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diff --git a/old/69102-0.txt b/old/69102-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 20151ef..0000000 --- a/old/69102-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,948 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Moon, by Oliver Cummings -Farrington - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Moon - -Author: Oliver Cummings Farrington - -Release Date: October 6, 2022 [eBook #69102] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Thomas Cosmas compiled from materials made available on The - Internet Archive and placed in the Public Domain. - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MOON *** - - - - - -Transcriber Note - -Text emphasis is denoted as _Italics_. Whole and fractional parts of -number as 1234-56/789. - - - - - THE MOON - - BY - - OLIVER C. FARRINGTON - - CURATOR OF GEOLOGY - - - [Illustration] - - - GEOLOGY - - LEAFLET 6 - - - FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY - - CHICAGO - - 1925 - - -LIST OF GEOLOGICAL LEAFLETS ISSUED TO DATE - - No. 1. Model of an Arizona Gold Mine $ .10 - - No. 2. Models of Blast Furnaces for Smelting Iron .10 - - No. 3. Amber--Its Physical Properties and Geological Occurrence .10 - - No. 4. Meteorites .10 - - No. 5. Soils .10 - - No. 6. The Moon .10 - - D. C. DA VIES, DIRECTOR - - FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY - CHICAGO. U.S.A. - -[Illustration: LEAFLET 6. PLATE I. - -PHOTOGRAPH OF MODEL IN RELIEF OF THE VISIBLE HEMISPHERE OF THE MOON. -HALL 35. - -The model is 19 feet in diameter.] - - - FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY - - DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY - - CHICAGO, 1925 - - ------------------------------------------------------------ - LEAFLET NUMBER 6 - ------------------------------------------------------------ - - Table of Contents - - The Moon 1 - General Observations. 7 - Description of Individual Features. 7 - Sources of Additional Information About the Moon. 13 - - - - -THE MOON - - -Except for occasional comets and meteors, the Moon is the celestial -body nearest the Earth. Its mean distance from the Earth is 237,640 -miles, but as it moves in an elliptical orbit, it has at one point -a remoteness of 253,263 miles and opposite to this one of 221,436 -miles. The diameter of the Moon is about one-fourth that of the Earth, -or 2,160 miles, and its volume is 1/49 that of the Earth. The mass -of the Moon (volume multiplied by density) is 1/81 and the density -⅗ that of the Earth. The period of the Moon's revolution about the -Earth is 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes and 11½ seconds. As its period -of rotation on its axis is the same, only one side of the Moon is ever -seen from the Earth. Since, however, the Moon's axis is inclined about -83° to the plane of its orbit, we sometimes see a little distance -beyond each of its poles, and, since the rate of motion of the Moon -in its orbit varies slightly, we sometimes see a little beyond the -eastern and western edges of the hemisphere. The total result of these -_librations_, as they are called, is to make four-sevenths of the -Moon's surface visible to us. Of the remaining three-sevenths, nothing -is known. So far as is known, the Moon is not flattened at the poles. - -Owing to its slow rotation on its axis, the Moon's day has a length of -29½ of our days. Each portion of its surface is therefore exposed to or -shielded from the light of the Sun for a fortnight continuously. - -The Moon has no atmosphere. Hence, it can have no diffused light, and -nothing can be seen on it except where the Sun's rays shine directly. -"If a man stepped into the shadow of a lunar crag," says Todd, "he -would instantly become invisible. For a similar reason, no sound, -however loud, can be heard on the Moon. The rolling of a rock down the -wall of a lunar crater, will be known only by the tremor it produces." -Moreover, changes of temperature on the Moon are rapid and violent. -Where the Sun's rays strike, a temperature about that of boiling water -is believed to be reached, while in unilluminated portions it is -thought to go as low as 100° below zero. - -The force of gravity upon the surface of the Moon is only ⅙ of that on -the Earth. Therefore, a man weighing 150 pounds on the Earth, would -weigh only 25 pounds on the Moon, and the same muscular energy by which -he could jump 6 feet on the Earth would carry him a distance of 36 feet -on the Moon. On the Earth a body falls 16 feet in one second; on the -Moon only 2.6 feet in the same time. - -The surface of the Moon is made up of mountains, valleys and plains, -resembling in general appearance those of the Earth. As a whole, -however, the surface of the Moon is much more uneven than that of the -Earth. Some of the mountains of the Moon have a height of over 20,000 -feet. As there is no sea-level to measure from, this figure expresses -height above the surrounding surface, it being determined by the length -of the shadows cast by the mountains. - -In order to represent in a vivid and accurate manner the character and -appearance of the Moon's surface, the construction of a large model of -the Moon was undertaken a number of years ago by Th. Dickert, Curator -of the Natural History Museum of Bonn, Germany and Dr. J. F. Julius -Schmidt, Director of the Observatory of Athens, Greece and an eminent -selenographer. The model was presented to the Museum by the late Lewis -Reese of Chicago, and is installed at the west end of Hall 35 of the -Museum. The model is 19.2 feet in diameter, and is by far the largest -and most elaborate representation of the Moon's surface ever made. Its -horizontal scale is 1:600,000, one inch on the model equaling 9-47/100 -miles on the surface of the Moon, and its vertical scale is 1:200,000, -one inch equaling 3-15/100 miles on the Moon. - -Some characteristic features of the Moon's surface which are especially -well illustrated on the model are the following: - -1. GRAY PLAINS or "SEAS." These are the darker portions of the Moon's -surface as it is seen with the naked eye. They were thought by earlier -observers to be seas and were so named. We now know, however, that -there is no water on the Moon's surface and that the so-called "seas" -are really low-land plains, some of them of vast extent. The Oceanus -Procellarum, for instance, covers an area of 90,000 square miles. -As seen from the Earth, the plains show a gray-green color, often -of varying intensity and sometimes a little bluish in portions. The -brightest green color is shown by the area known as Mare Serenitatis. -Though appearing perfectly level, a close study shows that these plains -have undulating surfaces. They occupy about one-third of the visible -surface of the Moon. - -2. MOUNTAINS and HIGHLANDS. These constitute the bright portions of the -Moon's surface as it is seen with the naked eye. - -Although these elevated areas are conveniently called mountains, Shaler -has drawn attention to the fact that they are unlike those on the -Earth since they lack features due to erosion and there is absence of -order in their association. The average declivity of their slopes is -also much greater than that of the mountains on the Earth. It has been -estimated that the average angle of the lunar surface to its horizon is -52°, while on the Earth it does not amount to more than one-tenth of -that figure. This difference is probably due to the lack of water on -the Moon, the work of which on the Earth tends continually to reduce -slopes to a level. Using the term mountains for convenience, however, -those on the Moon may be divided into the following classes: - -_a._ MOUNTAIN CHAINS. These may have a length of 80 to 100 miles and -heights of from 5,000 to 17,000 feet. As in the case with the mountains -of the Earth, they are usually steeper on one side than on the other. -The range called the Appenines, seen near the north pole of the Moon, -is a good illustration of such mountain chains. Other ranges are the -so-called Alps and Caucasus. These names were applied by Hevelius, an -astronomer of Danzig, who made the first map of the Moon in 1647. He -gave to the features of the Moon's surface names of localities similar -to those on the Earth which they most resembled. His system was largely -abandoned by later astronomers, however, the later method being to name -the different features of the Moon after celebrated astronomers and -philosophers. - -_b._ HIGHLANDS SURROUNDED BY MOUNTAINS. These are partly with and -partly without well-determined directions. - -_c._ ISOLATED MOUNTAINS. These usually occur on the gray plains. They -vary from 4,000 to 7,000 feet in height. - -_d._ VEIN MOUNTAINS. These occur only on the gray plains. They are -long, narrow, contorted ridges, usually from 700 to 1,000 feet in -height. - -_e._ CIRCULAR MOUNTAINS. These are the most characteristic and peculiar -features of the Moon's surface. They vary in size from the so-called -"Walled Plains," 150 to 15 miles in diameter, to crater mountains whose -diameters range from 15 miles down to a few hundred feet. Thirty-three -thousand of these crater mountains have been counted by one astronomer, -the number increasing as the size diminishes. - -The form of these craters is that of pits, which generally have -ring-like walls about them. These wails slope very steeply to a central -cavity and more gently toward the surrounding country. In all these -pits, as pointed out by Shaler, except those of the smallest size, -and possibly in these, also, there is, within the ring wall and at a -considerable though variable depth below its summit, a nearly flat -floor, which often has a central pit of small size or, in its place, -a steep cone. When this floor is more than 20 miles in diameter, and -in increasing numbers as it is wider, there are generally other pits -and cones irregularly scattered upon it. Thus, within the ring called -Plato, which is about 60 miles in diameter, there are some scores of -these lesser pits. On the interior of the ring walls of the pits over -10 miles in diameter, there are usually more or less distinct terraces, -which suggest that the material now forming the solid floors they -inclose was once fluid and stood at greater heights in the pit than -that at which it became permanently frozen. It is, indeed, tolerably -certain that the last movement of this material of the floors was one -of interrupted subsidence from an originally greater elevation on -the outside of the ring wall. The ring wall is commonly of irregular -height, with many peaks. In some places there may be seen tongues or -protrusions of the substance which forms the ring, as if it had flowed -a short distance and then had cooled with steep slopes. It may also -be noted: (_a_) that the pits or craters in many instances intersect -each other, showing that they were not all formed at the same time, -but in succession; (_b_) that the larger of them are not found on the -plains (seas) but on the upland and apparently the older parts of the -surface; and (_c_) that the evidence from the intersections clearly -indicates that the larger of these structures are prevailingly the -older and that in general the smallest were the latest formed. In other -words, says Shaler, whatever was the nature of the action involved in -the production of the craters, its energy diminished with time, until -in the end it could no longer break the crust. These features indicate -that the surface of the Moon has been subject to forces similar to -those which produce volcanoes on the Earth, and it is therefore -customary to refer to the crater-like mountains of the Moon as -volcanoes. As the parallel cannot be drawn too closely, however, Shaler -has urged that the term vulcanoids, meaning volcano-like, be applied to -these mountains. - -3. RILLS or CLEFTS. These are small, deep, ditch-like furrows to be -found over various parts of the Moon's surface. Their course seems -quite independent of the surface topography, for they traverse -mountains and plains with equal facility. They are without doubt the -latest formation on the Moon and some of them may have had their origin -in modern times. - -4. BRIGHT STREAKS. These radiate prominently from many of the great -craters of the Moon. They are streaks of narrow width but sometimes -nearly a hundred miles in length. They are perhaps the most puzzling -of all the Moon's features. They have been supposed by some observers -to represent lava flows whose surface reflected light more brilliantly -than other portions of the Moon. It is more generally believed, -however, that the streaks do not represent any independent elevations, -since they run over the highest mountains as well as through the -deepest craters without variation. - - - - -GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. - - -The condition of the Moon's surface as a whole indicates that it has -been a theater of extraordinary volcanic activity. In size and number -its vulcanoids far exceed the volcanoes of the Earth. The largest -terrestrial crater known is that of Kilauea in the Hawaiian Islands -which is 2½ miles in diameter. Several craters of the Moon, however, -exceed 50 miles in diameter and one measures 114¼ miles. While the -absolute heights of the mountains of the Moon do not greatly exceed -those of the Earth, proportionally they are much higher, since the -Moon's diameter is only one-fourth that of the Earth. The vulcanoids -of the Moon differ in other respects from the volcanoes of our globe. -"On the Earth they are usually openings on the summits or sides of -mountains--on the Moon, depressions below the adjacent surface even -when it is a plain or valley; on the Earth the mass of the cone usually -far exceeds the capacity of the crater--on the Moon they are much -nearer equality; on the Earth they are commonly the sources of long -lava streams--on the Moon, traces of such outpourings are rare." (Webb.) - - - - -DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUAL FEATURES. - -(Abridged from Nasmyth and Carpenter.) - -The numbers refer to those on the accompanying chart. - - -COPERNICUS. 147. This may deservedly be considered one of the grandest -and most instructive of lunar craters. Though its diameter (46 miles) -is exceeded by that of other craters, its situation near the center -of the lunar disc renders it so conspicuous as to make it a favorite -object for observation. Its vast rampart rises to upwards of 12,000 -feet above the level of the plateau, nearly in the center of which -stands a magnificent group of cones attaining the height of upwards -of 2400 feet. The rampart is divided by concentric segmented terraced -ridges, which present every appearance of being enormous landslips, -resulting from the crushing of their overloaded summits which have -slid down in vast segments and scattered their debris on the plateau. -Corresponding vacancies in the rampart may be observed from whence -these prodigious masses have broken away. The same may be noticed, to -a somewhat modified degree, around the exterior of the rampart. For -upwards of 70 miles around Copernicus myriads of comparatively minute -but perfectly formed craters can be seen. The district on the southeast -side is especially rich in them. Many somewhat radial ridges or spurs -may be observed leading away from the exterior banks of the great -rampart. They appear to be due to the freer egress which the extruded -matter found near the focus of disruption. - -TRIESNECKER. 150. A fine example of a normal lunar volcanic crater -having all the usual characteristic features in great perfection. -Its diameter is about 20 miles and it possesses a good example of -the central cone and also of interior terracing. The most notable -feature, however, is the remarkable display of cracks or chasms which -may be seen to the west side of it. Several of these cracks obviously -diverge from near the west external bank of the great crater and they -sub-divide or branch out as they extend from the apparent point of -divergence, while they are crossed or intersected by others. These -cracks or chasms are nearly one mile wide at their widest part and -after extending for fully 100 miles taper away till they become -invisible. - -THEOPHILUS. 97. CYRILLUS. 96. CATHARINA. 95. These three magnificent -craters form a conspicuous group. Their diameters and depths are as -follows: Theophilus, diameter, 64 miles; depth of interior plateau -from summit of crater wall, 16,000 feet; central cone, 5200 feet high; -Cyrillus, diameter, 60 miles; depth of interior plateau from summit -of crater wall, 15,000 feet; central cone, 5800 feet high; Catharina, -diameter, 65 miles; depth of interior plateau from summit of crater -wall, 13,000 feet; center of plateau occupied by a confused group of -minor craters and debris. Each of these craters is full of interesting -details presenting in every variety the characteristic features of the -lunar volcanoes and giving unmistakable evidence of the tremendous -energy which at some remote period piled up such gigantic formations. -The intrusion of Theophilus within Cyrillus shows that it is of more -recent formation than the latter. The flanks of Theophilus, especially -on the west side, are studded with apparently minute craters. These -would be considered of great size but for the enormous crater so near. - -PTOLEMY. 111. ALPHONS. 110. ARZACHAEL. 84. The portion of the moon's -surface which includes these features, being near the center of the -lunar disc, is exceptionally well placed for observation. Within -this area may be seen every variety of volcanic craters and a number -of other interesting forms. Ptolemy belongs to the class of walled -plains, its ramparts enclosing a plain 86 miles in diameter. Alphons -and Arzachael are respectively 60 and 55 miles in diameter. They have -all the distinctive features of lunar craters, viz:--central cones, -lofty, ragged ramparts, manifestations of landslip formations in the -great segmental terraces within their ramparts and minor craters -interpolated within their plateaus. A notable object near Alphons is -an enormous straight cliff traversing the diameter of a low, ridged, -circular formation. This great cliff is 60 miles long and from 1000 to -2000 feet high. It is a well known object to lunar observers and has -been termed "The Railway" on account of its straightness. The existence -of this remarkable cliff appears to be due either to an upheaval or a -down-sinking of a portion of the surface of the circular area across -whose diameter it extends. - -TYCHO. 80. This magnificent crater is 54 miles in diameter and upwards -of 16,000 feet deep from the highest ridge of the rampart to the -surface of the plateau. It is one of the most conspicuous of lunar -craters, not so much on account of its dimensions as from its occupying -the great focus of disruption from whence diverge those remarkable -bright streaks many of which may be traced over 1000 miles of the -moon's surface. The interior of the crater presents striking examples -of the concentric, terrace-like formations that are regarded as formed -by landslips. - -WARGENTIN. 26. SCHICKARD. 28. Wargentin is an object quite unique of -its kind--a crater about 52 miles across, that to all appearance has -been filled to the brim with lava that has been left to consolidate. -There are evidences of the remains of a rampart, especially on the -southwest portion of the rim. The general aspect of Wargentin has been -compared to that of a "thin cheese." The terraced and rutted exterior -of the rampart has all the details of a true crater. The surface of -the high plateau is marked by a few ridges branching from a point -nearly in the center. - -Schickard is one of the finest examples of a walled plain. It is 153 -miles in diameter. Within its rampart are 16 smaller craters and -without, numberless others. - -The following are the names of topographic features of the Moon which -can be located by the corresponding numbers on the accompanying chart. - - 1. Newton. 59. Pontanus. - 2. Short. 60. Poisson. - 3. Simpelius. 61. Aliacensis. - 4. Manzinus. 62. Werner. - 5. Moretus. 63. Pitatus. - 6. Gruemberger. 64. Hesiodus. - 7. Casatus. 65. Mercator. - 8. Klaproth. 66. Vitello. - 9. Wilson. 67. Fourier. - 10. Kircher. 68. Lagrange. - 11. Bettinus. 69. Vieta. - 12. Blancanus. 70. Doppelmayer. - 13. Clavius. 71. Campanus. - 14. Scheiner. 72. Kies. - 15. Zuchius. 73. Purbach. - 16. Segner. 74. La Caille. - 17. Bacon. 75. Playfair. - 18. Nearchus. 76. Azophi. - 19. Vlacq. 77. Sacrobosco. - 20. Hommel. 78. Fracastorius. - 21. Licetus. 79. Santbech. - 22. Maginus. 80. Petavius. - 23. Longomontanus. 81. Wilhelm Humboldt. - 24. Schiller. 82. Polybius. - 25. Phocylides. 83. Geber. - 26. Wargentin. 84. Arzachael. - 27. Inghirami. 85. Thebit. - 28. Schickard. 86. Bullialdus. - 29. Wilhelm I. 87. Hippalus. - 30. Tycho. 88. Cavendish. - 31. Saussure. 89. Mersenius. - 32. Stoefler. 90. Gassendi. - 33. Maurolycus. 91. Lubiniezky. - 34. Barocius. 92. Alpetragius. - 35. Fabricius. 93. Airy. - 36. Metius. 94. Almanon. - 37. Fernelius. 95. Catharina. - 38. Heinsius. 96. Cyrillus. - 39. Hainzel. 97. Theophilus. - 40. Bouvard. 98. Colombo. - 41. Piazzi. 99. Vendelinus. - 42. Ramsden. 100. Langreen. - 43. Capuanus. 101. Goclenius. - 44. Cichus. 102. Guttemberg. - 45. Wurzelbauer. 103. Isidorus. - 46. Gauricus. 104. Capella. - 47. Hell. 105. Kant. - 48. Walter. 106. Descartes. - 49. Nonius. 107. Abulfeda. - 50. Riccius. 108. Parrot. - 51. Rheita. 109. Albategnius. - 52. Furnerius. 110. Alphons. - 53. Stevinus. 111. Ptolemy. - 54. Hase. 112. Herschel. - 55. Snell. 113. Davy. - 56. Borda. 114. Guerike. - 57. Neander. 116. Bonpland. - 58. Piccolomini. - - 117. Lalande. 174. Seleucus. - 118. Reaumur. 175. Herodotus. - 120. Letronne. 176. Aristarchus. - 121. Billy. 177. La Hire. - 122. Fontana. 178. Pytheas. - 123. Hansteen. 179. Bessel. - 124. Damoiseau. 180. Vitruvius. - 125. Grimaldi. 181. Maraldi. - 126. Flamsteed. 182. Macrobius. - 127. Landsberg. 183. Cleomides. - 128. Moesting. 184. Roemer. - 129. Deambrel. 185. Littrow. - 130. Taylor. 186. Posidonius. - 131. Messier. 187. Geminus. - 132. Maskelyne. 188. Linnaeus. - 133. Sabine. 189. Autolycus. - 134. Ritter. 190. Aristillus. - 135. Godin. 191. Archimedes. - 136. Soemmering. 192. Timocharis. - 137. Schroeter. 193. Lambert. - 138. Gambart. 194. Diophantus. - 139. Reinhold. 195. Delisle. - 140. Encke. 196. Briggs. - 141. Hevelius. 197. Lichtenberg. - 142. Riccioli. 199. Calippus. - 143. Lohrman. 200. Cassini. - 144. Cavalerius. 201. Gauss. - 145. Reiner. 202. Messala. - 146. Kepler. 203. Struve. - 147. Copernicus. 204. Mason. - 148. Stadius. 205. Plana. - 149. Pallas. 206. Burg. - 150. Triesnecker. 207. Baily. - 151. Agrippa. 208. Eudoxus. - 152. Arago. 209. Aristotle. - 153. Taruntius. 210. Plato. - 154. Apollonius. 211. Pico. - 155. Schubert. 212. Helicon. - 156. Firmicus. 213. Maupertuis. - 157. Silberschlag. 214. Condamine. - 158. Hyginus. 215. Bianchini. - 159. Ukert. 216. Sharp. - 160. Boscovich. 217. Mairan. - 161. Ross. 218. Gerard. - 162. Proclus. 219. Repsold. - 163. Picard. 220. Pythagoras. - 164. Condorcet. 221. Fontenelle. - 165. Pliny or Menelaus. 222. Timaeus. - 167. Manilius. 223. Epigenes. - 168. Erastothenes. 224. Gartner. - 169. Gay Lussac. 225. Thales. - 170. Tobias Mayer. 226. Strabo. - 171. Marius. 227. Endymion. - 172. Olbers. 228. Atlas. - 173. Vasco de Gama. 229. Hercules. - - - OLIVER C. FARRINGTON. - - - - -SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE MOON - - -A number of textbooks and popular works on astronomy deal more or less -fully with the Moon. Among them the following may be mentioned. - - MOULTON, FOREST RAY--Introduction to Astronomy. Macmillan - & Co., New York. 1916. 577 pp. - - YOUNG, CHARLES A.--A Textbook of General Astronomy. Ginn - & Co., Boston. 1898. 630 pp. - - TODD, DAVID P.--Stars and Telescopes. Little, Brown & Co., - Boston. 1899. 419 pp. - -The following are some works which treat exclusively of the Moon. - - NASMYTH, JAMES and CARPENTER, JAMES--The Moon. John - Murray, London. 1885. 213 pp. 25 "Woodburytype" - plates and several text figures. - - PICKERING, WILLIAM H.--The Moon. Doubleday, Page & Co., - New York. 1903. Quarto. 103 pp. and many full-sized - plates. - - PROCTOR, RICHARD A.--The Moon. Longmans, Green & Co., - London. 1898. 314 pp. - - GILBERT, GROVE K.--The Moon's Face. Bulletin of the Philosophical - Society of Washington, 1892-93. Vol. 12, pp. - 241-292. - - SHALER, NATHANIEL S.--A Comparison of the Features of the - Earth and the Moon. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. - 1907. Vol. 34, pp. 1-79. 25 plates. - - -[Illustration: LEAFLET 6. PLATE II. - -CHART OF THE MOON'S SURFACE. AFTER NASMYTH. - -The figures refer to the names given on pp. 11 and 12 and the use of -the chart with the model will enable the reader to name the different -features of the moon.] - - -PRINTED BY FIELD MUSEUM PRESS - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - -The list of "topographic features" (pp. 11-12) have some numbers -missing (115, 116) and a comparison with Nasmyth and Carpenter's The -Moon was missing those numbers but several other numbers were repeated. -The repeated numbers appear to represent craters too close to split out. - - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MOON *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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