<p>The most striking and important fact for -us is the affinity of the species which inhabit -islands to those of the nearest mainland, without -being actually the same. Numerous instances could -be given. The Galapagos Archipelago, situated under -the equator, lies at the distance of between five hundred -and six hundred miles from the shores of South America. -Here almost every product of the land and of the water -bears the unmistakable stamp of the American Continent. -There are twenty-six land-birds; of these, twenty-one or -perhaps twenty-three are ranked as distinct species, and -would commonly be assumed to have been here created; -yet the close affinity of most of these birds to American -species is manifest in every character, in their habits, -gestures, and tones of voice. So it is with the other animals, -and with a large proportion of the plants, as shown -by Dr. Hooker in his admirable Flora of this archipelago. -The naturalist, looking at the inhabitants of these volcanic -islands in the Pacific, distant several hundred miles -from the continent, feels that he is standing on American<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> -land. Why should this be so? why should the species -which are supposed to have been created in the Galapagos -Archipelago, and nowhere else, bear so plainly the stamp -of affinity to those created in America? There is nothing -in the conditions of life, in the geological nature of the -islands, in their height or climate, or in the proportions -in which the several classes are associated together, which -closely resembles the conditions of the South American -coast; in fact, there is a considerable dissimilarity in all -these respects. On the other hand, there is a considerable -degree of resemblance in the volcanic nature of the -soil, in the climate, height, and size of the islands, between -the Galapagos and Cape de Verd Archipelagos; -but what an entire and absolute difference in their inhabitants! -The inhabitants of the Cape de Verd Islands -are related to those of Africa, like those of the Galapagos -to America. Facts such as these admit of no sort of explanation -on the ordinary view of independent creation; -whereas, on the view here maintained, it is obvious that -the Galapagos Islands would be likely to receive colonists -from America, whether by occasional means of transport -or (though I do not believe in this doctrine) by formerly -continuous land, and the Cape de Verd Islands from -Africa; such colonists would be liable to modification, -the principle of inheritance still betraying their original -birthplace.</p> - -<p>Many analogous facts could be given: indeed, it is an -almost universal rule that the endemic productions of -islands are related to those of the nearest continent, or of -the nearest large island. The exceptions are few, and -most of them can be explained. Thus, although Kerguelen -Land stands nearer to Africa than to America, the -plants are related, and that very closely, as we know from -Dr. Hooker’s account, to those of America: but, on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> -view that this island has been mainly stocked by seeds -brought with earth and stones on icebergs, drifted by the -prevailing currents, this anomaly disappears. New Zealand -in its endemic plants is much more closely related -to Australia, the nearest mainland, than to any other region: -and this is what might have been expected; but -it is also plainly related to South America, which, although -the next nearest continent, is so enormously remote -that the fact becomes an anomaly. But this difficulty -partially disappears on the view that New Zealand, -South America, and the other southern lands have been -stocked in part from a nearly intermediate though distant -point, namely, from the Antarctic islands, when they were -clothed with vegetation, during a warmer tertiary period, -before the commencement of the last Glacial period. The -affinity, which, though feeble, I am assured by Dr. Hooker -is real, between the flora of the southwestern corner of -Australia and of the Cape of Good Hope, is a far more -remarkable case; but this affinity is confined to the -plants, and will, no doubt, some day be explained.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VII">VII.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">EVIDENCE OF THE DESCENT OF MAN FROM -SOME LOWER FORM.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">The Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 5.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">He</span> who wishes to decide whether man is -the modified descendant of some pre-existing -form would probably first inquire whether -man varies, however slightly, in bodily structure and in -mental faculties; and, if so, whether the variations are -transmitted to his offspring in accordance with the laws -which prevail with the lower animals. Again, are the -variations the result, as far as our ignorance permits us to -judge, of the same general causes, and are they governed -by the same general laws, as in the case of other organisms; -for instance, by correlation, the inherited effects of -use and disuse, etc.? Is man subject to similar malconformations, -the result of arrested development, of reduplication -of parts, etc., and does he display in any of his -anomalies reversion to some former and ancient type of -structure? It might also naturally be inquired whether -man, like so many other animals, has given rise to varieties -and sub-races, differing but slightly from each other, -or to races differing so much that they must be classed -as doubtful species. How are such races distributed -over the world; and how, when crossed, do they react on -each other in the first and succeeding generations? And -so with many other points.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span></p> - -<p>The inquirer would next come to the important point -whether man tends to increase at so rapid a rate as to lead -to occasional severe struggles for existence; and consequently -to beneficial variations, whether in body or mind, -being preserved, and injurious ones eliminated. Do the -races or species of men, whichever term may be applied, -encroach on and replace one another, so that some finally -become extinct? We shall see that all these questions, as -indeed is obvious in respect to most of them, must be -answered in the affirmative, in the same manner as with -the lower animals.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_73">POINTS OF CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN MAN AND THE -OTHER ANIMALS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">The Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 6.</div> - -<p>It is notorious that man is constructed on -the same general type or model as other mammals. -All the bones in his skeleton can be -compared with corresponding bones in a monkey, bat, or -seal. So it is with his muscles, nerves, blood-vessels, and -internal viscera. The brain, the most important of all -the organs, follows the same law, as shown by Huxley and -other anatomists. Bischoff, who is a hostile witness, admits -that every chief fissure and fold in the brain of man -has its analogy in that of the orang; but he adds that at -no period of development do their brains perfectly agree; -nor could perfect agreement be expected, for otherwise -their mental powers would have been the same.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>Man is liable to receive from the lower animals, and -to communicate to them, certain diseases, as hydrophobia, -variola, the glanders, syphilis, cholera, herpes, etc.; -and this fact proves the close similarity of their tissues -and blood, both in minute structure and composition, far -more plainly than does their comparison under the best<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> -microscope, or by the aid of the best chemical analysis. -Monkeys are liable to many of the same non-contagious -diseases as we are; thus Rengger, who carefully observed -for a long time the <i>Cebus Azaræ</i> in its native land, found -it liable to catarrh, with the usual symptoms, and which, -when often recurrent, led to consumption. These monkeys -suffered also from apoplexy, inflammation of the -bowels, and cataract in the eye. The younger ones when -shedding their milk-teeth often died from fever. Medicines -produced the same effect on them as on us. Many -kinds of monkeys have a strong taste for tea, coffee, and -spirituous liquors: they will also, as I have myself seen, -smoke tobacco with pleasure. Brehm asserts that the -natives of Northeastern Africa catch the wild baboons by -exposing vessels with strong beer, by which they are made -drunk. He has seen some of these animals, which he -kept in confinement, in this state; and he gives a laughable -account of their behavior and strange grimaces. On -the following morning they were very cross and dismal; -they held their aching heads with both hands, and wore -a most pitiable expression: when beer or wine was offered -them, they turned away with disgust, but relished the -juice of lemons. An American monkey, an Ateles, after -getting drunk on brandy, would never touch it again, and -thus was wiser than many men. These trifling facts -prove how similar the nerves of taste must be in monkeys -and man, and how similarly their whole nervous system -is affected.</p> - -<p>Man is infested with internal parasites, sometimes -causing fatal effects; and is plagued by external parasites, -all of which belong to the same genera or families -as those infesting other mammals, and in the case of -scabies to the same species. Man is subject, like other -mammals, birds, and even insects, to that mysterious law<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> -which causes certain normal processes, such as gestation, -as well as the maturation and duration of various diseases, -to follow lunar periods. His wounds are repaired -by the same process of healing; and the stumps left after -the amputation of his limbs, especially during an early -embryonic period, occasionally possess some power of regeneration, -as in the lowest animals.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 9.</div> - -<p>Man is developed from an ovule, about the -125th of an inch in diameter, which differs in -no respect from the ovules of other animals. The embryo -itself at a very early period can hardly be distinguished -from that of other members of the vertebrate kingdom. -At this period the arteries run in arch-like branches, as if -to carry the blood to branchiæ which are not present in -the higher vertebrata, though the slits on the side of the -neck still remain, marking their former position. At a -somewhat later period, when the extremities are developed, -“the feet of lizards and mammals,” as the illustrious Von -Baer remarks, “the wings and feet of birds, no less than -the hands and feet of man, all arise from the same fundamental -form.” It is, says Professor Huxley, “quite in -the later stages of development that the young human -being presents marked differences from the young ape, -while the latter departs as much from the dog in its developments -as the man does. Startling as this last assertion -may appear to be, it is demonstrably true.”</p> - -<h3 id="sec_74">THE FACTS OF EMBRYOLOGY AND THE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 386.</div> - -<p>This is one of the most important subjects -(embryology) in the whole round of natural -history. The metamorphoses of insects, with -which every one is familiar, are generally effected abruptly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> -by a few stages; but the transformations are in reality -numerous and gradual, though concealed. A certain -ephemerous insect (<i>Chlöeon</i>), during its development, -molts, as shown by Sir J. Lubbock, above twenty times, -and each time undergoes a certain amount of change; -and in this case we see the act of metamorphosis performed -in a primary and gradual manner. Many insects, -and especially certain crustaceans, show us what wonderful -changes of structure can be effected during development. -Such changes, however, reach their climax in the -so-called alternate generations of some of the lower animals. -It is, for instance, an astonishing fact that a delicate -branching coralline, studded with polypi and attached -to a submarine rock, should produce, first by budding -and then by transverse division, a host of huge floating -jelly-fishes; and that these should produce eggs, from -which are hatched swimming animalcules, which attach -themselves to rocks, and become developed into branching -corallines; and so on in an endless cycle. The belief -in the essential identity of the process of alternate generation -and of ordinary metamorphosis has been greatly -strengthened by Wagner’s discovery of the larva or maggot -of a fly, namely, the <i>Cecidomyia</i>, producing asexually -other larvæ, and these others, which finally are developed -into mature males and females, propagating their kind in -the ordinary manner by eggs.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 387.</div> - -<p>It has been already stated that various parts -in the same individual, which are exactly alike -during an early embryonic period, become widely different -and serve for widely different purposes in the adult state. -So, again, it has been shown that generally the embryos -of the most distinct species belonging to the same class are -closely similar, but become, when fully developed, widely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span> -dissimilar. A better proof of this latter fact can not be -given than the statement by Von Baer that “the embryos -of mammalia, of birds, lizards, and snakes, probably -also of chelonia, are in their earliest states exceedingly -like one another, both as a whole and in the mode -of development of their parts; so much so, in fact, that -we can often distinguish the embryos only by their size. -In my possession are two little embryos in spirit, whose -names I have omitted to attach, and at present I am -quite unable to say to what class they belong. They may -be lizards or small birds, or very young mammalia, so -complete is the similarity in the mode of formation of -the head and trunk in these animals. The extremities, -however, are still absent in these embryos. But, even if -they had existed in the earliest stage of their development, -we should learn nothing, for the feet of lizards and -mammals, the wings and feet of birds, no less than the -hands and feet of man, all arise from the same fundamental -form.” The larvæ of most crustaceans, at corresponding -stages of development, closely resemble each -other, however different the adults may become; and so -it is with very many other animals. A trace of the law of -embryonic resemblance occasionally lasts till a rather late -age: thus birds of the same genus, and of allied genera, -often resemble each other in their immature plumage; as -we see in the spotted feathers in the young of the thrush -group. In the cat tribe, most of the species when adult -are striped or spotted in lines; and stripes or spots can -be plainly distinguished in the whelp of the lion and the -puma. We occasionally though rarely see something of -the same kind in plants; thus the first leaves of the ulex -or furze, and the first leaves of the phyllodineous acacias, -are pinnate or divided like the ordinary leaves of the -<i>Leguminosæ</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_75">TWO PRINCIPLES THAT EXPLAIN THE FACTS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 390.</div> - -<p>How, then, can we explain these several -facts in embryology—namely, the very general, -though not universal, difference in structure between the -embryo and the adult; the various parts in the same individual -embryo, which ultimately become very unlike and -serve for diverse purposes, being at an early period of -growth alike; the common, but not invariable, resemblance -between the embryos or larvæ of the most distinct -species in the same class; the embryo often retaining, -while within the egg or womb, structures which are of no -service to it, either at that or at a later period of life; -on the other hand, larvæ, which have to provide for their -own wants, being perfectly adapted to the surrounding -conditions; and, lastly, the fact of certain larvæ standing -higher in the scale of organization than the mature -animal into which they are developed? I believe that all -these facts can be explained as follows:</p> - -<p>It is commonly assumed, perhaps from monstrosities -affecting the embryo at a very early period, that slight -variations or individual differences necessarily appear at -an equally early period. We have little evidence on this -head, but what we have certainly points the other way; -for it is notorious that breeders of cattle, horses, and -various fancy animals, can not positively tell, until some -time after birth, what will be the merits or demerits of -their young animals. We see this plainly in our own children; -we can not tell whether a child will be tall or short, -or what its precise features will be. The question is not, -at what period of life each variation may have been -caused, but at what period the effects are displayed. The -cause may have acted, and I believe often has acted, on -one or both parents before the act of generation. It deserves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> -notice that it is of no importance to a very young -animal, as long as it remains in its mother’s womb or in -the egg, or as long as it is nourished and protected by its -parent, whether most of its characters are acquired a -little earlier or later in life. It would not signify, for instance, -to a bird which obtained its food by having a -much-curved beak whether or not while young it possessed -a beak of this shape, as long as it was fed by its -parents.</p> - -<p>I have stated in the first chapter that at whatever age -a variation first appears in the parent, it tends to reappear -at a corresponding age in the offspring. Certain variations -can only appear at corresponding ages; for instance, -peculiarities in the caterpillar, cocoon, or imago states -of the silk-moth; or, again, in the full-grown horns of -cattle. But variations, which, for all that we can see, -might have first appeared either earlier or later in life, -likewise tend to reappear at a corresponding age in the -offspring and parent. I am far from meaning that this -is invariably the case, and I could give several exceptional -cases of variations (taking the word in the largest sense) -which have supervened at an earlier age in the child than -in the parent.</p> - -<p>These two principles, namely, that slight variations -generally appear at a not very early period of life, and are -inherited at a corresponding not early period, explain, as -I believe, all the above specified leading facts in embryology.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_76">EMBRYOLOGY AGAINST ABRUPT CHANGES.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 203.</div> - -<p>Unless we admit transformations as prodigious -as those advocated by Mr. Mivart, such -as the sudden development of the wings of -birds or bats, or the sudden conversion of a Hipparion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span> -into a horse, hardly any light is thrown by the belief in -abrupt modifications on the deficiency of connecting links -in our geological formations. But against the belief in -such abrupt changes embryology enters a strong protest. -It is notorious that the wings of birds and bats, and the -legs of horses or other quadrupeds, are undistinguishable -at an early embryonic period, and that they become differentiated -by insensibly fine steps. Embryological resemblances -of all kinds can be accounted for, as we shall -hereafter see, by the progenitors of our existing species -having varied after early youth, and having transmitted -their newly acquired characters to their offspring at a -corresponding age. The embryo is thus left almost unaffected, -and serves as a record of the past condition of -the species. Hence it is that existing species during the -early stages of their development so often resemble ancient -and extinct forms belonging to the same class. On -this view of the meaning of embryological resemblances, -and indeed on any view, it is incredible that an animal -should have undergone such momentous and abrupt transformations -as those above indicated, and yet should not -bear even a trace in its embryonic condition of any sudden -modification, every detail in its structure being developed -by insensibly fine steps.</p> - -<p>He who believes that some ancient form was transformed -suddenly through an internal force or tendency -into, for instance, one furnished with wings, will be almost -compelled to assume, in opposition to all analogy, -that many individuals varied simultaneously. It can not -be denied that such abrupt and great changes of structure -are widely different from those which most species -apparently have undergone. He will further be compelled -to believe that many structures beautifully adapted -to all the other parts of the same creature and to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> -surrounding conditions, have been suddenly produced; -and of such complex and wonderful coadaptations he -will not be able to assign a shadow of an explanation. -He will be forced to admit that these great and sudden -transformations have left no trace of their action on the -embryo. To admit all this is, as it seems to me, to enter -into the realms of miracle, and to leave those of science.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_77">RUDIMENTARY ORGANS ONLY TO BE EXPLAINED ON THE -THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent of -Man,<br />page 11.</div> - -<p>Not one of the higher animals can be -named which does not bear some part in a -rudimentary condition; and man forms no exception -to the rule. Rudimentary organs must be distinguished -from those that are nascent, though in some -cases the distinction is not easy. The former are either -absolutely useless, such as the mammæ of male quadrupeds, -or the incisor teeth of ruminants which never cut -through the gums; or they are of such slight service to -their present possessors that we can hardly suppose that -they were developed under the conditions which now exist. -Organs in this latter state are not strictly rudimentary, -but they are tending in this direction. Nascent -organs, on the other hand, though not fully developed, -are of high service to their possessors, and are capable of -further development. Rudimentary organs are eminently -variable; and this is partly intelligible, as they are useless, -or nearly useless, and consequently are no longer -subjected to natural selection. They often become wholly -suppressed. When this occurs, they are nevertheless -liable to occasional reappearance through reversion—a -circumstance well worthy of attention.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span></p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 12.</div> - -<p>Rudiments of various muscles have been -observed in many parts of the human body; -and not a few muscles which are regularly present in -some of the lower animals can occasionally be detected in -man in a greatly reduced condition. Every one must -have noticed the power which many animals, especially -horses, possess of moving or twitching their skin; and -this is effected by the <i>panniculus carnosus</i>. Remnants -of this muscle in an efficient state are found in various -parts of our bodies: for instance, the muscle on the forehead, -by which the eyebrows are raised.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 13.</div> - -<p>Some few persons have the power of contracting -the superficial muscles on their scalps; -and these muscles are in a variable and partially rudimentary -condition. M. A. de Candolle has communicated -to me a curious instance of the long-continued persistence -or inheritance of this power, as well as of its unusual -development. He knows a family in which one member, -the present head of the family, could, when a youth, -pitch several heavy books from his head by the movement -of the scalp alone; and he won wagers by performing -this feat. His father, uncle, grandfather, and his three -children possess the same power to the same unusual degree. -This family became divided eight generations ago -into two branches; so that the head of the above-mentioned -branch is cousin in the seventh degree to the head -of the other branch. This distant cousin resides in another -part of France; and, on being asked whether he -possessed the same faculty, immediately exhibited his -power. This case offers a good illustration how persistent -may be the transmission of an absolutely useless -faculty, probably derived from our remote semi-human -progenitors, since many monkeys have, and frequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> -use, the power of largely moving their scalps up and -down.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 23.</div> - -<p>It is well known that in the males of all -mammals, including man, rudimentary mammæ -exist. These in several instances have become well -developed, and have yielded a copious supply of milk. -Their essential identity in the two sexes is likewise shown -by their occasional sympathetic enlargement in both during -an attack of the measles.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_78">“NO OTHER EXPLANATION HAS EVER BEEN GIVEN.”</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 24.</div> - -<p>The homological construction of the whole -frame in the members of the same class is -intelligible, if we admit their descent from a common -progenitor, together with their subsequent adaptation to -diversified conditions. On any other view, the similarity -of pattern between the hand of a man or monkey, the -foot of a horse, the flipper of a seal, the wing of a bat, -etc., is utterly inexplicable. It is no scientific explanation -to assert that they have all been formed on the same -ideal plan. With respect to development, we can clearly -understand, on the principle of variations supervening at -a rather late embryonic period, and being inherited at a -corresponding period, how it is that the embryos of wonderfully -different forms should still retain, more or less -perfectly, the structure of their common progenitor. No -other explanation has ever been given of the marvelous -fact that the embryos of a man, dog, seal, bat, reptile, -etc., can at first hardly be distinguished from each other. -In order to understand the existence of rudimentary -organs, we have only to suppose that a former progenitor -possessed the parts in question in a perfect state, and that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> -under changed habits of life they became greatly reduced, -either from simple disuse or through the natural selection -of those individuals which were least encumbered with a -superfluous part, aided by the other means previously -indicated.</p> - -<p>Thus we can understand how it has come to pass that -man and all other vertebrate animals have been constructed -on the same general model, why they pass -through the same early stages of development, and why -they retain certain rudiments in common. Consequently -we ought frankly to admit their community of descent; -to take any other view is to admit that our own structure, -and that of all the animals around us, is a mere snare -laid to entrap our judgment. This conclusion is greatly -strengthened, if we look to the members of the whole -animal series, and consider the evidence derived from -their affinities or classification, their geographical distribution, -and geological succession. It is only our natural -prejudice and that arrogance which made our forefathers -declare that they were descended from demi-gods which -leads us to demur to this conclusion. But the time will -before long come when it will be thought wonderful that -naturalists, who were well acquainted with the comparative -structure and development of man and other mammals, -should have believed that each was the work of a -separate act of creation.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_79">UNITY OF TYPE EXPLAINED BY RELATIONSHIP.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 382.</div> - -<p>We have seen that the members of the same -class, independently of their habits of life, resemble -each other in the general plan of their -organization. This resemblance is often expressed by the -term “unity of type”; or by saying that the several<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> -parts and organs in the different species of the class are -homologous. The whole subject is included under the -general term of Morphology. This is one of the most interesting -departments of natural history, and may almost -be said to be its very soul. What can be more curious -than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that -of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of -the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed -on the same pattern, and should include similar -bones, in the same relative positions? How curious it is, -to give a subordinate though striking instance, that the -hind-feet of the kangaroo, which are so well fitted for -bounding over the open plains, those of the climbing, -leaf-eating koala, equally well fitted for grasping the -branches of trees, those of the ground-dwelling, insect or -root eating, bandicoots, and those of some other Australian -marsupials, should all be constructed on the same extraordinary -type, namely, with the bones of the second -and third digits extremely slender and enveloped within -the same skin, so that they appear like a single toe furnished -with two claws! Notwithstanding this similarity -of pattern, it is obvious that the hind-feet of these several -animals are used for as widely different purposes as it is -possible to conceive. The case is rendered all the more -striking by the American opossums, which follow nearly -the same habits of life as some of their Australian relatives, -having feet constructed on the ordinary plan. Professor -Flower, from whom these statements are taken, -remarks in conclusion, “We may call this conformity to -type, without getting much nearer to an explanation of -the phenomenon”; and he then adds, “but is it not -powerfully suggestive of true relationship, of inheritance -from a common ancestor?”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_80">INEXPLICABLE ON THE ORDINARY VIEW OF CREATION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 384.</div> - -<p>How inexplicable are the cases of serial -homologies on the ordinary view of creation! -Why should the brain be inclosed in a box composed of -such numerous and such extraordinarily shaped pieces of -bone, apparently representing vertebræ? As Owen has remarked, -the benefit derived from the yielding of the separate -pieces in the act of parturition by mammals will by -no means explain the same construction in the skulls of -birds and reptiles. Why should similar bones have been -created to form the wing and the leg of a bat, used as -they are for such totally different purposes, namely, flying -and walking? Why should one crustacean, which -has an extremely complex mouth formed of many parts, -consequently always have fewer legs; or conversely, those -with many legs have simpler mouths? Why should the -sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils, in each flower, though -fitted for such distinct purposes, be all constructed on the -same pattern?</p> - -<p>On the theory of natural selection, we can, to a certain -extent, answer these questions. We need not here -consider how the bodies of some animals first became divided -into a series of segments, or how they became divided -into right and left sides, with corresponding organs, -for such questions are almost beyond investigation. It is, -however, probable that some serial structures are the result -of cells multiplying by division, entailing the multiplication -of the parts developed from such cells. It must -suffice for our purpose to bear in mind that an indefinite -repetition of the same part or organ is the common characteristic, -as Owen has remarked, of all low or little specialized -forms; therefore the unknown progenitor of the -Vertebrata probably possessed many vertebræ; the unknown<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span> -progenitor of the Articulata, many segments; and -the unknown progenitor of flowering plants, many leaves -arranged in one or more spires. We have also formerly -seen that parts many times repeated are eminently liable -to vary, not only in number, but in form. Consequently -such parts being already present in considerable numbers, -and being highly variable, would naturally afford the -materials for adaptation to the most different purposes; -yet they would generally retain, through the force of inheritance, -plain traces of their original or fundamental -resemblance. They would retain this resemblance all the -more, as the variations, which afforded the basis for their -subsequent modification through natural selection, would -tend from the first to be similar, the parts being at an -early stage of growth alike, and being subjected to nearly -the same conditions. Such parts, whether more or less -modified, unless their common origin became wholly obscured, -would be serially homologous.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_81">DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION THE ONLY EXPLANATION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 400.</div> - -<p>In works on natural history, rudimentary -organs are generally said to have been created -“for the sake of symmetry,” or in order “to -complete the scheme of Nature.” But this is not an explanation, -merely a restatement of the fact. Nor is it -consistent with itself: thus the boa-constrictor has rudiments -of hind-limbs and of a pelvis, and if it be said that -these bones have been retained “to complete the scheme -of Nature,” why, as Professor Weismann asks, have they -not been retained by other snakes, which do not possess -even a vestige of these same bones? What would be -thought of an astronomer who maintained that the satellites -revolve in elliptic courses round their planets “for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> -the sake of symmetry,” because the planets thus revolve -round the sun? An eminent physiologist accounts for -the presence of rudimentary organs, by supposing that -they serve to excrete matter in excess, or matter injurious -to the system; but can we suppose that the minute papilla, -which often represents the pistil in male flowers, -and which is formed of mere cellular tissue, can thus act? -Can we suppose that rudimentary teeth, which are subsequently -absorbed, are beneficial to the rapidly growing -embryonic calf by removing matter so precious as phosphate -of lime? When a man’s fingers have been amputated, -imperfect nails have been known to appear on the -stumps, and I could as soon believe that these vestiges of -nails are developed in order to excrete horny matter, as -that the rudimentary nails on the fin of the manatee have -been developed for this same purpose.</p> - -<p>On the view of descent with modification, the origin -of rudimentary organs is comparatively simple; and we -can understand to a large extent the laws governing their -imperfect development.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_82">THE HISTORY OF LIFE ON THE THEORY OF DESCENT -WITH MODIFICATION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 424.</div> - -<p>Organs in a rudimentary condition plainly -show that an early progenitor had the organ -in a fully-developed condition; and this in -some cases implies an enormous amount of modification -in the descendants. Throughout whole classes various -structures are formed on the same pattern, and at a very -early age the embryos closely resemble each other. Therefore -I can not doubt that the theory of descent with modification -embraces all the members of the same great class -or kingdom. I believe that animals are descended from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> -at most only four or five progenitors, and plants from an -equal or lesser number.</p> - -<p>Analogy would lead me one step further, namely, to -the belief that all animals and plants are descended from -some one prototype. But analogy may be a deceitful -guide. Nevertheless, all living things have much in common, -in their chemical composition, their cellular structure, -their laws of growth, and their liability to injurious -influences. We see this even in so trifling a fact as that -the same poison often similarly affects plants and animals; -or that the poison secreted by the gall-fly produces -monstrous growths on the wild-rose or oak-tree. With -all organic beings, excepting, perhaps, some of the very -lowest, sexual reproduction seems to be essentially similar. -With all, as far as is at present known, the germinal -vesicle is the same; so that all organisms start from a -common origin. If we look even to the two main divisions—namely, -to the animal and vegetable kingdoms—certain -low forms are so far intermediate in character -that naturalists have disputed to which kingdom they -should be referred. As Professor Asa Gray has remarked, -“the spores and other reproductive bodies of -many of the lower algæ may claim to have first a characteristically -animal, and then an unequivocally vegetable -existence.” Therefore, on the principle of natural selection -with divergence of character, it does not seem incredible -that, from some such low and intermediate form, -both animals and plants may have been developed; and, -if we admit this, we must likewise admit that all the -organic beings which have ever lived on this earth may -be descended from some one primordial form. But this -inference is chiefly grounded on analogy, and it is immaterial -whether or not it be accepted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span></p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 420.</div> - -<p>On the view of each organism with all its -separate parts having been specially created, -how utterly inexplicable is it that organs bearing the -plain stamp of inutility, such as the teeth in the embryonic -calf, or the shriveled wings under the soldered wing-covers -of many beetles, should so frequently occur! Nature -may be said to have taken pains to reveal her scheme -of modification, by means of rudimentary organs, of embryological -and homologous structures, but we are too -blind to understand her meaning.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_83">LETTERS RETAINED IN THE SPELLING BUT USELESS IN -PRONUNCIATION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 401.</div> - -<p>There remains, however, this difficulty. -After an organ has ceased being used, and has -become in consequence much reduced, how -can it be still further reduced in size until the merest -vestige is left; and how can it be finally quite obliterated? -It is scarcely possible that disuse can go on producing any -further effect after the organ has once been rendered -functionless. Some additional explanation is here requisite -which I can not give. If, for instance, it could be -proved that every part of the organization tends to vary -in a greater degree toward diminution than toward augmentation -of size, then we should be able to understand -how an organ which has become useless would be rendered, -independently of the effects of disuse, rudimentary, -and would at last be wholly suppressed; for the variations -toward diminished size would no longer be checked by -natural selection. The principle of the economy of -growth, explained in a former chapter, by which the materials -forming any part, if not useful to the possessor, -are saved as far as is possible, will perhaps come into play<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> -in rendering a useless part rudimentary. But this principle -will almost necessarily be confined to the earlier -stages of the process of reduction; for we can not suppose -that a minute papilla, for instance, representing in -a male flower the pistil of the female flower, and formed -merely of cellular tissue, could be further reduced or -absorbed for the sake of economizing nutriment.</p> - -<p>Finally, as rudimentary organs, by whatever steps -they may have been degraded into their present useless -condition, are the record of a former state of things, and -have been retained solely through the power of inheritance, -we can understand, on the genealogical view of -classification, how it is that systematists, in placing organisms -in their proper places in the natural system, -have often found rudimentary parts as useful as, or even -sometimes more useful than, parts of high physiological -importance. Rudimentary organs may be compared with -the letters in a word, still retained in the spelling, but -become useless in the pronunciation, but which serve as -a clew for its derivation. On the view of descent with -modification, we may conclude that the existence of organs -in a rudimentary, imperfect, and useless condition, or -quite aborted, far from presenting a strange difficulty, as -they assuredly do on the old doctrine of creation, might -even have been anticipated in accordance with the views -here explained.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_84">MAN’S DEFICIENCY IN TAIL.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 58.</div> - -<p>According to a popular impression, the absence -of a tail is eminently distinctive of man; -but, as those apes which come nearest to him -are destitute of this organ, its disappearance does not -relate exclusively to man. The tail often differs remarkably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> -in length within the same genus: thus in some species -of <i>Macacus</i> it is longer than the whole body, and is -formed of twenty-four vertebræ; in others it consists of -a scarcely visible stump, containing only three or four -vertebræ. In some kinds of baboons there are twenty-five, -while in the mandrill there are ten very small stunted caudal -vertebræ, or, according to Cuvier, sometimes only five. -The tail, whether it be long or short, almost always tapers -toward the end; and this, I presume, results from the -atrophy of the terminal muscles, together with their arteries -and nerves, through disuse, leading to the atrophy -of the terminal bones. But no explanation can at present -be given of the great diversity which often occurs in its -length. Here, however, we are more specially concerned -with the complete external disappearance of the tail. -Professor Broca has recently shown that the tail in all -quadrupeds consists of two portions, generally separated -abruptly from each other; the basal portion consists of -vertebræ, more or less perfectly channeled and furnished -with apophyses like ordinary vertebræ; whereas those -of the terminal portion are not channeled, are almost -smooth, and scarcely resemble true vertebræ. A tail, -though not externally visible, is really present in man -and the anthropomorphous apes, and is constructed on -exactly the same pattern in both. In the terminal portion -the vertebræ, constituting the <i>os coccyx</i>, are quite -rudimentary, being much reduced in size and number. -In the basal portion, the vertebræ are likewise few, are -united firmly together, and are arrested in development; -but they have been rendered much broader and flatter -than the corresponding vertebræ in the tails of other animals; -they constitute what Broca calls the accessory -sacral vertebræ. These are of functional importance by -supporting certain internal parts and in other ways; and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> -their modification is directly connected with the erect or -semi-erect attitude of man and the anthropomorphous -apes. This conclusion is the more trustworthy, as Broca -formerly held a different view, which he has now abandoned. -The modification, therefore, of the basal caudal -vertebræ in man and the higher apes may have been effected, -directly or indirectly, through natural selection.</p> - -<p>But what are we to say about the rudimentary and -variable vertebræ of the terminal portion of the tail, -forming the <i>os coccyx</i>? A notion which has often been, -and will no doubt again be ridiculed, namely, that friction -has had something to do with the disappearance of -the external portion of the tail, is not so ridiculous as it -at first appears. Dr. Anderson states that the extremely -short tail of <i>Macacus brunneus</i> is formed of eleven vertebræ, -including the imbedded basal ones. The extremity -is tendinous and contains no vertebræ; this is succeeded -by five rudimentary ones, so minute that together they -are only one line and a half in length, and these are permanently -bent to one side in the shape of a hook. The -free part of the tail, only a little above an inch in length, -includes only four more small vertebræ. This short tail -is carried erect; but about a quarter of its total length is -doubled on to itself to the left; and this terminal part, -which includes the hook-like portion, serves “to fill up -the interspace between the upper divergent portion of the -callosities”; so that the animal sits on it, and thus renders -it rough and callous.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_85">POINTS OF RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN MAN AND MONKEY.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 150.</div> - -<p>As small unimportant points of resemblance -between man and the <i>Quadrumana</i> are -not commonly noticed in systematic works, -and as, when numerous, they clearly reveal our relationship,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> -I will specify a few such points. The relative position -of our features is manifestly the same; and the various -emotions are displayed by nearly similar movements -of the muscles and skin, chiefly above the eyebrows and -round the mouth. Some few expressions are, indeed, -almost the same, as in the weeping of certain kinds of -monkeys and in the laughing noise made by others, during -which the corners of the mouth are drawn backward, -and the lower eyelids wrinkled. The external ears are -curiously alike. In man the nose is much more prominent -than in most monkeys; but we may trace the commencement -of an aquiline curvature in the nose of the Hoolock -Gibbon; and this in the <i>Semnopithecus nasica</i> is carried -to a ridiculous extreme.</p> - -<p>The faces of many monkeys are ornamented with -beards, whiskers, or mustaches. The hair on the head -grows to a great length in some species of Semnopithecus; -and in the Bonnet monkey (<i>Macacus radiatus</i>) it -radiates from a point on the crown, with a parting down -the middle. It is commonly said that the forehead gives -to man his noble and intellectual appearance; but the -thick hair on the head of the Bonnet monkey terminates -downward abruptly, and is succeeded by hair so short and -fine that at a little distance the forehead, with the exception -of the eyebrows, appears quite naked. It has been -erroneously asserted that eyebrows are not present in any -monkey. In the species just named the degree of nakedness -of the forehead differs in different individuals; and -Eschricht states that in our children the limit between -the hairy scalp and the naked forehead is sometimes not -well defined; so that here we seem to have a trifling case -of reversion to a progenitor, in whom the forehead had -not as yet become quite naked.</p> - -<p>It is well known that the hair on our arms tends to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> -converge from above and below to a point at the elbow. -This curious arrangement, so unlike that in most of the -lower mammals, is common to the gorilla, chimpanzee, -orang, some species of Hylobates, and even to some few -American monkeys. But in <i>Hylobates agilis</i> the hair on -the fore-arm is directed downward or toward the wrist in -the ordinary manner; and in <i>H. lar</i> it is nearly erect, -with only a very slight forward inclination; so that in -this latter species it is in a transitional state. It can -hardly be doubted that with most mammals the thickness -of the hair on the back and its direction are adapted to -throw off the rain; even the transverse hairs on the forelegs -of a dog may serve for this end when he is coiled -up asleep. Mr. Wallace, who has carefully studied the -habits of the orang, remarks that the convergence of the -hair toward the elbow on the arms of the orang may be -explained as serving to throw off the rain, for this animal -during rainy weather sits with its arms bent, and with -the hands clasped round a branch or over its head. According -to Livingstone, the gorilla also “sits in pelting -rain with his hands over his head.” If the above explanation -is correct, as seems probable, the direction of -the hair on our own arms offers a curious record of our -former state; for no one supposes that it is now of any -use in throwing off the rain; nor, in our present erect -condition, is it properly directed for this purpose.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 152.</div> - -<p>It must not be supposed that the resemblances -between man and certain apes in the -above and many other points—such as in having a naked -forehead, long tresses on the head, etc.—are all necessarily -the result of unbroken inheritance from a common progenitor, -or of subsequent reversion. Many of these resemblances -are more probably due to analogous variation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> -which follows, as I have elsewhere attempted to show, -from co-descended organisms having a similar constitution, -and having been acted on by like causes inducing similar -modifications. With respect to the similar direction of -the hair on the fore-arms of man and certain monkeys, -as this character is common to almost all the anthropomorphous -apes, it may probably be attributed to inheritance; -but this is not certain, as some very distinct American -monkeys are thus characterized.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_86">VARIABILITY OF MAN.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 26.</div> - -<p>It is manifest that man is now subject to -much variability. No two individuals of the -same race are quite alike. We may compare -millions of faces, and each will be distinct. There is an -equally great amount of diversity in the proportions and -dimensions of the various parts of the body, the length -of the legs being one of the most variable points. Although -in some quarters of the world an elongated skull, -and in other quarters a short skull prevails, yet there is -great diversity of shape even within the limits of the -same race, as with the aborigines of America and South -Australia—the latter a race “probably as pure and homogeneous -in blood, customs, and language as any in -existence”—and even with the inhabitants of so confined -an area as the Sandwich Islands. An eminent dentist -assures me that there is nearly as much diversity in the -teeth as in the features. The chief arteries so frequently -run in abnormal courses, that it has been found useful -for surgical purposes to calculate from 1,040 corpses how -often each course prevails. The muscles are eminently -variable: thus those of the foot were found by Professor -Turner not to be strictly alike in any two out of fifty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> -bodies; and in some the deviations were considerable. -He adds that the power of performing the appropriate -movements must have been modified in accordance with -the several deviations. Mr. J. Wood has recorded the -occurrence of 295 muscular variations in thirty-six subjects, -and in another set of the same number no less than -558 variations, those occurring on both sides of the body -being only reckoned as one. In the last set, not one body -out of the thirty-six was “found totally wanting in departures -from the standard descriptions of the muscular -system given in anatomical text-books.” A single body -presented the extraordinary number of twenty-five distinct -abnormalities. The same muscle sometimes varies -in many ways: thus Professor Macalister describes no -less than twenty distinct variations in the <i>palmaris accessorius</i>.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_87">CAUSES OF VARIABILITY IN DOMESTICATED MAN.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 28.</div> - -<p>With respect to the causes of variability, -we are in all cases very ignorant; but we can -see that in man, as in the lower animals, they -stand in some relation to the conditions to which each -species has been exposed during several generations. Domesticated -animals vary more than those in a state of -nature; and this is apparently due to the diversified and -changing nature of the conditions to which they have -been subjected. In this respect the different races of -man resemble domesticated animals, and so do the individuals -of the same race, when inhabiting a very wide -area, like that of America. We see the influence of diversified -conditions in the more civilized nations; for the -members belonging to different grades of rank, and following -different occupations, present a greater range of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> -character than do the members of barbarous nations. -But the uniformity of savages has often been exaggerated, -and in some cases can hardly be said to exist. It is, -nevertheless, an error to speak of man, even if we look -only to the conditions to which he has been exposed, as -“far more domesticated” than any other animal. Some -savage races, such as the Australians, are not exposed to -more diversified conditions than are many species which -have a wide range. In another and much more important -respect, man differs widely from any strictly domesticated -animal; for his breeding has never long been controlled, -either by methodical or unconscious selection. -No race or body of men has been so completely subjugated -by other men as that certain individuals should be -preserved, and thus unconsciously selected, from somehow -excelling in utility to their masters. Nor have certain -male and female individuals been intentionally picked -out and matched, except in the well-known case of the -Prussian grenadiers; and in this case man obeyed, as -might have been expected, the law of methodical selection; -for it is asserted that many tall men were reared -in the villages inhabited by the grenadiers and their tall -wives. In Sparta, also, a form of selection was followed, -for it was enacted that all children should be examined -shortly after birth; the well-formed and vigorous being -preserved, the others left to perish.</p> - -<p>If we consider all the races of man as forming a single -species, his range is enormous; but some separate races, -as the Americans and Polynesians, have very wide ranges. -It is a well-known law that widely-ranging species are -much more variable than species with restricted ranges; -and the variability of man may with more truth be compared -with that of widely-ranging species than with that -of domesticated animals.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span></p> - -<p>Not only does variability appear to be induced in man -and the lower animals by the same general causes, but in -both the same parts of the body are affected in a closely -analogous manner.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_88">ACTION OF CHANGED CONDITIONS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 30.</div> - -<p>This is a most perplexing subject. It can -not be denied that changed conditions produce -some, and occasionally a considerable, effect on organisms -of all kinds; and it seems at first probable that -if sufficient time were allowed this would be the invariable -result. But I have failed to obtain clear evidence in favor -of this conclusion; and valid reasons may be urged on -the other side, at least as far as the innumerable structures -are concerned, which are adapted for special ends. -There can, however, be no doubt that changed conditions -induce an almost indefinite amount of fluctuating variability, -by which the whole organization is rendered in -some degree plastic.</p> - -<p>In the United States, above one million soldiers, -who served in the late war, were measured, and the States -in which they were born and reared were recorded. -From this astonishing number of observations it is -proved that local influences of some kind act directly on -stature; and we further learn that “the State where -the physical growth has in great measure taken place, and -the State of birth, which indicates the ancestry, seem to -exert a marked influence on the stature.” For instance, -it is established that “residence in the Western States, -during the years of growth, tends to produce increase of -stature.” On the other hand, it is certain that, with -sailors, their life delays growth, as shown “by the great -difference between the statures of soldiers and sailors at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> -the ages of seventeen and eighteen years.” Mr. B. A. -Gould endeavored to ascertain the nature of the influences -which thus act on stature; but he arrived only at negative -results, namely, that they did not relate to climate, -the elevation of the land, soil, nor even “in any controlling -degree” to the abundance or the need of the comforts -of life. This latter conclusion is directly opposed to that -arrived at by Villermé, from the statistics of the height -of the conscripts in different parts of France. When we -compare the differences in stature between the Polynesian -chiefs and the lower orders within the same islands, or -between the inhabitants of the fertile volcanic and low -barren coral islands of the same ocean, or, again, between -the Fuegians on the eastern and western shores of their -country, where the means of subsistence are very different, -it is scarcely possible to avoid the conclusion that -better food and greater comfort do influence stature. But -the preceding statements show how difficult it is to arrive -at any precise result. Dr. Beddoe has lately proved that, -with the inhabitants of Britain, residence in towns and -certain occupations have a deteriorating influence on -height; and he infers that the result is to a certain extent -inherited, as is likewise the case in the United States. -Dr. Beddoe further believes that, wherever a “race attains -its maximum of physical development, it rises highest in -energy and moral vigor.”</p> - -<h3 id="sec_89">THE INHERITED EFFECTS OF THE INCREASED AND DIMINISHED -USE OF PARTS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 32.</div> - -<p>It is well known that use strengthens the -muscles in the individual, and complete disuse, -or the destruction of the proper nerve, -weakens them. When the eye is destroyed, the optic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> -nerve often becomes atrophied. When an artery is tied, -the lateral channels increase not only in diameter, but in -the thickness and strength of their coats. When one -kidney ceases to act from disease, the other increases in -size, and does double work. Bones increase not only in -thickness, but in length, from carrying a greater weight. -Different occupations, habitually followed, lead to changed -proportions in various parts of the body. Thus it was -ascertained by the United States commission that the -legs of the sailors employed in the late war were longer -by O·217 of an inch than those of the soldiers, though the -sailors were on an average shorter men; while their arms -were shorter by 1·09 of an inch, and therefore, out of -proportion, shorter in relation to their lesser height. This -shortness of the arms is apparently due to their greater -use, and is an unexpected result; but sailors chiefly use -their arms in pulling, and not in supporting weights. -With sailors, the girth of the neck and the depth of the -instep are greater, while the circumference of the chest, -waist, and hips is less, than in soldiers.</p> - -<p>Whether the several foregoing modifications would -become hereditary, if the same habits of life were followed -during many generations, is not known, but it is -probable.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 33.</div> - -<p>In infants, long before birth, the skin on -the soles of the feet is thicker than on any -other part of the body; and it can hardly be doubted that -this is due to the inherited effects of pressure during -a long series of generations.</p> - -<p>It is familiar to every one that watchmakers and engravers -are liable to be short-sighted, while men living -much out-of-doors, and especially savages, are generally -long-sighted. Short-sight and long-sight certainly tend<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> -to be inherited. The inferiority of Europeans, in comparison -with savages, in eye-sight and in the other senses, -is no doubt the accumulated and transmitted effect of -lessened use during many generations.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 35.</div> - -<p>Although man may not have been much -modified during the latter stages of his existence -through the increased or decreased use of parts, the -facts now given show that his liability in this respect has -not been lost; and we positively know that the same law -holds good with the lower animals. Consequently we -may infer that when at a remote epoch the progenitors -of man were in a transitional state, and were changing -from quadrupeds into bipeds, natural selection would -probably have been greatly aided by the inherited effects -of the increased or diminished use of the different parts -of the body.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_90">REVERSION AS A FACTOR IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAN.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 40.</div> - -<p>In man, the canine teeth are perfectly efficient -instruments for mastication. But their -true canine character, as Owen remarks, “is -indicated by the conical form of the crown, which terminates -in an obtuse point, is convex outward and flat or -sub-concave within, at the base of which surface there is -a feeble prominence. The conical form is best expressed -in the Melanian races, especially the Australian. The -canine is more deeply implanted, and by a stronger fang -than the incisors.” Nevertheless, this tooth no longer -serves man as a special weapon for tearing his enemies -or prey; it may, therefore, as far as its proper function -is concerned, be considered as rudimentary. In every -large collection of human skulls some may be found, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span> -Häckel observes, with the canine teeth projecting considerably -beyond the others in the same manner as in the -anthropomorphous apes, but in a less degree. In these -cases, open spaces between the teeth in the one jaw are -left for the reception of the canines of the opposite jaw. -An interspace of this kind in a Caffre skull, figured by -Wagner, is surprisingly wide. Considering how few are -the ancient skulls which have been examined, compared -to recent skulls, it is an interesting fact that in at least -three cases the canines project largely; and in the Naulette -jaw they are spoken of as enormous.</p> - -<p>Of the anthropomorphous apes the males alone have -their canines fully developed; but in the female gorilla, -and in a less degree in the female orang, these teeth project -considerably beyond the others: therefore the fact, -of which I have been assured, that women sometimes -have considerably projecting canines, is no serious objection -to the belief that their occasional great development -in man is a case of reversion to an ape-like progenitor. -He who rejects with scorn the belief that the shape of his -own canines and their occasional great development in -other men are due to our early forefathers having been -provided with these formidable weapons, will probably -reveal, by sneering, the line of his descent. For, though -he no longer intends, nor has the power, to use these -teeth as weapons, he will unconsciously retract his “snarling -muscles” (thus named by Sir C. Bell), so as to expose -them ready for action, like a dog prepared to fight.</p> - -<p>Many muscles are occasionally developed in man, -which are proper to the <i>Quadrumana</i> or other mammals. -Professor Vlacovich examined forty male subjects, and -found a muscle, called by him the ischio-pubic, in nineteen -of them; in three others there was a ligament which -represented this muscle; and in the remaining eighteen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> -no trace of it. In only two out of thirty female subjects -was this muscle developed on both sides, but in three -others the rudimentary ligament was present. This -muscle, therefore, appears to be much more common in -the male than in the female sex; and on the belief in the -descent of man from some lower form the fact is intelligible; -for it has been detected in several of the lower -animals, and in all of these it serves exclusively to aid the -male in the act of reproduction.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 43.</div> - -<p>That this unknown factor is reversion to a -former state of existence may be admitted as -in the highest degree probable. It is quite incredible that -a man should through mere accident abnormally resemble -certain apes in no less than seven of his muscles, if there -had been no genetic connection between them. On the -other hand, if man is descended from some ape-like creature, -no valid reason can be assigned why certain muscles -should not suddenly reappear after an interval of many -thousand generations, in the same manner as with horses, -asses, and mules, dark-colored stripes suddenly reappear -on the legs and shoulders, after an interval of hundreds, -or more probably of thousands, of generations.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_91">REVERSION IN THE HUMAN FAMILY.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Animals and -Plants,<br />vol. ii, page 1.</div> - -<p>When the child resembles either grandparent -more closely than its immediate parents, -our attention is not much arrested, though in -truth the fact is highly remarkable; but when the child -resembles some remote ancestor or some distant member -in a collateral line—and in the last case we must attribute -this to the descent of all the members from a common -progenitor—we feel a just degree of astonishment. When<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> -one parent alone displays some newly-acquired and generally -inheritable character, and the offspring do not inherit -it, the cause may lie in the other parent having the -power of prepotent transmission. But when both parents -are similarly characterized, and the child does not, whatever -the cause may be, inherit the character in question, -but resembles its grandparents, we have one of the simplest -cases of reversion. We continually see another -and even more simple case of atavism, though not generally -included under this head, namely, when the son -more closely resembles his maternal than his paternal -grandsire in some male attribute, as in any peculiarity in -the beard of man, the horns of the bull, the hackles or -comb of the cock, or, as in certain diseases necessarily -confined to the male sex; for, as the mother can not possess -or exhibit such male attributes, the child must inherit -them, through her blood, from his maternal grandsire.</p> - -<p>The cases of reversion may be divided into two main -classes, which, however, in some instances, blend into one -another; namely, first, those occurring in a variety or race -which has not been crossed, but has lost by variation some -character that it formerly possessed, and which afterward -reappears. The second class includes all cases in which -an individual with some distinguishable character, a race, -or species, has at some former period been crossed, and -a character derived from this cross, after having disappeared -during one or several generations, suddenly reappears.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 21.</div> - -<p>From these facts we may perhaps infer that -the degraded state of so many half-castes is in -part due to reversion to a primitive and savage condition, -induced by the act of crossing, even if mainly due to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> -unfavorable moral conditions under which they are generally -reared.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_92">PREPOTENCE IN THE TRANSMISSION OF CHARACTER.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Animals and -Plants,<br />vol. ii, page 40.</div> - -<p>When individuals, belonging to the same -family, but distinct enough to be recognized, -or when two well-marked races, or two species, -are crossed, the usual result, as stated in the previous -chapter, is, that the offspring in the first generation -are intermediate between their parents, or resemble -one parent in one part and the other parent in another -part. But this is by no means the invariable rule, for in -many cases it is found that certain individuals, races, and -species, are prepotent in transmitting their likeness. This -subject has been ably discussed by Prosper Lucas, but is -rendered extremely complex by the prepotency sometimes -running equally in both sexes, and sometimes more -strongly in one sex than in the other; it is likewise complicated -by the presence of secondary sexual characters, -which render the comparison of crossed breeds with their -parents difficult.</p> - -<p>It would appear that in certain families some one ancestor, -and after him others in the same family, have had -great power in transmitting their likeness through the -male line; for we can not otherwise understand how the -same features should so often be transmitted after marriages -with many females, as in the case of the Austrian -emperors; and so it was, according to Niebuhr, with the -mental qualities of certain Roman families. The famous -bull Favorite is believed to have had a prepotent influence -on the short-horn race. It has also been observed -with English race-horses that certain mares have generally -transmitted their own character, while other mares of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> -equally pure blood have allowed the character of the sire -to prevail. A famous black greyhound, Bedlamite, as I -hear from Mr. C. M. Brown, “invariably got all his puppies -black, no matter what was the color of the bitch”; -but then Bedlamite “had a preponderance of black in -his blood, both on the sire and dam side.”</p> - -<h3 id="sec_93">NATURAL SELECTION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAN.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 48.</div> - -<p>Man in the rudest state in which he now -exists is the most dominant animal that has -ever appeared on this earth. He has spread -more widely than any other highly organized form; and -all others have yielded before him. He manifestly owes -this immense superiority to his intellectual faculties, to -his social habits, which lead him to aid and defend his -fellows, and to his corporeal structure. The supreme -importance of these characters has been proved by the -final arbitrament of the battle for life. Through his -powers of intellect, articulate language has been evolved; -and on this his wonderful advancement has mainly depended. -As Mr. Chauncey Wright remarks: “A psychological -analysis of the faculty of language shows that -even the smallest proficiency in it might require more -brain-power than the greatest proficiency in any other -direction.” He has invented and is able to use various -weapons, tools, traps, etc., with which he defends himself, -kills or catches prey, and otherwise obtains food. -He has made rafts or canoes for fishing or crossing over to -neighboring fertile islands. He has discovered the art of -making fire, by which hard and stringy roots can be rendered -digestible, and poisonous roots or herbs innocuous. -This discovery of fire, probably the greatest ever made by -man, excepting language, dates from before the dawn of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> -history. These several inventions, by which man in the -rudest state has become so pre-eminent, are the direct -results of the development of his powers of observation, -memory, curiosity, imagination, and reason.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 50.</div> - -<p>Archæologists are convinced that an enormous -interval of time elapsed before our ancestors -thought of grinding chipped flints into smooth -tools. One can hardly doubt that a man-like animal -who possessed a hand and arm sufficiently perfect to -throw a stone with precision, or to form a flint into a -rude tool, could, with sufficient practice, as far as mechanical -skill alone is concerned, make almost anything -which a civilized man can make. The structure of the -hand in this respect may be compared with that of the -vocal organs, which in the apes are used for uttering -various signal-cries, or, as in one genus, musical cadences; -but in man the closely similar vocal organs have become -adapted through the inherited effects of use for the utterance -of articulate language.</p> - -<p>Turning now to the nearest allies of men, and therefore -to the best representatives of our early progenitors, -we find that the hands of the <i>Quadrumana</i> are constructed -on the same general pattern as our own, but are far less -perfectly adapted for diversified uses. Their hands do -not serve for locomotion so well as the feet of a dog; as -may be seen in such monkeys as the chimpanzee and -orang, which walk on the outer margins of the palms, or -on the knuckles. Their hands, however, are admirably -adapted for climbing trees. Monkeys seize thin branches -or ropes, with the thumb on one side and the fingers and -palm on the other, in the same manner as we do. They -can thus also lift rather large objects, such as the neck of -a bottle, to their mouths. Baboons turn over stones and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> -scratch up roots with their hands. They seize nuts, insects, -or other small objects with the thumb in opposition -to the fingers, and no doubt they thus extract eggs and -the young from the nests of birds. American monkeys -beat the wild oranges on the branches until the rind is -cracked, and then tear it off with the fingers of the two -hands. In a wild state they break open hard fruits with -stones. Other monkeys open mussel-shells with the two -thumbs. With their fingers they pull out thorns and -burs, and hunt for each other’s parasites. They roll -down stones, or throw them at their enemies; nevertheless, -they are clumsy in these various actions, and, as I -have myself seen, are quite unable to throw a stone with -precision.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_94">HOW MAN BECAME UPRIGHT.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 52.</div> - -<p>If it be an advantage to man to stand firmly -on his feet and to have his hands and arms -free, of which, from his pre-eminent success in -the battle of life, there can be no doubt, then I can see -no reason why it should not have been advantageous to -the progenitors of man to have become more and more -erect or bipedal. They would thus have been better able -to defend themselves with stones or clubs, to attack their -prey, or otherwise to obtain food. The best built individuals -would in the long run have succeeded best, and -have survived in larger numbers. If the gorilla and a few -allied forms had become extinct, it might have been argued, -with great force and apparent truth, that an animal -could not have been gradually converted from a -quadruped into a biped, as all the individuals in an intermediate -condition would have been miserably ill-fitted -for progression. But we know (and this is well worthy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> -of reflection) that the anthropomorphous apes are now -actually in an intermediate condition; and no one doubts -that they are on the whole well adapted for their conditions -of life. Thus the gorilla runs with a sidelong, -shambling gait, but more commonly progresses by resting -on its bent hands. The long-armed apes occasionally use -their arms like crutches, swinging their bodies forward -between them, and some kinds of Hylobates, without -having been taught, can walk or run upright with tolerable -quickness; yet they move awkwardly, and much less -securely than man. We see, in short, in existing monkeys -a manner of progression intermediate between that -of a quadruped and a biped; but, as an unprejudiced -judge insists, the anthropomorphous apes approach in -structure more nearly to the bipedal than to the quadrupedal -type.</p> - -<p>As the progenitors of man became more and more -erect, with their hands and arms more and more modified -for prehension and other purposes, with their feet and legs -at the same time transformed for firm support and progression, -endless other changes of structure would have -become necessary. The pelvis would have to be broadened, -the spine peculiarly curved, and the head fixed in -an altered position, all which changes have been attained -by man.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 53.</div> - -<p>The free use of the arms and hands, partly -the cause and partly the result of man’s erect -position, appears to have led in an indirect manner to -other modifications of structure. The early male forefathers -of man were, as previously stated, probably furnished -with great canine teeth; but, as they gradually -acquired the habit of using stones, clubs, or other weapons, -for fighting with their enemies or rivals, they would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> -use their jaws and teeth less and less. In this case, the -jaws, together with the teeth, would become reduced in -size, as we may feel almost sure from innumerable analogous -cases.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_95">THE BRAIN ENLARGES AS THE MENTAL FACULTIES -DEVELOP.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 54.</div> - -<p>As the various mental faculties gradually -developed themselves the brain would almost -certainly become larger. No one, I presume, -doubts that the large proportion which the size of man’s -brain bears to his body, compared to the same proportion -in the gorilla or orang, is closely connected with his -higher mental powers. We meet with closely analogous -facts with insects, for in ants the cerebral ganglia are of -extraordinary dimensions, and in all the <i>Hymenoptera</i> -these ganglia are many times larger than in the less intelligent -orders, such as beetles. On the other hand, no -one supposes that the intellect of any two animals or of -any two men can be accurately gauged by the cubic contents -of their skulls. It is certain that there may be -extraordinary mental activity with an extremely small -absolute mass of nervous matter: thus the wonderfully -diversified instincts, mental powers, and affections of ants -are notorious, yet their cerebral ganglia are not so large -as the quarter of a small pin’s head. Under this point of -view, the brain of an ant is one of the most marvelous -atoms of matter in the world, perhaps more so than the -brain of a man.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 55.</div> - -<p>The gradually increasing weight of the -brain and skull in man must have influenced -the development of the supporting spinal column, more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> -especially while he was becoming erect. As this change -of position was being brought about, the internal pressure -of the brain will also have influenced the form of the -skull; for many facts show how easily the skull is thus -affected. Ethnologists believe that it is modified by the -kind of cradle in which infants sleep. Habitual spasms -of the muscles and a cicatrix from a severe burn have -permanently modified the facial bones. In young persons -whose heads have become fixed either sideways or backward, -owing to disease, one of the two eyes has changed -its position, and the shape of the skull has been altered -apparently by the pressure of the brain in a new direction. -I have shown that with long-eared rabbits even so trifling -a cause as the lopping forward of one ear drags forward -almost every bone of the skull on that side; so that the -bones on the opposite side no longer strictly correspond. -Lastly, if any animal were to increase or diminish much -in general size, without any change in its mental powers, -or if the mental powers were to be much increased or -diminished, without any great change in the size of the -body, the shape of the skull would almost certainly be -altered. I infer this from my observations on domestic -rabbits, some kinds of which have become very much -larger than the wild animal, while others have retained -nearly the same size, but in both cases the brain has been -much reduced relatively to the size of the body. Now, I -was at first much surprised on finding that in all these -rabbits the skull had become elongated or dolichocephalic; -for instance, of two skulls of nearly equal breadth, -the one from a wild rabbit and the other from a large -domestic kind, the former was 3·15 and the latter 4·3 -inches in length. One of the most marked distinctions -in different races of men is that the skull in some is elongated, -and in others rounded; and here the explanation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span> -suggested by the case of the rabbits may hold good; for -Welcker finds that short “men incline more to brachycephaly, -and tall men to dolichocephaly”; and tall men -may be compared with the larger and longer-bodied rabbits, -all of which have elongated skulls, or are dolichocephalic.</p> - -<p>From these several facts we can understand, to a certain -extent, the means by which the great size and more -or less rounded form of the skull have been acquired by -man; and these are characters eminently distinctive of -him in comparison with the lower animals.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_96">NAKEDNESS OF THE SKIN.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 56.</div> - -<p>Another most conspicuous difference between -man and the lower animals is the -nakedness of the skin. Whales and porpoises -(<i>Cetacea</i>), dugongs (<i>Sirenia</i>), and the hippopotamus are -naked; and this may be advantageous to them for gliding -through the water; nor would it be injurious to them -from the loss of warmth, as the species, which inhabit the -colder regions, are protected by a thick layer of blubber, -serving the same purpose as the fur of seals and otters. -Elephants and rhinoceroses are almost hairless; and, as -certain extinct species, which formerly lived under an -Arctic climate, were covered with long wool or hair, it -would almost appear as if the existing species of both -genera had lost their hairy covering from exposure to -heat. This appears the more probable, as the elephants -in India, which live on elevated and cool districts, are -more hairy than those on the lowlands. May we then -infer that man became divested of hair from having aboriginally -inhabited some tropical land? That the hair -is chiefly retained in the male sex on the chest and face,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> -and in both sexes at the junction of all four limbs with -the trunk, favors this inference—on the assumption that -the hair was lost before man became erect; for the parts -which now retain most hair would then have been most -protected from the heat of the sun. The crown of the -head, however, offers a curious exception, for at all times -it must have been one of the most exposed parts, yet it is -thickly clothed with hair. The fact, however, that the -other members of the order of <i>Primates</i>, to which man -belongs, although inhabiting various hot regions, are well -clothed with hair, generally thickest on the upper surface, -is opposed to the supposition that man became naked -through the action of the sun.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 18.</div> - -<p>The different races differ much in hairiness; -and in the individuals of the same race the -hairs are highly variable, not only in abundance, -but likewise in position: thus in some Europeans -the shoulders are quite naked, while in others they bear -thick tufts of hair. There can be little doubt that the -hairs thus scattered over the body are the rudiments of -the uniform hairy coat of the lower animals. This view -is rendered all the more probable, as it is known that -the fine, short, and pale-colored hairs on the limbs and -other parts of the body occasionally become developed -into “thick-set, long, and rather coarse dark hairs,” -when abnormally nourished near old-standing inflamed -surfaces.</p> - -<p>I am informed by Sir James Paget that often several -members of a family have a few hairs in their eyebrows -much longer than the others; so that even this slight -peculiarity seems to be inherited. These hairs, too, seem -to have their representatives; for in the chimpanzee, and -in certain species of Macacus, there are scattered hairs of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> -considerable length rising from the naked skin above the -eyes, and corresponding to our eyebrows; similar long -hairs project from the hairy covering of the superciliary -ridges in some baboons.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_97">IS MAN THE MOST HELPLESS OF THE ANIMALS?</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 63.</div> - -<p>It has often been objected to such views as -the foregoing, that man is one of the most -helpless and defenseless creatures in the world; -and that during his early and less well-developed condition -he would have been still more helpless. The Duke -of Argyll, for instance, insists that “the human frame -has diverged from the structure of brutes, in the direction -of greater physical helplessness and weakness. That is -to say, it is a divergence which of all others it is most -impossible to ascribe to mere natural selection.” He adduces -the naked and unprotected state of the body, the -absence of great teeth or claws for defense, the small -strength and speed of man, and his slight power of discovering -food or of avoiding danger by smell. To these -deficiencies there might be added one still more serious, -namely, that he can not climb quickly, and so escape from -enemies. The loss of hair would not have been a great -injury to the inhabitants of a warm country. For we -know that the unclothed Fuegians can exist under a -wretched climate. When we compare the defenseless -state of man with that of apes, we must remember that -the great canine teeth with which the latter are provided -are possessed in their full development by the males alone, -and are chiefly used by them for fighting with their rivals; -yet the females, which are not thus provided, manage to -survive.</p> - -<p>In regard to bodily size or strength, we do not know<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> -whether man is descended from some small species, like -the chimpanzee, or from one as powerful as the gorilla; -and, therefore, we can not say whether man has become -larger and stronger, or smaller and weaker, than his -ancestors. We should, however, bear in mind that an -animal possessing great size, strength, and ferocity, and -which, like the gorilla, could defend itself from all enemies, -would not perhaps have become social; and this -would most effectually have checked the acquirement of -the higher mental qualities—such as sympathy and the -love of his fellows. Hence it might have been an immense -advantage to man to have sprung from some comparatively -weak creature.</p> - -<p>The small strength and speed of man, his want of -natural weapons, etc., are more than counterbalanced, -firstly, by his intellectual powers, through which he has -formed for himself weapons, tools, etc., though still remaining -in a barbarous state, and, secondly, by his social -qualities, which lead him to give and receive aid from his -fellow-men. No country in the world abounds in a greater -degree with dangerous beasts than Southern Africa; no -country presents more fearful physical hardships than the -Arctic regions; yet one of the puniest of races, that of -the Bushmen, maintains itself in Southern Africa, as do -the dwarfed Esquimaux in the Arctic regions. The ancestors -of man were, no doubt, inferior in intellect, and -probably in social disposition, to the lowest existing savages; -but it is quite conceivable that they might have -existed, or even flourished, if they had advanced in intellect, -while gradually losing their brute-like powers, such -as that of climbing trees, etc. But these ancestors would -not have been exposed to any special danger, even if far -more helpless and defenseless than any existing savages, -had they inhabited some warm continent or large island,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> -such as Australia, New Guinea, or Borneo, which is now -the home of the orang. And natural selection arising -from the competition of tribe with tribe, in some such -large area as one of these, together with the inherited -effects of habit, would, under favorable conditions, have -sufficed to raise man to his present high position in the -organic scale.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VIII">VIII.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">MENTAL POWERS OF MAN AND THE LOWER -ANIMALS COMPARED.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 65.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">No</span> doubt the difference in this respect is -enormous, even if we compare the mind of one -of the lowest savages, who has no words to -express any number higher than four, and who uses -hardly any abstract terms for common objects or for the -affections, with that of the most highly organized ape. -The difference would, no doubt, still remain immense, -even if one of the higher apes had been improved or civilized -as much as a dog has been in comparison with its -parent-form, the wolf or jackal. The Fuegians rank -among the lowest barbarians; but I was continually -struck with surprise how closely the three natives on -board H. M. S. Beagle, who had lived some years in England, -and could talk a little English, resembled us in disposition -and in most of our mental faculties. If no -organic being excepting man had possessed any mental -power, or if his powers had been of a wholly different -nature from those of the lower animals, then we should -never have been able to convince ourselves that our high -faculties had been gradually developed. But it can be -shown that there is no fundamental difference of this -kind. We must also admit that there is a much wider<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> -interval in mental power between one of the lowest fishes, -as a lamprey or lancelet, and one of the higher apes than -between an ape and man; yet this interval is filled up by -numberless gradations.</p> - -<p>Nor is the difference slight in moral disposition between -a barbarian, such as the man described by the old -navigator Byron, who dashed his child on the rocks for -dropping a basket of sea-urchins, and a Howard or Clarkson; -and in intellect between a savage, who uses hardly -any abstract terms, and a Newton or Shakespeare. Differences -of this kind between the highest men of the -highest races and the lowest savages, are connected by -the finest gradations. Therefore it is possible that they -might pass and be developed into each other.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 66.</div> - -<p>In what manner the mental powers were -first developed in the lowest organisms is as -hopeless an inquiry as how life itself first originated. -These are problems for the distant future, if they are ever -to be solved by man.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_98">FUNDAMENTAL INTUITIONS THE SAME IN MAN AND -THE OTHER ANIMALS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 66.</div> - -<p>As man possesses the same senses as the -lower animals, his fundamental intuitions must -be the same. Man has also some few instincts in common, -as that of self-preservation, sexual love, the love of -the mother for her new-born offspring, the desire possessed -by the latter to suck, and so forth. But man, perhaps, -has somewhat fewer instincts than those possessed -by the animals which come next to him in the series. -The orang in the Eastern islands and the chimpanzee in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> -Africa build platforms on which they sleep; and, as both -species follow the same habit, it might be argued that -this was due to instinct, but we can not feel sure that it -is not the result of both animals having similar wants, -and possessing similar powers of reasoning. These apes, -as we may assume, avoid the many poisonous fruits of the -tropics, and man has no such knowledge: but, as our domestic -animals, when taken to foreign lands, and when -first turned out in the spring, often eat poisonous herbs, -which they afterward avoid, we can not feel sure that -the apes do not learn from their own experience or from -that of their parents what fruits to select. It is, however, -certain, as we shall presently see, that apes have an -instinctive dread of serpents, and probably of other dangerous -animals.</p> - -<p>The fewness and the comparative simplicity of the -instincts in the higher animals are remarkable in contrast -with those of the lower animals. Cuvier maintained that -instinct and intelligence stand in an adverse ratio to each -other; and some have thought that the intellectual faculties -of the higher animals have been gradually developed -from their instincts. But Pouchet, in an interesting -essay, has shown that no such inverse ratio really exists. -Those insects which possess the most wonderful instincts -are certainly the most intelligent. In the vertebrate -series, the least intelligent members, namely, fishes and -amphibians, do not possess complex instincts; and among -mammals the animal most remarkable for its instincts, -namely, the beaver, is highly intelligent, as will be admitted -by every one who has read Mr. Morgan’s excellent -work.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_99">MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS EXCITED BY THE SAME -EMOTIONS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 69.</div> - -<p>The fact that the lower animals are excited -by the same emotions as ourselves is so well -established that it will not be necessary to weary the -reader by many details. Terror acts in the same manner -on them as on us, causing the muscles to tremble, the -heart to palpitate, the sphincters to be relaxed, and the -hair to stand on end. Suspicion, the offspring of fear, -is eminently characteristic of most wild animals. It is, I -think, impossible to read the account given by Sir E. -Tennent, of the behavior of the female elephants, used -as decoys, without admitting that they intentionally practice -deceit, and well know what they are about. Courage -and timidity are extremely variable qualities in the individuals -of the same species, as is plainly seen in our dogs. -Some dogs and horses are ill-tempered, and easily turn -sulky; others are good-tempered; and these qualities are -certainly inherited. Every one knows how liable animals -are to furious rage, and how plainly they show it. Many, -and probably true, anecdotes have been published on the -long-delayed and artful revenge of various animals. The -accurate Rengger and Brehm state that the American -and African monkeys which they kept tame certainly -revenged themselves. Sir Andrew Smith, a zoölogist -whose scrupulous accuracy was known to many persons, -told me the following story of which he was himself an -eye-witness: At the Cape of Good Hope an officer had -often plagued a certain baboon, and the animal, seeing -him approaching one Sunday for parade, poured water -into a hole and hastily made some thick mud, which he -skillfully dashed over the officer as he passed by, to the -amusement of many by-standers. For long afterward<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> -the baboon rejoiced and triumphed whenever he saw his -victim.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 70.</div> - -<p>The love of a dog for his master is notorious; -as an old writer quaintly says, “A -dog is the only thing on this earth that luvs you more -than he luvs himself.”</p> - -<p>In the agony of death a dog has been known to caress -his master, and every one has heard of the dog suffering -under vivisection, who licked the hand of the operator; -this man, unless the operation was fully justified by an -increase of our knowledge, or unless he had a heart of -stone, must have felt remorse to the last hour of his life.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 71.</div> - -<p>Most of the more complex emotions are -common to the higher animals and ourselves. -Every one has seen how jealous a dog is of his master’s -affection, if lavished on any other creature; and I have -observed the same fact with monkeys. This shows that -animals not only love, but have desire to be loved. Animals -manifestly feel emulation. They love approbation -or praise; and a dog carrying a basket for his master exhibits -in a high degree self-complacency or pride. There -can, I think, be no doubt that a dog feels shame, as distinct -from fear, and something very like modesty when -begging too often for food. A great dog scorns the snarling -of a little dog, and this may be called magnanimity. -Several observers have stated that monkeys certainly dislike -being laughed at; and they sometimes invent imaginary -offenses. In the Zoölogical Gardens I saw a baboon -who always got into a furious rage when his keeper took -out a letter or book and read it aloud to him; and his -rage was so violent that, as I witnessed on one occasion, -he bit his own leg till the blood flowed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span></p> - -<p>All animals feel <em>wonder</em>, and many exhibit <em>curiosity</em>. -They sometimes suffer from this latter quality, as when -the hunter plays antics and thus attracts them; I have -witnessed this with deer, and so it is with the wary chamois, -and with some kinds of wild-ducks. Brehm gives -a curious account of the instinctive dread which his -monkeys exhibited for snakes; but their curiosity was so -great that they could not desist from occasionally satiating -their horror in a most human fashion, by lifting up -the lid of the box in which the snakes were kept. I was -so much surprised at his account, that I took a stuffed -and coiled-up snake into the monkey-house at the Zoölogical -Gardens, and the excitement thus caused was one -of the most curious spectacles which I ever beheld.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_100">ALL ANIMALS POSSESS SOME POWER OF REASONING.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 75.</div> - -<p>Of all the faculties of the human mind, -it will, I presume, be admitted that <em>reason</em> -stands at the summit. Only a few persons now dispute -that animals possess some power of reasoning. Animals -may constantly be seen to pause, deliberate, and resolve. -It is a significant fact that the more the habits of any -particular animal are studied by a naturalist, the more -he attributes to reason and the less to unlearned instincts. -In future chapters we shall see that some animals extremely -low in the scale apparently display a certain -amount of reason. No doubt it is often difficult to distinguish -between the power of reason and that of instinct. -For instance, Dr. Hayes, in his work on “The Open -Polar Sea,” repeatedly remarks that his dogs, instead of -continuing to draw the sledges in a compact body, diverged -and separated when they came to thin ice, so that -their weight might be more evenly distributed. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> -was often the first warning which the travelers received -that the ice was becoming thin and dangerous. Now, -did the dogs act thus from the experience of each individual, -or from the example of the older and wiser dogs, -or from an inherited habit, that is, from instinct? This -instinct may possibly have arisen since the time, long -ago, when dogs were first employed by the natives in -drawing their sledges; or the Arctic wolves, the parent-stock -of the Esquimaux dog, may have acquired an instinct, -impelling them not to attack their prey in a close -pack, when on thin ice.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 79.</div> - -<p>Archbishop Sumner formerly maintained -that man alone is capable of progressive improvement. -That he is capable of incomparably greater -and more rapid improvement than is any other animal, -admits of no dispute; and this is mainly due to his power -of speaking and handing down his acquired knowledge. -With animals, looking first to the individual, every one -who has had any experience in setting traps knows that -young animals can be caught much more easily than old -ones; and they can be much more easily approached by -an enemy. Even with respect to old animals, it is impossible -to catch many in the same place and in the same -kind of trap, or to destroy them by the same kind of -poison; yet it is improbable that all should have partaken -of the poison, and impossible that all should have been -caught in a trap. They must learn caution by seeing -their brethren caught or poisoned.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 80.</div> - -<p>Our domestic dogs are descended from -wolves and jackals, and though they may not -have gained in cunning, and may have lost in wariness -and suspicion, yet they have progressed in certain moral<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> -qualities, such as in affection, trustworthiness, temper, -and probably in general intelligence.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_101">THE POWER OF ASSOCIATION IN DOG AND SAVAGE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 77.</div> - -<p>The savage and the dog have often found -water at a low level, and the coincidence under -such circumstances has become associated in -their minds. A cultivated man would perhaps make -some general proposition on the subject; but from all -that we know of savages it is extremely doubtful whether -they would do so, and a dog certainly would not. But a -savage, as well as a dog, would search in the same way, -though frequently disappointed; and in both it seems to -be equally an act of reason, whether or not any general -proposition on the subject is consciously placed before the -mind. The same would apply to the elephant and the -bear making currents in the air or water. The savage -would certainly neither know nor care by what law the -desired movements were effected; yet his act would be -guided by a rude process of reasoning, as surely as would -a philosopher in his longest chain of deductions. There -would no doubt be this difference between him and one -of the higher animals, that he would take notice of much -slighter circumstances and conditions, and would observe -any connection between them after much less experience, -and this would be of paramount importance. I kept a -daily record of the actions of one of my infants, and -when he was about eleven months old, and before he -could speak a single word, I was continually struck with -the greater quickness with which all sorts of objects and -sounds were associated together in his mind, compared -with that of the most intelligent dogs I ever knew. But -the higher animals differ in exactly the same way in this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span> -power of association from those low in the scale, such as -the pike, as well as in that of drawing inferences and of -observation.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_102">THE LOWER ANIMALS PROGRESS IN INTELLIGENCE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 81.</div> - -<p>To maintain, independently of any direct -evidence, that no animal during the course of -ages has progressed in intellect or other mental faculties, -is to beg the question of the evolution of species. We -have seen that, according to Lartet, existing mammals -belonging to several orders have larger brains than their -ancient tertiary prototypes.</p> - -<p>It has often been said that no animal uses any tool; -but the chimpanzee, in a state of nature, cracks a native -fruit, somewhat like a walnut, with a stone. Rengger -easily taught an American monkey thus to break open -hard palm-nuts; and afterward, of its own accord, it used -stones to open other kinds of nuts, as well as boxes. It -thus also removed the soft rind of fruit that had a disagreeable -flavor. Another monkey was taught to open -the lid of a large box with a stick, and afterward it used -the stick as a lever to move heavy bodies; and I have myself -seen a young orang put a stick into a crevice, slip -his hand to the other end, and use it in the proper manner -as a lever. The tamed elephants in India are well -known to break off branches of trees and use them to -drive away the flies; and this same act has been observed -in an elephant in a state of nature.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 82.</div> - -<p>The Duke of Argyll remarks that the fashioning -of an implement for a special purpose -is absolutely peculiar to man; and he considers that this -forms an immeasurable gulf between him and the brutes.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span> -This is no doubt a very important distinction; but there -appears to me much truth in Sir J. Lubbock’s suggestion -that, when primeval man first used flint-stones for any -purpose, he would have accidentally splintered them, and -would then have used the sharp fragments. From this -step it would be a small one to break the flints on purpose, -and not a very wide step to fashion them rudely. -This latter advance, however, may have taken long ages, -if we may judge by the immense interval of time which -elapsed before the men of the neolithic period took to -grinding and polishing their stone tools. In breaking -the flints, as Sir J. Lubbock likewise remarks, sparks -would have been emitted, and in grinding them heat -would have been evolved; thus the two usual methods of -“obtaining fire may have originated.” The nature of fire -would have been known in the many volcanic regions -where lava occasionally flows through forests.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_103">THE POWER OF ABSTRACTION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 83.</div> - -<p>If one may judge from various articles -which have been published lately, the greatest -stress seems to be laid on the supposed entire absence in -animals of the power of abstraction, or of forming general -concepts. But when a dog sees another dog at a distance, -it is often clear that he perceives that it is a dog in -the abstract; for when he gets nearer his whole manner -suddenly changes, if the other dog be a friend. A recent -writer remarks that in all such cases it is a pure assumption -to assert that the mental act is not essentially of the -same nature in the animal as in man. If either refers -what he perceives with his senses to a mental concept, -then so do both. When I say to my terrier, in an eager -voice (and I have made the trial many times), “Hi, hi,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> -where is it?” she at once takes it as a sign that something -is to be hunted, and generally first looks quickly -all around, and then rushes into the nearest thicket, to -scent for any game, but, finding nothing, she looks up -into any neighboring tree for a squirrel. Now, do not -these actions clearly show that she had in her mind a general -idea or concept that some animal is to be discovered -and hunted?</p> - -<p>It may be freely admitted that no animal is self-conscious, -if by this term it is implied that he reflects on -such points as whence he comes or whither he will go, or -what is life and death, and so forth. But how can we -feel sure that an old dog with an excellent memory and -some power of imagination, as shown by his dreams, -never reflects on his past pleasures or pains in the chase? -And this would be a form of self-consciousness. On the -other hand, as Büchner has remarked, how little can the -hard-worked wife of a degraded Australian savage, who -uses very few abstract words, and can not count above -four, exert her self-consciousness, or reflect on the nature -of her own existence! It is generally admitted that the -higher animals possess memory, attention, association, -and even some imagination and reason. If these powers, -which differ much in different animals, are capable of -improvement, there seems no great improbability in more -complex faculties, such as the higher forms of abstraction, -and self-consciousness, etc., having been evolved through -the development and combination of the simpler ones. -It has been urged against the views here maintained that -it is impossible to say at what point in the ascending -scale animals become capable of abstraction, etc.; but -who can say at what age this occurs in our young children? -We see at least that such powers are developed in -children by imperceptible degrees.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_104">THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 84.</div> - -<p>This faculty (language) has justly been -considered as one of the chief distinctions between -man and the lower animals. But man, as a highly -competent judge, Archbishop Whately, remarks, “is not -the only animal that can make use of language to express -what is passing in his mind, and can understand, more -or less, what is so expressed by another.” In Paraguay -the <i>Cebus azaræ</i> when excited utters at least six distinct -sounds, which excite in other monkeys similar emotions. -The movements of the features and gestures of monkeys -are understood by us, and they partly understand ours, -as Rengger and others declare. It is a more remarkable -fact that the dog, since being domesticated, has learned -to bark in at least four or five distinct tones. Although -barking is a new art, no doubt the wild parent-species of -the dog expressed their feelings by cries of various kinds. -With the domesticated dog we have the bark of eagerness, -as in the chase; that of anger, as well as growling; -the yelp or howl of despair, as when shut up; the baying -at night; the bark of joy, as when starting on a walk -with his master; and the very distinct one of demand or -supplication, as when wishing for a door or window to be -opened. According to Houzeau, who paid particular attention -to the subject, the domestic fowl utters at least a -dozen significant sounds.</p> - -<p>The habitual use of articulate language is, however, -peculiar to man; but he uses, in common with the lower -animals, inarticulate cries to express his meaning, aided -by gestures and the movements of the muscles of the -face. This especially holds good with the more simple -and vivid feelings, which are but little connected with -our higher intelligence. Our cries of pain, fear, surprise,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> -anger, together with their appropriate actions, and the -murmur of a mother to her beloved child, are more expressive -than any words. That which distinguishes man -from the lower animals is not the understanding of articulate -sounds, for, as every one knows, dogs understand -many words and sentences. In this respect they are at -the same stage of development as infants, between the -ages of ten and twelve months, who understand many -words and short sentences, but can not yet utter a single -word. It is not the mere articulation which is our distinguishing -character, for parrots and other birds possess this -power. Nor is it the mere capacity of connecting definite -sounds with definite ideas; for it is certain that some -parrots, which have been taught to speak, connect unerringly -words with things, and persons with events. The -lower animals differ from man solely in his almost infinitely -larger power of associating together the most diversified -sounds and ideas; and this obviously depends on -the high development of his mental powers.</p> - -<p>As Horne Tooke, one of the founders of the noble -science of philology, observes, language is an art, like -brewing or baking; but writing would have been a better -simile. It certainly is not a true instinct, for every language -has to be learned. It differs, however, widely from -all ordinary arts, for man has an instinctive tendency to -speak, as we see in the babble of our young children; -while no child has an instinctive tendency to brew, bake, -or write. Moreover, no philologist now supposes that -any language has been deliberately invented; it has been -slowly and unconsciously developed by many steps. The -sounds uttered by birds offer in several respects the nearest -analogy to language, for all the members of the same -species utter the same instinctive cries expressive of their -emotions; and all the kinds which sing exert their power<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> -instinctively; but the actual song, and even the call-notes, -are learned from their parents or foster-parents. -These sounds, as Daines Barrington has proved, “are no -more innate than language is in man.” The first attempts -to sing “may be compared to the imperfect endeavor in -a child to babble.” The young males continue practicing, -or, as the bird-catchers say, “recording,” for ten or -eleven months. Their first essays show hardly a rudiment -of the future song; but as they grow older we can -perceive what they are aiming at; and at last they are -said “to sing their song round.” Nestlings which have -learned the song of a distinct species, as with the canary-birds -educated in the Tyrol, teach and transmit their new -song to their offspring. The slight natural differences of -song in the same species inhabiting different districts may -be appositely compared, as Barrington remarks, “to provincial -dialects”; and the songs of allied though distinct -species may be compared with the languages of distinct -races of man. I have given the foregoing details to show -that an instinctive tendency to acquire an art is not peculiar -to man.</p> - -<p>With respect to the origin of articulate language, -after having read on the one side the highly interesting -works of Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood, the Rev. F. Farrar, -and Professor Schleicher, and the celebrated lectures of -Professor Max Müller on the other side, I can not doubt -that language owes its origin to the imitation and modification -of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals, -and man’s own instinctive cries, aided by signs and -gestures.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 87.</div> - -<p>It is, therefore, probable that the imitation -of musical cries by articulate sounds may have -given rise to words expressive of various complex emotions.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> -The strong tendency in our nearest allies, the -monkeys, in microcephalous idiots, and in the barbarous -races of mankind, to imitate whatever they hear, deserves -notice, as bearing on the subject of imitation. Since -monkeys certainly understand much that is said to them -by man, and, when wild, utter signal-cries of danger to -their fellows; and since fowls give distinct warnings for -danger on the ground, or in the sky from hawks (both, -as well as a third cry, intelligible to dogs), may not some -unusually wise ape-like animal have imitated the growl -of a beast of prey, and thus told his fellow-monkeys the -nature of the expected danger? This would have been -a first step in the formation of a language.</p> - -<p>As the voice was used more and more, the vocal organs -would have been strengthened and perfected through the -principle of the inherited effects of use; and this would -have reacted on the power of speech.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 89.</div> - -<p>The fact of the higher apes not using their -vocal organs for speech no doubt depends on -their intelligence not having been sufficiently advanced. -The possession by them of organs, which with long-continued -practice might have been used for speech, although -not thus used, is paralleled by the case of many birds -which possess organs fitted for singing, though they never -sing. Thus, the nightingale and crow have vocal organs -similarly constructed, these being used by the former for -diversified song, and by the latter only for croaking.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_105">DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGES AND SPECIES COMPARED.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 90.</div> - -<p>The formation of different languages and -of distinct species and the proofs that both -have been developed through a gradual process -are curiously parallel. But we can trace the formation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span> -of many words further back than that of species, -for we can perceive how they actually arose from the imitation -of various sounds. We find in distinct languages -striking homologies due to community of descent, and -analogies due to a similar process of formation. The -manner in which certain letters or sounds change when -others change is very like correlated growth. We have -in both cases the reduplication of parts, the effects of -long-continued use, and so forth. The frequent presence -of rudiments, both in languages and in species, is still -more remarkable. The letter <em>m</em> in the word <em>am</em> means -<em>I</em>; so that, in the expression <em>I am</em>, a superfluous and useless -rudiment has been retained. In the spelling also of -words, letters often remain as the rudiments of ancient -forms of pronunciation. Languages, like organic beings, -can be classed in groups under groups; and they can be -classed either naturally according to descent, or artificially -by other characters. Dominant languages and dialects -spread widely, and lead to the gradual extinction of other -tongues. A language, like a species, when once extinct, -never, as Sir C. Lyell remarks, reappears. The same -language never has two birthplaces. Distinct languages -may be crossed or blended together. We see variability -in every tongue, and new words are continually cropping -up; but, as there is a limit to the powers of the memory, -single words, like whole languages, gradually become extinct. -As Max Müller has well remarked: “A struggle -for life is constantly going on among the words and grammatical -forms in each language. The better, the shorter, -the easier forms are constantly gaining the upper hand, -and they owe their success to their own inherent virtue.” -To these more important causes of the survival of certain -words, mere novelty and fashion may be added; for there -is in the mind of man a strong love for slight changes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> -in all things. The survival or preservation of certain -favored words in the struggle for existence is natural -selection.</p> - -<p>The perfectly regular and wonderfully complex construction -of the languages of many barbarous nations has -often been advanced as a proof, either of the divine origin -of these languages, or of the high art and former -civilization of their founders. Thus F. von Schlegel -writes: “In those languages which appear to be at the -lowest grade of intellectual culture, we frequently observe -a very high and elaborate degree of art in their -grammatical structure. This is especially the case with -the Basque and the Lapponian, and many of the American -languages.” But it is assuredly an error to speak of -any language as an art, in the sense of its having been -elaborately and methodically formed. Philologists now -admit that conjugations, declensions, etc., originally existed -as distinct words, since joined together; and, as such -words express the most obvious relations between objects -and persons, it is not surprising that they should have -been used by the men of most races during the earliest -ages. With respect to perfection, the following illustration -will best show how easily we may err: a crinoid -sometimes consists of no less than one hundred and fifty -thousand pieces of shell, all arranged with perfect symmetry -in radiating lines; but a naturalist does not consider -an animal of this kind as more perfect than a bilateral -one with comparatively few parts, and with none -of these parts alike, excepting on the opposite sides of -the body. He justly considers the differentiation and -specialization of organs as the test of perfection. So with -languages; the most symmetrical and complex ought not -to be ranked above irregular, abbreviated, and bastardized -languages.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_106">THE SENSE OF BEAUTY.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 92.</div> - -<p>This sense has been declared to be peculiar -to man. I refer here only to the pleasure -given by certain colors, forms, and sounds, -and which may fairly be called a sense of the beautiful; -with cultivated men such sensations are, however, intimately -associated with complex ideas and trains of -thought. When we behold a male bird elaborately displaying -his graceful plumes or splendid colors before the -female, while other birds, not thus decorated, make no -such display, it is impossible to doubt that she admires -the beauty of her male partner. As women everywhere -deck themselves with these plumes, the beauty of such -ornaments can not be disputed. As we shall see later, -the nests of humming-birds and the playing passages of -bower-birds are tastefully ornamented with gayly-colored -objects; and this shows that they must receive some kind -of pleasure from the sight of such things. With the -great majority of animals, however, the taste for the -beautiful is confined, as far as we can judge, to the attractions -of the opposite sex. The sweet strains poured -forth by many male birds during the season of love are -certainly admired by the females, of which fact evidence -will hereafter be given. If female birds had been incapable -of appreciating the beautiful colors, the ornaments, -and voices of their male partners, all the labor and anxiety -exhibited by the latter in displaying their charms -before the females would have been thrown away; and -this it is impossible to admit. Why certain bright colors -should excite pleasure can not, I presume, be explained, -any more than why certain flavors and scents are agreeable; -but habit has something to do with the result, for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span> -that which is at first unpleasant to our senses, ultimately -becomes pleasant, and habits are inherited.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_107">DEVELOPMENT OF THE EAR FOR MUSIC.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 568.</div> - -<p>A critic has asked how the ears of man, -and he ought to have added of other animals, -could have been adapted by selection so as -to distinguish musical notes. But this question shows -some confusion on the subject; a noise is the sensation -resulting from the co-existence of several aërial “simple -vibrations” of various periods, each of which intermits -so frequently that its separate existence can not be perceived. -It is only in the want of continuity of such -vibrations, and in their want of harmony <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">inter se</i>, that a -noise differs from a musical note. Thus an ear to be -capable of discriminating noises—and the high importance -of this power to all animals is admitted by every -one—must be sensitive to musical notes. We have evidence -of this capacity even low down in the animal scale; -thus crustaceans are provided with auditory hairs of different -lengths, which have been seen to vibrate when the -proper musical notes are struck. As stated in a previous -chapter, similar observations have been made on the hairs -of the antennæ of gnats. It has been positively asserted -by good observers that spiders are attracted by music. It -is also well known that some dogs howl when hearing -particular tones. Seals apparently appreciate music, and -their fondness for it “was well known to the ancients, -and is often taken advantage of by the hunters at the -present day.”</p> - -<p>Therefore, as far as the mere perception of musical -notes is concerned, there seems no special difficulty in the -case of man or of any other animal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span></p> - -<p>But if it be further asked why musical tones in a -certain order and rhythm give man and other animals -pleasure, we can no more give the reason than for the -pleasantness of certain tastes and smells. That they do -give pleasure of some kind to animals we may infer from -their being produced during the season of courtship by -many insects, spiders, fishes, amphibians, and birds; for, -unless the females were able to appreciate such sounds -and were excited or charmed by them, the persevering -efforts of the males and the complex structures often -possessed by them alone would be useless; and this it is -impossible to believe.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="IX">IX.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">DEVELOPMENT OF THE MORAL SENSE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 97.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">I fully</span> subscribe to the judgment of those -writers who maintain that, of all the differences -between man and the lower animals, the moral -sense or conscience is by far the most important. This -sense, as Mackintosh remarks, “has a rightful supremacy -over every other principle of human action”; it is summed -up in that short but imperious word <em>ought</em>, so full of high -significance. It is the most noble of all the attributes of -man, leading him without a moment’s hesitation to risk -his life for that of a fellow-creature; or, after due deliberation, -impelled simply by the deep feeling of right or -duty, to sacrifice it in some great cause.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 111.</div> - -<p>A moral being is one who is capable of -comparing his past and future actions or motives, -and of approving or disapproving of them. We -have no reason to suppose that any of the lower animals -have this capacity; therefore, when a Newfoundland dog -drags a child out of the water, or a monkey faces danger -to rescue its comrade, or takes charge of an orphan monkey, -we do not call its conduct moral. But in the case of -man, who alone can with certainty be ranked as a moral -being, actions of a certain class are called moral.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_108">FROM THE SOCIAL INSTINCTS TO THE MORAL SENSE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 98.</div> - -<p>The following proposition seems to me in -a high degree probable—namely, that any animal -whatever, endowed with well-marked social instincts, -the parental and filial affections being here included, -would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience, as -soon as its intellectual powers had become as well, or -nearly as well, developed as in man. For, <em>firstly</em>, the -social instincts lead an animal to take pleasure in the -society of its fellows, to feel a certain amount of sympathy -with them, and to perform various services for -them. The services may be of a definite and evidently -instinctive nature; or there may be only a wish and -readiness, as with most of the higher social animals, to -aid their fellows in certain general ways. But these feelings -and services are by no means extended to all the individuals -of the same species, only to those of the same -association. <em>Secondly</em>, as soon as the mental faculties had -become highly developed, images of all past actions and -motives would be incessantly passing through the brain -of each individual; and that feeling of dissatisfaction, or -even misery, which invariably results, as we shall hereafter -see, from any unsatisfied instinct, would arise, as often as -it was perceived that the enduring and always present -social instinct had yielded to some other instinct, at the -time stronger, but neither enduring in its nature, nor -leaving behind it a very vivid impression. It is clear that -many instinctive desires, such as that of hunger, are in -their nature of short duration; and, after being satisfied, -are not readily or vividly recalled. <em>Thirdly</em>, after the -power of language had been acquired, and the wishes of -the community could be expressed, the common opinion -how each member ought to act for the public good would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> -naturally become in a paramount degree the guide to -action. But it should be borne in mind that, however -great weight we may attribute to public opinion, our regard -for the approbation and disapprobation of our fellows -depends on sympathy, which, as we shall see, forms an -essential part of the social instinct, and is, indeed, its -foundation-stone. <em>Lastly</em>, habit in the individual would -ultimately play a very important part in guiding the conduct -of each member; for the social instinct, together -with sympathy, is, like any other instinct, greatly strengthened -by habit, and so consequently would be obedience to -the wishes and judgment of the community. These several -subordinate propositions must now be discussed, and -some of them at considerable length.</p> - -<p>It may be well first to premise that I do not wish to -maintain that any strictly social animal, if its intellectual -faculties were to become as active and as highly developed -as in man, would acquire exactly the same moral sense as -ours. In the same manner as various animals have some -sense of beauty, though they admire widely different objects, -so they might have a sense of right and wrong, -though led by it to follow widely different lines of conduct. -If, for instance, to take an extreme case, men were -reared under precisely the same conditions as hive-bees, -there can hardly be a doubt that our unmarried females -would, like the worker-bees, think it a sacred duty to kill -their brothers, and mothers would strive to kill their fertile -daughters; and no one would think of interfering. -Nevertheless, the bee, or any other social animal, would -gain in our supposed case, as it appears to me, some feeling -of right or wrong, or a conscience. For each individual -would have an inward sense of possessing certain -stronger or more enduring instincts, and others less strong -or enduring; so that there would often be a struggle as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span> -to which impulse should be followed; and satisfaction, -dissatisfaction, or even misery would be felt, as past impressions -were compared during their incessant passage -through the mind. In this case an inward monitor would -tell the animal that it would have been better to have -followed the one impulse rather than the other. The one -course ought to have been followed, and the other ought -not; the one would have been right and the other wrong.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_109">HUMAN SYMPATHY AMONG ANIMALS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 102.</div> - -<p>Who can say what cows feel when they surround -and stare intently on a dying or dead -companion? Apparently, however, as Houzeau remarks, -they feel no pity. That animals sometimes are far from -feeling any sympathy is too certain; for they will expel a -wounded animal from the herd, or gore or worry it to -death. This is almost the blackest fact in natural history, -unless, indeed, the explanation which has been suggested -is true, that their instinct or reason leads them to expel -an injured companion, lest beasts of prey, including -man, should be tempted to follow the troop. In this case -their conduct is not much worse than that of the North -American Indians, who leave their feeble comrades to -perish on the plains; or the Feejeeans, who, when their -parents get old, or fall ill, bury them alive.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 103.</div> - -<p>Several years ago a keeper at the Zoölogical -Gardens showed me some deep and scarcely -healed wounds on the nape of his own neck, inflicted on -him, while kneeling on the floor, by a fierce baboon. The -little American monkey, who was a warm friend of this -keeper, lived in the same large compartment, and was -dreadfully afraid of the great baboon. Nevertheless, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> -soon as he saw his friend in peril, he rushed to the rescue, -and by screams and bites so distracted the baboon that -the man was able to escape, after, as the surgeon thought, -running great risk of his life.</p> - -<p>Besides love and sympathy, animals exhibit other -qualities connected with the social instincts, which in us -would be called moral; and I agree with Agassiz that -dogs possess something very like a conscience.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 107.</div> - -<p>With mankind, selfishness, experience, and -imitation, probably add, as Mr. Bain has -shown, to the power of sympathy; for we are led by the -hope of receiving good in return to perform acts of sympathetic -kindness to others; and sympathy is much -strengthened by habit. In however complex a manner this -feeling may have originated, as it is one of high importance -to all those animals which aid and defend one another, -it will have been increased through natural selection; -for those communities which included the greatest -number of the most sympathetic members would flourish -best and rear the greatest number of offspring.</p> - -<p>It is, however, impossible to decide in many cases -whether certain social instincts have been acquired -through natural selection, or are the indirect result of -other instincts and faculties, such as sympathy, reason, -experience, and a tendency to imitation; or, again, -whether they are simply the result of long-continued -habit. So remarkable an instinct as the placing of sentinels -to warn the community of danger can hardly have been -the indirect result of any of these faculties; it must, -therefore, have been directly acquired. On the other -hand, the habit followed by the males of some social -animals of defending the community, and of attacking -their enemies or their prey in concert, may perhaps have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span> -originated from mutual sympathy; but courage, and in -most cases strength, must have been previously acquired, -probably through natural selection.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_110">THE LOVE OF APPROBATION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 109.</div> - -<p>Although man has no special instincts to -tell him how to aid his fellow-men, he still -has the impulse, and with his improved intellectual faculties -would naturally be much guided in this respect by -reason and experience. Instinctive sympathy would also -cause him to value highly the approbation of his fellows; -for, as Mr. Bain has clearly shown, the love of praise and -the strong feeling of glory, and the still stronger horror of -scorn and infamy, “are due to the workings of sympathy.” -Consequently, man would be influenced in the -highest degree by the wishes, approbation, and blame of -his fellow-men, as expressed by their gestures and language. -Thus the social instincts, which must have been -acquired by man in a very rude state, and probably even -by his early ape-like progenitors, still give the impulse to -some of his best actions; but his actions are in a higher -degree determined by the expressed wishes and judgment -of his fellow-men, and unfortunately very often by his -own strong selfish desires. But as love, sympathy, and -self-command become strengthened by habit, and as the -power of reasoning becomes clearer, so that man can -value justly the judgments of his fellows, he will feel -himself impelled, apart from any transitory pleasure or -pain, to certain lines of conduct. He might then declare—not -that any barbarian or uncultivated man could thus -think—I am the supreme judge of my own conduct, and, -in the words of Kant, I will not in my own person violate -the dignity of humanity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_111">FELLOW-FEELING FOR OUR FELLOW-ANIMALS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 123.</div> - -<p>Sympathy beyond the confines of man, -that is, humanity to the lower animals, seems -to be one of the latest moral acquisitions. It is apparently -unfelt by savages, except toward their pets. How -little the old Romans knew of it is shown by their abhorrent -gladiatorial exhibitions. The very idea of humanity, -as far as I could observe, was new to most of the Gauchos -of the Pampas. This virtue, one of the noblest with -which man is endowed, seems to arise incidentally from -our sympathies becoming more tender and more widely -diffused, until they are extended to all sentient beings. -As soon as this virtue is honored and practiced by some -few men, it spreads through instruction and example to -the young, and eventually becomes incorporated in public -opinion.</p> - -<p>The highest possible stage in moral culture is when we -recognize that we ought to control our thoughts, and -“not even in inmost thought to think again the sins that -made the past so pleasant to us.” Whatever makes any -bad action familiar to the mind renders its performance -by so much the easier. As Marcus Aurelius long ago -said: “Such as are thy habitual thoughts, such also will -be the character of thy mind; for the soul is dyed by the -thoughts.”</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 125.</div> - -<p>Looking to future generations, there is no -cause to fear that the social instincts will grow -weaker, and we may expect that virtuous habits will grow -stronger, becoming perhaps fixed by inheritance. In this -case the struggle between our higher and lower impulses -will be less severe, and virtue will be triumphant.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_112">DEVELOPMENT OF THE GOLDEN RULE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 125.</div> - -<p>There can be no doubt that the difference -between the mind of the lowest man and that -of the highest animal is immense. An anthropomorphous -ape, if he could take a dispassionate view of his own case, -would admit that though he could form an artful plan to -plunder a garden, though he could use stones for fighting -or for breaking open nuts, yet that the thought of -fashioning a stone into a tool was quite beyond his scope. -Still less, as he would admit, could he follow out a train -of metaphysical reasoning, or solve a mathematical problem, -or reflect on God, or admire a grand natural scene. -Some apes, however, would probably declare that they -could and did admire the beauty of the colored skin and -fur of their partners in marriage. They would admit -that, though they could make other apes understand by -cries some of their perceptions and simpler wants, the -notion of expressing definite ideas by definite sounds had -never crossed their minds. They might insist that they -were ready to aid their fellow-apes of the same troop in -many ways, to risk their lives for them, and to take charge -of their orphans; but they would be forced to acknowledge -that disinterested love for all living creatures, the -most noble attribute of man, was quite beyond their comprehension.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, the difference in mind between man and -the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree -and not of kind. We have seen that the senses and intuitions, -the various emotions and faculties, such as love, -memory, attention, curiosity, imitation, reason, etc., of -which man boasts, may be found in an incipient, or even -sometimes in a well-developed condition, in the lower -animals. They are also capable of some inherited improvement,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span> -as we see in the domestic dog compared with -the wolf or jackal. If it could be proved that certain -high mental powers, such as the formation of general -concepts, self-consciousness, etc., were absolutely peculiar -to man, which seems extremely doubtful, it is not improbable -that these qualities are merely the incidental -results of other highly-advanced intellectual faculties; -and these again mainly the result of the continued use of -a perfect language. At what age does the new-born -infant possess the power of abstraction, or become self-conscious, -and reflect on its own existence? We can not -answer; nor can we answer in regard to the ascending -organic scale. The half-art, half-instinct of language still -bears the stamp of its gradual evolution. The ennobling -belief in God is not universal with man; and the belief -in spiritual agencies naturally follows from other mental -powers. The moral sense perhaps affords the best and -highest distinction between man and the lower animals; -but I need say nothing on this head, as I have so lately -endeavored to show that the social instincts—the prime -principle of man’s moral constitution—with the aid of -active intellectual powers and the effects of habit, naturally -lead to the golden rule, “As ye would that men -should do to you, do ye to them likewise”; and this lies -at the foundation of morality.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_113">REGRET PECULIAR TO MAN, AND WHY.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 112.</div> - -<p>Why does man regret, even though trying -to banish such regret, that he has followed the -one natural impulse rather than the other? -and why does he further feel that he ought to regret his -conduct? Man in this respect differs profoundly from -the lower animals. Nevertheless we can, I think, see<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span> -with some degree of clearness the reason of this difference.</p> - -<p>Man, from the activity of his mental faculties, can -not avoid reflection: past impressions and images are -incessantly and clearly passing through his mind. Now, -with those animals which live permanently in a body, the -social instincts are ever present and persistent. Such -animals are always ready to utter the danger-signal, to -defend the community, and to give aid to their fellows in -accordance with their habits; they feel at all times, without -the stimulus of any special passion or desire, some -degree of love and sympathy for them; they are unhappy -if long separated from them, and always happy to be -again in their company. So it is with ourselves. Even -when we are quite alone, how often do we think with -pleasure or pain of what others think of us—of their -imagined approbation or disapprobation!—and this all -follows from sympathy, a fundamental element of the -social instincts. A man who possessed no trace of such -instincts would be an unnatural monster. On the other -hand, the desire to satisfy hunger, or any passion such as -vengeance, is in its nature temporary, and can for a time -be fully satisfied. Nor is it easy, perhaps hardly possible, -to call up with complete vividness the feeling, for -instance, of hunger; nor, indeed, as has often been remarked, -of any suffering. The instinct of self-preservation -is not felt except in the presence of danger; and -many a coward has thought himself brave until he has -met his enemy face to face. The wish for another man’s -property is perhaps as persistent a desire as any that can -be named; but even in this case the satisfaction of actual -possession is generally a weaker feeling than the desire: -many a thief, if not an habitual one, after success has -wondered why he stole some article.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_114">REMORSE EXPLAINED.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 114.</div> - -<p>Several critics have objected that though -some slight regret or repentance may be explained -by the view advocated in this chapter, it is impossible -thus to account for the soul-shaking feeling of -remorse. But I can see little force in this objection. My -critics do not define what they mean by remorse, and I -can find no definition implying more than an overwhelming -sense of repentance. Remorse seems to bear the -same relation to repentance as rage does to anger, or agony -to pain. It is far from strange that an instinct so strong -and so generally admired as maternal love should, if disobeyed, -lead to the deepest misery, as soon as the impression -of the past cause of disobedience is weakened. Even -when an action is opposed to no special instinct, merely -to know that our friends and equals despise us for it is -enough to cause great misery. Who can doubt that the -refusal to fight a duel through fear has caused many men -an agony of shame? Many a Hindoo, it is said, has been -stirred to the bottom of his soul by having partaken of -unclean food. Here is another case of what must, I -think, be called remorse. Dr. Landor acted as a magistrate -in West Australia, and relates that a native on his -farm, after losing one of his wives from disease, came and -said that “he was going to a distant tribe to spear a -woman, to satisfy his sense of duty to his wife.” I told -him that if he did so I would send him to prison for life. -He remained about the farm for some months, but got -exceedingly thin, and complained that he could not rest -or eat, that his wife’s spirit was haunting him because he -had not taken a life for hers. I was inexorable, and -assured him that nothing should save him if he did. -Nevertheless, the man disappeared for more than a year,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> -and then returned in high condition; and his other wife -told Dr. Landor that her husband had taken the life of a -woman belonging to a distant tribe; but it was impossible -to obtain legal evidence of the act. The breach of a -rule held sacred by the tribe will thus, as it seems, give -rise to the deepest feelings, and this quite apart from the -social instincts, excepting in so far as the rule is grounded -on the judgment of the community. How so many -strange superstitions have arisen throughout the world -we know not; nor can we tell how some real and great -crimes, such as incest, have come to be held in an abhorrence -(which is not, however, quite universal) by the -lowest savages. It is even doubtful whether in some -tribes incest would be looked on with greater horror than -would the marriage of a man with a woman bearing the -same name, though not a relation. “To violate this law -is a crime which the Australians hold in the greatest abhorrence, -in this agreeing exactly with certain tribes of -North America. When the question is put in either -district, is it worse to kill a girl of a foreign tribe, or to -marry a girl of one’s own, an answer just opposite to -ours would be given without hesitation.” We may, -therefore, reject the belief, lately insisted on by some -writers, that the abhorrence of incest is due to our possessing -a special God-implanted conscience.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_115">DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-CONTROL.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 115.</div> - -<p>Man, prompted by his conscience, will -through long habit acquire such perfect self-command, -that his desires and passions will at last yield -instantly and without a struggle to his social sympathies -and instincts, including his feeling for the judgment of -his fellows. The still hungry or the still revengeful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span> -man will not think of stealing food, or of wreaking his -vengeance. It is possible, or, as we shall hereafter see, -even probable, that the habit of self-command may, like -other habits, be inherited. Thus at last man comes to -feel, through acquired and perhaps inherited habit, that -it is best for him to obey his more persistent impulses. -The imperious word <em>ought</em> seems merely to imply the -consciousness of the existence of a rule of conduct, however -it may have originated. Formerly it must have been -often vehemently urged that an insulted gentleman <em>ought</em> -to fight a duel. We even say that a pointer <em>ought</em> to -point, and a retriever to retrieve game. If they fail to -do so, they fail in their duty and act wrongly.</p> - -<p>If any desire or instinct leading to an action opposed -to the good of others still appears, when recalled to mind, -as strong as, or stronger than, the social instinct, a man -will feel no keen regret at having followed it; but he will -be conscious that, if his conduct were known to his fellows, -it would meet with their disapprobation; and few -are so destitute of sympathy as not to feel discomfort -when this is realized. If he has no such sympathy, and -if his desires leading to bad actions are at the time strong, -and when recalled are not overmastered by the persistent -social instincts and the judgment of others, then he is -essentially a bad man; and the sole restraining motive -left is the fear of punishment, and the conviction that -in the long run it would be best for his own selfish interests -to regard the good of others rather than his own.</p> - -<p>It is obvious that every one may with an easy conscience -gratify his own desires, if they do not interfere -with his social instincts, that is, with the good of others; -but in order to be quite free from self-reproach, or at least -of anxiety, it is almost necessary for him to avoid the -disapprobation, whether reasonable or not, of his fellow-men.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> -Nor must he break through the fixed habits of his -life, especially if these are supported by reason; for, if -he does, he will assuredly feel dissatisfaction. He must -likewise avoid the reprobation of the one God or gods -in whom, according to his knowledge or superstition, he -may believe; but in this case the additional fear of divine -punishment often supervenes.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_116">VARIABILITY OF CONSCIENCE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 117.</div> - -<p>Suicide during former times was not generally -considered as a crime, but rather, from -the courage displayed, as an honorable act; and it is still -practiced by some semi-civilized and savage nations without -reproach, for it does not obviously concern others of -the tribe. It has been recorded that an Indian thug -conscientiously regretted that he had not robbed and -strangled as many travelers as did his father before him. -In a rude state of civilization the robbery of strangers is, -indeed, generally considered as honorable.</p> - -<p>Slavery, although in some way beneficial during ancient -times, is a great crime; yet it was not so regarded -until quite recently, even by the most civilized nations. -And this was especially the case because the slaves belonged -in general to a race different from that of their -masters. As barbarians do not regard the opinion of -their women, wives are commonly treated like slaves.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 122.</div> - -<p>How so many absurd rules of conduct, as -well as so many absurd religious beliefs, have -originated, we do not know; nor how it is that they have -become, in all quarters of the world, so deeply impressed -on the minds of men; but it is worthy of remark that a -belief constantly inculcated during the early years of life,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span> -while the brain is impressible, appears to acquire almost -the nature of an instinct; and the very essence of an -instinct is that it is followed independently of reason. -Neither can we say why certain admirable virtues, such -as the love of truth, are much more highly appreciated -by some savage tribes than by others; nor, again, why -similar differences prevail even among highly civilized -nations. Knowing how firmly fixed many strange customs -and superstitions have become, we need feel no surprise -that the self-regarding virtues, supported as they -are by reason, should now appear to us so natural as to -be thought innate, although they were not valued by -man in his early condition.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 121.</div> - -<p>The wishes and opinions of the members -of the same community, expressed at first -orally, but later by writing also, either form the sole -guides of our conduct, or greatly re-enforce the social instincts; -such opinions, however, have sometimes a tendency -directly opposed to these instincts. This latter -fact is well exemplified by the <em>law of honor</em>, that is, the -law of the opinion of our equals, and not of all our countrymen. -The breach of this law, even when the breach -is known to be strictly accordant with true morality, has -caused many a man more agony than a real crime. We -recognize the same influence in the burning sense of shame -which most of us have felt, even after the interval of -years, when calling to mind some accidental breach of a -trifling, though fixed, rule of etiquette.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_117">PROGRESS NOT AN INVARIABLE RULE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 140.</div> - -<p>We must remember that progress is no invariable -rule. It is very difficult to say why -one civilized nation rises, becomes more powerful, -and spreads more widely, than another; or why the -same nation progresses more quickly at one time than at -another. We can only say that it depends on an increase -in the actual number of the population, on the number -of the men endowed with high intellectual and moral -faculties, as well as on their standard of excellence. Corporeal -structure appears to have little influence, except -so far as vigor of body leads to vigor of mind.</p> - -<p>It has been urged by several writers that, as high intellectual -powers are advantageous to a nation, the old -Greeks, who stood some grades higher in intellect than -any race that has ever existed, ought, if the power of -natural selection were real, to have risen still higher in -the scale, increased in number, and stocked the whole of -Europe. Here we have the tacit assumption, so often -made with respect to corporeal structures, that there is -some innate tendency toward continued development in -mind and body. But development of all kinds depends -on many concurrent favorable circumstances. Natural -selection acts only tentatively. Individuals and races -may have acquired certain indisputable advantages, and -yet have perished from failing in other characters. The -Greeks may have retrograded from a want of coherence -between the many small states, from the small size of -their whole country, from the practice of slavery, or -from extreme sensuality; for they did not succumb until -“they were enervated and corrupt to the very core.” -The Western nations of Europe, who now so immeasurably -surpass their former savage progenitors, and stand at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span> -the summit of civilization, owe little or none of their -superiority to direct inheritance from the old Greeks, -though they owe much to the written works of that wonderful -people.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 142.</div> - -<p>The remarkable success of the English as -colonists, compared to other European nations, -has been ascribed to their “daring and persistent energy”; -a result which is well illustrated by comparing the -progress of the Canadians of English and French extraction; -but who can say how the English gained their -energy? There is apparently much truth in the belief -that the wonderful progress of the United States, as well -as the character of the people, is the result of natural -selection; for the more energetic, restless, and courageous -men from all parts of Europe have emigrated during -the last ten or twelve generations to that great country, -and have there succeeded best.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_118">ALL CIVILIZED NATIONS ARE THE DESCENDANTS OF -BARBARIANS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 144.</div> - -<p>The evidence that all civilized nations are -the descendants of barbarians consists, on the -one side, of clear traces of their former low condition in -still-existing customs, beliefs, language, etc.; and, on the -other side, of proofs that savages are independently able -to raise themselves a few steps in the scale of civilization, -and have actually thus risen. The evidence on the first -head is extremely curious, but can not be here given: I -refer to such cases as that of the art of enumeration, -which, as Mr. Tylor clearly shows by reference to the -words still used in some places, originated in counting -the fingers, first of one hand and then of the other, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span> -lastly of the toes. We have traces of this in our own -decimal system, and in the Roman numerals, where, after -the V, which is supposed to be an abbreviated picture of -a human hand, we pass on to VI, etc., when the other -hand no doubt was used. So again, “when we speak of -threescore and ten, we are counting by the vigesimal system, -each score thus ideally made standing for 20—for -‘one man’ as a Mexican or Carib would put it.” According -to a large and increasing school of philologists, every -language bears the marks of its slow and gradual evolution. -So it is with the art of writing, for letters are rudiments -of pictorial representations. It is hardly possible -to read Mr. McLennan’s work and not admit that almost -all civilized nations still retain traces of such rude habits -as the forcible capture of wives. What ancient nation, -as the same author asks, can be named that was originally -monogamous? The primitive idea of justice, as shown -by the law of battle and other customs of which vestiges -still remain, was likewise most rude. Many existing superstitions -are the remnants of former false religious beliefs. -The highest form of religion—the grand idea of -God hating sin and loving righteousness—was unknown -during primeval times.</p> - -<p>Turning to the other kind of evidence: Sir J. Lubbock -has shown that some savages have recently improved -a little in some of their simpler arts. From the extremely -curious account which he gives of the weapons, tools, and -arts in use among savages in various parts of the world, -it can not be doubted that these have nearly all been independent -discoveries, excepting perhaps the art of making -fire. The Australian boomerang is a good instance of one -such independent discovery. The Tahitians when first -visited had advanced in many respects beyond the inhabitants -of most of the other Polynesian islands. There<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> -are no just grounds for the belief that the high culture -of the native Peruvians and Mexicans was derived from -abroad; many native plants were there cultivated, and a -few native animals domesticated. We should bear in -mind that, judging from the small influence of most missionaries, -a wandering crew from some semi-civilized land, -if washed to the shores of America, would not have produced -any marked effect on the natives, unless they had -already become somewhat advanced. Looking to a very -remote period in the history of the world, we find, to use -Sir J. Lubbock’s well-known terms, a paleolithic and neolithic -period; and no one will pretend that the art of -grinding rough flint tools was a borrowed one. In all -parts of Europe, as far east as Greece, in Palestine, -India, Japan, New Zealand, and Africa, including Egypt, -flint tools have been discovered in abundance; and of -their use the existing inhabitants retain no tradition. -There is also indirect evidence of their former use by the -Chinese and ancient Jews. Hence there can hardly be a -doubt that the inhabitants of these countries, which include -nearly the whole civilized world, were once in a -barbarous condition. To believe that man was aboriginally -civilized and then suffered utter degradation in so -many regions is to take a pitiably low view of human -nature. It is apparently a truer and more cheerful view -that progress has been much more general than retrogression; -that man has risen, though by slow and interrupted -steps, from a lowly condition to the highest standard -as yet attained by him in knowledge, morals, and -religion.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_119">“THE ENNOBLING BELIEF IN GOD.”</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 93.</div> - -<p>There is no evidence that man was aboriginally -endowed with the ennobling belief in -the existence of an Omnipotent God. On the -contrary, there is ample evidence, derived not from hasty -travelers, but from men who have long resided with savages, -that numerous races have existed, and still exist, -who have no idea of one or more gods, and who have no -words in their languages to express such an idea. The -question is, of course, wholly distinct from that higher -one, whether there exists a Creator and Ruler of the universe; -and this has been answered in the affirmative by -some of the highest intellects that have ever existed.</p> - -<p>If, however, we include under the term “religion” -the belief in unseen or spiritual agencies, the case is -wholly different; for this belief seems to be universal -with the less civilized races. Nor is it difficult to comprehend -how it arose. As soon as the important faculties -of the imagination—wonder and curiosity, together -with some power of reasoning—had become partially developed, -man would naturally crave to understand what -was passing around him, and would have vaguely speculated -on his own existence. As Mr. McLennan has remarked: -“Some explanation of the phenomena of life a -man must feign for himself; and, to judge from the universality -of it, the simplest hypothesis, and the first to -occur to men, seems to have been that natural phenomena -are ascribable to the presence in animals, plants, -and things, and in the forces of nature, of such spirits -prompting to action as men are conscious they themselves -possess.” It is also probable, as Mr. Tylor has shown, -that dreams may have first given rise to the notion of -spirits; for savages do not readily distinguish between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span> -subjective and objective impressions. When a savage -dreams, the figures which appear before him are believed -to have come from a distance, and to stand over him; or -“the soul of the dreamer goes out on its travels, and -comes home with a remembrance of what it has seen.” -But, until the faculties of imagination, curiosity, reason, -etc., had been fairly well developed in the mind of man, -his dreams would not have led him to believe in spirits, -any more than in the case of a dog.</p> - -<p>The tendency in savages to imagine that natural objects -and agencies are animated by spiritual or living -essences is, perhaps, illustrated by a little fact which I -once noticed. My dog, a full-grown and very sensible animal, -was lying on the lawn during a hot and still day; -but at a little distance a slight breeze occasionally moved -an open parasol, which would have been wholly disregarded -by the dog had any one stood near it. As it was, -every time that the parasol slightly moved, the dog -growled fiercely and barked. He must, I think, have -reasoned to himself, in a rapid and unconscious manner, -that movement, without any apparent cause, indicated -the presence of some strange living agent, and that no -stranger had a right to be on his territory.</p> - -<p>The belief in spiritual agencies would easily pass into -the belief in the existence of one or more gods. For savages -would naturally attribute to spirits the same passions, -the same love of vengeance, or simplest form of -justice, and the same affections, which they themselves -feel. The Fuegians appear to be in this respect in an -intermediate condition, for, when the surgeon on board -the Beagle shot some young ducklings as specimens, -York Minster declared, in the most solemn manner, -“Oh, Mr. Bynoe, much rain, much snow, blow much”; -and this was evidently a retributive punishment for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span> -wasting human food. So, again, he related how, when -his brother killed a “wild man,” storms long raged, -much rain and snow fell. Yet we could never discover -that the Fuegians believed in what we should call a God, -or practiced any religious rites; and Jemmy Button, with -justifiable pride, stoutly maintained that there was no -devil in his land. This latter assertion is the more remarkable, -as with savages the belief in bad spirits is far -more common than that in good ones.</p> - -<p>The feeling of religious devotion is a highly complex -one, consisting of love, complete submission to an exalted -and mysterious superior, a strong sense of dependence, -fear, reverence, gratitude, hope for the future, and perhaps -other elements. No being could experience so complex -an emotion until advanced in his intellectual and -moral faculties to at least a moderately high level. Nevertheless, -we see some distant approach to this state of -mind in the deep love of a dog for his master, associated -with complete submission, some fear, and perhaps -other feelings. The behavior of a dog, when returning -to his master after an absence, and, as I may add, of a -monkey to his beloved keeper, is widely different from -that toward their fellows. In the latter case, the transports -of joy appear to be somewhat less, and the sense of -equality is shown in every action. Professor Braubach -goes so far as to maintain that a dog looks on his master -as on a god.</p> - -<p>The same high mental faculties which first led man -to believe in unseen spiritual agencies, then in fetichism, -polytheism, and ultimately in monotheism, would infallibly -lead him, as long as his reasoning powers remained -poorly developed, to various strange superstitions and customs. -Many of these are terrible to think of—such as the -sacrifice of human beings to a blood-loving god; the trial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span> -of innocent persons by the ordeal of poison or fire; witchcraft, -etc.—yet it is well occasionally to reflect on these -superstitions, for they show us what an infinite debt of -gratitude we owe to the improvement of our reason, to -science, and to our accumulated knowledge. As Sir J. -Lubbock has well observed, “It is not too much to say -that the horrible dread of unknown evil hangs like a -thick cloud over savage life, and embitters every pleasure.” -These miserable and indirect consequences of our -highest faculties may be compared with the incidental -and occasional mistakes of the instincts of the lower animals.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="X">X.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE GENEALOGY OF MAN.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 146.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">Some</span> naturalists, from being deeply impressed -with the mental and spiritual powers -of man, have divided the whole organic world -into three kingdoms, the human, the animal, and the vegetable, -thus giving to man a separate kingdom. Spiritual -powers can not be compared or classed by the naturalist: -but he may endeavor to show, as I have done, that -the mental faculties of man and the lower animals do not -differ in kind, although immensely in degree. A difference -in degree, however great, does not justify us in -placing man in a distinct kingdom, as will perhaps be -best illustrated by comparing the mental powers of two -insects, namely, a coccus or scale-insect and an ant, -which undoubtedly belong to the same class. The difference -is here greater than, though of a somewhat different -kind from, that between man and the highest mammal. -The female coccus, while young, attaches itself by its -proboscis to a plant; sucks the sap, but never moves -again; is fertilized and lays eggs; and this is its whole -history. On the other hand, to describe the habits and -mental powers of worker-ants would require, as Pierre -Huber has shown, a large volume; I may, however, -briefly specify a few points. Ants certainly communicate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> -information to each other, and several unite for -the same work, or for games of play. They recognize -their fellow-ants after months of absence, and feel -sympathy for each other. They build great edifices, -keep them clean, close the doors in the evening, and -post sentries. They make roads as well as tunnels under -rivers, and temporary bridges over them, by clinging -together. They collect food for the community, and, -when an object, too large for entrance, is brought to the -nest, they enlarge the door, and afterward build it up -again. They store up seeds, of which they prevent the -germination, and which, if damp, are brought up to the -surface to dry. They keep aphides and other insects as -milch-cows. They go out to battle in regular bands, and -freely sacrifice their lives for the common weal. They -emigrate according to a preconcerted plan. They capture -slaves. They move the eggs of their aphides, as -well as their own eggs and cocoons, into warm parts of -the nest, in order that they may be quickly hatched; -and endless similar facts could be given. On the whole, -the difference in mental power between an ant and a coccus -is immense; yet no one has ever dreamed of placing -these insects in distinct classes, much less in distinct -kingdoms. No doubt the difference is bridged over by -other insects; and this is not the case with man and the -higher apes. But we have every reason to believe that -the breaks in the series are simply the results of many -forms having become extinct.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_120">MAN A SUB-ORDER.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 149.</div> - -<p>The greater number of naturalists who -have taken into consideration the whole structure -of man, including his mental faculties, have followed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span> -Blumenbach and Cuvier, and have placed man in a separate -order, under the title of the Bimana, and therefore -on an equality with the orders of the Quadrumana, Carnivora, -etc. Recently many of our best naturalists have -recurred to the view first propounded by Linnæus, so remarkable -for his sagacity, and have placed man in the -same order with the Quadrumana, under the title of the -Primates. The justice of this conclusion will be admitted: -for, in the first place, we must bear in mind the -comparative insignificance for classification of the great -development of the brain in man, and that the strongly-marked -differences between the skulls of man and the -Quadrumana (lately insisted upon by Bischoff, Aeby, and -others) apparently follow from their differently developed -brains. In the second place, we must remember that -nearly all the other and more important differences between -man and the Quadrumana are manifestly adaptive -in their nature, and relate chiefly to the erect position of -man; such as the structure of his hand, foot, and pelvis, -the curvature of his spine, and the position of his -head. The family of seals offers a good illustration of -the small importance of adaptive characters for classification. -These animals differ from all other Carnivora in -the form of their bodies and in the structure of their -limbs, far more than does man from the higher apes; -yet in most systems, from that of Cuvier to the most recent -one by Mr. Flower, seals are ranked as a mere family -in the order of the Carnivora. If man had not been his -own classifier, he would never have thought of founding -a separate order for his own reception.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 152.</div> - -<p>As far as differences in certain important -points of structure are concerned, man may -no doubt rightly claim the rank of a sub-order; and this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> -rank is too low, if we look chiefly to his mental faculties. -Nevertheless, from a genealogical point of view, it appears -that this rank is too high, and that man ought to form -merely a family, or possibly even only a sub-family. If -we imagine three lines of descent proceeding from a common -stock, it is quite conceivable that two of them might -after the lapse of ages be so slightly changed as still to -remain as species of the same genus, while the third line -might become so greatly modified as to deserve to rank -as a distinct sub-family, family, or even order. But in -this case it is almost certain that the third line would -still retain through inheritance numerous small points -of resemblance with the other two. Here, then, would -occur the difficulty, at present insoluble, how much -weight we ought to assign in our classifications to strongly-marked -differences in some few points—that is, to the -amount of modification undergone—and how much to -close resemblance in numerous unimportant points, as -indicating the lines of descent of genealogy. To attach -much weight to the few but strong differences is the most -obvious and perhaps the safest course, though it appears -more correct to pay great attention to the many small -resemblances, as giving a truly natural classification.</p> - -<p>In forming a judgment on this head with reference to -man, we must glance at the classification of the <i>Simiadæ</i>. -This family is divided by almost all naturalists into the -Catarrhine group, or Old World monkeys, all of which -are characterized (as their name expresses) by the peculiar -structure of their nostrils, and by having four premolars -in each jaw; and into the Platyrrhine group or New World -monkeys (including two very distinct sub-groups), all of -which are characterized by differently constructed nostrils, -and by having six premolars in each jaw. Some -other small differences might be mentioned. Now man<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span> -unquestionably belongs in his dentition, in the structure -of his nostrils, and some other respects, to the Catarrhine -or Old World division; nor does he resemble the Platyrrhines -more closely than the Catarrhines in any characters, -excepting in a few of not much importance and -apparently of an adaptive nature. It is, therefore, against -all probability that some New World species should have -formerly varied and produced a man-like creature, with -all the distinctive characters proper to the Old World -division, losing at the same time all its own distinctive -characters. There can, consequently, hardly be a doubt -that man is an offshoot from the Old World Simian -stem, and that, under a genealogical point of view, he -must be classed with the Catarrhine division.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 155.</div> - -<p>And, as man from a genealogical point of -view belongs to the Catarrhine or Old World -stock, we must conclude, however much the conclusion -may revolt our pride, that our early progenitors would -have been properly thus designated. But we must not -fall into the error of supposing that the early progenitor -of the whole Simian stock, including man, was identical -with, or even closely resembled, any existing ape or -monkey.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_121">THE BIRTHPLACE OF MAN.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 155.</div> - -<p>We are naturally led to inquire, where was -the birthplace of man at that stage of descent -when our progenitors diverged from the Catarrhine stock? -The fact that they belonged to this stock clearly shows -that they inhabited the Old World; but not Australia -nor any oceanic island, as we may infer from the laws of -geographical distribution. In each great region of the -world the living mammals are closely related to the extinct<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span> -species of the same region. It is, therefore, probable -that Africa was formerly inhabited by extinct apes -closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee; and, as these -two species are now man’s nearest allies, it is somewhat -more probable that our early progenitors lived on the -African Continent than elsewhere. But it is useless to -speculate on this subject; for two or three anthropomorphous -apes, one the Dryopithecus of Lartet, nearly as -large as a man, and closely allied to Hylobates, existed -in Europe during the Miocene age; and since so remote -a period the earth has certainly undergone many great -revolutions, and there has been ample time for migration -on the largest scale.</p> - -<p>At the period and place, whenever and wherever it -was, when man first lost his hairy covering, he probably -inhabited a hot country; a circumstance favorable for -the frugiferous diet on which, judging from analogy, he -subsisted. We are far from knowing how long ago it -was when man first diverged from the Catarrhine stock; -but it may have occurred at an epoch as remote as the -Eocene<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">A</a> period; for that the higher apes have diverged -from the lower apes as early as the Upper Miocene period -is shown by the existence of the Dryopithecus. We are -also quite ignorant at how rapid a rate organisms, whether -high or low in the scale, may be modified under favorable -circumstances; we know, however, that some have retained -the same form during an enormous lapse of time. -From what we see going on under domestication, we learn -that some of the co-descendants of the same species may -be not at all, some a little, and some greatly changed, all -within the same period. Thus it may have been with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span> -man, who has undergone a great amount of modification -in certain characters in comparison with the higher apes.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="fnanchor">A</a> <span class="smcap">Eocene.</span>—The earliest of the three divisions of the Tertiary epoch of -geologists. Rocks of this age contain a small proportion of shells identical -with species now living.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The great break in the organic chain between man -and his nearest allies, which can not be bridged over by -any extinct or living species, has often been advanced as -a grave objection to the belief that man is descended from -some lower form; but this objection will not appear of -much weight to those who, from general reasons, believe -in the general principle of evolution. Breaks often occur -in all parts of the series, some being wide, sharp, and -defined, others less so in various degrees; as between the -orang and its nearest allies—between the Tarsius and the -other <i>Lemuridæ</i>—between the elephant, and in a more -striking manner between the Ornithorhynchus or Echidna, -and all other mammals. But these breaks depend merely -on the number of related forms which have become extinct. -At some future period, not very distant as measured -by centuries, the civilized races of man will almost -certainly exterminate, and replace, the savage races -throughout the world. At the same time the anthropomorphous -apes, as Professor Schaaffhausen has remarked, -will no doubt be exterminated. The break between -man and his nearest allies will then be wider, for -it will intervene between man in a more civilized state, -as we may hope, even than the Caucasian, and some ape -as low as a baboon, instead of as now between the negro -or Australian and the gorilla.</p> - -<p>With respect to the absence of fossil remains, serving -to connect man with his ape-like progenitors, no one will -lay much stress on this fact who reads Sir C. Lyell’s discussion, -where he shows that in all the vertebrate classes -the discovery of fossil remains has been a very slow and -fortuitous process. Nor should it be forgotten that those -regions which are the most likely to afford remains connecting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> -man with some extinct ape-like creature, have -not as yet been searched by geologists.</p> - -<p>In attempting to trace the genealogy of the Mammalia, -and therefore of man, lower down in the series, we become -involved in greater and greater obscurity; but as a -most capable judge, Mr. Parker, has remarked, we have -good reason to believe that no true bird or reptile intervenes -in the direct line of descent.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_122">ORIGIN OF THE VERTEBRATA.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 158.</div> - -<p>[The Vertebrata are defined as “the highest -division of the animal kingdom, so called from -the presence in most cases of a backbone composed of -numerous joints or <i>vertebræ</i>, which constitutes the center -of the skeleton and at the same time supports and -protects the central parts of the nervous system.”]</p> - -<p>Every evolutionist will admit that the five great vertebrate -classes, namely, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, -and fishes, are descended from some one prototype; -for they have much in common, especially during their -embryonic state. As the class of fishes is the most lowly -organized, and appeared before the others, we may conclude -that all the members of the vertebrate kingdom are -derived from some fish-like animal. The belief that animals -so distinct as a monkey, an elephant, a hummingbird, -a snake, a frog, and a fish, etc., could all have sprung -from the same parents, will appear monstrous to those -who have not attended to the recent progress of natural -history. For this belief implies the former existence of -links binding closely together all these forms, now so utterly -unlike.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, it is certain that groups of animals have -existed, or do now exist, which serve to connect several<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span> -of the great vertebrate classes more or less closely. -We have seen that the Ornithorhynchus graduates toward -reptiles; and Professor Huxley has discovered, and is -confirmed by Mr. Cope and others, that the Dinosaurians -are in many important characters intermediate between -certain reptiles and certain birds—the birds referred to -being the ostrich-tribe (itself evidently a widely-diffused -remnant of a larger group) and the Archeopteryx, that -strange Secondary bird, with a long, lizard-like tail. -Again, according to Professor Owen, the Ichthyosaurians—great -sea-lizards furnished with paddles—present many -affinities with fishes, or rather, according to Huxley, -with amphibians; a class which, including in its highest -division frogs and toads, is plainly allied to the Ganoid -fishes. These latter fishes swarmed during the earlier -geological periods, and were constructed on what is called -a generalized type, that is, they presented diversified affinities -with other groups of organisms. The Lepidosiren is -also so closely allied to amphibians and fishes that naturalists -long disputed in which of these two classes to rank it; -it, and also some few Ganoid fishes have been preserved -from utter extinction by inhabiting rivers, which are harbors -of refuge, and are related to the great waters of the -ocean in the same way that islands are to continents.</p> - -<p>Lastly, one single member of the immense and diversified -class of fishes, namely, the lancelet or amphioxus, -is so different from all other fishes, that Häckel maintains -that it ought to form a distinct class in the vertebrate -kingdom. This fish is remarkable for its negative -characters; it can hardly be said to possess a brain, vertebral -column, or heart, etc., so that it was classed by -the older naturalists among the worms. Many years ago -Professor Goodsir perceived that the lancelet presented -some affinities with the Ascidians, which are invertebrate,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span> -hermaphrodite, marine creatures permanently attached to -a support. They hardly appear like animals, and consist -of a simple, tough, leathery sack, with two small projecting -orifices. They belong to the Molluscoida of -Huxley—a lower division of the great kingdom of the -Mollusca; but they have recently been placed by some -naturalists among the Vermes or worms. Their larvæ -somewhat resemble tadpoles in shape, and have the power -of swimming freely about. M. Kovalevsky has lately observed -that the larvæ of Ascidians are related to the Vertebrata, -in their manner of development, in the relative -position of the nervous system, and in possessing a structure -closely like the <i>chorda dorsalis</i> of vertebrate animals; -and in this he has been since confirmed by Professor -Kupffer.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 160.</div> - -<p>Thus, if we may rely on embryology, ever -the safest guide in classification, it seems that -we have at last gained a clew to the source whence the -Vertebrata were derived. We should then be justified in -believing that at an extremely remote period a group of -animals existed, resembling in many respects the larvæ of -our present Ascidians, which diverged into two great -branches—the one retrograding in development and producing -the present class of Ascidians, the other rising to -the crown and summit of the animal kingdom by giving -birth to the Vertebrata.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_123">FROM NO BONE TO BACKBONE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 164.</div> - -<p>The most ancient progenitors in the kingdom -of the Vertebrata, at which we are able -to obtain an obscure glance, apparently consisted of a -group of marine animals, resembling the larvæ of existing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> -Ascidians. These animals probably gave rise to a -group of fishes, as lowly organized as the lancelet; and -from these the Ganoids, and other fishes like the Lepidosiren, -must have been developed. From such fish a -very small advance would carry us on to the Amphibians. -We have seen that birds and reptiles were once intimately -connected together; and the Monotremata now connect -mammals with reptiles in a slight degree. But no one can -at present say by what line of descent the three higher -and related classes, namely, mammals, birds, and reptiles, -were derived from the two lower vertebrate classes, -namely, amphibians and fishes. In the class of mammals -the steps are not difficult to conceive which led from the -ancient Monotremata to the ancient Marsupials; and -from these to the early progenitors of the placental mammals. -We may thus ascend to the <i>Lemuridæ</i>; and the -interval is not very wide from these to the <i>Simiadæ</i>. The -<i>Simiadæ</i> then branched off into two great stems, the New -World and Old World monkeys; and from the latter, -at a remote period, Man, the wonder and glory of the -universe, proceeded.</p> - -<p>Thus, we have given to man a pedigree of prodigious -length, but not, it may be said, of noble quality. The -world, it has often been remarked, appears as if it had -long been preparing for the advent of man: and this, in -one sense, is strictly true, for he owes his birth to a long -line of progenitors. If any single link in this chain had -never existed, man would not have been exactly what he -now is. Unless we willfully close our eyes, we may, with -our present knowledge, approximately recognize our parentage; -nor need we feel ashamed of it. The most humble -organism is something much higher than the inorganic -dust under our feet; and no one with an unbiased -mind can study any living creature, however humble,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span> -without being struck with enthusiasm at its marvelous -structure and properties.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_124">DOES MANKIND CONSIST OF SEVERAL SPECIES?</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 176.</div> - -<p>The question whether mankind consists of -one or several species has of late years been -much discussed by anthropologists, who are -divided into the two schools of monogenists and polygenists. -Those who do not admit the principle of evolution -must look at species as separate creations, or as in some -manner as distinct entities; and they must decide what -forms of man they will consider as species by the analogy -of the method commonly pursued in ranking other organic -beings as species. But it is a hopeless endeavor -to decide this point, until some definition of the term -“species” is generally accepted; and the definition must -not include an indeterminate element such as an act of -creation. We might as well attempt without any definition -to decide whether a certain number of houses should -be called a village, town, or city. We have a practical -illustration of the difficulty in the never-ending doubts -whether many closely-allied mammals, birds, insects, and -plants, which represent each other respectively in North -America and Europe, should be ranked as species or geographical -races; and the like holds true of the productions -of many islands situated at some little distance from -the nearest continent.</p> - -<p>Those naturalists, on the other hand, who admit the -principle of evolution, and this is now admitted by the -majority of rising men, will feel no doubt that all the -races of man are descended from a single primitive stock; -whether or not they may think fit to designate the races -as distinct species, for the sake of expressing their amount<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span> -of difference. With our domestic animals, the question -whether the various races have arisen from one or more -species is somewhat different. Although it may be admitted -that all the races, as well as all the natural species -within the same genus, have sprung from the same primitive -stock, yet it is a fit subject for discussion whether -all the domestic races of the dog, for instance, have acquired -their present amount of difference since some one -species was first domesticated by man; or whether they -owe some of their characters to inheritance from distinct -species which had already been differentiated in a state -of nature. With man no such question can arise, for he -can not be said to have been domesticated at any particular -period.</p> - -<p>During an early stage in the divergence of the races -of man from a common stock, the differences between the -races and their number must have been small; consequently, -as far as their distinguishing characters are concerned, -they then had less claim to rank as distinct species -than the existing so-called races. Nevertheless, so -arbitrary is the term of species, that such early races -would, perhaps, have been ranked by some naturalists as -distinct species, if their differences, although extremely -slight, had been more constant than they are at present, -and had not graduated into each other.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_125">THE RACES GRADUATE INTO EACH OTHER.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 174.</div> - -<p>But the most weighty of all the arguments -against treating the races of man as distinct -species is, that they graduate into each other, independently, -in many cases, as far as we can judge, of their having -intercrossed. Man has been studied more carefully than -any other animal, and yet there is the greatest possible diversity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span> -among capable judges whether he should be classed -as a single species or race, or as two (Virey), as three (Jacqninot), -as four (Kant), five (Blumenbach), six (Buffon), -seven (Hunter), eight (Agassiz), eleven (Pickering), fifteen -(Bory St. Vincent), sixteen (Desmoulins), twenty-two -(Morton), sixty (Crawfurd), or as sixty-three, according -to Burke. This diversity of judgment does not prove -that the races ought not to be ranked as species, but it -shows that they graduate into each other, and that it is -hardly possible to discover clear, distinctive characters between -them.</p> - -<p>Every naturalist who has had the misfortune to undertake -the description of a group of highly-varying organisms, -has encountered cases (I speak after experience) -precisely like that of man; and, if of a cautious disposition, -he will end by uniting all the forms which graduate -into each other under a single species; for he will say to -himself that he has no right to give names to objects -which he can not define. Cases of this kind occur in the -order which includes man, namely, in certain genera of -monkeys; while in other genera, as in <i>Cercopithecus</i>, -most of the species can be determined with certainty. In -the American genus <i>Cebus</i>, the various forms are ranked -by some naturalists as species, by others as mere geographical -races. Now, if numerous specimens of <i>Cebus</i> -were collected from all parts of South America, and those -forms which at present appear to be specifically distinct -were found to graduate into each other by close steps, -they would usually be ranked as mere varieties or races; -and this course has been followed by most naturalists -with respect to the races of man.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_126">WAS THE FIRST MAN A SPEAKING ANIMAL?</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 180.</div> - -<p>From the fundamental differences between -certain languages, some philologists have inferred -that when man first became widely diffused, he was -not a speaking animal; but it may be suspected that -languages, far less perfect than any now spoken, aided -by gestures, might have been used, and yet have left no -traces on subsequent and more highly-developed tongues. -Without the use of some language, however imperfect, it -appears doubtful whether man’s intellect could have risen -to the standard implied by his dominant position at an -early period.</p> - -<p>Whether primeval man, when he possessed but few -arts, and those of the rudest kind, and when his power -of language was extremely imperfect, would have deserved -to be called man, must depend on the definition -which we employ. In a series of forms graduating insensibly -from some ape-like creature to man as he now -exists, it would be impossible to fix on any definite point -when the term “man” ought to be used. But this is a -matter of very little importance. So, again, it is almost -a matter of indifference whether the so-called races of -man are thus designated, or are ranked as species or sub-species; -but the latter term appears the more appropriate. -Finally, we may conclude that, when the principle -of evolution is generally accepted, as it surely will -be before long, the dispute between the monogenists and -the polygenists will die a silent and unobserved death.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_127">THE THEORY OF A SINGLE PAIR.</h3> - -<p>One other question ought not to be passed over without -notice, namely, whether, as is sometimes assumed, -each sub-species or race of man has sprung from a single<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> -pair of progenitors. With our domestic animals a new -race can readily be formed by carefully matching the -varying offspring from a single pair, or even from a single -individual possessing some new character; but most of -our races have been formed, not intentionally from a -selected pair, but unconsciously, by the preservation of -many individuals which have varied, however slightly, in -some useful or desired manner. If in one country stronger -and heavier horses, and in another country lighter and -fleeter ones were habitually preferred, we may feel sure -that two distinct sub-breeds would be produced in the -course of time, without any one pair having been separated -and bred from in either country. Many races have -been thus formed, and their manner of formation is -closely analogous to that of natural species. We know, -also, that the horses taken to the Falkland Islands have, -during successive generations, become smaller and weaker, -while those which have run wild on the Pampas have acquired -larger and coarser heads; and such changes are -manifestly due, not to any one pair, but to all the individuals -having been subjected to the same conditions, -aided, perhaps, by the principle of reversion. The new -sub-breeds in such cases are not descended from any single -pair, but from many individuals which have varied in -different degrees, but in the same general manner; and -we may conclude that the races of man have been similarly -produced, the modifications being either the direct -result of exposure to different conditions, or the indirect -result of some form of selection.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_128">CIVILIZED OUT OF EXISTENCE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 183.</div> - -<p>When Tasmania was first colonized the natives -were roughly estimated by some at seven -thousand and by others at twenty thousand. -Their number was soon greatly reduced, chiefly by fighting -with the English and with each other. After the -famous hunt by all the colonists, when the remaining -natives delivered themselves up to the government, they -consisted only of one hundred and twenty individuals, -who were in 1832 transported to Flinders Island. This -island, situated between Tasmania and Australia, is forty -miles long, and from twelve to eighteen miles broad: it -seems healthy, and the natives were well treated. Nevertheless, -they suffered greatly in health. In 1834 they -consisted (Bonwick, p. 250) of forty-seven adult males, -forty-eight adult females, and sixteen children, or in all -of one hundred and eleven souls. In 1835 only one hundred -were left. As they continued rapidly to decrease, -and as they themselves thought that they should not -perish so quickly elsewhere, they were removed in 1847 -to Oyster Cove in the southern part of Tasmania. They -then consisted (December 20, 1847) of fourteen men, -twenty-two women, and ten children. But the change of -site did no good. Disease and death still pursued them, -and in 1864 one man (who died in 1869) and three -elderly women alone survived. The infertility of the -women is even a more remarkable fact than the liability -of all to ill-health and death. At the time when only -nine women were left at Oyster Cove, they told Mr. Bonwick -(p. 386), that only two had ever borne children: -and these two had together produced only three children!</p> - -<p>With respect to the cause of this extraordinary state -of things, Dr. Story remarks that death followed the attempts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span> -to civilize the natives. “If left to themselves to -roam as they were wont and undisturbed, they would -have reared more children, and there would have been -less mortality.” Another careful observer of the natives, -Mr. Davis, remarks: “The births have been few and the -deaths numerous. This may have been in a great measure -owing to their change of living and food; but more -so to their banishment from the mainland of Van Diemen’s -Land, and consequent depression of spirits” (Bonwick, -pp. 388, 390).</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 191.</div> - -<p>Although the gradual decrease and ultimate -extinction of the races of man is a highly -complex problem, depending on many causes which differ -in different places and at different times, it is the same -problem as that presented by the extinction of one of the -higher animals—of the fossil horse, for instance, which -disappeared from South America, soon afterward to be -replaced, within the same districts, by countless troops -of the Spanish horse. The New-Zealander seems conscious -of this parallelism, for he compares his future fate -with that of the native rat, now almost exterminated by -the European rat. Though the difficulty is great to our -imagination, and really great, if we wish to ascertain the -precise causes and their manner of action, it ought not -to be so to our reason, as long as we keep steadily in mind -that the increase of each species and each race is constantly -checked in various ways; so that, if any new -check, even a slight one, be superadded, the race will -surely decrease in number; and decreasing numbers will -sooner or later lead to extinction; the end, in most cases, -being promptly determined by the inroads of conquering -tribes.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XI">XI.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">SEXUAL SELECTION AS AN AGENCY TO ACCOUNT -FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE RACES OF MAN.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 198.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">We</span> have thus far been baffled in all our -attempts to account for the differences between -the races of man; but there remains -one important agency, namely, sexual selection, which appears -to have acted powerfully on man, as on many other -animals. I do not intend to assert that sexual selection -will account for all the differences between the races. An -unexplained residuum is left, about which we can only -say, in our ignorance, that as individuals are continually -born with, for instance, heads a little rounder or narrower, -and with noses a little longer or shorter, such -slight differences might become fixed and uniform, if the -unknown agencies which induced them were to act in a -more constant manner, aided by long-continued intercrossing. -Such variations come under the provisional -class, alluded to in our second chapter, which for the -want of a better term are often called spontaneous. Nor -do I pretend that the effects of sexual selection can be -indicated with scientific precision; but it can be shown -that it would be an inexplicable fact if man had not been -modified by this agency, which appears to have acted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span> -powerfully on innumerable animals. It can further be -shown that the differences between the races of man, as -in color, hairiness, form of features, etc., are of a kind -which might have been expected to come under the influence -of sexual selection.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_129">STRUGGLE OF THE MALES FOR THE POSSESSION OF THE -FEMALES.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 213.</div> - -<p>There can be no doubt that with almost -all animals, in which the sexes are separate, -there is a constantly recurrent struggle between -the males for the possession of the females.</p> - -<p>Our difficulty in regard to sexual selection lies in understanding -how it is that the males which conquer other -males, or those which prove the most attractive to the -females, leave a greater number of offspring to inherit -their superiority than their beaten and less attractive -rivals. Unless this result does follow, the characters -which give to certain males an advantage over others -could not be perfected and augmented through sexual selection. -When the sexes exist in exactly equal numbers, -the worst-endowed males will (except where polygamy -prevails) ultimately find females, and leave as many offspring, -as well fitted for their general habits of life, as -the best-endowed males. From various facts and considerations, -I formerly inferred that with most animals, -in which secondary sexual characters are well developed, -the males considerably exceeded the females in number; -but this is not by any means always true. If the males -were to the females as two to one, or as three to two, or -even in a somewhat lower ratio, the whole affair would -be simple; for the better-armed or more attractive males -would leave the largest number of offspring. But, after<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span> -investigating, as far as possible, the numerical proportion -of the sexes, I do not believe that any great inequality in -number commonly exists. In most cases sexual selection -appears to have been effective in the following manner:</p> - -<p>Let us take any species, a bird for instance, and divide -the females inhabiting a district into two equal bodies, -the one consisting of the more vigorous and better-nourished -individuals, and the other of the less vigorous -and healthy. The former, there can be little doubt, -would be ready to breed in the spring before the others; -and this is the opinion of Mr. Jenner Weir, who has -carefully attended to the habits of birds during many -years. There can also be no doubt that the most vigorous, -best-nourished, and earliest breeders would on an -average succeed in rearing the largest number of fine offspring. -The males, as we have seen, are generally ready -to breed before the females; the strongest, and with -some species the best armed of the males, drive away the -weaker; and the former would then unite with the more -vigorous and better-nourished females, because they are -the first to breed. Such vigorous pairs would surely -rear a larger number of offspring than the retarded females, -which would be compelled to unite with the conquered -and less powerful males, supposing the sexes to be -numerically equal; and this is all that is wanted to add, -in the course of successive generations, to the size, strength, -and courage of the males, or to improve their weapons.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_130">COURTSHIP AMONG THE LOWER ANIMALS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 214.</div> - -<p>But in very many cases the males which -conquer their rivals do not obtain possession -of the females, independently of the choice of the latter. -The courtship of animals is by no means so simple and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span> -short an affair as might be thought. The females are -most excited by, or prefer pairing with, the more ornamented -males, or those which are the best songsters, or -play the best antics; but it is obviously probable that -they would at the same time prefer the more vigorous -and lively males, and this has in some cases been confirmed -by actual observation. Thus, the more vigorous -females, which are the first to breed, will have the choice -of many males; and, though they may not always select -the strongest or best armed, they will select those which -are vigorous and well armed, and in other respects the -most attractive. Both sexes, therefore, of such early -pairs would, as above explained, have an advantage over -others in rearing offspring; and this apparently has sufficed, -during a long course of generations, to add not -only to the strength and fighting powers of the males, -but likewise to their various ornaments or other attractions.</p> - -<p>In the converse and much rarer case, of the males selecting -particular females, it is plain that those which -were the most vigorous, and had conquered others, would -have the freest choice; and it is almost certain that they -would select vigorous as well as attractive females. Such -pairs would have an advantage in rearing offspring, more -especially if the male had the power to defend the female -during the pairing-season, as occurs with some of the -higher animals, or aided her in providing for the young. -The same principles would apply if each sex preferred -and selected certain individuals of the opposite sex; supposing -that they selected not only the more attractive -but likewise the more vigorous individuals.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_131">WHY THE MALE PLAYS THE MORE ACTIVE PART IN -COURTING.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 222.</div> - -<p>We are naturally led to inquire why the -male, in so many and such distinct classes, -has become more eager than the female, so that he -searches for her, and plays the more active part in courtship. -It would be no advantage, and some loss of power, -if each sex searched for the other; but why should the -male almost always be the seeker? The ovules of plants -after fertilization have to be nourished for a time; hence -the pollen is necessarily brought to the female organs—being -placed on the stigma by means of insects or the -wind, or by the spontaneous movements of the stamens; -and, in the <i>Algæ</i>, etc., by the locomotive power of the -antherozoöids. With lowly-organized aquatic animals, -permanently affixed to the same spot, and having their -sexes separate, the male element is invariably brought to -the female; and of this we can see the reason, for even -if the ova were detached before fertilization, and did -not require subsequent nourishment or protection, there -would yet be greater difficulty in transporting them than -the male element, because, being larger than the latter, -they are produced in far smaller numbers. So that many -of the lower animals are, in this respect, analogous with -plants. The males of affixed and aquatic animals, having -been led to emit their fertilizing element in this way, it -is natural that any of their descendants, which rose in -the scale and became locomotive, should retain the same -habit; and they would approach the female as closely as -possible, in order not to risk the loss of the fertilizing -element in a long passage of it through the water. With -some few of the lower animals, the females alone are -fixed, and the males of these must be the seekers. But<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span> -it is difficult to understand why the males of species, -of which the progenitors were primordially free, should -invariably have acquired the habit of approaching the -females, instead of being approached by them. But, in -all cases, in order that the males should seek efficiently, -it would be necessary that they should be endowed with -strong passions; and the acquirement of such passions -would naturally follow from the more eager leaving a -larger number of offspring than the less eager.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_132">TRANSMISSION OF SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 232.</div> - -<p>Why certain characters should be inherited -by both sexes, and other characters by one sex -alone, namely, by that sex in which the character first appeared, -is in most cases quite unknown. We can not even -conjecture why, with certain sub-breeds of the pigeon, -black striæ, though transmitted through the female, -should be developed in the male alone, while every other -character is equally transferred to both sexes. Why, -again, with cats, the tortoise-shell color should, with rare -exceptions, be developed in the female alone. The very -same character, such as deficient or supernumerary digits, -color-blindness, etc., may with mankind be inherited by -the males alone of one family, and in another family by -the females alone, though in both cases transmitted -through the opposite as well as through the same sex. -Although we are thus ignorant, the two following rules -seem often to hold good: that variations which first appear -in either sex at a late period of life tend to be developed -in the same sex alone; while variations which -first appear early in life in either sex tend to be developed -in both sexes. I am, however, far from supposing -that this is the sole determining cause.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span></p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 233.</div> - -<p>An excellent case for investigation is afforded -by the deer family. In all the species, -but one, the horns are developed only in the males, -though certainly transmitted through the females, and -capable of abnormal development in them. In the reindeer, -on the other hand, the female is provided with -horns; so that, in this species, the horns ought, according -to our rule, to appear early in life, long before the -two sexes are mature, and have come to differ much in -constitution. In all the other species the horns ought to -appear later in life, which would lead to their development -in that sex alone in which they first appeared in -the progenitor of the whole family. Now, in seven species, -belonging to distinct sections of the family, and inhabiting -different regions, in which the stags alone bear -horns, I find that the horns first appear at periods varying -from nine months after birth in the roebuck, to ten, -twelve, or even more months in the stags of the six other -and larger species. But with the reindeer the case is -widely different; for, as I hear from Professor Nilsson, -who kindly made special inquiries for me in Lapland, the -horns appear in the young animals within four or five -weeks after birth, and at the same time in both sexes. -So that here we have a structure developed at a most -unusually early age in one species of the family, and likewise -common to both sexes in this one species alone.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 239.</div> - -<p>Finally, from what we have now seen of -the relation which exists in many natural species -and domesticated races, between the period of the -development of their characters and the manner of their -transmission—for example, the striking fact of the early -growth of the horns in the reindeer, in which both sexes -bear horns, in comparison with their much later growth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span> -in the other species in which the male alone bears horns—we -may conclude that one, though not the sole cause of -characters being exclusively inherited by one sex, is their -development at a late age. And, secondly, that one, -though apparently a less efficient cause of characters being -inherited by both sexes, is their development at an -early age, while the sexes differ but little in constitution. -It appears, however, that some difference must exist -between the sexes even during a very early embryonic -period, for characters developed at this age not rarely -become attached to one sex.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_133">AN OBJECTION ANSWERED.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 495.</div> - -<p>Several writers have objected to the whole -theory of sexual selection, by assuming that -with animals and savages the taste of the female -for certain colors or other ornaments would not remain -constant for many generations; that first one color -and then another would be admired, and consequently -that no permanent effect could be produced. We may -admit that taste is fluctuating, but it is not quite arbitrary. -It depends much on habit, as we see in mankind; -and we may infer that this would hold good with birds -and other animals. Even in our own dress, the general -character lasts long, and the changes are to a certain extent -graduated. Abundant evidence will be given in two -places in a future chapter, that savages of many races -have admired for many generations the same cicatrices on -the skin, the same hideously perforated lips, nostrils, or -ears, distorted heads, etc.; and these deformities present -some analogy to the natural ornaments of various animals. -Nevertheless, with savages such fashions do not endure -forever, as we may infer from the differences in this respect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span> -between allied tribes on the same continent. So -again the raisers of fancy animals certainly have admired -for many generations and still admire the same breeds; -they earnestly desire slight changes, which are considered -as improvements, but any great or sudden change is -looked at as the greatest blemish. With birds in a state -of nature we have no reason to suppose that they would -admire an entirely new style of coloration, even if great -and sudden variation often occurred, which is far from -being the case. We know that dovecot pigeons do not -willingly associate with the variously colored fancy -breeds; that albino birds do not commonly get partners -in marriage; and that the black ravens of the Feroe Islands -chase away their piebald brethren. But this dislike -of a sudden change would not preclude their appreciating -slight changes, any more than it does in the case -of man. Hence with respect to taste, which depends on -many elements, but partly on habit and partly on a love -of novelty, there seems no improbability in animals admiring -for a very long period the same general style of ornamentation -or other attractions, and yet appreciating -slight changes in colors, form, or sound.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_134">DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SEXES CREATED BY SEXUAL -SELECTION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 563.</div> - -<p>There can be little doubt that the greater -size and strength of man, in comparison -with woman, together with his broader shoulders, more -developed muscles, rugged outline of body, his greater -courage and pugnacity, are all due in chief part to inheritance -from his half-human male ancestors. These -characters would, however, have been preserved or even -augmented during the long ages of man’s savagery, by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span> -the success of the strongest and boldest men, both in the -general struggle for life and in their contest for wives; a -success which would have insured their leaving a more -numerous progeny than their less favored brethren. It is -not probable that the greater strength of man was primarily -acquired through the inherited effects of his having -worked harder than woman for his own subsistence and -that of his family; for the women in all barbarous nations -are compelled to work at least as hard as the men. -With civilized people the arbitrament of battle for the -possession of the women has long ceased; on the other -hand, the men, as a general rule, have to work harder -than the women for their joint subsistence, and thus their -greater strength will have been kept up.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>With respect to differences of this nature between -man and woman, it is probable that sexual selection has -played a highly important part. I am aware that some -writers doubt whether there is any such inherent difference; -but this is at least probable from the analogy of -the lower animals which present other secondary sexual -characters. No one disputes that the bull differs in disposition -from the cow, the wild-boar from the sow, the -stallion from the mare, and, as is well known to the keepers -of menageries, the males of the larger apes from the -females. Woman seems to differ from man in mental disposition, -chiefly in her greater tenderness and less selfishness; -and this holds good even with savages, as shown -by a well-known passage in Mungo Park’s “Travels,” and -by statements made by many other travelers. Woman, -owing to her maternal instincts, displays these qualities -toward her infants in an eminent degree; therefore it is -likely that she would often extend them toward her fellow-creatures. -Man is the rival of other men; he delights<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> -in competition, and this leads to ambition which -passes too easily into selfishness. These latter qualities -seem to be his natural and unfortunate birthright. It is -generally admitted that with woman the powers of intuition, -of rapid perception, and perhaps of imitation, are -more strongly marked than in man; but some, at least, of -these faculties are characteristic of the lower races, and -therefore of a past and lower state of civilization.</p> - -<p>The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the -two sexes is shown by man’s attaining to a higher eminence, -in whatever he takes up, than can woman—whether -requiring deep thought, reason, or imagination, or -merely the use of the senses and hands. If two lists were -made of the most eminent men and women in poetry, -painting, sculpture, music (inclusive both of composition -and performance), history, science, and philosophy, with -half a dozen names under each subject, the two lists would -not bear comparison. We may also infer, from the law -of the deviation from averages, so well illustrated by Mr. -Galton, in his work on “Hereditary Genius,” that if men -are capable of a decided pre-eminence over women in -many subjects, the average of mental power in man must -be above that of woman.</p> - -<p>Among the half-human progenitors of man, and -among savages, there have been struggles between the -males during many generations for the possession of the -females. But mere bodily strength and size would do -little for victory, unless associated with courage, perseverance, -and determined energy. With social animals, the -young males have to pass through many a contest before -they win a female, and the older males have to retain -their females by renewed battles. They have, also, in the -case of mankind, to defend their females, as well as their -young, from enemies of all kinds, and to hunt for their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span> -joint subsistence. But to avoid enemies or to attack them -with success, to capture wild animals, or to fashion -weapons, requires the aid of the higher mental faculties, -namely, observation, reason, invention, or imagination. -These various faculties will thus have been continually -put to the test and selected during manhood; they will, -moreover, have been strengthened by use during this same -period of life. Consequently, in accordance with the -principle often alluded to, we might expect that they -would at least tend to be transmitted chiefly to the male -offspring at the corresponding period of manhood.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_135">HOW WOMAN COULD BE MADE TO REACH THE STANDARD -OF MAN.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 565.</div> - -<p>It must be borne in mind that the tendency -in characters acquired by either sex late in -life, to be transmitted to the same sex at the same age, -and of early acquired characters to be transmitted to both -sexes, are rules which, though general, do not always -hold. If they always held good, we might conclude (but -I here exceed my proper bounds) that the inherited effects -of the early education of boys and girls would be -transmitted equally to both sexes; so that the present -inequality in mental power between the sexes would not -be effaced by a similar course of early training; nor can -it have been caused by their dissimilar early training. In -order that woman should reach the same standard as man, -she ought, when nearly adult, to be trained to energy and -perseverance, and to have her reason and imagination -exercised to the highest point; and then she would probably -transmit these qualities chiefly to her adult daughters. -All women, however, could not be thus raised, unless -during many generations those who excelled in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> -above robust virtues were married, and produced offspring -in larger numbers than other women. As before remarked -of bodily strength, although men do not now -fight for their wives, and this form of selection has -passed away, yet during manhood they generally undergo -a severe struggle in order to maintain themselves and -their families; and this will tend to keep up or even -increase their mental powers, and, as a consequence, the -present inequality between the sexes.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_136">“CHARACTERISTIC SELFISHNESS OF MAN.”</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 577.</div> - -<p>In most, but not all parts of the world, the -men are more ornamented than the women, -and often in a different manner; sometimes, though -rarely, the women are hardly at all ornamented. As the -women are made by savages to perform the greatest share -of the work, and as they are not allowed to eat the best -kinds of food, so it accords with the characteristic selfishness -of man that they should not be allowed to obtain or -use the finest ornaments. Lastly, it is a remarkable fact, -as proved by the foregoing quotations, that the same -fashions in modifying the shape of the head, in ornamenting -the hair, in painting, tattooing, in perforating the -nose, lips, or ears, in removing or filing the teeth, etc., -now prevail, and have long prevailed, in the most distant -quarters of the world. It is extremely improbable that -these practices, followed by so many distinct nations, -should be due to tradition from any common source. -They indicate the close similarity of the mind of man, to -whatever race he may belong, just as do the almost universal -habits of dancing, masquerading, and making rude -pictures.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_137">NO UNIVERSAL STANDARD OF BEAUTY AMONG MANKIND.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 584.</div> - -<p>The senses of man and of the lower animals -seem to be so constituted that brilliant colors -and certain forms, as well as harmonious and rhythmical -sounds, give pleasure and are called beautiful; but why -this should be so we know not. It is certainly not true -that there is in the mind of man any universal standard -of beauty with respect to the human body. It is, however, -possible that certain tastes may in the course of -time become inherited, though there is no evidence in -favor of this belief; and if so each race would possess its -own innate ideal standard of beauty. It has been argued -that ugliness consists in an approach to the structure of -the lower animals, and no doubt this is partly true with -the more civilized nations, in which intellect is highly -appreciated; but this explanation will hardly apply to all -forms of ugliness. The men of each race prefer what -they are accustomed to; they can not endure any great -change; but they like variety, and admire each characteristic -carried to a moderate extreme. Men accustomed -to a nearly oval face, to straight and regular features, -and to bright colors, admire, as we Europeans know, -these points when strongly developed. On the other -hand, men accustomed to a broad face, with high cheekbones, -a depressed nose, and a black skin, admire these -peculiarities when strongly marked. No doubt characters -of all kinds may be too much developed for beauty. -Hence a perfect beauty, which implies many characters -modified in a particular manner, will be in every race a -prodigy. As the great anatomist Bichat long ago said, -if every one were cast in the same mold, there would -be no such thing as beauty. If all our women were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span> -to become as beautiful as the Venus de’ Medici, we should -for a time be charmed; but we should soon wish for variety; -and, as soon as we had obtained variety, we should -wish to see certain characters a little exaggerated beyond -the then existing common standard.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 578.</div> - -<p>It is well known that with many Hottentot -women the posterior part of the body -projects in a wonderful manner; they are steatopygous; -and Sir Andrew Smith is certain that this peculiarity is -greatly admired by the men. He once saw a woman who -was considered a beauty, and she was so immensely developed -behind, that when seated on level ground she -could not rise, and had to push herself along until she -came to a slope. Some of the women in the various negro -tribes have the same peculiarity; and, according to -Burton, the Somal men “are said to choose their wives -by ranging them in a line, and by picking her out who -projects farthest <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">a tergo</i>. Nothing can be more hateful -to a negro than the opposite form.”</p> - -<h3 id="sec_138">DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEARD.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 602.</div> - -<p>With respect to the beard in man, if we -turn to our best guide, the Quadrumana, we -find beards equally developed in both sexes of many species, -but in some, either confined to the males, or more -developed in them than in the females. From this fact -and from the curious arrangement, as well as the bright -colors of the hair about the head of many monkeys, it is -highly probable, as before explained, that the males first -acquired their beards through sexual selection as an ornament, -transmitting them in most cases, equally or nearly -so, to their offspring of both sexes. We know from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> -Eschricht that, with mankind, the female as well as the -male fœtus is furnished with much hair on the face, -especially round the mouth; and this indicates that we -are descended from progenitors of whom both sexes are -bearded. It appears therefore at first sight probable that -man has retained his beard from a very early period, -while woman lost her beard at the same time that her -body became almost completely divested of hair. Even -the color of our beards seems to have been inherited from -an ape-like progenitor; for, when there is any difference -in tint between the hair of the head and the beard, the -latter is lighter colored in all monkeys and in man. In -those Quadrumana in which the male has a larger beard -than that of the female, it is fully developed only at maturity, -just as with mankind; and it is possible that -only the later stages of development have been retained -by man. In opposition to this view of the retention of -the beard from an early period, is the fact of its great variability -in different races, and even within the same race; -for this indicates reversion—long-lost characters being -very apt to vary on reappearance.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_139">DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARRIAGE-TIE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 590.</div> - -<p>Although the manner of the development -of the marriage-tie is an obscure subject, as -we may infer from the divergent opinions on -several points between the three authors who have studied -it most closely, namely, Mr. Morgan, Mr. McLennan, and -Sir J. Lubbock, yet, from the foregoing and several other -lines of evidence, it seems probable that the habit of marriage, -in any strict sense of the word, has been gradually -developed; and that almost promiscuous, or very loose, -intercourse was once extremely common throughout the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span> -world. Nevertheless, from the strength of the feeling of -jealousy all through the animal kingdom, as well as from -the analogy of the lower animals, more particularly of -those which come nearest to man, I can not believe that -absolutely promiscuous intercourse prevailed in times -past, shortly before man attained to his present rank in -the zoological scale. Man, as I have attempted to show, -is certainly descended from some ape-like creature. With -the existing Quadrumana, as far as their habits are known, -the males of some species are monogamous, but live during -only a part of the year with the females; of this the -orang seems to afford an instance. Several kinds, for -example, some of the Indian and American monkeys, are -strictly monogamous, and associate all the year round -with their wives. Others are polygamous, for example, -the gorilla and several American species, and each family -lives separate.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 591.</div> - -<p>Therefore, looking far enough back in the -stream of time, and judging from the social -habits of man as he now exists, the most probable view -is that he aboriginally lived in small communities, each -with a single wife, or, if powerful, with several, whom -he jealously guarded against all other men. Or he may -not have been a social animal, and yet have lived with -several wives, like the gorilla; for all the natives “agree -that but one adult male is seen in a band; when the -young male grows up, a contest takes place for mastery, -and the strongest, by killing and driving out the others, -establishes himself as the head of the community.” The -younger males, being thus expelled and wandering about, -would, when at last successful in finding a partner, prevent -too close interbreeding within the limits of the same -family.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span></p> - -<p>Although savages are now extremely licentious, and -although communal marriages may formerly have largely -prevailed, yet many tribes practice some form of marriage, -but of a far more lax nature than that of civilized -nations. Polygamy, as just stated, is almost universally -followed by the leading men in every tribe. Nevertheless, -there are tribes, standing almost at the bottom of -the scale, which are strictly monogamous. This is the -case with the Veddahs of Ceylon; they have a saying, -according to Sir J. Lubbock, that “death alone can separate -husband and wife.” An intelligent Kandyan chief, -of course a polygamist, “was perfectly scandalized at the -utter barbarism of living with only one wife, and never -parting until separated by death.” It was, he said, “just -like the Wanderoo monkeys.” Whether savages who now -enter into some form of marriage, either polygamous or -monogamous, have retained this habit from primeval -times, or whether they have returned to some form of -marriage, after passing through a stage of promiscuous -intercourse, I will not pretend to conjecture.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_140">UNNATURAL SELECTION IN MARRIAGE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 617.</div> - -<p>Man scans with scrupulous care the character -and pedigree of his horses, cattle, and -dogs before he matches them; but, when he -comes to his own marriage, he rarely or never takes any -such care. He is impelled by nearly the same motives as -the lower animals, when they are left to their own free -choice, though he is in so far superior to them that he -highly values mental charms and virtues. On the other -hand, he is strongly attracted by mere wealth or rank. -Yet he might by selection do something not only for the -bodily constitution and frame of his offspring, but for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span> -their intellectual and moral qualities. Both sexes ought -to refrain from marriage, if they are in any marked degree -inferior in body or mind; but such hopes are Utopian, -and will never be even partially realized until the -laws of inheritance are thoroughly known. Every one -does good service who aids toward this end. When the -principles of breeding and inheritance are better understood, -we shall not hear ignorant members of our -Legislature rejecting with scorn a plan for ascertaining -whether or not consanguineous marriages are injurious -to man.</p> - -<p>The advancement of the welfare of mankind is a most -intricate problem: all ought to refrain from marriage -who can not avoid abject poverty for their children; for -poverty is not only a great evil, but tends to its own increase -by leading to recklessness in marriage. On the -other hand, as Mr. Galton has remarked, if the prudent -avoid marriage, while the reckless marry, the inferior -members tend to supplant the better members of society. -Man, like every other animal, has no doubt advanced to -his present high condition through a struggle for existence -consequent on his rapid multiplication; and, if he -is to advance still higher, it is to be feared that he must -remain subject to a severe struggle. Otherwise he would -sink into indolence, and the more gifted men would not -be more successful in the battle of life than the less -gifted. Hence our natural rate of increase, though leading -to many and obvious evils, must not be greatly diminished -by any means. There should be open competition -for all men; and the most able should not be prevented -by laws or customs from succeeding best, and rearing the -largest number of offspring. Important as the struggle -for existence has been, and even still is, yet, as far as the -highest part of man’s nature is concerned, there are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> -other agencies more important. For the moral qualities -are advanced, either directly or indirectly, much more -through the effects of habit, the reasoning powers, instruction, -religion, etc., than through natural selection; -though to this latter agency may be safely attributed the -social instincts which afforded the basis for the development -of the moral sense.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_141">MODIFYING INFLUENCES IN BOTH SEXES.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 596.</div> - -<p>With animals in a state of nature, many -characters proper to the males, such as size, -strength, special weapons, courage, and pugnacity, have -been acquired through the law of battle. The semi-human -progenitors of man, like their allies the Quadrumana, -will almost certainly have been thus modified; -and, as savages still fight for the possession of their -women, a similar process of selection has probably gone -on in a greater or less degree to the present day. Other -characters proper to the males of the lower animals, such -as bright colors and various ornaments, have been acquired -by the more attractive males having been preferred -by the females. There are, however, exceptional cases -in which the males are the selectors, instead of having -been the selected. We recognize such cases by the females -being more highly ornamented than the males—their -ornamental characters having been transmitted exclusively -or chiefly to their female offspring. One such -case has been described in the order to which man belongs, -that of the Rhesus monkey.</p> - -<p>Man is more powerful in body and mind than woman, -and in the savage state he keeps her in a far more abject -state of bondage than does the male of any other animal; -therefore it is not surprising that he should have gained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span> -the power of selection. Women are everywhere conscious -of the value of their own beauty; and, when they have -the means, they take more delight in decorating themselves -with all sorts of ornaments than do men. They -borrow the plumes of male birds, with which nature has -decked this sex in order to charm the females. As women -have long been selected for beauty, it is not surprising -that some of their successive variations should have been -transmitted exclusively to the same sex; consequently -that they should have transmitted beauty in a somewhat -higher degree to their female than to their male offspring, -and thus have become more beautiful, according to general -opinion, than men. Women, however, certainly -transmit most of their characters, including some beauty, -to their offspring of both sexes; so that the continued -preference by the men of each race for the more attractive -women, according to their standard of taste, will have -tended to modify in the same manner all the individuals -of both sexes belonging to the race.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 617.</div> - -<p>He who admits the principle of sexual selection -will be led to the remarkable conclusion -that the nervous system not only regulates most of the -existing functions of the body, but has indirectly influenced -the progressive development of various bodily -structures and of certain mental qualities. Courage, -pugnacity, perseverance, strength and size of body, weapons -of all kinds, musical organs, both vocal and instrumental, -bright colors and ornamental appendages, have -all been indirectly gained by the one sex or the other, -through the exertion of choice, the influence of love and -jealousy, and the appreciation of the beautiful in sound, -color, or form; and these powers of the mind manifestly -depend on the development of the brain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_142">“GROUNDS THAT WILL NEVER BE SHAKEN.”</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 606.</div> - -<p>Many of the views which have been advanced -are highly speculative, and some no -doubt will prove erroneous; but I have in -every case given the reasons which have led me to one -view rather than to another. It seemed worth while to -try how far the principle of evolution would throw light -on some of the more complex problems in the natural -history of man. False facts are highly injurious to the -progress of science, for they often endure long; but false -views, if supported by some evidence, do little harm, for -every one takes a salutary pleasure in proving their falseness; -and, when this is done, one path toward error is -closed and the road to truth is often at the same time -opened.</p> - -<p>The main conclusion here arrived at, and now held -by many naturalists who are well competent to form a -sound judgment, is that man is descended from some less -highly organized form. The grounds upon which this -conclusion rests will never be shaken, for the close similarity -between man and the lower animals in embryonic -development, as well as in innumerable points of structure -and constitution, both of high and of the most trifling -importance—the rudiments which he retains, and the -abnormal reversions to which he is occasionally liable—are -facts which can not be disputed. They have long -been known, but until recently they told us nothing with -respect to the origin of man. Now, when viewed by the -light of our knowledge of the whole organic world, their -meaning is unmistakable. The great principle of evolution -stands up clear and firm, when these groups of facts -are considered in connection with others, such as the -mutual affinities of the members of the same group, their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span> -geographical distribution in past and present times, and -their geological succession. It is incredible that all these -facts should speak falsely. He who is not content to -look, like a savage, at the phenomena of nature as disconnected, -can not any longer believe that man is the -work of a separate act of creation. He will be forced to -admit that the close resemblance of the embryo of man -to that, for instance, of a dog—the construction of his -skull, limbs, and whole frame on the same plan with that -of other mammals, independently of the uses to which -the parts may be put—the occasional reappearance of -various structures, for instance of several muscles, which -man does not normally possess, but which are common -to the Quadrumana—and a crowd of analogous facts—all -point in the plainest manner to the conclusion that man -is the co-descendant with other mammals of a common -progenitor.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XII">XII.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN -MAN AND OTHER ANIMALS.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot hang"> - -<p><i>The subject is treated under three Principles: the Principle -of Associated Habit; the Principle of Antithesis; -and the Principle of the direct action of the nervous -system independent of Will and Habit.</i></p> -</div> - -<h3 id="sec_143">THE PRINCIPLE OF ASSOCIATED HABIT.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression of -the Emotions,<br /> -page 29.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">It</span> is notorious how powerful is the force -of habit. The most complex and difficult -movements can in time be performed without -the least effort or consciousness. It is not positively -known how it comes that habit is so efficient in facilitating -complex movements; but physiologists admit that -“the conducting power of the nervous fibers increases with -the frequency of their excitement.” This applies to the -nerves of motion and sensation, as well as to those connected -with the act of thinking. That some physical -change is produced in the nerve-cells or nerves which are -habitually used can hardly be doubted, for otherwise it is -impossible to understand how the tendency to certain acquired -movements is inherited.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 31.</div> - -<p>It is known to every one how difficult or -even impossible it is, without repeated trials, -to move the limbs in certain opposed directions which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span> -have never been practiced. Analogous cases occur with -sensations, as in the common experiment of rolling a -marble beneath the tips of two crossed fingers, when it -feels exactly like two marbles. Every one protects himself -when falling to the ground by extending his arms, and as -Professor Alison has remarked, few can resist acting thus -when voluntarily falling on a soft bed. A man when -going out-of-doors puts on his gloves quite unconsciously; -and this may seem an extremely simple operation, but he -who has taught a child to put on gloves knows that this -is by no means the case.</p> - -<p>When our minds are much affected, so are the movements -of our bodies.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 30.</div> - -<p>To those who admit the gradual evolution -of species, a most striking instance of the perfection -with which the most difficult consensual movements -can be transmitted, is afforded by the hummingbird -Sphinx-moth (<i>Macroglossa</i>); for this moth, shortly -after its emergence from the cocoon, as shown by the -bloom on its unruffled scales, may be seen poised stationary -in the air, with its long, hair-like proboscis uncurled -and inserted into the minute orifices of flowers; and no -one, I believe, has ever seen this moth learning to perform -its difficult task, which requires such unerring aim.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 32.</div> - -<p>A vulgar man often scratches his head -when perplexed in mind; and I believe that -he acts thus from habit, as if he experienced a slightly -uncomfortable bodily sensation, namely, the itching of -his head, to which he is particularly liable, and which he -thus relieves. Another man rubs his eyes when perplexed, -or gives a little cough when embarrassed, acting in either -case as if he felt a slightly uncomfortable sensation in his -eyes or windpipe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span></p> - -<p>From the continued use of the eyes, these organs are -especially liable to be acted on through association under -various states of the mind, although there is manifestly -nothing to be seen. A man, as Gratiolet remarks, who -vehemently rejects a proposition, will almost certainly -shut his eyes or turn away his face; but, if he accepts the -proposition, he will nod his head in affirmation and open -his eyes widely. The man acts in this latter case as if he -clearly saw the thing, and in the former case as if he did -not, or would not, see it. I have noticed that persons in -describing a horrid sight often shut their eyes momentarily -and firmly, or shake their heads, as if not to see or -to drive away something disagreeable; and I have caught -myself, when thinking in the dark of a horrid spectacle, -closing my eyes firmly.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 34.</div> - -<p>There are other actions which are commonly -performed under certain circumstances, -independently of habit, and which seem to be due to imitation -or some sort of sympathy. Thus persons cutting -anything with a pair of scissors may be seen to move -their jaws simultaneously with the blades of the scissors. -Children learning to write often twist about their tongues -as their fingers move, in a ridiculous fashion. When a -public singer suddenly becomes a little hoarse, many of -those present may be heard, as I have been assured by a -gentleman on whom I can rely, to clear their throats; -but here habit probably comes into play, as we clear our -own throats under similar circumstances.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 35.</div> - -<p>Reflex actions, in the strict sense of the -term, are due to the excitement of a peripheral -nerve, which transmits its influence to certain nerve-cells, -and these, in their turn, excite certain muscles or glands<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span> -into action; and all this may take place without any sensation -or consciousness on our part, though often thus -accompanied. As many reflex actions are highly expressive, -the subject must here be noticed at some little -length. We shall also see that some of them graduate -into, and can hardly be distinguished from, actions which -have arisen through habit. Coughing and sneezing are -familiar instances of reflex actions.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 37.</div> - -<p>The conscious wish to perform a reflex action -sometimes stops or interrupts its performance, -though the proper sensory nerves may be stimulated. -For instance, many years ago I laid a small wager with a -dozen young men that they would not sneeze if they took -snuff, although they all declared that they invariably did -so; accordingly, they all took a pinch, but, from wishing -much to succeed, not one sneezed, though their eyes -watered, and all, without exception, had to pay me the -wager.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 42.</div> - -<p>Dogs, when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet -or other hard surface, generally turn round -and round and scratch the ground with their fore-paws in -a senseless manner, as if they intended to trample down -the grass and scoop out a hollow, as, no doubt, their wild -parents did, when they lived on open, grassy plains or in -the woods.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_144">THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression -of the Emotions,<br /> -page 50.</div> - -<p>Certain states of the mind lead, as we have -seen in the last chapter, to certain habitual -movements which were primarily, or may still -be, of service; and we shall find that, when a directly opposite<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span> -state of mind is induced, there is a strong and involuntary -tendency to the performance of movements of -a directly opposite nature, though these have never been -of any service.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>When a dog approaches a strange dog or man in a -savage or hostile frame of mind, he walks upright and -very stiffly; his head is slightly raised, or not much lowered; -the tail is held erect and quite rigid; the hairs -bristle, especially along the neck and back; the pricked -ears are directed forward, and the eyes have a fixed stare. -These actions follow from the dog’s intention to attack -his enemy, and are thus to a large extent intelligible. -As he prepares to spring with a savage growl on his -enemy, the canine teeth are uncovered, and the ears are -pressed close backward on the head; but with these latter -actions we are not here concerned. Let us now suppose -that the dog suddenly discovers that the man whom -he is approaching is not a stranger, but his master; and -let it be observed how completely and instantaneously his -whole bearing is reversed. Instead of walking upright, -the body sinks downward or even crouches, and is thrown -into flexuous movements; his tail, instead of being held -stiff and upright, is lowered and wagged from side to -side; his hair instantly becomes smooth; his ears are -depressed and drawn backward, but not closely to the -head; and his lips hang loosely. From the drawing back -of the ears, the eyelids become elongated, and the eyes -no longer appear round and staring. It should be added -that the animal is at such times in an excited condition -from joy; and nerve-force will be generated in excess, -which naturally leads to action of some kind. Not one -of the above movements, so clearly expressive of affection, -are of the least direct service to the animal. They are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span> -explicable, as far as I can see, solely from being in complete -opposition or antithesis to the attitude and movements -which, from intelligible causes, are assumed when -a dog intends to fight, and which consequently are expressive -of anger.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_145">ORIGIN OF THE PRINCIPLE OF ANTITHESIS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 60.</div> - -<p>We will now consider how the principle of -antithesis in expression has arisen. With social -animals, the power of intercommunication between -the members of the same community—and, with other -species, between the opposite sexes, as well as between the -young and the old—is of the highest importance to them. -This is generally effected by means of the voice, but it is -certain that gestures and expressions are to a certain extent -mutually intelligible. Man not only uses inarticulate -cries, gestures, and expressions, but has invented -articulate language; if, indeed, the word <em>invented</em> can be -applied to a process completed by innumerable steps, half-consciously -made. Any one who has watched monkeys -will not doubt that they perfectly understand each other’s -gestures and expression, and to a large extent, as Rengger -asserts, those of man. An animal when going to attack -another, or when afraid of another, often makes itself -appear terrible, by erecting its hair, thus increasing the -apparent bulk of its body, by showing its teeth, or brandishing -its horns, or by uttering fierce sounds.</p> - -<p>As the power of intercommunication is certainly of -high service to many animals, there is no <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">a priori</i> improbability -in the supposition that gestures manifestly of an -opposite nature to those by which certain feelings are -already expressed should at first have been voluntarily -employed under the influence of an opposite state of feeling.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span> -The fact of the gestures being now innate would -be no valid objection to the belief that they were at first -intentional; for, if practiced during many generations, -they would probably at last be inherited. Nevertheless, -it is more than doubtful, as we shall immediately see, -whether any of the cases which come under our present -head of antithesis have thus originated.</p> - -<p>With conventional signs which are not innate, such -as those used by the deaf and dumb and by savages, the -principle of opposition or antithesis has been partially -brought into play. The Cistercian monks thought it sinful -to speak, and, as they could not avoid holding some -communication, they invented a gesture language, in -which the principle of opposition seems to have been employed. -Dr. Scott, of the Exeter Deaf and Dumb Institution, -writes to me that “opposites are greatly used in -teaching the deaf and dumb, who have a lively sense of -them.” Nevertheless I have been surprised how few unequivocal -instances can be adduced. This depends partly -on all the signs having commonly had some natural -origin; and partly on the practice of the deaf and dumb -and of savages to contract their signs as much as possible -for the sake of rapidity. Hence their natural source or -origin often becomes doubtful, or is completely lost; as -is likewise the case with articulate language.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 64.</div> - -<p>When a cat, or rather when some early progenitor -of the species, from feeling affectionate, -first slightly arched its back, held its tail perpendicularly -upward and pricked its ears, can it be believed -that the animal consciously wished thus to show that -its frame of mind was directly the reverse of that when, -from being ready to fight or to spring on its prey, it assumed -a crouching attitude, curled its tail from side to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span> -side, and depressed its ears? Even still less can I believe -that my dog voluntarily put on his dejected attitude and -“<em>hot-house face</em>,” which formed so complete a contrast -to his previous cheerful attitude and whole bearing. It -can not be supposed that he knew that I should understand -his expression, and that he could thus soften my -heart and make me give up visiting the hot-house.</p> - -<p>Hence, for the development of the movements which -come under the present head, some other principle, distinct -from the will and consciousness, must have intervened. -This principle appears to be that every movement -which we have voluntarily performed throughout -our lives has required the action of certain muscles; and, -when we have performed a directly opposite movement, -an opposite set of muscles has been habitually brought -into play—as in turning to the right or to the left, in -pushing away or pulling an object toward us, and in lifting -or lowering a weight.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_146">THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ACTION OF THE EXCITED NERVOUS -SYSTEM ON THE BODY.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression -of the Emotions,<br /> -page 66.</div> - -<p>The most striking case, though a rare and -abnormal one, which can be adduced of the -direct influence of the nervous system, when -strongly affected, on the body, is the loss of color in the -hair, which has occasionally been observed after extreme -terror or grief. One authentic instance has been recorded, -in the case of a man brought out for execution in -India, in which the change of color was so rapid that it -was perceptible to the eye.</p> - -<p>Another good case is that of the trembling of the -muscles, which is common to man and to many, or most, -of the lower animals. Trembling is of no service, often<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span> -of much disservice, and can not have been at first acquired -through the will, and then rendered habitual in -association with any emotion. I am assured by an eminent -authority that young children do not tremble, but -go into convulsions, under the circumstances which would -induce excessive trembling in adults. Trembling is excited -in different individuals in very different degrees, -and by the most diversified causes—by cold to the surface, -before fever-fits, although the temperature of the body is -then above the normal standard; in blood-poisoning, delirium -tremens, and other diseases; by general failure of -power in old age; by exhaustion after excessive fatigue; -locally from severe injuries, such as burns; and, in an -especial manner, by the passage of a catheter. Of all -emotions, fear notoriously is the most apt to induce -trembling; but so do occasionally great anger and joy. -I remember once seeing a boy who had just shot his first -snipe on the wing, and his hands trembled to such a degree -from delight that he could not for some time reload -his gun; and I have heard of an exactly similar case -with an Australian savage, to whom a gun had been lent. -Fine music, from the vague emotions thus excited, causes -a shiver to run down the backs of some persons.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 69.</div> - -<p>When animals suffer from an agony of -pain, they generally writhe about with frightful -contortions; and those which habitually use their -voices utter piercing cries or groans. Almost every muscle -of the body is brought into strong action. With man -the mouth may be closely compressed, or, more commonly, -the lips are retracted, with the teeth clinched or -ground together.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span></p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 75.</div> - -<p>The heart will be all the more readily -affected through habitual associations, as it -is not under the control of the will. A man when moderately -angry, or even when enraged, may command the -movements of his body, but he can not prevent his heart -from beating rapidly. His chest will, perhaps, give a few -heaves, and his nostrils just quiver, for the movements of -respiration are only in part voluntary. In like manner, -those muscles of the face which are least obedient to the -will will sometimes alone betray a slight and passing -emotion. The glands, again, are wholly independent of -the will, and a man suffering from grief may command -his features, but can not always prevent the tears from -coming into his eyes. A hungry man, if tempting food -is placed before him, may not show his hunger by any -outward gesture, but he can not check the secretion of -saliva.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 77.</div> - -<p>With all, or almost all, animals, even with -birds, terror causes the body to tremble. The -skin becomes pale, sweat breaks out, and the hair bristles.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 79.</div> - -<p>A physician once remarked to me, as a -proof of the exciting nature of anger, that a -man when excessively jaded will sometimes invent imaginary -offenses, and put himself into a passion, unconsciously, -for the sake of reinvigorating himself; and, since hearing -this remark, I have occasionally recognized its full -truth.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 81.</div> - -<p>Exertion stimulates the heart, and this reacts -on the brain, and aids the mind to bear -its heavy load.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XIII">XIII.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">MEANS OF THE EXPRESSION OF THE -EMOTIONS.</span></h2> -</div> - -<h3 id="sec_147">VOCAL ORGANS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression -of the Emotions,<br /> -page 83.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">With</span> many kinds of animals, man included, -the vocal organs are efficient in the highest degree -as a means of expression. We have seen -in the last chapter that, when the sensorium is strongly -excited, the muscles of the body are generally thrown -into violent action; and, as a consequence, loud sounds -are uttered, however silent the animal may generally be, -and although the sounds may be of no use. Hares and -rabbits, for instance, never, I believe, use their vocal -organs, except in the extremity of suffering; as, when a -wounded hare is killed by the sportsman, or when a -young rabbit is caught by a stoat. Cattle and horses -suffer great pain in silence, but when this is excessive, -and especially when associated with terror, they utter -fearful sounds.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 87.</div> - -<p>That animals utter musical notes is familiar -to every one, as we may daily hear in -the singing of birds. It is a more remarkable fact that -an ape, one of the Gibbons, produces an exact octave of -musical sounds, ascending and descending the scale by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span> -half-tones; so that this monkey, “alone of brute mammals, -may be said to sing.” From this fact, and from -the analogy of other animals, I have been led to infer -that the progenitors of man probably uttered musical -tones before they had acquired the power of articulate -speech; and that, consequently, when the voice is used -under any strong emotion, it tends to assume, through the -principle of association, a musical character.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_148">ERECTION OF THE HAIR.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 96.</div> - -<p>The enraged lion erects his mane. The -bristling of the hair along the neck and back -of the dog, and over the whole body of the cat, especially -on the tail, is familiar to every one. With the cat it apparently -occurs only under fear; with the dog, under -anger and fear; but not, as far as I have observed, under -abject fear, as when a dog is going to be flogged by a -severe gamekeeper. If, however, the dog shows fight, as -sometimes happens, up goes his hair. I have often noticed -that the hair of a dog is particularly liable to rise -if he is half angry and half afraid, as on beholding some -object only indistinctly seen in the dusk.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 97.</div> - -<p>Birds belonging to all the chief orders ruffle -their feathers when angry or frightened. -Every one must have seen two cocks, even quite young -birds, preparing to fight with erected neck-hackles; nor -can these feathers when erected serve as a means of defense, -for cock-fighters have found by experience that it -is advantageous to trim them. The male Ruff (<i>Machetes -pugnax</i>) likewise erects its collar of feathers when fighting. -When a dog approaches a common hen with her -chickens, she spreads out her wings, raises her tail, ruffles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span> -all her feathers, and, looking as ferocious as possible, -dashes at the intruder.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 105.</div> - -<p>Several kinds of snakes inflate themselves -when irritated. The puff-adder (<i>Clotho arietans</i>) -is remarkable in this respect; but, I believe, after -carefully watching these animals, that they do not act -thus for the sake of increasing their apparent bulk, but -simply for inhaling a large supply of air, so as to produce -their surprisingly loud, harsh, and prolonged hissing -sound.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_149">ERECTION OF THE EARS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 111.</div> - -<p>The ears through their movements are highly -expressive in many animals; but in some, -such as man, the higher apes, and many ruminants, they -fail in this respect. A slight difference in position serves -to express in the plainest manner a different state of -mind, as we may daily see in the dog; but we are here -concerned only with the ears being drawn closely backward -and pressed to the head. A savage frame of mind -is thus shown, but only in the case of those animals which -fight with their teeth; and the care which they take to -prevent their ears being seized by their antagonists accounts -for this position. Consequently, through habit -and association, whenever they feel slightly savage, or -pretend in their play to be savage, their ears are drawn -back. That this is the true explanation may be inferred -from the relation which exists in very many animals between -their manner of fighting and the retraction of their -ears.</p> - -<p>All the Carnivora fight with their canine teeth, and -all, as far as I have observed, draw their ears back when -feeling savage.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_150">A STARTLED HORSE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expressions -of the Emotions,<br /> -page 130.</div> - -<p>The actions of a horse when much startled -are highly expressive. One day my horse was -much frightened at a drilling-machine, covered -by a tarpaulin, and lying on an open field. He raised -his head so high that his neck became almost perpendicular; -and this he did from habit, for the machine lay -on a slope below, and could not have been seen with more -distinctness through the raising of the head; nor, if any -sound had proceeded from it, could the sound have been -more distinctly heard. His eyes and ears were directed -intently forward; and I could feel through the saddle -the palpitations of his heart. With red, dilated nostrils -he snorted violently, and, whirling round, would have -dashed off at full speed, had I not prevented him. The -distention of the nostrils is not for the sake of scenting -the source of danger, for, when a horse smells carefully -at any object and is not alarmed, he does not dilate his -nostrils. Owing to the presence of a valve in the throat, -a horse when panting does not breathe through his open -mouth, but through his nostrils; and these consequently -have become endowed with great powers of expansion. -This expansion of the nostrils, as well as the snorting, -and the palpitations of the heart, are actions which have -become firmly associated during a long series of generations -with the emotion of terror; for terror has habitually -led the horse to the most violent exertion in dashing away -at full speed from the cause of danger.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_151">MONKEY-SHINES.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 142.</div> - -<p>Many years ago, in the Zoölogical Gardens, -I placed a looking-glass on the floor before -two young orangs, who, as far as it was known, had never<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span> -before seen one. At first they gazed at their own images -with the most steady surprise, and often changed their -point of view. They then approached close and protruded -their lips toward the image, as if to kiss it, in exactly the -same manner as they had previously done toward each -other, when first placed, a few days before, in the same -room. They next made all sorts of grimaces, and put -themselves in various attitudes before the mirror; they -pressed and rubbed the surface; they placed their hands -at different distances behind it; looked behind it; and -finally seemed almost frightened, started a little, became -cross, and refused to look any longer.</p> - -<p>When we try to perform some little action which is -difficult and requires precision, for instance, to thread a -needle, we generally close our lips firmly, for the sake, I -presume, of not disturbing our movements by breathing; -and I noticed the same action in a young orang. The -poor little creature was sick, and was amusing itself by -trying to kill the flies on the window-panes with its -knuckles; this was difficult as the flies buzzed about, and -at each attempt the lips were firmly compressed, and at -the same time slightly protruded.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_152">WEEPING OF MAN AND BRUTE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression -of the Emotion,<br /> -page 153.</div> - -<p>Infants while young do not shed tears or -weep, as is known to nurses and medical -men. This circumstance is not exclusively -due to the lachrymal glands being as yet incapable of secreting -tears. I first noticed this fact from having accidentally -brushed with the cuff of my coat the open eye -of one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, causing -this eye to water freely; and, though the child screamed -violently, the other eye remained dry, or was only slightly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span> -suffused with tears. A similar slight effusion occurred -ten days previously in both eyes during a screaming-fit. -The tears did not run over the eyelids and roll down the -cheeks of this child, while screaming badly, when one -hundred and twenty-two days old. This first happened -seventeen days later, at the age of one hundred and -thirty-nine days. A few other children have been observed -for me, and the period of free weeping appears to -be very variable. In one case, the eyes became slightly -suffused at the age of only twenty days; in another, at -sixty-two days. With two other children, the tears did -<em>not</em> run down the face at the ages of eighty-four and -one hundred and ten days; but in a third child they did -run down at the age of one hundred and four days. In -one instance, as I was positively assured, tears ran down -at the unusually early age of forty-two days. It would -appear as if the lachrymal glands required some practice -in the individual before they are easily excited into action, -in somewhat the same manner as various inherited consensual -movements and tastes require some exercise before -they are fixed and perfected. This is all the more -likely with a habit like weeping, which must have been -acquired since the period when man branched off from -the common progenitor of the genus <i>Homo</i> and of the -non-weeping anthropomorphous apes.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 135.</div> - -<p>A woman, who sold a monkey to the Zoölogical -Society, believed to have come from -Borneo (<i>Macacus maurus</i> or <i>M. inornatus</i> of Gray), said -that it often cried; and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the -keeper Mr. Sutton, have repeatedly seen it, when grieved, -or even when much pitied, weeping so copiously that the -tears rolled down its cheeks.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span></p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 155.</div> - -<p>A New Zealand chief “cried like a child -because the sailors spoiled his favorite cloak -by powdering it with flour.” I saw in Tierra del Fuego -a native who had lately lost a brother, and who alternately -cried with hysterical violence, and laughed heartily at -anything which amused him. With the civilized nations -of Europe there is also much difference in the frequency -of weeping. Englishmen rarely cry, except under the -pressure of the acutest grief; whereas, in some parts of -the Continent, the men shed tears much more readily and -freely.</p> - -<p>The insane notoriously give way to all their emotions -with little or no restraint; and I am informed by Dr. J. -Crichton Browne that nothing is more characteristic of -simple melancholia, even in the male sex, than a tendency -to weep on the slightest occasions, or from no cause. -They also weep disproportionately on the occurrence of -any real cause of grief. The length of time during which -some patients weep is astonishing, as well as the amount -of tears which they shed.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 167.</div> - -<p>The Indian elephant is known sometimes -to weep. Sir E. Tennent, in describing those -which he saw captured and bound in Ceylon, says some -“lay motionless on the ground, with no other indication -of suffering than the tears which suffused their eyes and -flowed incessantly.” Speaking of another elephant he -says: “When overpowered and made fast, his grief was -most affecting; his violence sank to utter prostration, -and he lay on the ground, uttering choking cries, with -tears trickling down his cheeks.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_153">THE GRIEF-MUSCLES.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression of -the Emotions,<br /> -page 180.</div> - -<p>With respect to the eyebrows, they may -occasionally be seen to assume an oblique position -in persons suffering from deep dejection -or anxiety; for instance, I have observed this movement -in a mother while speaking about her sick son; and it is -sometimes excited by quite trifling or momentary causes -of real or pretended distress. The eyebrows assume this -position owing to the contraction of certain muscles -(namely, the orbiculars, corrugators, and pyramidals of -the nose, which together tend to lower and contract the -eyebrows) being partially checked by the more powerful -action of the central fasciæ of the frontal muscle. These -latter fasciæ, by their contraction, raise the inner ends -alone of the eyebrows; and, as the corrugators at the -same time draw the eyebrows together, their inner ends -become puckered into a fold or lump. The eyebrows are -at the same time somewhat roughened, owing to the hairs -being made to project. Dr. J. Crichton Browne has also -often noticed, in melancholic patients who keep their eyebrows -persistently oblique, “a peculiar acute arching of -the upper eyelid.” The acute arching of the eyelids depends, -I believe, on the inner end alone of the eyebrows -being raised; for, when the whole eyebrow is elevated -and arched, the upper eyelid follows in a slight degree the -same movement.</p> - -<p>But the most conspicuous result of the opposed contraction -of the above-named muscles is exhibited by the -peculiar furrows formed on the forehead. These muscles, -when thus in conjoint yet opposed action, may be called, -for the sake of brevity, the grief-muscles. When a person -elevates his eyebrows by the contraction of the whole -frontal muscle, transverse wrinkles extend across the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span> -whole breadth of the forehead; but, in the present case, -the middle fasciæ alone are contracted; consequently, -transverse furrows are formed across the middle part alone -of the forehead. The skin over the exterior parts of both -eyebrows is at the same time drawn downward and -smoothed by the contraction of the outer portions of the -orbicular muscles. The eyebrows are likewise brought -together through the simultaneous contraction of the -corrugators; and this latter action generates vertical furrows, -separating the exterior and lowered part of the skin -of the forehead from the central and raised part. The -union of these vertical furrows with the central and transverse -furrows produces a mark on the forehead which has -been compared to a horseshoe; but the furrows more -strictly form three sides of a quadrangle. They are often -conspicuous on the foreheads of adult, or nearly adult, -persons, when their eyebrows are made oblique; but with -young children, owing to their skin not easily wrinkling, -they are rarely seen, or mere traces of them can be detected.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_154">VOLUNTARY POWER OVER THE GRIEF-MUSCLES.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 183.</div> - -<p>Few persons, without some practice, can -voluntarily act on their grief-muscles; but, -after repeated trials, a considerable number succeed, while -others never can. The degree of obliquity in the eyebrows, -whether assumed voluntarily or unconsciously, differs -much in different persons. With some who apparently -have unusually strong pyramidal muscles, the contraction -of the central fasciæ of the frontal muscle, although it -may be energetic, as shown by the quadrangular furrows -on the forehead, does not raise the inner ends of the eyebrows, -but only prevents their being so much lowered as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span> -they otherwise would have been. As far as I have been -able to observe, the grief-muscles are brought into action -much more frequently by children and women than by -men. They are rarely acted on, at least with grown-up -persons, from bodily pain, but almost exclusively from -mental distress. Two persons, who, after some practice, -succeeded in acting on their grief-muscles, found by looking -at a mirror that, when they made their eyebrows -oblique, they unintentionally at the same time depressed -the corners of their mouths; and this is often the case -when the expression is naturally assumed.</p> - -<p>The power to bring the grief-muscles freely into play -appears to be hereditary, like almost every other human -faculty. A lady belonging to a family famous for having -produced an extraordinary number of great actors and -actresses, and who can herself give this expression “with -singular precision,” told Dr. Crichton Browne that all -her family had possessed the power in a remarkable degree. -The same hereditary tendency is said to have extended, -as I likewise hear from Dr. Browne, to the last -descendant of the family, which gave rise to Sir Walter -Scott’s novel of “Red Gauntlet”; but the hero is described -as contracting his forehead into a horseshoe mark -from any strong emotion. I have also seen a young -woman whose forehead seemed almost habitually thus -contracted, independently of any emotion being at the -time felt.</p> - -<p>The grief-muscles are not very frequently brought -into play; and, as the action is often momentary, it -easily escapes observation. Although the expression, when -observed, is universally and instantly recognized as that -of grief or anxiety, yet not one person out of a thousand -who has never studied the subject is able to say precisely -what change passes over the sufferer’s face. Hence probably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> -it is that this expression is not even alluded to, as far -as I have noticed, in any work of fiction, with the exception -of “Red Gauntlet” and of one other novel; and the -authoress of the latter, as I am informed, belongs to the -famous family of actors just alluded to; so that her -attention may have been specially called to the subject.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_155">“DOWN IN THE MOUTH.”</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 194.</div> - -<p>To say that a person “is down in the -mouth” is synonymous with saying that he is -out of spirits. The depression of the corners may often -be seen, as already stated on the authority of Dr. Crichton -Browne and Mr. Nicol, with the melancholic insane, -and was well exhibited in some photographs, sent to me -by the former gentleman, of patients with a strong tendency -to suicide. It has been observed with men belonging -to various races, namely, with Hindoos, the dark hill-tribes -of India, Malays, and, as the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer -informs me, with the aborigines of Australia.</p> - -<p>When infants scream they firmly contract the muscles -round their eyes, and this draws up the upper lip; and, -as they have to keep their mouths widely open, the depressor -muscles running to the corners are likewise -brought into strong action. This generally, but not invariably, -causes a slight angular bend in the lower lip on -both sides, near the corners of the mouth.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 195.</div> - -<p>It is remarkable how small a depression of -the corners of the mouth gives to the countenance -an expression of low spirits or dejection, so that an -extremely slight contraction of these muscles would be -sufficient to betray this state of mind.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span></p> - -<p>I may here mention a trifling observation, as it will -serve to sum up our present subject. An old lady with -a comfortable but absorbed expression sat nearly opposite -to me in a railway-carriage. While I was looking at -her I saw that her <i>depressores anguli oris</i> became very -slightly yet decidedly contracted; but, as her countenance -remained as placid as ever, I reflected how meaningless -was this contraction, and how easily one might be -deceived. The thought had hardly occurred to me when -I saw that her eyes suddenly became suffused with tears -almost to overflowing, and her whole countenance fell. -There could now be no doubt that some painful recollection, -perhaps that of a long-lost child, was passing -through her mind. As soon as her sensorium was thus -affected, certain nerve-cells from long habit instantly -transmitted an order to all the respiratory muscles, and -to those round the mouth, to prepare for a fit of crying. -But the order was countermanded by the will, or rather -by a later acquired habit, and all the muscles were obedient, -excepting in a slight degree the <i>depressores anguli -oris</i>. The mouth was not even opened; the respiration -was not hurried; and no muscle was affected except those -which draw down the corners of the mouth.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_156">LAUGHTER.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression -of the Emotions,<br /> -page 200.</div> - -<p>Many curious discussions have been written -on the causes of laughter with grown-up -persons. The subject is extremely complex. -Something incongruous or unaccountable, exciting surprise -and some sense of superiority in the laughter, who -must be in a happy frame of mind, seems to be the commonest -cause. The circumstances must not be of a momentous -nature; no poor man would laugh or smile on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span> -suddenly hearing that a large fortune had been bequeathed -to him.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 201.</div> - -<p>The imagination is sometimes said to be -tickled, by a ludicrous idea; and this so-called -tickling of the mind is curiously analogous with that of -the body. Every one knows how immoderately children -laugh and how their whole bodies are convulsed when -they are tickled. The anthropoid apes, as we have seen, -likewise utter a reiterated sound, corresponding with our -laughter, when they are tickled, especially under the armpits. -I touched with a bit of paper the sole of the foot -of one of my infants, when only seven days old, and it -was suddenly jerked away and the toes curled about, as -in an older child. Such movements, as well as laughter -from being tickled, are manifestly reflex actions; and -this is likewise shown by the minute unstriped muscles, -which serve to erect the separate hairs on the body, contracting -near a tickled surface. Yet laughter from a -ludicrous idea, though involuntary, can not be called a -strictly reflex action. In this case, and in that of laughter -from being tickled, the mind must be in a pleasurable -condition; a young child, if tickled by a strange man, -would scream from fear. The touch must be light, and -an idea or event, to be ludicrous, must not be of grave -import. The parts of the body which are most easily -tickled are those which are not commonly touched, such -as the armpits or between the toes, or parts such as the -soles of the feet, which are habitually touched by a broad -surface; but the surface on which we sit offers a marked -exception to this rule.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 202.</div> - -<p>The sound of laughter is produced by a -deep inspiration followed by short, interrupted, -spasmodic contractions of the chest, and especially of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span> -diaphragm. Hence we hear of “laughter holding both -his sides.” From the shaking of the body, the head -nods to and fro. The lower jaw often quivers up and -down, as is likewise the case with some species of baboons, -when they are much pleased.</p> - -<p>During laughter the mouth is opened more or less -widely, with the corners drawn much backward, as well -as a little upward; and the upper lip is somewhat raised. -The drawing back of the corners is best seen in moderate -laughter, and especially in a broad smile—the latter epithet -showing how the mouth is widened.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 208.</div> - -<p>Although we can hardly account for the -shape of the mouth during laughter, which -leads to wrinkles being formed beneath the eyes, nor for -the peculiar reiterated sound of laughter, nor for the -quivering of the jaws, nevertheless we may infer that all -these effects are due to some common cause; for they are -all characteristic and expressive of a pleased state of mind -in various kinds of monkeys.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>It is scarcely possible to point out any difference between -the tear-stained face of a person after a paroxysm -of excessive laughter and after a bitter crying-fit. It is -probably due to the close similarity of the spasmodic -movements caused by these widely different emotions -that hysteric patients alternately cry and laugh with violence, -and that young children sometimes pass suddenly -from the one to the other state. Mr. Swinhoe informs -me that he has often seen the Chinese, when suffering -from deep grief, burst out into hysterical fits of laughter.</p> - -<p>I was anxious to know whether tears are freely shed -during excessive laughter by most of the races of men, -and I hear from my correspondents that this is the case.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span> -One instance was observed with the Hindoos, and they -themselves said that it often occurred. So it is with -the Chinese. The women of a wild tribe of Malays in -the Malacca Peninsula sometimes shed tears when they -laugh heartily, though this seldom occurs. With the -Dyaks of Borneo it must frequently be the case, at least -with the women, for I hear from the Rajah C. Brooke -that it is a common expression with them to say, “We -nearly made tears from laughter.”</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression -of the Emotions,<br /> -page 133.</div> - -<p>Young orangs, when tickled, grin and -make a chuckling sound; and Mr. Martin -says that their eyes grow brighter. As soon as -their laughter ceases, an expression may be detected passing -over their faces, which, as Mr. Wallace remarked to -me, may be called a smile. I have also noticed something -of the same kind with the chimpanzee. Dr. Duchenne—and -I can not quote a better authority—informs -me that he kept a very tame monkey in his house for a -year; and, when he gave it during meal-times some choice -delicacy, he observed that the corners of its mouth were -slightly raised; thus an expression of satisfaction, partaking -of the nature of an incipient smile, and resembling -that often seen on the face of man, could be plainly perceived -in this animal.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_157">EXPRESSION OF THE DEVOUT EMOTIONS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 220.</div> - -<p>With some sects, both past and present, -religion and love have been strangely combined; -and it has even been maintained, lamentable as -the fact may be, that the holy kiss of love differs but -little from that which a man bestows on a woman, or a -woman on a man. Devotion is chiefly expressed by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> -face being directed toward the heavens, with the eyeballs -upturned. Sir C. Bell remarks that, at the approach of -sleep, or of a fainting-fit, or of death, the pupils are -drawn upward and inward; and he believes that “when -we are rapt in devotional feelings, and outward impressions -are unheeded, the eyes are raised by an action neither -taught nor acquired”; and that this is due to the -same cause as in the above cases. That the eyes are -upturned during sleep is, as I hear from Professor Donders, -certain. With babies, while sucking their mother’s -breast, this movement of the eyeballs often gives to them -an absurd appearance of ecstatic delight; and here it -may be clearly perceived that a struggle is going on -against the position naturally assumed during sleep. But -Sir C. Bell’s explanation of the fact, which rests on the -assumption that certain muscles are more under the control -of the will than others, is, as I hear from Professor -Donders, incorrect. As the eyes are often turned up in -prayer, without the mind being so much absorbed in -thought as to approach to the unconsciousness of sleep, -the movement is probably a conventional one—the result -of the common belief that Heaven, the source of Divine -power to which we pray, is seated above us.</p> - -<p>A humble kneeling posture, with the hands upturned -and palms joined, appears to us, from long habit, a gesture -so appropriate to devotion, that it might be thought -to be innate; but I have not met with any evidence to -this effect with the various extra-European races of mankind. -During the classical period of Roman history it -does not appear, as I hear from an excellent classic, that -the hands were thus joined during prayer. Mr. Hensleigh -Wedgwood has apparently given the true explanation, -though this implies that the attitude is one of slavish -subjection. “When the suppliant kneels and holds<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span> -up his hands with the palms joined, he represents a captive -who proves the completeness of his submission by -offering up his hands to be bound by the victor. It is -the pictorial representation of the Latin <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">dare manus</i>, to -signify submission.” Hence it is not probable that either -the uplifting of the eyes or the joining of the open hands, -under the influence of devotional feelings, is an innate or -a truly expressive action; and this could hardly have been -expected, for it is very doubtful whether feelings such as -we should now rank as devotional affected the hearts of -men while they remained during past ages in an uncivilized -condition.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_158">FROWNING.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression -of the Emotions,<br /> -page 225.</div> - -<p>We may now inquire how it is that a frown -should express the perception of something -difficult or disagreeable, either in thought or -action. In the same way as naturalists find it advisable -to trace the embryological development of an organ in -order fully to understand its structure, so with the movements -of expression it is advisable to follow as nearly as -possible the same plan. The earliest and almost sole expression -seen during the first days of infancy, and then -often exhibited, is that displayed during the act of -screaming; and screaming is excited, both at first and -for some time afterward, by every distressing or displeasing -sensation and emotion—by hunger, pain, anger, jealousy, -fear, etc. At such times the muscles round the -eyes are strongly contracted; and this, as I believe, explains -to a large extent the act of frowning during the -remainder of our lives. I repeatedly observed my own -infants, from under the age of one week to that of two -or three months, and found that, when a screaming-fit -came on gradually, the first sign was the contraction of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span> -the corrugators, which produced a slight frown, quickly -followed by the contraction of the other muscles round -the eyes.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 226.</div> - -<p>Screaming or weeping begins to be voluntarily -restrained at an early period of life, -whereas frowning is hardly ever restrained at any age. -It is perhaps worth notice that, with children much given -to weeping, anything which perplexes their minds, and -which would cause most other children merely to frown, -readily makes them weep. So with certain classes of the -insane, any effort of mind, however slight, which with -an habitual frowner would cause a slight frown, leads to -their weeping in an unrestrained manner. It is not more -surprising that the habit of contracting the brows at the -first perception of something distressing, although gained -during infancy, should be retained during the rest of our -lives, than that many other associated habits acquired at -an early age should be permanently retained both by man -and the lower animals. For instance, full-grown cats, -when feeling warm and comfortable, often retain the -habit of alternately protruding their fore-feet with extended -toes, which habit they practiced for a definite -purpose while sucking their mothers.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_159">POUTING.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 232.</div> - -<p>With young children sulkiness is shown -by pouting, or, as it is sometimes called, -“making a snout.” When the corners of the mouth are -much depressed, the lower lip is a little everted and protruded; -and this is likewise called a pout. But the -pouting here referred to consists of the protrusion of -both lips into a tubular form, sometimes to such an extent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span> -as to project as far as the end of the nose, if this be -short. Pouting is generally accompanied by frowning, -and sometimes by the utterance of a booing or whooing -noise. This expression is remarkable, as almost the sole -one, as far as I know, which is exhibited much more -plainly during childhood, at least with Europeans, than -during maturity. There is, however, some tendency to -the protrusion of the lips with the adults of all races -under the influence of great rage. Some children pout -when they are shy, and they can then hardly be called -sulky.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 234.</div> - -<p>Young orangs and chimpanzees protrude -their lips to an extraordinary degree, when -they are discontented, somewhat angry, or sulky; also -when they are surprised, a little frightened, and even -when slightly pleased. Their mouths are protruded apparently -for the sake of making the various noises proper -to these several states of mind; and its shape, as I observed -with the chimpanzee, differed slightly when the -cry of pleasure and that of anger were uttered. As soon -as these animals become enraged, the shape of the mouth -wholly changes, and the teeth are exposed. The adult -orang when wounded is said to emit “a singular cry, -consisting at first of high notes, which at length deepen -into a low roar. While giving out the high notes he -thrusts out his lips into a funnel shape, but in uttering -the low notes he holds his mouth wide open.” With the -gorilla, the lower lip is said to be capable of great elongation. -If, then, our semi-human progenitors protruded -their lips when sulky or a little angered, in the same -manner as do the existing anthropoid apes, it is not an -anomalous, though a curious fact, that our children -should exhibit, when similarly affected, a trace of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span> -same expression, together with some tendency to utter -a noise. For it is not at all unusual for animals to retain, -more or less perfectly, during early youth, and subsequently -to lose, characters which were aboriginally possessed -by their adult progenitors, and which are still -retained by distinct species, their near relations.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_160">DECISION AT THE MOUTH.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 236.</div> - -<p>No determined man probably ever had an -habitually gaping mouth. Hence, also, a -small and weak lower jaw, which seems to indicate that -the mouth is not habitually and firmly closed, is commonly -thought to be characteristic of feebleness of character. -A prolonged effort of any kind, whether of body -or mind, implies previous determination; and if it can -be shown that the mouth is generally closed with firmness -before and during a great and continued exertion of the -muscular system, then, through the principle of association, -the mouth would almost certainly be closed as soon -as any determined resolution was taken.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_161">ANGER.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression -of the Emotions,<br /> -page 243.</div> - -<p>The lips are sometimes protruded during -rage in a manner the meaning of which I do -not understand, unless it depends on our descent -from some ape-like animal. Instances have been -observed, not only with Europeans, but with the Australians -and Hindoos. The lips, however, are much more -commonly retracted, the grinning or clinched teeth being -thus exposed. This has been noticed by almost every -one who has written on expression. The appearance is -as if the teeth were uncovered, ready for seizing or tearing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span> -an enemy, though there may be no intention of acting -in this manner. Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen this grinning -expression with the Australians, when quarreling, and -so has Gaika with the Caffres of South Africa. Dickens, -in speaking of an atrocious murderer who had just been -caught, and was surrounded by a furious mob, describes -“the people as jumping up one behind another, snarling -with their teeth, and making at him like wild beasts.” -Every one who has had much to do with young children -must have seen how naturally they take to biting, when -in a passion. It seems as instinctive in them as in young -crocodiles, who snap their little jaws as soon as they -emerge from the egg.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_162">SNEERING.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression -of the Emotions,<br /> -page 253.</div> - -<p>The expression here considered, whether -that of a playful sneer or ferocious snarl, is -one of the most curious which occurs in man. -It reveals his animal descent; for no one, even if rolling -on the ground in a deadly grapple with an enemy, and -attempting to bite him, would try to use his canine teeth -more than his other teeth. We may readily believe from -our affinity to the anthropomorphous apes that our male -semi-human progenitors possessed great canine teeth, and -men are now occasionally born having them of unusually -large size, with interspaces in the opposite jaw for their -reception. We may further suspect, notwithstanding -that we have no support from analogy, that our semi-human -progenitors uncovered their canine teeth when prepared -for battle, as we still do when feeling ferocious, or -when merely sneering at or defying some one, without -any intention of making a real attack with our teeth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_163">DISGUST.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression -of the Emotions,<br /> -page 258.</div> - -<p>Extreme disgust is expressed by movements -round the mouth identical with those -preparatory to the act of vomiting. The -mouth is opened widely, with the upper lip strongly -retracted, which wrinkles the sides of the nose, and with -the lower lip protruded and everted as much as possible. -This latter movement requires the contraction of the -muscles which draw downward the corners of the mouth.</p> - -<p>It is remarkable how readily and instantly retching or -actual vomiting is induced in some persons by the mere -idea of having partaken of any unusual food, as of an -animal which is not commonly eaten; although there is -nothing in such food to cause the stomach to reject it. -When vomiting results, as a reflex action, from some real -cause—as from too rich food, or tainted meat, or from an -emetic—it does not ensue immediately, but generally -after a considerable interval of time. Therefore, to account -for retching or vomiting being so quickly and easily -excited by a mere idea, the suspicion arises that our -progenitors must formerly have had the power (like that -possessed by ruminants and some other animals) of voluntarily -rejecting food which disagreed with them, or -which they thought would disagree with them; and now, -though this power has been lost, as far as the will is concerned, -it is called into involuntary action, through the -force of a formerly well-established habit, whenever the -mind revolts at the idea of having partaken of any kind -of food, or at anything disgusting. This suspicion receives -support from the fact, of which I am assured by -Mr. Sutton, that the monkeys in the Zoölogical Gardens -often vomit while in perfect health, which looks as if the -act were voluntary. We can see that as man is able to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span> -communicate, by language to his children and others, the -knowledge of the kinds of food to be avoided, he would -have little occasion to use the faculty of voluntary rejection; -so that this power would tend to be lost through -disuse.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_164">SHRUGGING THE SHOULDERS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression -of the Emotions,<br /> -page 271.</div> - -<p>We may now inquire why men in all parts -of the world, when they feel—whether or not -they wish to show this feeling—that they cannot -or will not do something, or will not resist something -if done by another, shrug their shoulders, at the same time -often bending in their elbows, showing the palms of their -hands with extended fingers, often throwing their heads -a little on one side, raising their eyebrows, and opening -their mouths. These states of the mind are either simply -passive, or show a determination not to act. None of the -above movements are of the least service. The explanation -lies, I can not doubt, in the principle of unconscious -antithesis. This principle here seems to come into play as -clearly as in the case of a dog, who, when feeling savage, -puts himself in the proper attitude for attacking and for -making himself appear terrible to his enemy; but, as soon -as he feels affectionate, throws his whole body into a directly -opposite attitude, though this is of no direct use -to him.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<p>Let it be observed how an indignant man who resents -and will not submit to some injury holds his head erect, -squares his shoulders, and expands his chest. He often -clinches his fists, and puts one or both arms in the proper -position for attack or defense, with the muscles of his -limbs rigid. He frowns—that is, he contracts and lowers -his brows—and, being determined, closes his mouth.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span> -The actions and attitude of a helpless man are, in every -one of these respects, exactly the reverse.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_165">BLUSHING.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression -of the -Emotions,<br /> -page 310.</div> - -<p>Blushing is the most peculiar and the most -human of all expressions. Monkeys redden -from passion, but it would require an overwhelming -amount of evidence to make us believe -that any animal could blush. The reddening of the -face from a blush is due to the relaxation of the muscular -coats of the small arteries, by which the capillaries become -filled with blood; and this depends on the proper -vaso-motor center being affected. No doubt, if there be -at the same time much mental agitation, the general circulation -will be affected; but it is not due to the action -of the heart that the net-work of minute vessels covering -the face becomes, under a sense of shame, gorged with -blood. We can cause laughing by tickling the skin; -weeping or frowning, by a blow; trembling, from a fear -of pain, and so forth; but we can not cause a blush, as -Dr. Burgess remarks, by any physical means—that is, by -any action on the body. It is the mind which must be -affected. Blushing is not only involuntary, but the wish -to restrain it, by leading to self-attention, actually increases -the tendency.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 312.</div> - -<p>The tendency to blush is inherited. Dr. -Burgess gives the case of a family, consisting -of a father, mother, and ten children, all of whom, without -exception, were prone to blush to a most painful degree. -The children were grown up; “and some of them -were sent to travel, in order to wear away this diseased -sensibility, but nothing was of the slightest avail.” Even<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> -peculiarities in blushing seem to be inherited. Sir James -Paget, while examining the spine of a girl, was struck at -her singular manner of blushing: a big splash of red appeared -first on one cheek, and then other splashes variously -scattered over the face and neck. He subsequently -asked the mother whether her daughter always blushed -in this peculiar manner, and was answered, “Yes, she -takes after me.” Sir J. Paget then perceived that, by -asking this question, he had caused the mother to blush; -and she exhibited the same peculiarity as her daughter.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 318.</div> - -<p>Mr. Washington Matthews has often seen -a blush on the faces of the young squaws belonging -to various wild Indian tribes of North America. -At the opposite extremity of the continent, in Tierra del -Fuego, the natives, according to Mr. Bridges, “blush -much, but chiefly in regard to women; but they certainly -blush also at their own personal appearance.” -This latter statement agrees with what I remember of -the Fuegian, Jemmy Button, who blushed when he was -quizzed about the care which he took in polishing his -shoes, and in otherwise adorning himself.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 319.</div> - -<p>Several trustworthy observers have assured -me that they have seen on the faces of negroes -an appearance resembling a blush, under circumstances -which would have excited one in us, though their skins -were of an ebony-black tint. Some describe it as blushing -brown, but most say that the blackness becomes more -intense.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 324.</div> - -<p>I will give an instance of the extreme disturbance -of mind to which some sensitive men -are liable. A gentleman, on whom I can rely, assured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span> -me that he had been an eye-witness of the following -scene: A small dinner-party was given in honor of an -extremely shy man, who, when he rose to return thanks, -rehearsed the speech, which he had evidently learned by -heart, in absolute silence, and did not utter a single -word; but he acted as if he were speaking with much -emphasis. His friends, perceiving how the case stood, -loudly applauded the imaginary bursts of eloquence, -whenever his gestures indicated a pause, and the man -never discovered that he had remained the whole time -completely silent. On the contrary, he afterward remarked -to my friend, with much satisfaction, that he -thought he had succeeded uncommonly well.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_166">BLUSHING NOT NECESSARILY AN EXPRESSION OF GUILT.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 333.</div> - -<p>It is not the sense of guilt, but the thought -that others think or know us to be guilty, -which crimsons the face. A man may feel thoroughly -ashamed at having told a small falsehood, without blushing; -but if he even suspects that he is detected he will -instantly blush, especially if detected by one whom he -reveres.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, a man may be convinced that God -witnesses all his actions, and he may feel deeply conscious -of some fault and pray for forgiveness; but this will not, -as a lady who is a great blusher believes, ever excite a -blush. The explanation of this difference between the -knowledge by God and man of our actions lies, I presume, -in man’s disapprobation of immoral conduct being somewhat -akin in nature to his depreciation of our personal -appearance, so that through association both lead to similar -results; whereas the disapprobation of God brings up -no such association.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span></p> - -<p>Many a person has blushed intensely when accused of -some crime, though completely innocent of it.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 334.</div> - -<p>An action may be meritorious or of an indifferent -nature, but a sensitive person, if he -suspects that others take a different view of it, will blush. -For instance, a lady by herself may give money to a beggar -without a trace of a blush, but if others are present, -and she doubts whether they approve, or suspects that -they think her influenced by display, she will blush. So -it will be, if she offers to relieve the distress of a decayed -gentlewoman, more particularly of one whom she had -previously known under better circumstances, as she can -not then feel sure how her conduct will be viewed. But -such cases as these blend into shyness.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 338.</div> - -<p>The belief that blushing was <em>specially</em> designed -by the Creator is opposed to the general -theory of evolution, which is now so largely accepted; -but it forms no part of my duty here to argue on the -general question. Those who believe in design will find -it difficult to account for shyness being the most frequent -and efficient of all the causes of blushing, as it makes the -blusher to suffer and the beholder uncomfortable, without -being of the least service to either of them. They will -also find it difficult to account for negroes and other dark-colored -races blushing, in whom a change of color in the -skin is scarcely or not at all visible.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_167">BLUSHING ACCOUNTED FOR.</h3> - -<p>The hypothesis which appears to me the most probable, -though it may at first seem rash, is that attention -closely directed to any part of the body tends to interfere<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span> -with the ordinary and tonic contraction of the small -arteries of that part. These vessels, in consequence, become -at such times more or less relaxed, and are instantly -filled with arterial blood. This tendency will -have been much strengthened, if frequent attention has -been paid during many generations to the same part, -owing to nerve-force readily flowing along accustomed -channels, and by the power of inheritance. Whenever -we believe that others are depreciating or even considering -our personal appearance, our attention is vividly -directed to the outer and visible parts of our bodies; and -of all such parts we are most sensitive about our faces, -as no doubt has been the case during many past generations. -Therefore, assuming for the moment that the capillary -vessels can be acted on by close attention, those of -the face will have become eminently susceptible. Through -the force of association, the same effects will tend to follow -whenever we think that others are considering or -censuring our actions or character.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 340.</div> - -<p>It is known that the involuntary movements -of the heart are affected if close attention -be paid to them. Gratiolet gives the case of a man -who, by continually watching and counting his own pulse, -at last caused one beat out of every six to intermit. On -the other hand, my father told me of a careful observer, -who certainly had heart-disease and died from it, and -who positively stated that his pulse was habitually irregular -to an extreme degree; yet to his great disappointment -it invariably became regular as soon as my father entered -the room.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span></p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 342.</div> - -<p>When we direct our whole attention to -any one sense, its acuteness is increased; and -the continued habit of close attention, as with blind -people to that of hearing, and with the blind and deaf to -that of touch, appears to improve the sense in question -permanently. There is, also, some reason to believe, -judging from the capacities of different races of man, that -the effects are inherited. Turning to ordinary sensations, -it is well known that pain is increased by attending to it; -and Sir B. Brodie goes so far as to believe that pain may -be felt in any part of the body to which attention is -closely drawn.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_168">A NEW ARGUMENT FOR A SINGLE PARENT-STOCK.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Expression -of the Emotions,<br /> -page 361.</div> - -<p>I have endeavored to show in considerable -detail that all the chief expressions exhibited -by man are the same throughout the world. -This fact is interesting, as it affords a new argument in -favor of the several races being descended from a single -parent-stock, which must have been almost completely -human in structure, and to a large extent in mind, before -the period at which the races diverged from each other. -No doubt similar structures adapted for the same purpose -have often been independently acquired through variation -and natural selection by distinct species; but this view -will not explain close similarity between distinct species -in a multitude of unimportant details. Now, if we bear -in mind the numerous points of structure having no relation -to expression, in which all the races of man closely -agree, and then add to them the numerous points, some -of the highest importance and many of the most trifling -value, on which the movements of expression directly or -indirectly depend, it seems to me improbable in the highest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span> -degree that so much similarity, or rather identity -of structure, could have been acquired by independent -means. Yet this must have been the case if the races of -man are descended from several aboriginally distinct species. -It is far more probable that the many points of -close similarity in the various races are due to inheritance -from a single parent-form, which had already assumed a -human character.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XIV">XIV.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE PROVISIONAL HYPOTHESIS OF PANGENESIS.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Animals and -Plants under -Domestication,<br /> -vol. ii, page 349.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">Every</span> one would wish to explain to himself, -even in an imperfect manner, how it is -possible for a character possessed by some remote -ancestor suddenly to reappear in the offspring; -how the effects of increased or decreased use of a -limb can be transmitted to the child; how the male sexual -element can act not solely on the ovules, but occasionally -on the mother-form; how a hybrid can be produced -by the union of the cellular tissue of two plants independently -of the organs of generation; how a limb can -be reproduced on the exact line of amputation, with -neither too much nor too little added; how the same -organism may be produced by such widely different processes -as budding and true seminal generation; and, -lastly, how, of two allied forms, one passes in the course -of its development through the most complex metamorphoses, -and the other does not do so, though when mature -both are alike in every detail of structure. I am -aware that my view is merely a provisional hypothesis or -speculation; but, until a better one be advanced, it will -serve to bring together a multitude of facts which are -at present left disconnected by any efficient cause. As<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> -Whewell, the historian of the inductive sciences, remarks, -“Hypotheses may often be of service to science when -they involve a certain portion of incompleteness, and -even of error.” Under this point of view I venture to -advance the hypothesis of pangenesis, which implies that -every separate part of the whole organization reproduces -itself. So that ovules, spermatozoa, and pollen-grains—the -fertilized egg or seed, as well as buds—include and -consist of a multitude of germs thrown off from each -separate part or unit.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_169">FUNCTIONAL INDEPENDENCE OF THE UNITS OF THE -BODY.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 364.</div> - -<p>Physiologists agree that the whole organism -consists of a multitude of elemental parts, -which are to a great extent independent of one another. -Each organ, says Claude Bernard, has its proper life, its -autonomy; it can develop and reproduce itself independently -of the adjoining tissues. A great German authority, -Virchow, asserts still more emphatically that each -system consists of an “enormous mass of minute centers -of action.... Every element has its own special action, -and, even though it derive its stimulus to activity from -other parts, yet alone effects the actual performance of -duties.... Every single epithelial and muscular fiber-cell -leads a sort of parasitical existence in relation to the -rest of the body.... Every single bone-corpuscle really -possesses conditions of nutrition peculiar to itself.” Each -element, as Sir J. Paget remarks, lives its appointed time -and then dies, and is replaced after being cast off or absorbed. -I presume that no physiologist doubts that, for -instance, each bone-corpuscle of the finger differs from -the corresponding corpuscle in the corresponding joint of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span> -the toe; and there can hardly be a doubt that even those -on the corresponding sides of the body differ, though almost -identical in nature. This near approach to identity -is curiously shown in many diseases in which the same -exact points on the right and left sides of the body are -similarly affected; thus Sir J. Paget gives a drawing of a -diseased pelvis, in which the bone has grown into a most -complicated pattern, but “there is not one spot or line -on one side which is not represented, as exactly as it -would be in a mirror, on the other.”</p> - -<p>Many facts support this view of the independent life -of each minute element of the body. Virchow insists -that a single bone-corpuscle or a single cell in the skin -may become diseased. The spur of a cock, after being inserted -into the ear of an ox, lived for eight years, and acquired -a weight of three hundred and ninety-six grammes -(nearly fourteen ounces) and the astonishing length of -twenty-four centimetres, or about nine inches; so that -the head of the ox appeared to bear three horns. The -tail of a pig has been grafted into the middle of its back, -and reacquired sensibility. Dr. Ollier inserted a piece of -periosteum from the bone of a young dog under the skin -of a rabbit, and true bone was developed. A multitude -of similar facts could be given.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 368.</div> - -<p>What can be more wonderful than that -characters, which have disappeared during -scores, or hundreds, or even thousands of generations, -should suddenly reappear perfectly developed, as in the -case of pigeons and fowls, both when purely bred and -especially when crossed; or as with the zebrine stripes on -dun-colored horses, and other such cases? Many monstrosities -come under this same head, as when rudimentary -organs are redeveloped, or when an organ which we must<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span> -believe was possessed by an early progenitor of the species, -but of which not even a rudiment is left, suddenly reappears, -as with the fifth stamen in some <i>Scrophulariaceæ</i>.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 369.</div> - -<p>In every living creature we may feel assured -that a host of long-lost characters lie -ready to be evolved under proper conditions. How can -we make intelligible, and connect with other facts, this -wonderful and common capacity of reversion—this power -of calling back to life long-lost characters?</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 336.</div> - -<p>Imperfect nails sometimes appear on the -stumps of the amputated fingers of man; and -it is an interesting fact that with the snake-like saurians, -which present a series with more and more imperfect -limbs, the terminations of the phalanges first disappear, -“the nails becoming transferred to their proximal remnants, -or even to parts which are not phalanges.”</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 387.</div> - -<p>Mr. Salter and Dr. Maxwell Masters have -found pollen within the ovules of the passion-flower -and of the rose. Buds may be developed in the -most unnatural positions, as on the petal of a flower. -Numerous analogous facts could be given.</p> - -<p>I do not know how physiologists look at such facts as -the foregoing. According to the doctrine of pangenesis, -the gemmules of the transposed organs become developed -in the wrong place, from uniting with wrong cells or -aggregates of cells during their nascent state; and this -would follow from a slight modification in their elective -affinities.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 388.</div> - -<p>On any ordinary view it is unintelligible -how changed conditions, whether acting on -the embryo, the young or the adult, can cause inherited<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span> -modifications. It is equally or even more unintelligible, -on any ordinary view, how the effects of the long-continued -use or disuse of a part, or of changed habits of body -or mind, can be inherited. A more perplexing problem -can hardly be proposed; but on our view we have only -to suppose that certain cells become at last structurally -modified, and that these throw off similarly modified -gemmules. This may occur at any period of development, -and the modification will be inherited at a corresponding -period; for the modified gemmules will unite -in all ordinary cases with the proper preceding cells, and -will consequently be developed at the same period at -which the modification first arose. With respect to -mental habits or instincts, we are so profoundly ignorant -of the relation between the brain and the power of -thought that we do not know positively whether a fixed -habit induces any change in the nervous system, though -this seems highly probable; but, when such habit or other -mental attribute, or insanity, is inherited, we must believe -that some actual modification is transmitted; and -this implies, according to our hypothesis, that gemmules -derived from modified nerve-cells are transmitted to the -offspring.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_170">NECESSARY ASSUMPTIONS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 369.</div> - -<p>I have now enumerated the chief facts -which every one would desire to see connected -by some intelligible bond. This can be done, if we make -the following assumptions, and much may be advanced -in favor of the chief one. The secondary assumptions -can likewise be supported by various physiological considerations. -It is universally admitted that the cells or -units of the body increase by self-division or proliferation, -retaining the same nature, and that they ultimately become<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span> -converted into the various tissues and substances of -the body. But besides this means of increase I assume -that the units throw off minute granules which are dispersed -throughout the whole system; that these, when -supplied with proper nutriment, multiply by self-division, -and are ultimately developed into units like those from -which they were originally derived. These granules may -be called gemmules. They are collected from all parts -of the system to constitute the sexual elements, and their -development in the next generation forms a new being; -but they are likewise capable of transmission in a dormant -state to future generations and may then be developed. -Their development depends on their union with other -partially developed, or nascent cells which precede them -in the regular course of growth. Why I use the term -union will be seen when we discuss the direct action of -pollen on the tissues of the mother-plant. Gemmules -are supposed to be thrown off by every unit, not only -during the adult state, but during each stage of development -of every organism; but not necessarily during the -continued existence of the same unit. Lastly, I assume -that the gemmules in their dormant state have a mutual -affinity for each other, leading to their aggregation into -buds or into the sexual elements. Hence, it is not the -reproductive organs or buds which generate new organisms, -but the units of which each individual is composed. -These assumptions constitute the provisional hypothesis -which I have called pangenesis.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 372.</div> - -<p>But I have further to assume that the -gemmules in their undeveloped state are capable -of largely multiplying themselves by self-division, -like independent organisms. Delpino insists that to -“admit of multiplication by fissiparity in corpuscles,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span> -analogous to seeds or buds ... is repugnant to all analogy.” -But this seems a strange objection, as Thuret has -seen the zoöspore of an alga divide itself, and each half -germinated. Haeckel divided the segmented ovum of a -siphonophora into many pieces, and these were developed. -Nor does the extreme minuteness of the gemmules, which -can hardly differ much in nature from the lowest and -simplest organisms, render it improbable that they should -grow and multiply. A great authority, Dr. Beale, says -that “minute yeast-cells are capable of throwing off buds -or gemmules, much less than the 1/100000 of an inch in -diameter”; and these he thinks are “capable of subdivision -practically <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">ad infinitum</i>.”</p> - -<p>A particle of small-pox matter, so minute as to be -borne by the wind, must multiply itself many thousandfold -in a person thus inoculated; and so with the contagious -matter of scarlet fever. It has recently been -ascertained that a minute portion of the mucous discharge -from an animal affected with rinderpest, if placed in the -blood of a healthy ox, increases so fast that in a short -space of time “the whole mass of blood, weighing many -pounds, is infected, and every small particle of that blood -contains enough poison to give, within less than forty-eight -hours, the disease to another animal.”</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 374.</div> - -<p>The gemmules derived from each part or -organ must be thoroughly dispersed throughout -the whole system. We know, for instance, that even -a minute fragment of a leaf of a begonia will reproduce -the whole plant; and that if a fresh-water worm is -chopped into small pieces, each will reproduce the whole -animal. Considering also the minuteness of the gemmules -and the permeability of all organic tissues, the thorough -dispersion of the gemmules is not surprising. That<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span> -matter may be readily transferred without the aid of vessels -from part to part of the body, we have a good instance -in a case recorded by Sir J. Paget of a lady, whose -hair lost its color at each successive attack of neuralgia -and recovered it again in the course of a few days. With -plants, however, and probably with compound animals, -such as corals, the gemmules do not ordinarily spread -from bud to bud, but are confined to the parts developed -from each separate bud; and of this fact no explanation -can be given.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_171">TWO OBJECTIONS ANSWERED.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 380.</div> - -<p>But we have here to encounter two objections -which apply not only to the regrowth -of a part, or of a bisected individual, but to fissiparous -generation and budding. The first objection is that the -part which is reproduced is in the same stage of development -as that of the being which has been operated on or -bisected; and in the case of buds, that the new beings -thus produced are in the same stage as that of the budding -parent. Thus a mature salamander, of which the -tail has been cut off, does not reproduce a larval tail; -and a crab does not reproduce a larval leg. In the case -of budding it was shown in the first part of this chapter -that the new being thus produced does not retrograde in -development—that is, does not pass through those earlier -stages which the fertilized germ has to pass through. -Nevertheless, the organisms operated on or multiplying -themselves by buds must, by our hypothesis, include -innumerable gemmules derived from every part or unit -of the earlier stages of development; and why do not -such gemmules reproduce the amputated part or the -whole body at a corresponding early stage of development?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span></p> - -<p>The second objection, which has been insisted on by -Delpino, is that the tissues, for instance, of a mature salamander -or crab, of which a limb has been removed, are -already differentiated and have passed through their -whole course of development; and how can such tissues -in accordance with our hypothesis attract and combine -with the gemmules of the part which is to be reproduced? -In answer to these two objections we must bear in mind -the evidence which has been advanced, showing that at -least in a large number of cases the power of regrowth -is a localized faculty, acquired for the sake of repairing -special injuries to which each particular creature is liable; -and, in the case of buds or fissiparous generation, for the -sake of quickly multiplying the organism at a period of -life when it can be supported in large numbers. These -considerations lead us to believe that in all such cases a -stock of nascent cells or of partially developed gemmules -are retained for this special purpose either locally or -throughout the body, ready to combine with the gemmules -derived from the cells which come next in due -succession. If this be admitted, we have a sufficient -answer to the above two objections. Anyhow, pangenesis -seems to throw a considerable amount of light on the -wonderful power of regrowth.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_172">EFFECT OF MORBID ACTION.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 392.</div> - -<p>We have as yet spoken only of the removal -of parts, when not followed by morbid action: -but, when the operation is thus followed, it is certain that -the deficiency is sometimes inherited. In a former -chapter instances were given, as of a cow, the loss of -whose horn was followed by suppuration, and her calves -were destitute of a horn on the same side of their heads.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span> -But the evidence which admits of no doubt is that given -by Brown-Séquard with respect to Guinea-pigs, which, -after their sciatic nerves had been divided, gnawed off -their own gangrenous toes, and the toes of their offspring -were deficient in at least thirteen instances on the corresponding -feet. The inheritance of the lost part in several -of these cases is all the more remarkable as only one -parent was affected; but we know that a congenital deficiency -is often transmitted from one parent alone—for -instance, the offspring of hornless cattle of either sex, -when crossed with perfect animals, are often hornless. -How, then, in accordance with our hypothesis can we account -for mutilations being sometimes strongly inherited, -if they are followed by diseased action? The answer -probably is that all the gemmules of the mutilated or -amputated part are gradually attracted to the diseased -surface during the reparative process, and are there destroyed -by the morbid action.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_173">TRANSMISSION LIMITED.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 396.</div> - -<p>The transmission of dormant gemmules -during many successive generations is hardly -in itself more improbable, as previously remarked, than -the retention during many ages of rudimentary organs, -or even only of a tendency to the production of a rudiment; -but there is no reason to suppose that dormant -gemmules can be transmitted and propagated forever. -Excessively minute and numerous as they are believed to -be, an infinite number, derived, during a long course of -modification and descent, from each unit of each progenitor, -could not be supported or nourished by the organism. -But it does not seem improbable that certain gemmules, -under favorable conditions, should be retained and go<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span> -on multiplying for a much longer period than others. -Finally, on the view here given, we certainly gain some -insight into the wonderful fact that the child may depart -from the type of both its parents, and resemble its grandparents, -or ancestors removed by many hundreds of generations.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 398.</div> - -<p>The child, strictly speaking, does not grow -into the man, but includes germs which slowly -and successively become developed and form the man. -In the child, as well as in the adult, each part generates -the same part. Inheritance must be looked at as merely -a form of growth, like the self-division of a lowly-organized -unicellular organism. Reversion depends on the -transmission from the forefather to his descendants of -dormant gemmules, which occasionally become developed -under certain known or unknown conditions. Each -animal and plant may be compared with a bed of soil -full of seeds, some of which soon germinate, some lie dormant -for a period, while others perish. When we hear -it said that a man carries in his constitution the seeds of -an inherited disease, there is much truth in the expression. -No other attempt, as far as I am aware, has been made, -imperfect as this confessedly is, to connect under one -point of view these several grand classes of facts. An -organic being is a microcosm—a little universe, formed -of a host of self-propagating organisms, inconceivably -minute and numerous as the stars in heaven.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XV">XV.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">OBJECTIONS TO THE THEORY OF DESCENT -WITH MODIFICATION CONSIDERED.</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 63.</div> - -<p><span class="firstword">Several</span> writers have misapprehended or -objected to the term Natural Selection. Some -have even imagined that natural selection induces -variability, whereas it implies only the preservation -of such variations as arise and are beneficial to the being -under its conditions of life. No one objects to agriculturists -speaking of the potent effects of man’s selection; -and in this case the individual difference given by nature, -which man for some object selects, must of necessity first -occur. Others have objected that the term selection implies -conscious choice in the animals which become modified; -and it has even been urged that, as plants have no -volition, natural selection is not applicable to them! In -the literal sense of the word, no doubt, natural selection -is a false term; but who ever objected to chemists speaking -of the elective affinities of the various elements?—and -yet an acid can not strictly be said to elect the base -with which it in preference combines. It has been said -that I speak of natural selection as an active power or -Deity; but who objects to an author speaking of the attraction -of gravity as ruling the movements of the planets? -Every one knows what is meant and is implied by such -metaphorical expressions; and they are almost necessary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span> -for brevity. So again it is difficult to avoid personifying -the word Nature; but I mean by Nature, only the aggregate -action and product of many natural laws, and by -laws the sequence of events as ascertained by us. With a -little familiarity such superficial objections will be forgotten.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_174">MISREPRESENTATIONS CORRECTED.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 421.</div> - -<p>As my conclusions have lately been much -misrepresented, and it has been stated that I -attribute the modification of species exclusively -to natural selection, I may be permitted to remark that -in the first edition of this work, and subsequently, I -placed in a most conspicuous position—namely, at the -close of the introduction—the following words: “I am -convinced that natural selection has been the main but -not the exclusive means of modification.” This has been -of no avail. Great is the power of steady misrepresentation; -but the history of science shows that fortunately -this power does not long endure.</p> - -<p>It can hardly be supposed that a false theory would -explain, in so satisfactory a manner as does the theory of -natural selection, the several large classes of facts above -specified. It has recently been objected that this is an -unsafe method of arguing; but it is a method used in -judging of the common events of life, and has often been -used by the greatest natural philosophers. The undulatory -theory of light has thus been arrived at; and the -belief in the revolution of the earth on its own axis was -until lately supported by hardly any direct evidence. It -is no valid objection that science as yet throws no light -on the far higher problem of the essence or origin of -life. Who can explain what is the essence of the attraction -of gravity? No one now objects to following out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span> -the results consequent on this unknown element of attraction; -notwithstanding that Leibnitz formerly accused -Newton of introducing “occult qualities and miracles -into philosophy.”</p> - -<p>I see no good reason why the views given in this -volume should shock the religious feelings of any one. It -is satisfactory, as showing how transient such impressions -are, to remember that the greatest discovery ever made -by man, namely, the law of the attraction of gravity, was -also attacked by Leibnitz, “as subversive of natural, and -inferentially of revealed, religion.” A celebrated author -and divine has written to me that “he has gradually -learned to see that it is just as noble a conception of the -Deity to believe that he created a few original forms -capable of self-development into other and needful forms, -as to believe that he required a fresh act of creation to -supply the voids caused by the action of his laws.”</p> - -<h3 id="sec_175">LAPSE OF TIME AND EXTENT OF AREA.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 82.</div> - -<p>The mere lapse of time by itself does -nothing, either for or against natural selection. -I state this because it has been erroneously -asserted that the element of time has been assumed by -me to play an all-important part in modifying species, as -if all the forms of life were necessarily undergoing change -through some innate law. Lapse of time is only so far -important, and its importance in this respect is great, -that it gives a better chance of beneficial variations arising, -and of their being selected, accumulated, and fixed. -It likewise tends to increase the direct action of the physical -conditions of life, in relation to the constitution of -each organism.</p> - -<p>If we turn to nature to test the truth of these remarks,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span> -and look at any small isolated area, such as an -oceanic island, although the number of species inhabiting -it is small, as we shall see in our chapter on “Geographical -Distribution,” yet of these species a very large proportion -are endemic—that is, have been produced there, and -nowhere else in the world. Hence an oceanic island at -first sight seems to have been highly favorable for the -production of new species. But we may thus deceive -ourselves, for, to ascertain whether a small isolated area, -or a large open area like a continent, has been most favorable -for the production of new organic forms, we ought to -make the comparison within equal times; and this we are -incapable of doing.</p> - -<p>Although isolation is of great importance in the production -of new species, on the whole I am inclined to -believe that largeness of area is still more important, especially -for the production of species which shall prove -capable of enduring for a long period, and of spreading -widely. Throughout a great and open area, not only will -there be a better chance of favorable variations, arising -from the large number of individuals of the same species -there supported, but the conditions of life are much more -complex from the large number of already existing species; -and if some of these many species become modified -and improved, others will have to be improved in a corresponding -degree, or they will be exterminated. Each -new form, also, as soon as it has been much improved, -will be able to spread over the open and continuous area, -and will thus come into competition with many other -forms. Moreover, great areas, though now continuous, -will often, owing to former oscillations of level, have -existed in a broken condition; so that the good effects -of isolation will generally, to a certain extent, have concurred. -Finally, I conclude that, although small isolated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span> -areas have been in some respects highly favorable for the -production of new species, yet that the course of modification -will generally have been more rapid on large areas; -and what is more important, that the new forms produced -on large areas, which already have been victorious over -many competitors, will be those that will spread most -widely, and will give rise to the greatest number of new -varieties and species. They will thus play a more important -part in the changing history of the organic world.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_176">WHY THE HIGHER FORMS HAVE NOT SUPPLANTED THE -LOWER.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 98.</div> - -<p>But it may be objected that if all organic -beings thus tend to rise in the scale, how is it -that throughout the world a multitude of the -lowest forms still exist; and how is it that in each great -class some forms are far more highly developed than -others? Why have not the more highly developed forms -everywhere supplanted and exterminated the lower? -Lamarck, who believed in an innate and inevitable tendency -toward perfection in all organic beings, seems to -have felt this difficulty so strongly that he was led to -suppose that new and simple forms are continually being -produced by spontaneous generation. Science has not as -yet proved the truth of this belief, whatever the future -may reveal. On our theory the continued existence of -lowly organisms offers no difficulty; for natural selection, -or the survival of the fittest, does not necessarily include -progressive development—it only takes advantage of such -variations as arise and are beneficial to each creature -under its complex relations of life. And it may be asked, -What advantage, as far as we can see, would it be to an -infusorian animalcule—to an intestinal worm—or even to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span> -an earth-worm, to be highly organized? If it were no -advantage, these forms would be left, by natural selection, -unimproved or but little improved, and might remain for -indefinite ages in their present lowly condition. And -geology tells us that some of the lowest forms, as the -infusoria and rhizopods, have remained for an enormous -period in nearly their present state. But to suppose that -most of the many now existing low forms have not in the -least advanced since the first dawn of life would be extremely -rash; for every naturalist who has dissected some -of the beings now ranked as very low in the scale must -have been struck with their really wondrous and beautiful -organization.</p> - -<p>Nearly the same remarks are applicable if we look to -the different grades of organization within the same great -group; for instance, in the vertebrata, to the co-existence -of mammals and fish—among mammalia, to the co-existence -of man and the ornithorhynchus—among fishes, to -the co-existence of the shark and the lancelet (Amphioxus), -which latter fish in the extreme simplicity of its -structure approaches the invertebrate classes. But mammals -and fish hardly come into competition with each -other; the advancement of the whole class of mammals, -or of certain members in this class, to the highest grade -would not lead to their taking the place of fishes. Physiologists -believe that the brain must be bathed by warm -blood to be highly active, and this requires aërial respiration; -so that warm-blooded mammals when inhabiting the -water lie under a disadvantage in having to come continually -to the surface to breathe. With fishes, members of -the shark family would not tend to supplant the lancelet; -for the lancelet, as I hear from Fritz Müller, has as sole -companion and competitor on the barren, sandy shore -of South Brazil an anomalous annelid. The three lowest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span> -orders of mammals, namely, marsupials, edentata, and -rodents, co-exist in South America in the same region -with numerous monkeys, and probably interfere little -with each other. Although organization, on the whole, -may have advanced and be still advancing throughout -the world, yet the scale will always present many degrees -of perfection; for the high advancement of certain whole -classes, or of certain members of each class, does not at -all necessarily lead to the extinction of those groups with -which they do not enter into close competition. In some -cases, as we shall hereafter see, lowly organized forms -appear to have been preserved to the present day, from -inhabiting confined or peculiar stations, where they have -been subjected to less severe competition, and where their -scanty numbers have retarded the chance of favorable -variations arising.</p> - -<p>Finally, I believe that many lowly organized forms -now exist throughout the world, from various causes. In -some cases variations or individual differences of a favorable -nature may never have arisen for natural selection -to act on and accumulate. In no case, probably, has -time sufficed for the utmost possible amount of development. -In some few cases there has been what we must -call retrogression of organization. But the main cause -lies in the fact that under very simple conditions of life a -high organization would be of no service—possibly would -be of actual disservice, as being of a more delicate nature, -and more liable to be put out of order and injured.</p> - -<p>Looking to the first dawn of life, when all organic -beings, as we may believe, presented the simplest structure, -how, it has been asked, could the first steps in the -advancement or differentiation of parts have arisen?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span></p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 100.</div> - -<p>As we have no facts to guide us, speculation -on the subject is almost useless. It is, -however, an error to suppose that there would be no -struggle for existence, and, consequently, no natural selection, -until many forms had been produced: variations -in a single species inhabiting an isolated station might be -beneficial, and thus the whole mass of individuals might -be modified, or two distinct forms might arise. But, as I -remarked toward the close of the Introduction, no one -ought to feel surprised at much remaining as yet unexplained -on the origin of species, if we make due allowance -for our profound ignorance on the mutual relations of -the inhabitants of the world at the present time, and -still more so during past ages.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_177">THE AMOUNT OF LIFE MUST HAVE A LIMIT.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 101.</div> - -<p>What, then, checks an indefinite increase -in the number of species? The amount of life -(I do not mean the number of specific forms) -supported on an area must have a limit, depending so -largely as it does on physical conditions; therefore, if an -area be inhabited by very many species, each or nearly -each species will be represented by few individuals; and -such species will be liable to extermination from accidental -fluctuations in the nature of the seasons or in the -number of their enemies. The process of extermination -in such cases would be rapid, whereas the production of -new species must always be slow. Imagine the extreme -case of as many species as individuals in England, and -the first severe winter or very dry summer would exterminate -thousands on thousands of species. Rare species, and -each species will become rare if the number of species in -any country becomes indefinitely increased, will, on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span> -principle often explained, present within a given period -few favorable variations; consequently, the process of -giving birth to new specific forms would thus be retarded. -When any species becomes very rare, close interbreeding -will help to exterminate it; authors have thought that -this comes into play in accounting for the deterioration -of the aurochs in Lithuania, of red deer in Scotland, -and of bears in Norway, etc. Lastly, and this I am inclined -to think is the most important element, a dominant -species, which has already beaten many competitors in its -own home, will tend to spread and supplant many others. -Alph. de Candolle has shown that those species which -spread widely tend generally to spread <em>very</em> widely; consequently, -they will tend to supplant and exterminate -several species in several areas, and thus check the inordinate -increase of specific forms throughout the world. -Dr. Hooker has recently shown that in the southeast corner -of Australia, where, apparently, there are many invaders -from different quarters of the globe, the endemic -Australian species have been greatly reduced in number. -How much weight to attribute to these several considerations -I will not pretend to say; but conjointly they must -limit in each country the tendency to an indefinite augmentation -of specific forms.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_178">THE BROKEN BRANCHES OF THE TREE OF LIFE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 104.</div> - -<p>The affinities of all the beings of the same -class have sometimes been represented by a -great tree. I believe this simile largely speaks -the truth. The green and budding twigs may represent -existing species; and those produced during former years -may represent the long succession of extinct species. At -each period of growth all the growing twigs have tried<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span> -to branch out on all sides, and to overtop and kill the -surrounding twigs and branches, in the same manner as -species and groups of species have at all times overmastered -other species in the great battle for life. The limbs -divided into great branches, and these into lesser and -lesser branches, were themselves once, when the tree was -young, budding twigs; and this connection of the former -and present buds by ramifying branches may well represent -the classification of all extinct and living species in -groups subordinate to groups. Of the many twigs which -flourished when the tree was a mere bush, only two or -three, now grown into great branches, yet survive and -bear the other branches; so with the species which lived -during long-past geological periods, very few have left -living and modified descendants. From the first growth -of the tree, many a limb and branch has decayed and -dropped off; and these fallen branches of various sizes -may represent those whole orders, families, and genera -which have now no living representatives, and which are -known to us only in a fossil state. As we here and there -see a thin straggling branch springing from a fork low -down in a tree, and which by some chance has been favored -and is still alive on its summit, so we occasionally -see an animal like the ornithorhynchus or lepidosiren, -which in some small degree connects by its affinities two -large branches of life, and which has apparently been -saved from fatal competition by having inhabited a protected -station. As buds give rise by growth to fresh -buds, and these, if vigorous, branch out and overtop on -all sides many a feebler branch, so by generation I believe -it has been with the great Tree of Life, which fills with -its dead and broken branches the crust of the earth, and -covers the surface with its ever-branching and beautiful -ramifications.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_179">WHY WE DO NOT FIND TRANSITIONAL FORMS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 134.</div> - -<p>It may be urged that, when several closely-allied -species inhabit the same territory, we -surely ought to find at the present time many -transitional forms.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 137.</div> - -<p>I believe that species come to be tolerably -well-defined objects, and do not at any one -period present an inextricable chaos of varying and intermediate -links: first, because new varieties are very slowly -formed, for variation is a slow process, and natural selection -can do nothing until favorable individual differences -or variations occur, and until a place in the natural polity -of the country can be better filled by some modification -of some one or more of its inhabitants. And such new -places will depend on slow changes of climate, or on the -occasional immigration of new inhabitants, and, probably, -in a still more important degree, on some of the old inhabitants -becoming slowly modified, with the new forms -thus produced and the old ones acting and reacting on -each other. So that, in any one region and at any one -time, we ought to see only a few species presenting slight -modifications of structure in some degree permanent; -and this assuredly we do see.</p> - -<p>Secondly, areas now continuous must often have existed -within the recent period as isolated portions, in -which many forms, more especially among the classes -which unite for each birth and wander much, may have -separately been rendered sufficiently distinct to rank as -representative species. In this case, intermediate varieties -between the several representative species and their common -parent must formerly have existed within each -isolated portion of the land, but these links during the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span> -process of natural selection will have been supplanted -and exterminated, so that they will no longer be found -in a living state.</p> - -<p>Thirdly, when two or more varieties have been formed -in different portions of a strictly continuous area, intermediate -varieties will, it is probable, at first have been -formed in the intermediate zones, but they will generally -have had a short duration. For these intermediate varieties -will, from reasons already assigned (namely, from -what we know of the actual distribution of closely-allied -or representative species, and likewise of acknowledged -varieties), exist in the intermediate zones in lesser numbers -than the varieties which they tend to connect. From -this cause alone the intermediate varieties will be liable -to accidental extermination; and, during the process of -further modification through natural selection, they will -almost certainly be beaten and supplanted by the forms -which they connect; for these from existing in greater -numbers will, in the aggregate, present more varieties -and thus be further improved through natural selection -and gain further advantages.</p> - -<p>Lastly, looking not to any one time, but to all time, -if my theory be true, numberless intermediate varieties, -linking closely together all the species of the same group, -must assuredly have existed; but the very process of -natural selection constantly tends, as has been so often -remarked, to exterminate the parent-forms and the intermediate -links. Consequently evidence of their former -existence could be found only among fossil remains, which -are preserved, as we shall attempt to show in a future -chapter, in an extremely imperfect and intermittent -record.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span></p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 283.</div> - -<p>Professor Pictet, in commenting on early -transitional forms, and taking birds as an illustration, -can not see how the successive modifications -of the anterior limbs of a supposed prototype could possibly -have been of any advantage. But look at the penguins -of the Southern Ocean; have not these birds their -front limbs in this precise intermediate state of “neither -true arms nor true wings”? Yet these birds hold their -place victoriously in the battle for life; for they exist in -infinite numbers and of many kinds. I do not suppose -that we here see the real transitional grades through -which the wings of birds have passed; but what special -difficulty is there in believing that it might profit the -modified descendants of the penguin, first to become enabled -to flap along the surface of the sea like the logger-headed -duck, and ultimately to rise from its surface and -glide through the air?</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 289.</div> - -<p>The several difficulties here discussed, -namely—that, though we find in our geological -formations many links between the species which now -exist and which formerly existed, we do not find infinitely -numerous fine transitional forms closely joining them -all together; the sudden manner in which several groups -of species first appear in our European formations—the -almost entire absence, as at present known, of formations -rich in fossils beneath the Cambrian strata—are all undoubtedly -of the most serious nature. We see this in -the fact that the most eminent paleontologists, namely, -Cuvier, Agassiz, Barrande, Pictet, Falconer, E. Forbes, -etc., and all our greatest geologists, as Lyell, Murchison, -Sedgwick, etc., have unanimously, often vehemently, -maintained the immutability of species. But Sir Charles -Lyell now gives the support of his high authority to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span> -opposite side; and most geologists and paleontologists -are much shaken in their former belief. Those who believe -that the geological record is in any degree perfect -will undoubtedly at once reject the theory. For my part, -following out Lyell’s metaphor, I look at the geological -record as a history of the world imperfectly kept, and -written in a changing dialect; of this history we possess -the last volume alone, relating only to two or three countries. -Of this volume, only here and there a short chapter -has been preserved; and of each page, only here and there -a few lines. Each word of the slowly-changing language, -more or less different in the successive chapters, may -represent the forms of life which are entombed in our -consecutive formations, and which falsely appear to us -to have been abruptly introduced. On this view, the -difficulties above discussed are greatly diminished, or even -disappear.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_180">HOW COULD THE TRANSITIONAL FORM HAVE SUBSISTED?</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 138.</div> - -<p>It has been asked by the opponents of such -views as I hold, how, for instance, could a -land carnivorous animal have been converted into one -with aquatic habits; for how could the animal in its -transitional state have subsisted? It would be easy to -show that there now exist carnivorous animals presenting -close intermediate grades from strictly terrestrial to aquatic -habits; and, as each exists by a struggle for life, it is clear -that each must be well adapted to its place in nature. -Look at the <i>Mustela vison</i> of North America, which -has webbed feet, and which resembles an otter in its fur, -short legs, and form of tail. During the summer this -animal dives for and preys on fish, but during the long -winter it leaves the frozen waters, and preys, like other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span> -polecats, on mice and land animals. If a different case -had been taken, and it had been asked how an insectivorous -quadruped could possibly have been converted into -a flying bat, the question would have been far more difficult -to answer. Yet I think such difficulties have little -weight.</p> - -<p>Here, as on other occasions, I lie under a heavy disadvantage, -for, out of the many striking cases which I -have collected, I can give only one or two instances of -transitional habits and structures in allied species; and -of diversified habits, either constant or occasional, in the -same species. And it seems to me that nothing less than -a long list of such cases is sufficient to lessen the difficulty -in any particular case like that of the bat.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_181">WHY NATURE TAKES NO SUDDEN LEAPS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 156.</div> - -<p>Finally, then, although in many cases it is -most difficult even to conjecture by what transitions -organs have arrived at their present -state, yet, considering how small the proportion of living -and known forms is to the extinct and unknown, I -have been astonished how rarely an organ can be named, -toward which no transitional grade is known to lead. It -certainly is true that new organs, appearing as if created for -some special purpose, rarely or never appear in any being—as -indeed is shown by that old but somewhat exaggerated -canon in natural history of “Natura non facit saltum.” -We meet with this admission in the writings of almost -every experienced naturalist; or as Milne-Edwards -has well expressed it, Nature is prodigal in variety, but -niggard in innovation. Why, on the theory of Creation, -should there be so much variety and so little real novelty? -Why should all the parts and organs of many independent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span> -beings, each supposed to have been separately created -for its proper place in nature, be so commonly linked together -by graduated steps? Why should not Nature take -a sudden leap from structure to structure? On the theory -of natural selection, we can clearly understand why -she should not; for natural selection acts only by taking -advantage of slight successive variations; she can never -take a great and sudden leap, but must advance by short -and sure though slow steps.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_182">IMPERFECT CONTRIVANCES OF NATURE ACCOUNTED FOR.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 163.</div> - -<p>If our reason leads us to admire with enthusiasm -a multitude of inimitable contrivances -in nature, this same reason tells us, though we may -easily err on both sides, that some other contrivances are -less perfect. Can we consider the sting of the bee as perfect, -which, when used against many kinds of enemies, -can not be withdrawn, owing to the backward serratures, -and thus inevitably causes the death of the insect by tearing -out its viscera?</p> - -<p>If we look at the sting of the bee, as having existed in -a remote progenitor as a boring and serrated instrument -like that in so many members of the same great order, -and that it has since been modified but not perfected for -its present purpose with the poison originally adapted -for some other object, such as to produce galls, since intensified, -we can perhaps understand how it is that the use of -the sting should so often cause the insect’s own death: -for, if on the whole the power of stinging be useful to -the social community, it will fulfill all the requirements -of natural selection, though it may cause the death of -some few members. If we admire the truly wonderful -power of scent by which the males of many insects find<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span> -their females, can we admire the production for this single -purpose of thousands of drones, which are utterly useless -to the community for any other purpose, and which -are ultimately slaughtered by their industrious and sterile -sisters? It may be difficult, but we ought to admire the -savage instinctive hatred of the queen-bee, which urges -her to destroy the young queens, her daughters, as soon -as they are born, or to perish herself in the combat; for -undoubtedly this is for the good of the community; and -maternal love or maternal hatred, though the latter fortunately -is most rare, is all the same to the inexorable principle -of natural selection. If we admire the several ingenious -contrivances by which orchids and many other plants -are fertilized through insect agency, can we consider as -equally perfect the elaboration of dense clouds of pollen -by our fir-trees, so that a few granules may be wafted by -chance on to the ovules?</p> - -<h3 id="sec_183">INSTINCTS AS A DIFFICULTY.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 205.</div> - -<p>Many instincts are so wonderful that their -development will probably appear to the reader -a difficulty sufficient to overthrow my whole -theory. I may here premise that I have nothing to do -with the origin of the mental powers, any more than I -have with that of life itself. We are concerned only with -the diversities of instinct and of the other mental faculties -in animals of the same class.</p> - -<p>I will not attempt any definition of instinct. It -would be easy to show that several distinct mental actions -are commonly embraced by this term; but every one understands -what is meant when it is said that instinct -impels the cuckoo to migrate and to lay her eggs in other -birds’ nests. An action, which we ourselves require experience<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span> -to enable us to perform, when performed by an -animal, more especially by a very young one, without experience, -and when performed by many individuals in the -same way, without their knowing for what purpose it is -performed, is usually said to be instinctive. But I could -show that none of these characters are universal. A little -dose of judgment or reason, as Pierre Huber expresses it, -often comes into play, even with animals low in the scale -of nature.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 206.</div> - -<p>If we suppose any habitual action to become -inherited—and it can be shown that this -does sometimes happen—then the resemblance between -what originally was a habit and an instinct becomes so -close as not to be distinguished. If Mozart, instead of -playing the piano-forte at three years old with wonderfully -little practice, had played a tune with no practice at -all, he might truly be said to have done so instinctively. -But it would be a serious error to suppose that the greater -number of instincts have been acquired by habit in one -generation, and then transmitted by inheritance to succeeding -generations. It can be clearly shown that the -most wonderful instincts with which we are acquainted, -namely, those of the hive-bee and of many ants, could not -possibly have been acquired by habit.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 208.</div> - -<p>Why, it has been asked, if instinct be variable, -has it not granted to the bee “the ability -to use some other material when wax was deficient”? -But what other natural material could bees use? They -will work, as I have seen, with wax hardened with vermilion -or softened with lard. Andrew Knight observed that -his bees, instead of laboriously collecting propolis, used a -cement of wax and turpentine, with which he had covered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span> -decorticated trees. It has lately been shown that bees, -instead of searching for pollen, will gladly use a very different -substance, namely, oatmeal. Fear of any particular -enemy is certainly an instinctive quality, as may be seen -in nestling birds, though it is strengthened by experience, -and by the sight of fear of the same enemy in other animals. -The fear of man is slowly acquired, as I have elsewhere -shown, by the various animals which inhabit desert -islands; and we see an instance of this even in England, -in the greater wildness of all our large birds in comparison -with our small birds; for the large birds have been -most persecuted by man. We may safely attribute the -greater wildness of our large birds to this cause; for in -uninhabited islands large birds are not more fearful than -small; and the magpie, so wary in England, is tame in -Norway, as is the hooded crow in Egypt.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_184">SOME INSTINCTS ACQUIRED AND SOME LOST.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 210.</div> - -<p>It may be doubted whether any one would -have thought of training a dog to point, had -not some one dog naturally shown a tendency in this -line; and this is known occasionally to happen, as I once -saw, in a pure terrier: the act of pointing is probably, -as many have thought, only the exaggerated pause of an -animal preparing to spring on its prey. When the first -tendency to point was once displayed, methodical selection -and the inherited effects of compulsory training in -each successive generation would soon complete the work; -and unconscious selection is still in progress, as each man -tries to procure, without intending to improve the breed, -dogs which stand and hunt best. On the other hand, -habit alone in some cases has sufficed; hardly any animal -is more difficult to tame than the young of the wild rabbit;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span> -scarcely any animal is tamer than the young of the -tame rabbit; but I can hardly suppose that domestic -rabbits have often been selected for tameness alone; so -that we must attribute at least the greater part of the -inherited change from extreme wildness to extreme tameness -to habit and long-continued close confinement.</p> - -<p>Natural instincts are lost under domestication: a remarkable -instance of this is seen in those breeds of fowls -which very rarely or never become “broody,” that is, -never wish to sit on their eggs. Familiarity alone prevents -our seeing how largely and how permanently the -minds of our domestic animals have been modified. It is -scarcely possible to doubt that the love of man has become -instinctive in the dog. All wolves, foxes, jackals, and -species of the cat genus, when kept tame, are most eager -to attack poultry, sheep, and pigs; and this tendency has -been found incurable in dogs which have been brought -home as puppies from countries such as Tierra del Fuego -and Australia, where the savages do not keep these domestic -animals. How rarely, on the other hand, do our -civilized dogs, even when quite young, require to be -taught not to attack poultry, sheep, and pigs! No doubt -they occasionally do make an attack, and are then beaten; -and, if not cured, they are destroyed; so that habit and -some degree of selection have probably concurred in civilizing -by inheritance our dogs. On the other hand, young -chickens have lost, wholly by habit, that fear of the dog -and cat which no doubt was originally instinctive in -them; for I am informed by Captain Hutton that the -young chickens of the parent-stock, the <i>Gallus bankiva</i>, -when reared in India under a hen, are at first excessively -wild. So it is with young pheasants reared in England -under a hen. It is not that chickens have lost all fear, -but fear only of dogs and cats, for if the hen gives the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span> -danger-chuckle, they will run (more especially young turkeys) -from under her, and conceal themselves in the surrounding -grass or thickets; and this is evidently done -for the instinctive purpose of allowing, as we see in wild -ground-birds, their mother to fly away. But this instinct -retained by our chickens has become useless under domestication, -for the mother-hen has almost lost by disuse the -power of flight.</p> - -<p>Hence, we may conclude that, under domestication, -instincts have been acquired, and natural instincts have -been lost, partly by habit, and partly by man selecting -and accumulating, during successive generations, peculiar -mental habits and actions, which at first appeared from -what we must in our ignorance call an accident.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_185">INNUMERABLE LINKS NECESSARILY LOST.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 264.</div> - -<p>The main cause of innumerable intermediate -links not now occurring everywhere -throughout nature depends on the very process -of natural selection, through which new varieties -continually take the places of and supplant their parent-forms. -But just in proportion as this process of extermination -has acted on an enormous scale, so must the -number of intermediate varieties, which have formerly -existed, be truly enormous. Why, then, is not every geological -formation and every stratum full of such intermediate -links? Geology assuredly does not reveal any -such finely-graduated organic chain; and this, perhaps, -is the most obvious and serious objection which can be -urged against the theory. The explanation lies, as I believe, -in the extreme imperfection of the geological record.</p> - -<p>In the first place, it should always be borne in mind -what sort of intermediate forms must, on the theory, have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span> -formerly existed. I have found it difficult, when looking -at any two species, to avoid picturing to myself forms -<em>directly</em> intermediate between them. But this is a wholly -false view; we should always look for forms intermediate -between each species and a common but unknown progenitor; -and the progenitor will generally have differed -in some respects from all its modified descendants. To -give a simple illustration: the fantail and pouter pigeons -are both descended from the rock-pigeon; if we possessed -all the intermediate varieties which have ever existed, we -should have an extremely close series between both and -the rock-pigeon; but we should have no varieties directly -intermediate between the fantail and pouter; none, for -instance, combining a tail somewhat expanded with a -crop somewhat enlarged, the characteristic features of -these two breeds. These two breeds, moreover, have become -so much modified, that, if we had no historical or -indirect evidence regarding their origin, it would not -have been possible to have determined, from a mere comparison -of their structure with that of the rock-pigeon, -<i>C. livia</i>, whether they had descended from this species or -from some other allied form, such as <i>C. oenas</i>.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 265.</div> - -<p>It is just possible by the theory, that one -of two living forms might have descended -from the other; for instance, a horse from a tapir; and -in this case <em>direct</em> intermediate links will have existed between -them. But such a case would imply that one form -had remained for a very long period unaltered, while its -descendants had undergone a vast amount of change; -and the principle of competition between organism and -organism, between child and parent, will render this a -very rare event; for in all cases the new and improved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span> -forms of life tend to supplant the old and unimproved -forms.</p> - -<p>By the theory of natural selection all living species -have been connected with the parent-species of each -genus, by differences not greater than we see between the -natural and domestic varieties of the same species at the -present day; and these parent-species, now generally extinct, -have in their turn been similarly connected with -more ancient forms; and so on backward, always converging -to the common ancestor of each great class. So -that the number of intermediate and transitional links, -between all living and extinct species, must have been -inconceivably great. But assuredly, if this theory be -true, such have lived upon the earth.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_186">PLENTY OF TIME FOR THE NECESSARY GRADATIONS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 266.</div> - -<p>Independently of our not finding fossil remains -of such infinitely numerous connecting -links, it may be objected that time can not have sufficed -for so great an amount of organic change, all changes -having been effected slowly. It is hardly possible for me -to recall to the reader who is not a practical geologist -the facts leading the mind feebly to comprehend the lapse -of time. He who can read Sir Charles Lyell’s grand -work on the “Principles of Geology,” which the future -historian will recognize as having produced a revolution -in natural science, and yet does not admit how vast have -been the past periods of time, may at once close this -volume.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 269.</div> - -<p>When geologists look at large and complicated -phenomena, and then at the figures -representing several million years, the two produce a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span> -totally different effect on the mind, and the figures are -at once pronounced too small. In regard to subaërial -denudation, Mr. Croll shows, by calculating the known -amount of sediment annually brought down by certain -rivers, relatively to their areas of drainage, that one thousand -feet of solid rock, as it became gradually disintegrated, -would thus be removed from the mean level of -the whole area in the course of six million years. This -seems an astonishing result, and some considerations lead -to the suspicion that it may be too large, but even if -halved or quartered it is still very surprising. Few of -us, however, know what a million really means: Mr. -Croll gives the following illustration: take a narrow strip -of paper, eighty-three feet four inches in length, and -stretch it along the wall of a large hall; then mark off -at one end the tenth of an inch. This tenth of an inch -will represent one hundred years, and the entire strip a -million years. But let it be borne in mind, in relation -to the subject of this work, what a hundred years implies, -represented as it is by a measure utterly insignificant in -a hall of the above dimensions. Several eminent breeders, -during a single lifetime, have so largely modified some of -the higher animals, which propagate their kind much -more slowly than most of the lower animals, that they -have formed what well deserves to be called a new sub-breed. -Few men have attended with due care to any one -strain for more than half a century, so that a hundred -years represents the work of two breeders in succession.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 270.</div> - -<p>Now let us turn to our richest geological -museums, and what a paltry display we behold! -That our collections are imperfect is admitted by -every one. The remark of that admirable paleontologist, -Edward Forbes, should never be forgotten, namely, that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span> -very many fossil species are known and named from single -and often broken specimens, or from a few specimens -collected on some one spot. Only a small portion of the -surface of the earth has been geologically explored, and -no part with sufficient care, as the important discoveries -made every year in Europe prove. No organism wholly -soft can be preserved. Shells and bones decay and disappear -when left on the bottom of the sea, where sediment -is not accumulating. We probably take a quite erroneous -view, when we assume that sediment is being deposited -over nearly the whole bed of the sea, at a rate sufficiently -quick to imbed and preserve fossil remains. Throughout -an enormously large proportion of the ocean, the bright -blue tint of the water bespeaks its purity. The many -cases on record of a formation conformably covered, after -an immense interval of time, by another and later formation, -without the underlying bed having suffered in the -interval any wear and tear, seem explicable only on the -view of the bottom of the sea not rarely lying for ages in -an unaltered condition. The remains which do become -imbedded, if in sand or gravel, will, when the beds are -upraised, generally be dissolved by the percolation of -rain-water charged with carbonic acid. Some of the many -kinds of animals which live on the beach between high -and low water mark seem to be rarely preserved. For -instance, the several species of the <i>Chthamalinæ</i> (a sub-family -of sessile cirripeds) coat the rocks all over the world -in infinite numbers: they are all strictly littoral, with -the exception of a single Mediterranean species, which -inhabits deep water, and this has been found fossil in -Sicily, whereas not one other species has hitherto been -found in any tertiary formation; yet it is known that -the genus <i>Chthamalus</i> existed during the Chalk period. -Lastly, many great deposits, requiring a vast length of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span> -time for their accumulation, are entirely destitute of -organic remains, without our being able to assign any -reason; one of the most striking instances is that of the -Flysch formation, which consists of shale and sandstone, -several thousand, occasionally even six thousand, feet in -thickness, and extending for at least three hundred miles -from Vienna to Switzerland; and, although this great -mass has been most carefully searched, no fossils, except -a few vegetable remains, have been found.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_187">WIDE INTERVALS OF TIME BETWEEN THE GEOLOGICAL -FORMATIONS.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 271.</div> - -<p>But the imperfection in the geological -record largely results from another and more -important cause than any of the foregoing; namely, -from the several formations being separated from each -other by wide intervals of time. This doctrine has been -emphatically admitted by many geologists and paleontologists, -who, like E. Forbes, entirely disbelieve in the -change of species. When we see the formations tabulated -in written works, or when we follow them in nature, it -is difficult to avoid believing that they are closely consecutive. -But we know, for instance, from Sir R. Murchison’s -great work on Russia, what wide gaps there are -in that country between the superimposed formations; -so it is in North America, and in many other parts of -the world. The most skillful geologist, if his attention -had been confined exclusively to these large territories, -would never have suspected that, during the periods -which were blank and barren in his own country, great -piles of sediment, charged with new and peculiar forms -of life, had elsewhere been accumulated. And if, in each -separate territory, hardly any idea can be formed of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span> -length of time which has elapsed between the consecutive -formations, we may infer that this could nowhere be -ascertained. The frequent and great changes in the -mineralogical composition of consecutive formations, -generally implying great changes in the geography of the -surrounding lands, whence the sediment was derived, -accord with the belief of vast intervals of time having -elapsed between each formation.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 278.</div> - -<p>It is all-important to remember that naturalists -have no golden rule by which to distinguish -species and varieties; they grant some little -variability to each species, but, when they meet with a -somewhat greater amount of difference between any -two forms, they rank both as species, unless they are -enabled to connect them together by the closest intermediate -gradations; and this, from the reasons just assigned, -we can seldom hope to effect in any one geological -section. Supposing B and C to be two species, and a -third, A, to be found in an older and underlying bed; -even if A were strictly intermediate between B and C, -it would simply be ranked as a third and distinct species, -unless at the same time it could be closely connected by -intermediate varieties with either one or both forms. -Nor should it be forgotten, as before explained, that A -might be the actual progenitor of B and C, and yet would -not necessarily be strictly intermediate between them in -all respects. So that we might obtain the parent-species -and its several modified descendants from the lower and -upper beds of the same formation, and, unless we obtained -numerous transitional gradations, we should not recognize -their blood-relationship, and should consequently -rank them as distinct species.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_188">SUDDEN APPEARANCE OF GROUPS OF ALLIED SPECIES.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 282.</div> - -<p>The abrupt manner in which whole groups -of species suddenly appear in certain formations -has been urged by several paleontologists—for -instance, by Agassiz, Pictet, and Sedgwick—as -a fatal objection to the belief in the transmutation of -species. If numerous species, belonging to the same -genera or families, have really started into life at once, -the fact would be fatal to the theory of evolution through -natural selection. For the development by this means -of a group of forms, all of which are descended from some -one progenitor, must have been an extremely slow process; -and the progenitors must have lived long before -their modified descendants. But we continually overrate -the perfection of the geological record, and falsely infer, -because certain genera or families have not been found -beneath a certain stage, that they did not exist before -that stage. In all cases positive paleontological evidence -may be implicitly trusted; negative evidence is worthless, -as experience has so often shown. We continually forget -how large the world is, compared with the area over -which our geological formations have been carefully examined; -we forget that groups of species may elsewhere -have long existed, and have slowly multiplied, before -they invaded the ancient archipelagoes of Europe and -the United States. We do not make due allowance for -the intervals of time which have elapsed between our -consecutive formations—longer, perhaps, in many cases -than the time required for the accumulation of each -formation. These intervals will have given time for the -multiplication of species from some one parent-form; -and, in the succeeding formation, such groups or species -will appear as if suddenly created.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_189">HOW LITTLE WE KNOW OF FORMER INHABITANTS OF THE -WORLD.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 283.</div> - -<p>Even in so short an interval as that between -the first and second edition of Pictet’s -great work on Paleontology, published in 1844–’46 and in -1853–’57, the conclusions on the first appearance and disappearance -of several groups of animals have been considerably -modified; and a third edition would require still -further changes. I may recall the well-known fact that -in geological treatises, published not many years ago, -mammals were always spoken of as having abruptly come -in at the commencement of the tertiary<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">B</a> series. And now -one of the richest known accumulations of fossil mammals -belongs to the middle of the secondary series; and true -mammals have been discovered in the new red sandstone -at nearly the commencement of this great series. Cuvier -used to urge that no monkey occurred in any tertiary -stratum; but now extinct species have been discovered in -India, South America, and in Europe, as far back as the -Miocene stage. Had it not been for the rare accident of -the preservation of footsteps in the new red sandstone of -the United States, who would have ventured to suppose -that no less than at least thirty different bird-like animals, -some of gigantic size, existed during that period? -Not a fragment of bone has been discovered in these beds. -Not long ago, paleontologists maintained that the whole -class of birds came suddenly into existence during the -Eocene period; but now we know, on the authority of -Professor Owen, that a bird certainly lived during the deposition -of the upper greensand; and still more recently, -that strange bird, the archeopteryx, with a long, lizard-like<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span> -tail, bearing a pair of feathers on each joint, and with -its wings furnished with two free claws, has been discovered -in the oölitic slates of Solenhofen. Hardly any recent -discovery shows more forcibly than this, how little -we as yet know of the former inhabitants of the world.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="fnanchor">B</a> <span class="smcap">Tertiary.</span>—The latest geological epoch, immediately preceding the -establishment of the present order of things.</p> - -</div> - -<h3 id="sec_190">THE EXTINCTION OF SPECIES INVOLVED IN MYSTERY.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 294.</div> - -<p>The extinction of species has been involved -in the most gratuitous mystery. Some authors -have even supposed that as the individual -has a definite length of life, so have species a definite -duration. No one can have marveled more than I have -done at the extinction of species. When I found in La -Plata the tooth of a horse imbedded with the remains -of mastodon, megatherium, toxodon, and other extinct -monsters, which all co-existed with still living shells at a -very late geological period, I was filled with astonishment; -for, seeing that the horse, since its introduction by the -Spaniards into South America, has run wild over the -whole country and has increased in numbers at an unparalleled -rate, I asked myself what could so recently -have exterminated the former horse under conditions of -life apparently so favorable. But my astonishment was -groundless. Professor Owen soon perceived that the -tooth, though so like that of the existing horse, belonged -to an extinct species. Had this horse been still living, -but in some degree rare, no naturalist would have felt -the least surprise at its rarity; for rarity is the attribute -of a vast number of species of all classes, in all countries. -If we ask ourselves why this or that species is rare, we -answer that something is unfavorable in its conditions of -life; but what that something is we can hardly ever tell. -On the supposition of the fossil horse still existing as a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span> -rare species, we might have felt certain, from the analogy -of all other mammals, even of the slow-breeding elephant, -and from the history of the naturalization of the domestic -horse in South America, that under more favorable -conditions it would in a very few years have stocked the -whole continent. But we could not have told what the -unfavorable conditions were which checked its increase, -whether some one or several contingencies, and at what -period of the horse’s life, and in what degree, they severally -acted. If the conditions had gone on, however slowly, -becoming less and less favorable, we assuredly should -not have perceived the fact, yet the fossil horse would certainly -have become rarer and rarer, and finally extinct;—its -place being seized on by some more successful competitor.</p> - -<p>It is most difficult always to remember that the increase -of every creature is constantly being checked by -unperceived hostile agencies; and that these same unperceived -agencies are amply sufficient to cause rarity, and -finally extinction. So little is this subject understood -that I have heard surprise repeatedly expressed at such -great monsters as the mastodon and the more ancient -dinosaurians having become extinct; as if mere bodily -strength gave victory in the battle of life. Mere size, -on the contrary, would in some cases determine, as has -been remarked by Owen, quicker extermination from -the greater amount of requisite food. Before man inhabited -India or Africa, some cause must have checked the -continued increase of the existing elephant. A highly -capable judge, Dr. Falconer, believes that it is chiefly insects -which, from incessantly harassing and weakening -the elephant in India, check its increase; and this was -Bruce’s conclusion with respect to the African elephant -in Abyssinia. It is certain that insects and blood-sucking<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span> -bats determine the existence of the larger naturalized -quadrupeds in several parts of South America.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 295.</div> - -<p>I may repeat what I published in 1845, -namely, that to admit that species generally -become rare before they become extinct—to feel no surprise -at the rarity of a species, and yet to marvel greatly -when the species ceases to exist, is much the same as to -admit that sickness in the individual is the forerunner of -death—to feel no surprise at sickness, but, when the sick -man dies, to wonder and to suspect that he died by some -deed of violence.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_191">DEAD LINKS BETWEEN LIVING SPECIES.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 302.</div> - -<p>No one will deny that the Hipparion is -intermediate between the existing horse and -certain older ungulate forms. What a wonderful connecting -link in the chain of mammals is the Typotherium -from South America, as the name given to it by Professor -Gervais expresses, and which can not be placed in any -existing order! The Sirenia form a very distinct group -of mammals, and one of the most remarkable peculiarities -in the existing dugong and lamentin is the entire absence -of hind limbs, without even a rudiment being left; but -the extinct Halitherium had, according to Professor -Flower, an ossified thigh-bone “articulated to a well-defined -acetabulum in the pelvis,” and it thus makes some -approach to ordinary hoofed quadrupeds, to which the -Sirenia are in other respects allied. The cetaceans or -whales are widely different from all other mammals, but -the tertiary Zeuglodon and Squalodon, which have been -placed by some naturalists in an order by themselves, -are considered by Professor Huxley to be undoubtedly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span> -cetaceans, “and to constitute connecting links with the -aquatic carnivora.”</p> - -<p>Even the wide interval between birds and reptiles -has been shown by the naturalist just quoted to be partially -bridged over in the most unexpected manner, on -the one hand, by the ostrich and extinct Archeopteryx, -and on the other hand, by the Compsognathus, one of -the dinosaurians—that group which includes the most -gigantic of all terrestrial reptiles. Turning to the Invertebrata, -Barrande asserts, and a higher authority could -not be named, that he is every day taught that, although -palæozoic animals can certainly be classed under existing -groups, yet that at this ancient period the groups were -not so distinctly separated from each other as they now -are.</p> - -<p>Some writers have objected to any extinct species, or -group of species, being considered as intermediate between -any two living species or groups of species. If by -this term it is meant that an extinct form is directly intermediate -in all its characters between two living forms -or groups, the objection is probably valid. But in a -natural classification many fossil species certainly stand -between living species, and some extinct genera between -living genera, even between genera belonging to distinct -families. The most common case, especially with respect -to very distinct groups, such as fish and reptiles, seems -to be that, supposing them to be distinguished at the -present day by a score of characters, the ancient members -are separated by a somewhat lesser number of characters; -so that the two groups formerly made a somewhat nearer -approach to each other than they now do.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_192">LIVING DESCENDANTS OF FOSSIL SPECIES.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 311.</div> - -<p>It may be asked in ridicule, whether I suppose -that the megatherium and other allied -huge monsters, which formerly lived in South America, -have left behind them the sloth, armadillo, and ant-eater, -as their degenerate descendants. This can not for an -instant be admitted. These huge animals have become -wholly extinct, and have left no progeny. But in the -caves of Brazil there are many extinct species which are -closely allied in size and in all other characters to the -species still living in South America; and some of these -fossils may have been the actual progenitors of the living -species. It must not be forgotten that, on our theory, -all the species of the same genus are the descendants of -some one species; so that, if six genera, each having -eight species, be found in one geological formation, and -in a succeeding formation there be six other allied or -representative genera each with the same number of -species, then we may conclude that generally only one -species of each of the older genera has left modified descendants, -which constitute the new genera containing -the several species; the other seven species of each old -genus having died out and left no progeny. Or, and this -will be a far commoner case, two or three species in two -or three alone of the six older genera will be the parents -of the new genera: the other species and the other whole -genera having become utterly extinct. In failing orders, -with the genera and species decreasing in numbers as is -the case with the Edentata of South America, still fewer -genera and species will leave modified blood-descendants.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span></p> - -<h3 id="sec_193">UNNECESSARY TO EXPLAIN THE CAUSE OF EACH INDIVIDUAL -DIFFERENCE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Animals and -Plants,<br />vol. ii, page 425.</div> - -<p>In accordance with the views maintained -by me in this work and elsewhere, not only -various domestic races, but the most distinct -genera and orders within the same great class—for -instance, mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes—are all -the descendants of one common progenitor, and we must -admit that the whole vast amount of difference between -these forms has primarily arisen from simple variability. -To consider the subject under this point of view is enough -to strike one dumb with amazement. But our amazement -ought to be lessened when we reflect that beings -almost infinite in number, during an almost infinite lapse -of time, have often had their whole organization rendered -in some degree plastic, and that each slight modification -of structure which was in any way beneficial under excessively -complex conditions of life has been preserved, -while each which was in any way injurious has been -rigorously destroyed. And the long-continued accumulation -of beneficial variations will infallibly have led to -structures as diversified, as beautifully adapted for various -purposes and as excellently co-ordinated, as we see in the -animals and plants around us. Hence I have spoken of -selection as the paramount power, whether applied by -man to the formation of domestic breeds, or by nature to -the production of species.</p> - -<p>If an architect were to rear a noble and commodious -edifice, without the use of cut stone, by selecting from -the fragments at the base of a precipice wedge-formed -stones for his arches, elongated stones for his lintels, and -flat stones for his roof, we should admire his skill and -regard him as the paramount power. Now, the fragments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span> -of stone, though indispensable to the architect, -bear to the edifice built by him the same relation which -the fluctuating variations of organic beings bear to the -varied and admirable structures ultimately acquired by -their modified descendants.</p> - -<p>Some authors have declared that natural selection explains -nothing, unless the precise cause of each slight -individual difference be made clear. If it were explained -to a savage utterly ignorant of the art of building, how -the edifice had been raised stone upon stone, and why -wedge-formed fragments were used for the arches, flat -stones for the roof, etc., and if the use of each part and -of the whole building were pointed out, it would be unreasonable -if he declared that nothing had been made -clear to him, because the precise cause of the shape of -each fragment could not be told. But this is a nearly -parallel case with the objection that selection explains -nothing, because we know not the cause of each individual -difference in the structure of each being.</p> - -<p>The shape of the fragments of stone at the base of -our precipice may be called accidental, but this is not -strictly correct; for the shape of each depends on a long -sequence of events, all obeying natural laws; on the nature -of the rock, on the lines of deposition or cleavage, -on the form of the mountain, which depends on its upheaval -and subsequent denudation, and lastly on the -storm or earthquake which throws down the fragments. -But in regard to the use to which the fragments may -be put, their shape may be strictly said to be accidental.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_194">“FACE TO FACE WITH AN INSOLUBLE DIFFICULTY.”</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 427.</div> - -<p>And here we are led to face a great difficulty, -in alluding to which I am aware that -I am traveling beyond my proper province. An omniscient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span> -Creator must have foreseen every consequence which -results from the laws imposed by him. But can it be -reasonably maintained that the Creator intentionally ordered, -if we use the words in any ordinary sense, that -certain fragments of rock should assume certain shapes -so that the builder might erect his edifice? If the various -laws which have determined the shape of each fragment -were not predetermined for the builder’s sake, can -it be maintained with any greater probability that he -specially ordained for the sake of the breeder each of the -innumerable variations in our domestic animals and -plants—many of these variations being of no service to -man, and not beneficial, far more often injurious, to the -creatures themselves? Did he ordain that the crop and -tail-feathers of the pigeon should vary in order that the -fancier might make his grotesque pouter and fantail -breeds? Did he cause the frame and mental qualities -of the dog to vary in order that a breed might be formed -of indomitable ferocity, with jaws fitted to pin down the -bull for man’s brutal sport? But if we give up the -principle in one case—if we do not admit that the variations -of the primeval dog were intentionally guided in -order that the greyhound, for instance, that perfect image -of symmetry and vigor, might be formed—no shadow of -reason can be assigned for the belief that variations, alike -in nature and the result of the same general laws, which -have been the groundwork through natural selection of -the formation of the most perfectly adapted animals in -the world, man included, were intentionally and specially -guided. However much we may wish it, we can hardly -follow Professor Asa Gray in his belief “that variation -has been led along certain beneficial lines,” like a stream -“along definite and useful lines of irrigation.” If we -assume that each particular variation was from the beginning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span> -of all time preordained, then that plasticity of -organization, which leads to many injurious deviations -of structure, as well as the redundant power of reproduction -which inevitably leads to a struggle for existence, -and, as a consequence, to the natural selection or survival -of the fittest, must appear to us superfluous laws of nature. -On the other hand, an omnipotent and omniscient -Creator ordains everything and foresees everything. Thus -we are brought face to face with a difficulty as insoluble -as is that of free-will and predestination.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_195">WHY DISTASTEFUL?</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 618.</div> - -<p>The main conclusion arrived at in this -work, namely, that man is descended from -some lowly organized form, will, I regret to -think, be highly distasteful to many. But there can -hardly be a doubt that we are descended from barbarians. -The astonishment which I felt on first seeing a party of -Fuegians on a wild and broken shore will never be forgotten -by me, for the reflection at once rushed into my -mind—such were our ancestors. These men were absolutely -naked and bedaubed with paint, their long hair -was tangled, their mouths frothed with excitement, and -their expression was wild, startled, and distrustful. They -possessed hardly any arts, and like wild animals lived on -what they could catch; they had no government, and -were merciless to every one not of their own small tribe. -He who has seen a savage in his native land will not feel -much shame, if forced to acknowledge that the blood of -some more humble creature flows in his veins. For my -own part I would as soon be descended from that heroic -little monkey, who braved his dreaded enemy in order to -save the life of his keeper, or from that old baboon, who,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span> -descending from the mountains, carried away in triumph -his young comrade from a crowd of astonished dogs—as -from a savage who delights to torture his enemies, offers -up bloody sacrifices, practices infanticide without remorse, -treats his wives like slaves, knows no decency, and is -haunted by the grossest superstitions.</p> - -<p>Man may be excused for feeling some pride at having -risen, though not through his own exertions, to the very -summit of the organic scale; and the fact of his having -thus risen, instead of having been aboriginally placed -there, may give him hope for a still higher destiny in the -distant future. But we are not here concerned with -hopes or fears, only with the truth as far as our reason -permits us to discover it; and I have given the evidence -to the best of my ability. We must, however, acknowledge, -as it seems to me, that man with all his noble qualities, -with sympathy which feels for the most debased, -with benevolence which extends not only to other men -but to the humblest living creature, with his godlike -intellect which has penetrated into the movements and -constitution of the solar system—with all these exalted -powers—man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible -stamp of his lowly origin.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_196">“ACCORDS BETTER WITH WHAT WE KNOW OF THE CREATOR’S -LAWS.”</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Origin of -Species,<br /> -page 428.</div> - -<p>Authors of the highest eminence seem to -be fully satisfied with the view that each species -has been independently created. To my -mind it accords better with what we know of the laws -impressed on matter by the Creator, that the production -and extinction of the past and present inhabitants of the -world should have been due to secondary causes, like<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span> -those determining the birth and death of the individual. -When I view all beings not as special creations, but as -the lineal descendants of some few beings which lived -long before the first bed of the Cambrian system was deposited, -they seem to me to become ennobled. Judging -from the past, we may safely infer that not one living -species will transmit its unaltered likeness to a distant -futurity. And of the species now living very few will -transmit progeny of any kind to a far distant futurity; -for the manner in which all organic beings are grouped, -shows that the greater number of species in each genus, -and all the species in many genera, have left no descendants, -but have become utterly extinct. We can so far -take a prophetic glance into futurity as to foretell that it -will be the common and widely-spread species, belonging -to the larger and dominant groups within each class, -which will ultimately prevail and procreate new and dominant -species. As all the living forms of life are the lineal -descendants of those which lived long before the Cambrian -epoch, we may feel certain that the ordinary succession -by generation has never once been broken, and that -no cataclysm has desolated the whole world. Hence we -may look with some confidence to a secure future of great -length. And as natural selection works solely by and for -the good of each being, all corporeal and mental endowments -will tend to progress toward perfection.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_197">THE GRANDEUR OF THIS VIEW OF LIFE.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote page">Page 429.</div> - -<p>It is interesting to contemplate a tangled -bank, clothed with many plants of many -kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various insects -flitting about, and with worms crawling through the -damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span> -forms, so different from each other, and dependent -upon each other in so complex a manner, have all -been produced by laws acting around us. These laws, -taken in the largest sense, being growth with reproduction; -inheritance which is almost implied by reproduction; -variability from the indirect and direct action of the -conditions of life, and from use and disuse: a ratio of -increase so high as to lead to a struggle for life, and as a -consequence to natural selection, entailing divergence of -character and the extinction of less-improved forms. -Thus, from the war of nature, from famine and death, -the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, -namely, the production of the higher animals, directly -follows. There is grandeur in this view of life, with -its several powers, having been originally breathed by the -Creator into a few forms or into one; and that, while -this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law -of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most -beautiful and most wonderful have been and are being -evolved.</p> - -<h3 id="sec_198">NOT INCOMPATIBLE WITH THE BELIEF IN IMMORTALITY.</h3> - -<div class="sidenote">Descent -of Man,<br /> -page 612.</div> - -<p>I am aware that the assumed instinctive -belief in God has been used by many persons -as a rash argument for his existence. But this is -a rash argument, as we should thus be compelled to believe -in the existence of many cruel and malignant spirits, -only a little more powerful than man; for the belief in -them is far more general than in a beneficent Deity. The -idea of a universal and beneficent Creator does not seem -to arise in the mind of man, until he has been elevated -by long-continued culture.</p> - -<p>He who believes in the advancement of man from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span> -some low organized form, will naturally ask, How does -this bear on the belief in the immortality of the soul? -The barbarous races of man, as Sir J. Lubbock has shown, -possess no clear belief of this kind; but arguments derived -from the primeval beliefs of savages are, as we have -just seen, of little or no avail. Few persons feel any anxiety -from the impossibility of determining at what precise -period in the development of the individual, from the -first trace of a minute germinal vesicle, man becomes an -immortal being; and there is no greater cause for anxiety -because the period can not possibly be determined in the -gradually ascending organic scale.</p> - -<p>I am aware that the conclusions arrived at in this -work will be denounced by some as highly irreligious; -but he who denounces them is bound to show why it -is more irreligious to explain the origin of man as a -distinct species by descent from some lower form, -through the laws of variation and natural selection, -than to explain the birth of the individual through the -laws of ordinary reproduction. The birth both of the -species and of the individual are equally parts of that -grand sequence of events, which our minds refuse to -accept as the result of blind chance. The understanding -revolts at such a conclusion, whether or not we are -able to believe that every slight variation of structure—the -union of each pair in marriage—the dissemination -of each seed—and other such events, have all been ordained -for some special purpose.</p> - -<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> - -<div class="sidenote">Journal of -Researches,<br /> -page 503.</div> - -<p>Among the scenes which are deeply impressed -on my mind, none exceed in sublimity -the primeval forests undefaced by the -hand of man; whether those of Brazil, where the powers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span> -of life are predominant, or those of Tierra del Fuego, -where death and decay prevail. Both are temples filled -with the varied productions of the God of Nature; no -one can stand in these solitudes unmoved, and not -feel that there is more in man than the mere breath of -his body.</p> - -<p class="p2 center">THE END.</p> - -<div class="chapter"><div class="transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made -consistent when a predominant preference was found -in the original book; otherwise they were not changed.</p> - -<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced -quotation marks were remedied when the change was -obvious or could be determined by reference to Darwin’s -original books; and otherwise left unbalanced.</p> -</div></div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DARWINISM STATED BY DARWIN HIMSELF ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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