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diff --git a/old/69080-0.txt b/old/69080-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6e801a0..0000000 --- a/old/69080-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10897 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Walker's manly exercises, by Donald -Walker - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Walker's manly exercises - Containing rowing, sailing, riding, driving, racing, hunting, - shooting, and other manly sports - -Author: Donald Walker - -Editor: "Craven" - -Release Date: October 1, 2022 [eBook #69080] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Tim Lindell, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WALKER'S MANLY -EXERCISES *** - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - Texts between _underscores_, between =equal signs= and between - ~tildes~ were printed as italicised, bold face and blackletter text - in the source document. Small capitals have been replaced with ALL - CAPITALS. - - More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - - WALKER’S - MANLY EXERCISES - AND - RURAL SPORTS. - - EDITED BY “CRAVEN.” - -[Illustration] - - -[Illustration: - - MANLY - EXERCISES, - - SAILING, ROWING, - DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, - RACING, SEATING, SWIMMING, - VAULTING, CLIMBING, - RUNNING, - &c. &c. - - _HENRY G. BOHN, - LONDON._] - - - WALKER’S - MANLY EXERCISES; - - CONTAINING - - ~=Rowing, Sailing, Riding, Driving, Racing, Hunting, - Shooting,=~ - - AND OTHER MANLY SPORTS. - - THE WHOLE CAREFULLY REVISED, OR WRITTEN, - - BY “CRAVEN.” - - =NINTH EDITION.= - - LONDON: - H. G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. - MDCCCLV. - - - - -EDITOR’S PREFACE. - - -The publishers of the present Edition of this popular little volume had -a double purpose in entering upon the undertaking,--namely, to offer a -carefully-revised copy of WALKER’S MANLY EXERCISES, and an outline of -RURAL SPORTS, to which they serve as the best elementary introduction. -As the execution of that design was committed to me, I can only allude -to the nature of the task, and hope that I have not quite failed in the -enterprise. This I _may_ be permitted to say,--that if the publishers’ -desire to make the work a source of instructive and rational amusement -be realized, even to the tithe of its extent and earnestness, the -labour of his Editor will not have been wholly without success. - - CRAVEN. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES. - - PAGE - - GENERAL DIRECTIONS 6 - Training 8 - Position 18 - Extension Motions 20 - The Indian Club Exercises 22 - - - LOCOMOTIVE EXERCISES. - - THE BALANCE STEP 28 - WALKING 29 - General Mechanism of Walking 31 - The Slow Walk or March 32 - The Moderate and the Quick Pace 32 - The Moderate Pace 33 - The Quick Pace 33 - Slow Step 35 - Quick Step 35 - Double March 35 - Feats in Walking 36 - - RUNNING 37 - Position in Running 38 - Action in Running 38 - Respiration 39 - Moderate Running 39 - Rapid Running 40 - Feats in Running 41 - Effects of Running 41 - - LEAPING 42 - The High Leap 42 - Feats in High Leaping 42 - The Long Leap 44 - Feats in Long Leaping 44 - The Deep Leap 45 - The Deep Leap backwards from a rest on the hands 46 - - VAULTING 48 - Oblique Vaulting 48 - Straight-forward Vaulting 49 - Leaping with a Pole 50 - The High Leap with a Pole 50 - The Long Leap with a Pole 54 - The Deep Leap with a Pole 55 - - BALANCING 56 - Position and Action in Balancing 56 - Turns in Balancing 57 - - CARRYING WEIGHT 57 - - THROWING THE DISCUS 60 - - CLIMBING, in all its divisions 64 - - SKATING 69 - Construction of the Skate 69 - Dress of the Skater 72 - Preliminary and General Directions 72 - The Ordinary Run, or Inside Edge Forward 73 - The Forward Roll, or Outside Edge 75 - Figure of Three, or Inside Edge Backward 76 - Outside Edge Backward 77 - The Back Roll 78 - Dangers of Skating 80 - Treatment of Drowned Persons 80 - - - AQUATIC EXERCISES - - SWIMMING 82 - Preparatory Instructions 83 - Place and time for Swimming 85 - Dress 86 - Aids 86 - Cramp 87 - Entering the Water 88 - Buoyancy in the Water 88 - Attitude and Action in the Water 91 - Respiration in Swimming 91 - Coming out of the Water 92 - Upright Swimming 92 - Treading Water 95 - Back Swimming 95 - Floating 96 - Side Swimming 97 - Plunging 97 - Diving 98 - Thrusting 99 - Springing 99 - One-arm Swimming 100 - Feats in Swimming 100 - - ROWING, in all its kinds 101 - - SAILING, with notices of the Yacht Clubs, and General - Directions 106 - - - RIDING. - The Horse and Equipments 122 - Mounting and Dismounting 125 - The Seat 129 - The Balance 131 - The Rein Hold 132 - The Correspondence 134 - The Action 135 - The Hand 136 - The Aids 138 - Animations, Soothings, and Corrections 142 - The Walk 144 - The Trot 147 - Road Riding 150 - The Gallop 152 - Leaping 156 - Critical Situations 159 - Treatment of the Horse 165 - Driving 170 - The Road 175 - Carriages 176 - Coach Horses 178 - Harness 185 - Relative Prices of Horses 189 - Coachmen 193 - Mounting and Dismounting 198 - The Seat 199 - Starting 199 - The Paces 200 - The Time 201 - The Whip 202 - Thoroughfares, Passing, &c. 207 - Ascending and Descending Hills 208 - The Turnings 213 - The Ranks in Town 214 - Stops 215 - Accidents to Horses 215 - Accidents to Coaches 217 - Obstructions, Offences, and Injuries 221 - - RACING 223 - - HUNTING 239 - - SHOOTING 253 - - - - -LIST OF PLATES. - - - FRONTISPIECE. - - VIGNETTE. - - - PLATES. - I. Position--Extension Motions. - II. to VII. Indian Club Exercises. - VIII. Walking. - IX. Running. - X. Leaping. - XI. Vaulting. - XII. & XIII. Pole Leaping. - XIV. & XV. Balancing. - XVI. Carrying Weight. - XVII. Throwing the Discus. - XVIII. Climbing. - XIX. Skating. - XX. Swimming--Attitude. - XXI. Swimming--Action of the Hands. - XXII. Swimming--Action of the Feet. - XXIII. Swimming--Buoyancy in Water--Treading Water. - XXIV. Swimming--Back Swimming. - XXV. Swimming--Side Swimming--Floating. - XXVI. Swimming--Plunging. - XXVII. Swimming--Diving. - XXVIII. Swimming--Thrusting. - XXIX. Rowing--Fig. I. Beginning of the Pull. - Rowing--Fig. II. Middle of the Pull. - XXX. Rowing--Fig. I. End of the Pull.--Fig. II. Return of - Sculls. - XXXI. Fig. I. Mariner’s Compass.--Fig. II. Plan of a Vessel’s - Deck. - XXXII. Fig. I. Parts of a Pleasure Boat at Anchor. - Fig. II. Boat before a Light Breeze. - XXXIII. Fig. I. Boat with Breeze on Larboard Beam. - Fig. II. Boat close to the Wind on Starboard Tack. - XXXIV. Horse Equipments. - XXXV. Fig. I. Parts of the Horse.--Fig. II. First View of - Mounting. - XXXVI. Fig. I. Second View of Mounting.--Fig. II. The Seat. - XXXVII. The Rein Hold. - XXXVIII. Fig. I. The Walk.--Fig. II. The Stop. - XXXIX. Fig. I. The Trot.--Fig. II. Road Riding. - XL. The Canter. - XLI. The Rise in Leaping, - XLII. The Fall in Leaping. - XLIII. Four Horse Harness. - XLIV. The Rein Hold in Driving. - - -[Illustration] - - - - -IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES. - - -EDUCATION may be divided into two parts, physical and mental. Of the -former, EXERCISES or GYMNASTICS are the most extensive and the earliest -portion. - -THEIR EXTENT is learnt by an enumeration of them, viz., Walking, -Running, Leaping, Vaulting, Pole-leaping, Balancing, Skating, Carrying, -Climbing, and Swimming. We have added Throwing the Discus; and, in a -course of British Exercises, we think Rowing, Sailing, Riding, and -Driving, would be very improperly omitted. - -The object of these Exercises is to strengthen the muscular system, -by subjecting it to a regular process of training, and to teach the -means of employing it most advantageously. The expediency of their -early acquisition is rendered evident by the first tendency of youth -being directed to them, by the rapid progress made in them, and by the -delight derived from them, at a period when the body is incapable, with -real or solid advantage, of higher acquirements. - -Their general utility will be questioned only by those who are not -aware that the health and vigour of all the bodily organs depend on the -proportioned exercise of each. In active exertion, the member exercised -swells with the more frequent and more copious flow of blood, and heat -is developed in it with greater abundance; and if we repeat the same -motions many times after intervals of repose, all the muscles exercised -become permanently developed; a perfection of action ensues in the -member exercised, which it did not previously possess, any deformity -by which it is affected is corrected, and strength and activity are -acquired. That man, therefore, gains the most strength who engages in -muscular exercises that require the application of much power, but -which are sufficiently separated by intervals of repose. - -It must be remembered, however, that, in exercising particular muscles -only, the others become weak. The strength of Marshal Saxe was -sufficiently great to stop a chariot drawn at speed by four horses, by -merely seizing the wheel: he bent pieces of silver with his fingers, -made them into boats as he would with paper, and presented them to the -ladies. Count Orloff, a Russian general, broke the shoe of a carriage -horse in the same manner; and there are innumerable examples of similar -feats of extraordinary strength. - -Active exercises, at the same time, confer beauty of form; and they -even contribute to impart an elegant air and graceful manners. If the -exercise of a limb be continued for some time, the member swells, a -painful sensation is experienced, which is termed lassitude, and a -difficulty of contraction, which is the result of it. If the motion has -been excessive, and the organic elements in the member have been acted -upon beyond all physiological laws, inflammation would take place, and -its functions be performed with great difficulty, if at all. - -Such are the effects of exercise on the locomotive system, to all -the functions of animated beings, so long as they are exercised with -moderation, equality, and at due intervals, working for their own -preservation. Of course, the general effect of active exercises is -marked in proportion to the number of parts that share in the motion, -or are brought into energetic action. In general exercise, the increase -of organic action is not confined solely to the parts which are the -seat of muscular contraction, but is repeated throughout all parts of -the economy, and influences all the functions. - -Thus, as to the vital or nutritive system, exercises taken when -digestion is not going on, excite the digestive faculty: taken during -its progress, they disorder that function. The arterial and venous -circulations become more rapid by active exercise, which concludes by -giving greater force to the tissue of the heart. It is the same with -respiration and calorification. The same takes place with regard to -nutrition, a function which exercise increases, not only in the muscles -in movement, as we have just seen, but also in the bones, ligaments, -vessels, and nerves. - -By inducing cutaneous exhalation, it promotes the expulsion of -injurious agents, produces a fresh colour in persons who may have -become pale through a sedentary life, and, to a certain extent, renders -the human constitution, by means of habit, proof against the action of -surrounding objects. The local effects of excessive action, or those -which take place in the members themselves, are, as before observed, -inflammation of the muscles, rheumatism, like that arising from cold, -and inflammation of the serous articular membranes. The general effects -of excessive exercise may, in the same manner as all physical and -moral stimulants, exhaust the vital faculties too quickly, communicate -too much rigidity to the fibres, render the vessels varicose, bring -on chronic rheumatism, destroy the freshness of the skin, blight the -flower of youth, and produce old age and death before the time ordained -by nature. - -Ancient writers inform us that it was a rare thing to meet with -athletes, who, having signalized themselves from their earliest youth -in gymnastic combats, were of so excellent a constitution as to be -able, when they had reached a more advanced age, to acquire the same -honours on contending for the prize with grown men. Aristotle assures -us, that amongst the conquerors in the Olympic Games, not more than two -or three at the most could be found to whom nature had granted such an -advantage. - -In relation to the mental or thinking system, “every movement,” -says Cabanis, “becomes in its turn the principle or occasion of new -impressions, of which the frequent repetition and the varied character -must increase more and more the circle of our judgments, or tend -unceasingly to rectify them. It hence follows that labour, giving to -this word the most general signification, cannot but have an influence -infinitely useful on the habits of the understanding, and consequently -also on those of the will.” This argument is evidently applicable to -varied exercise. On the contrary, “the great division of labour, so -favourable to the perfecting of the arts, contracts more and more the -understanding of workmen.” Exercises, moreover, inspire confidence in -difficult situations, and suggest resources in danger. Their consequent -influence upon the moral conduct of man is such, that, by a courage -which is well founded, because it springs from a perfect knowledge -of his own powers, he is often enabled to render the most important -services to others. - -Although the direct effect of exercise is not only to confer -power on the muscular and other organs, but to multiply external -impressions, and to occupy with them all the senses at once; still -minds thus disposed, in general occupy themselves rather with -objects of imagination and sentiment, than with those which demand -more complicated operation. The sense of muscular power impresses -determinations which, carrying man perpetually out of himself, scarcely -permit him to dwell upon impressions transmitted to his brain. The only -action of that organ, during these exercises, seems to be limited to -ordering the movements. - -Hence, exercise, especially taken in the open air, amidst new and -varied objects of sight, is not favourable to reflection--to labours -which demand the assemblage and concentration of all the powers of the -mind. It is, on the contrary, in the absence of external impressions, -that we become more capable of seizing many relations, and of -following a long train of purely abstract reasoning. As life spent -chiefly in active muscular exercises would leave in a state of repose -those central organs that are subservient to the moral qualities and -intellectual faculties, I agree with Seneca and Camper, in proscribing -all such exercises, or such degrees of exercise, as would exhaust -the mind, and render man incapable of aptitude in science, polite -literature, and art. - -The cultivation of bodily strength, in preference to every thing else, -would establish only the right of the strongest, as it is found to -exist in the origin of society. To cultivate the faculties of the mind -exclusively, would produce only the weakness of sentiment or excess of -passion. There is, for every individual, a means of making all these -dispositions act in harmony; and the due blending of physical and moral -education alone can produce it. Let it be remembered that young persons -will much more easily be withdrawn from the application they ought to -pay to the study of the sciences, by insipid recreations and trifling -games, than by the fatiguing exercises necessary for their developement -and the preservation of their health, which, however, habit soon -renders easy and delightful. To what vices do not a sedentary life and -the practice of gaming give rise?--whilst well-regulated exercises -excite ambition to excel, and energy in the performance of every duty. - -The philosophers of antiquity, such as Aristotle and Plato, regarded -gymnastic exercises as of vast importance, and considered a state -defective and badly organized where these exercises were not -instituted. Colleges, called Gymnasia, were therefore established -everywhere, and superintended by distinguished masters. Accordingly, -the illustrious men of the Grecian and Roman republics, even those who -shone in literature and the fine arts, received the same physical -education. The gymnastic exercises which are here recommended are not -intended to produce athletes, but to strengthen the human constitution. -One exercise gives solidity, another address; and we may even say that -the various kinds of exercise are sometimes opposed to each other. -The strongest peasant is far from being the best runner; and the most -vigorous dancer would probably be deficient in strength. There is, -however, a mean to be found in the disposition of every individual to -preserve both skill and strength, and this is what ought to be sought. -For this purpose, it will suffice to practise young persons a few hours -every day, sometimes at one exercise, and sometimes at another. - - -GENERAL DIRECTIONS. - -It only remains for us to give a few directions as to the time, place, -and circumstances of exercise. The best time for the elementary -exercises is when the air is cool, as, even in summer, it is early -in the morning, or after the sun has declined; and they should never -immediately follow a meal. The best place for these elementary -exercises is a smooth grass-plat, or a firm sandy sea-beach. Chasms, -stones, and stakes, are always dangerous. At the commencement, the coat -and all unnecessary clothes should be laid aside; and all hard or sharp -things should be taken from the pockets of the remaining dress. A very -light covering on the head, as a straw hat, is best; the shirt-collar -should be open, the breast being either exposed or thinly covered; the -waistband of the trousers should not be tight, and the boots or shoes -should have no iron about them. - -As sudden transitions are always bad, exercise should begin gently, -and should terminate in the same manner. The left hand and arm being -commonly weaker than the right, they should be exercised till they -become as strong. This custom is advantageous, not only for all -military and mechanical gymnastic exercises, but also for all their -operations. The being cooled too quickly is injurious. Therefore, -drinking when very hot, or lying down on the cold ground, should be -carefully avoided. No exertion should be carried to excess, as that -only exhausts and enfeebles the body. Therefore, whenever the gymnast -feels tired, or falls behind his usual mark, he should resume his -clothes, and walk home. The moment exercise is finished, the clothes -should always be put on, and the usual precautions adopted to prevent -taking cold. - -The necessary fittings-up of an exercising ground are a leaping stand, -a vaulting horse, a balancing bar, a climbing stand, with ladders, -poles, and ropes, which may be seen united as simply and economically -as possible, in a subsequent sketch--(Plate XVIII. CLIMBING.) - -In most exercises, a belt or cincture is of utility; and it seems, in -all ages, to have been naturally employed. The weakest savage, who -could not follow others in the course without panting, would find, by -placing his hand over his abdomen, and supporting the liver and other -organs which descend into that cavity, that he was aided in running, -and breathed more easily; and thence he would make for himself a belt. -United in societies, men would still preserve their belt, though -it might not seem particularly advantageous, except to those whose -active mode of life approached a primitive state, such as travellers, -couriers, and porters. - -The Greeks put on their belts before they commenced wrestling; and -many physicians, both ancient and modern, recommend the use of belts, -as being to the whole of the body, and to the parts over which they -are placed, what the exterior sheaths or aponeuroses are to the -muscles--bands which embrace and keep firm the parts over which they -are placed. The common belt has leathern straps, and buckles to fasten -it, an iron ring and a pocket. A double cincture for wrestling forms a -very strong girth, which is put on by pupils who are very strong, when -they wrestle. These belts may be made of different sizes, for youths -of different ages: of five or six inches for tall youths and men, and -of eight or ten inches for wrestlers. Their length is in proportion -to the size of the person who uses them. These belts are very useful -in strengthening the abdominal region in running and leaping. Riders, -also, should furnish themselves with belts before getting on horseback, -to prevent too violent motion of the viscera of the abdomen, and the -disorders which may result from it. The use, indeed, of belts will -by degrees prove their utility, and they will probably be worn even -externally, without reference to physical exercises. They deserve this -the more, because they give an air of lightness and elegance to the -shape, and develope the chest. - -The most useful thing in existence is dangerous, if improperly applied. -In very young persons, the chest and abdomen have been compressed by -fastening the belt too tight, or making it too wide; and disorders of -digestion and respiration have consequently been caused by pushing in -the false ribs. This is an imprudence that should be avoided. If the -belt be too low, it may press too much on the lower part of the belly; -if too high, it may disorder the chest. It must therefore be placed on -the loins, so as to pass over the navel; and, as said before, it must -not be too tight. Having given these ideas of the utility of belts, and -the manner of using them, it remains only to explain the triple use -of those adopted for exercises: 1st, they fulfil, by their size and -other circumstances, all the conditions which render them useful; 2nd, -a pocket serves to inclose the articles that may be wanted, according -to the class of exercises performing; 3rd, an iron ring is intended to -suspend, by means of hooks, any thing we wish to carry, so as to leave -the hands at liberty. - - -TRAINING. - -This is important in relation to various exercises to be described. -The art of training for athletic exercises, or laborious exertions, -consists in purifying the body and strengthening its powers, by certain -processes, which are now to be described. The advantages of it, -however, are not confined to pedestrians, wrestlers, or pugilists; -they extend to every one: for, were training generally introduced, -instead of medicine, for the prevention and cure of diseases, its -beneficial consequences would assuredly prolong life, and promote its -happiness. Every physiologist knows that all the parts which compose -the human body--solids as well as liquids--are successively absorbed -and deposited. Hence ensues a perpetual renovation of them, regulated -by the nature of our food and general habits. The health of all the -parts, and the soundness of their structure, depend on this perpetual -absorption and renovation. Now, nothing so effectually as exercise -excites at once absorption and secretion. It accordingly promotes all -the vital functions without hurrying them, renovates all the parts, and -preserves them apt and fit for their offices. - -It follows, then, that health, vigour, and activity, chiefly depend -upon exercise and regimen; or, in other words, upon the observance of -those rules which constitute the theory of training. The effect has -accordingly corresponded with the cause assigned in this view of the -subject, in every instance where it has been adopted; and, although -not commonly resorted to as the means of restoring invalids to health, -there is every reason to believe that it would prove effectual in -curing many obstinate diseases, such as bilious complaints, obesity, -gout, and rheumatism. - -The Ancients entertained this opinion. They were, says a popular writer -on medicine, by no means unacquainted with or inattentive to these -instruments of medicine, although modern practitioners appear to have -no idea of removing disease, or restoring health, but by pouring drugs -into the stomach. Heroditus is said to have been the first who applied -the exercises and regimen of the Gymnasium to the removal of disease, -or the maintenance of health. Among the Romans, Asclepiades carried -this so far, that he is said, by Celsus, almost to have banished the -use of internal remedies from his practice. He was the inventor of -various modes of exercise and gestation, in Rome. In his own person, -he afforded an excellent example of the wisdom of his rules, and the -propriety of his regimen. Pliny tells us that, in early life, he made -a public profession, that he would agree to forfeit all pretensions to -the name of a physician, should he ever suffer from sickness, or die -but of old age; and, what is extraordinary, he fulfilled his promise, -for he lived upwards of a century, and at last was killed by a fall -down stairs. - -As to the locomotive system, modern experience sufficiently proves that -exercise is the most powerful strengthener of the muscles, and of every -part on which activity depends. In its operation on the vital system, -training always appears to benefit the state of the lungs. Indeed, -one of its most striking effects is to improve the wind: that is, to -enable a man to draw a larger inspiration, and to hold his breath -longer. As to the intellectual system, Sir J. Sinclair observes, that, -by training, the mental faculties are also improved; the attention -being more ready, and the perception more acute, owing probably to the -clearness of the stomach, and better digestion. - -It must, therefore, be admitted, that the most beneficial consequences -to general health arise from training. The simplicity of the rules for -it is assuredly a great recommendation to a trial of the experiment. -The whole process may be resolved into the following principles:--1st, -the evacuating, which cleanses the stomach and intestines; 2nd, the -sweating, which takes off the superfluities of fat and humours; 3rd, -the daily course of exercise, which improves the wind and strengthens -the muscles; and, lastly, the regimen, which nourishes and invigorates -the body. To those who are to engage in corporeal exercises beyond -their ordinary powers, it is indispensably necessary. Pedestrians, -therefore, who are matched either against others or against time, and -pugilists who engage to fight, must undergo the training process before -they contend. The issue of the contest, if their powers be nearly -equal, will, in a great measure, depend upon their relative condition, -as effected by training, at the hour of trial. - -Training was known to the ancients, who paid much attention to the -means of augmenting corporeal vigour and activity. Accordingly, among -the Greeks and Romans, certain rules of exercise and regimen were -prescribed to the candidates for gymnastic celebrity. We are assured, -that, among the Greeks, previously to the solemn contests at the public -games, the strictest temperance, sobriety, and regularity in living, -were indispensably requisite. The candidates were, at the same time, -subjected to daily exercise in the Gymnasium, which continued during -ten months, and which, with the prescribed regimen, constituted the -preparatory training adopted by the athletæ of Greece. Among the -Romans, the exercises of the palæstra degenerated from the rank of a -liberal art, and became a profession, which was embraced only by the -lowest of mankind; the exhibitions of the gladiators being bloody and -ferocious spectacles, which evinced the barbarous taste of the people. -The combatants, however, were regularly trained by proper exercise, and -a strict observance of regimen. Pure and salubrious air was deemed a -chief requisite. Accordingly, the principal schools of their athletæ -were established at Capua and Ravenna, the most healthy places in -Italy; and previous to entering on this regimen, the men were subjected -to the evacuating process, by means of emetics, which they preferred to -purgatives. - -In the more early stages of training, their diet consisted of dried -figs, new cheese, and boiled grain. Afterwards animal food was -introduced as a part of the athletic regimen, and pork was preferred -to any other. Galen, indeed, asserts, that pork contains more real -nutriment than flesh of any other kind, which is used as food by man. -This fact, he adds, is decidedly proved by the example of the athletæ, -who, if they live but for one day on any other kind of food, find -their vigour manifestly impaired the next. The preference given to -pork by the ancients, however, does not correspond with the practice -of modern trainers, who entirely reject it; but in the manner of -preparing the food, they exactly agree--roasting or broiling being by -both preferred to boiling, and bread unfermented to that prepared by -leaven. A very small quantity of liquid was allowed to the athletæ, and -this was principally water. They exercised in the open air, and became -familiarized by habit to every change of the weather, the vicissitudes -of which soon ceased to affect them. - -To exercise their patience, and accustom them to bear pain without -flinching, they were occasionally flogged on the back with the branches -of a kind of rhododendron, till the blood flowed. By diminishing the -quantity of the circulating liquid, this rough kind of cupping was -also considered salutary! as obviating the tendency to plethora or -redundancy of blood, to which they were peculiarly liable--a proof, if -true, of the nourishing qualities of their food. - -When the daily exercises of the athletæ were finished, they were -refreshed by immersion in a tepid bath, where the perspiration and -sordes--scurf, pustules, or filthy adhesions--were carefully removed -from the surface of the body by the use of the strygil.[1] The skin -was then diligently rubbed dry, and again anointed with oil. If -thirsty, they were permitted to drink a small quantity of warm water. -They then took their principal repast, after which they used no more -exercise that day. They occasionally also went into the cold bath in -the morning. They were permitted to sleep as many hours as they chose; -and great increase of vigour, as well as of bulk, was supposed to be -derived from long-continued and sound repose.[2] The sexual intercourse -was strictly prohibited. - - [1] For this instrument, rough coarse cloths are adopted, but not - with advantage. - - [2] Little sleep is now prescribed; but its quantity should depend - upon circumstances of fatigue, &c. - -The manner of training among the ancients bears some resemblance to -that practised by the moderns. Perhaps it is because their mode of -living and general habits were somewhat different from those of the -present age, that a difference of treatment is now required to produce -the same effects. The great object of training for running or boxing -matches, is to increase the muscular strength, and to improve the -free action of the lungs, or wind, of the person subjected to the -process. Seeing that the human body is so capable of being altered -and renovated, it is not surprising that the art of training should -be carried to a degree of perfection almost incredible; and that, by -certain processes, the muscular power, the breath (or wind), and the -courage of man, should be so greatly improved as to enable him to -perform the most severe or laborious undertakings. - -That such effects have been produced is unquestionable: they are -fully exemplified in the astonishing exploits of our most celebrated -pedestrians and pugilists, which are the infallible results of such -preparatory discipline. The skilful trainer attends to the state of -the bowels, the lungs, and the skin; and he uses such means as will -reduce the fat, and at the same time invigorate the muscular fibre. -The patient is purged by drastic medicines; he is sweated by walking -under a load of clothes, and by lying between feather beds; and his -limbs are roughly rubbed. His diet is beef or mutton: his drink strong -ale. He is gradually inured to exercise, by repeated trials in walking -and running. By extenuating the fat, emptying the cellular substance, -hardening the muscular fibre, and improving the breath, a man of the -ordinary frame may be made to fight for one hour, with the utmost -exertion of strength and courage, or to go over one hundred miles in -twenty-four hours. - -The most effectual process for training appears to be that practised -by Captain Barclay, which has not only been sanctioned by professional -men, but has met with the unqualified approbation of amateurs. We are -here, therefore, almost entirely indebted to it for details. According -to this method, the pedestrian, who may be supposed in tolerable -condition, enters upon his training with a regular course of physic, -which consists of three doses. Glauber’s salts are generally preferred; -and from one ounce and a half to two ounces are taken each time, with -an interval of four days between each dose. After having gone through -the course of physic, he commences his regular exercise, which is -gradually increased as he proceeds in the training. - -When the object in view is the accomplishment of a pedestrian match, -his regular exercise may be from twenty to twenty-four miles a day. -He must rise at five in the morning, run half a mile at the top of -his speed up-hill, and then walk six miles at a moderate pace, coming -in about seven to breakfast, which should consist of beef-steaks -or mutton-chops under-done, with stale bread and old beer. After -breakfast, he must again walk six miles at a moderate pace, and at -twelve lie down in bed, without his clothes, for half an hour. On -getting up, he must walk four miles, and return by four to dinner, -which should also be beef-steaks or mutton-chops, with bread and beer, -as at breakfast. Immediately after dinner, he must resume his exercise, -by running half a mile at the top of his speed, and walking six miles -at a moderate pace. He takes no more exercise for that day, but retires -to bed about eight; and next morning he proceeds in the same manner. - -Animal diet, it will be observed, is, according to this system, alone -prescribed, and beef and mutton are preferred. All fat and greasy -substances are prohibited, as they induce bile, and consequently -injure the stomach. The lean of meat contains more nourishment than -the fat; and, in every case, the most substantial food is preferable -to any other kind. Fresh meat is the most wholesome and nourishing. -Salt, spiceries, and all kinds of seasonings, with the exception of -vinegar, are prohibited. The lean, then, of fat beef cooked in steaks, -with very little salt, is the best; and it should be rather under-done -than otherwise. Mutton, being reckoned easy of digestion, may be -occasionally given, to vary the diet and gratify the taste. The legs of -fowls are also esteemed. - -It is preferable to have the meat broiled, as much of its nutritive -quality is lost by roasting or boiling. It ought to be dressed so as -to remain tender and juicy; for it is by these means that it will be -easily digested, and afford most nourishment. Biscuit and stale bread -are the only preparations of vegetable matter which are permitted to be -given; and every thing inducing flatulency must be carefully avoided. -In general, the quantity of aliment is not limited by the trainer, -but left entirely to the discretion of the pedestrian, whose appetite -should regulate him in this respect. - -With respect to liquors, they must be always taken cold; and -home-brewed beer, old, but not bottled, is the best. A little red wine, -however, may be given to those who are not fond of malt liquor; but -never more than half a pint after dinner. It is an established rule to -avoid liquids as much as possible; and no more liquor of any kind is -allowed to be taken than is requisite to quench the thirst. - -After having gone on in this regular course for three or four weeks, -the pedestrian must take a four-mile sweat, which is produced by -running four miles in flannel, at the top of his speed. Immediately -on returning, a hot liquor is prescribed, in order to promote the -perspiration; and of this he must drink one English pint. It is termed -the sweating liquor, and is composed of one ounce of carraway seed, -half an ounce of coriander seed, one ounce of root-liquorice, and -half an ounce of sugar-candy, mixed with two bottles of cyder, and -boiled down to one-half. He is then put to bed in his flannels, and, -being covered with six or eight pair of blankets, and a feather bed, -must remain in this state from twenty-five to thirty minutes, when -he is taken out, and rubbed perfectly dry. Being then well wrapt in -his great coat, he walks out gently for two miles, and returns to -breakfast, which, on such occasions, should consist of a roasted fowl. -He afterwards proceeds with his usual exercise. - -These sweats are continued weekly, till within a few days of the -performance of the match; or, in other words, he must undergo three or -four of these operations. If the stomach of the pedestrian be foul, an -emetic or two must be given about a week before the conclusion of the -training. He is now supposed to be in the highest condition. - -Besides his usual or regular exercise, a person under training ought -to employ himself, in the intervals, in every kind of exertion which -tends to activity, such as golf, cricket, bowls, throwing quoits, &c., -so that, during the whole day, both body and mind may be constantly -occupied. Although the chief parts of the system depend upon sweating, -exercise, and feeding, yet the object to be obtained by the pedestrian -would be defeated, if these were not adjusted each to the other, -and to his constitution. The trainer, before he proceeds to apply -his theory, should make himself acquainted with the constitution and -habits of his patient, that he maybe able to judge how far he can, -with safety, carry on the different parts of the process. The nature -of the patient’s disposition should also be known, that every cause -of irritation may be avoided; for, as it requires great patience -and perseverance to undergo training, every expedient to sooth and -encourage the mind should be adopted. - -The skilful trainer will, moreover, constantly study the progress of -his art, by observing the effect of its processes, separately and -in combination. If a man retain his health and spirits during the -process, improve in wind, and increase in strength, it is certain -that the object aimed at will be obtained; but, if otherwise, it is -to be apprehended that some defect exists, through the unskilfulness -or mismanagement of the trainer, which ought instantly to be remedied -by such alterations as the circumstances of the case may demand. It -is evident, therefore, that in many instances the trainer must be -guided by his judgment, and that no fixed rules of management can, with -absolute certainty, be depended upon, for producing an invariable and -determinate result. In general, however, it may be calculated, that the -known rules are adequate to the purpose, if the pedestrian strictly -adhere to them, and the trainer bestow a moderate degree of attention -to his state and condition during the progress of training. - -It is impossible to fix any precise period for the completion of -the training process, as it depends upon the previous condition of -the pedestrian; but from two to three months, in most cases, will -be sufficient, especially if he be in tolerable condition at the -commencement, and possessed of sufficient perseverance and courage to -submit cheerfully to the privations and hardships to which he must -unavoidably be subjected. The criterion by which it may be known -whether a man is in good condition--or, what is the same thing, whether -he has been properly trained--is the state of the skin, which becomes -smooth, elastic, and well-coloured, or transparent. The flesh is also -firm; and the person trained feels himself light, and full of spirits. -In the progress of the training, his condition may also be ascertained -by the effect of the sweats, which cease to reduce his weight; and by -the manner in which he performs one mile at the top of his speed. It -is as difficult to run a mile at the top of one’s speed as to walk a -hundred; and therefore, if he performs this short distance well, it may -be concluded that his condition is perfect, or that he has derived all -the advantages which can possibly result from the training process. - -A few words may be here added on the comparative strength of different -races of men. In order to procure some exact results on this point, -Peron took with him on his voyage an instrument called a dynamometer, -so constructed as to indicate on a dial-plate the relative force of -individuals submitted to experiment. He directed his attention to -the strength of the arms and of the loins, making trial with several -individuals of each of the races among whom he then was, viz., twelve -natives of Van Diemen’s Land, seventeen of New Holland, fifty-six of -the Island of Timor, seventeen Frenchmen belonging to the expedition, -and fourteen Englishmen in the colony of New South Wales. The following -numbers express the mean result in each case, but all the details are -given in a tabular form in the original:-- - - Strength of the Arms. Strength of the Loins. - Kilogrammes. Myriagrammes. - 1. Van Diemen’s Land 50.6 - 2. New Holland 50.8 10.2 - 3. Timor 58.7 11.6 - 4. French 69.2 15.2 - 5. English 71.4 16.3 - -The highest numbers in the first and second class were, respectively, -60 and 62; the lowest in the English trials 63, and the highest 83, -for the strength of the arms. In the power of the loins, the highest -among the New Hollanders was 13; the lowest of the English 12.7, and -the highest 21.3. “These results,” observes Mr. Lawrence, “offer the -best answer to declamations on the degeneracy of civilized man. The -attribute of superior physical strength, so boldly assumed by the -eulogists of the savage state, has never been questioned or doubted. -Although we have been consoled for this supposed inferiority by an -enumeration of the many precious benefits derived from civilization, -it has always been felt as a somewhat degrading disadvantage. Bodily -strength is a concomitant of good health, which is produced and -supported by a regular supply of wholesome and nutritious food, and by -active occupation. The industrious and well-fed middle classes of a -civilized community may, therefore, be reasonably expected to surpass, -in this endowment, the miserable savages, who are never well-fed, and -too frequently depressed by absolute want and all other privations. - - -POSITION. - -Before entering into a detail of exercises, it is necessary to attend -to what is termed position.--A standing position is the action by which -we keep ourselves up. Indeed, this state, in which the body appears in -repose, is itself an exercise, for it consists in a continued effort -of many muscles; and the explanation we shall give of it will much -facilitate that of walking. - -Every one has observed that during sleep, or a fainting fit, the head -inclines forward and falls upon the breast. In this case, it is in -accordance with the laws of gravity; for the head, resting upon the -vertebræ which support it at a point of its basis which is nearer the -posterior than anterior part, cannot remain in an upright position -in standing, except by an effort of the muscles at the back of the -neck: it is the cessation of this effort that causes it to fall -forward. The body also is unable to remain straight without fatigue. -The vertebral column being placed behind, all the viscera or parts -contained by the chest and belly are suspended in front of it, and -would force it to bend forward unless strong muscular fibres held it -back. A proof of this may be seen in pregnant and dropsical women, who -are compelled, in consequence of the anterior part of the body being -heavier than usual, to keep the vertebral column more fixed, and even -thrown backward. The same observation may be made with regard to the -pelvis, basin, or lowest part of the trunk, which by its conformation -would bend upon the thighs, if not kept back by the great mass of -muscular fibres that form the hips. In front of the thighs, again, -are the muscles which, by keeping the kneepan in position, are the -means of preventing the leg from bending. Lastly, the muscles forming -the calves, by contracting, are the means of preventing the leg from -bending upon the foot. - -Such is the general mechanism of the standing position. It is, -therefore, as we observed, a concurrence of efforts: almost all the -extending muscles are in a state of contraction all the time that this -position is maintained, and the consequence is, a fatigue which cannot -be endured for any great length of time. Hence we see persons in a -standing position rest the weight of their body, first on one foot, -then on another, for the purpose of procuring momentary ease to certain -muscles. For this reason, also, standing still is more fatiguing than -walking, in which the muscles are alternately contracted and extended. - -A question of importance on this subject is, what position of the feet -affords the greatest solidity in standing? We will not enter into a -detail of the numerous controversies by which some have defended or -repudiated the position with the toes turned forward or outward: it -will be sufficient to state the fact, that the larger the base of -support, the firmer and more solid will the position be, and to adopt, -as a _fundamental_ one, the military position, which has been found -practically the best by those who have nothing else to do but to walk. -The equal squareness of the shoulders and body to the front, is the -first great principle of position. The heels must be in a line, and -closed; the knees straight; the toes turned out, with the feet forming -an angle of sixty degrees; the arms hanging close to the body; the -elbows turned in, and close to the sides; the hands open to the front, -with the view of preserving the elbow in the position above described; -the little fingers lightly touching the clothing of the limbs, with -the thumb close to the forefinger; the belly rather drawn in, and -the breast advanced, but without constraint; the body upright, but -inclining forward, so that the weight of it may principally bear upon -the fore part of the feet; the head erect, and the eyes straight to the -front--(as in Plate I. fig. 1.) - -To these brief directions I must add, that, in standing, the whole -figure should be in such a position that the ear, shoulder, haunch, -knee, and ankle are all in a line; that it must be stretched as much -as possible, by raising the back of the head, drawing in the chin, -straightening the spine, rising on the hips, and extending the legs; -that the object of keeping the back thus straight is to allow of -standing longer without fatigue; that it is important to expand the -chest, and to throw the shoulders back, with the shoulder-blades, or -scapulæ, quite flat behind; and that though, in military instructions, -the body is thus inclined forward in standing without arms, yet when -these are assumed, the body is immediately thrown about two inches -backward, into a nearly perpendicular position. This position, -therefore, will be modified in walking, and especially in ordinary -walking; but it is an excellent fundamental position, and it cannot be -too accurately acquired. - -This is the amount of the drill-sergeant’s instructions as to position, -though this last part is omitted in the Manual describing the Field -Exercise and Evolutions of the Army. - - -EXTENSION MOTIONS. - -In order to supple the figure, open the chest, and give freedom to the -muscles, the first three movements of the extension motions, as laid -down for the sword exercise, are ordered to be practised. It is indeed, -observed, that too many methods cannot be used to improve the carriage, -and banish a rustic air; but that the greatest care must be taken not -to throw the body backward instead of forward, as being contrary to -every true principle of movement. I accordingly here introduce these -extension motions, adding the fourth and fifth, and prefixing to each -the respective word of command, in order that they may be the more -distinctly and accurately executed. - -[Illustration: _Plate I_ - -_Page 20._ - -Extension Motions.] - -Attention.--The body is to be erect, the heels close together, and the -hands hanging down on each side. First Extension motion.--This serves -as a caution, and the motions tend to expand the chest, raise the head, -throw back the shoulders, and strengthen the muscles of the back. - -One--Bring the hands and arms to the front, the fingers lightly -touching at the points, and the nails downwards; then raise them in a -circular direction well above the head, the ends of the fingers still -touching, the thumbs pointing to the rear, the elbows pressed back, and -shoulders kept down. (Plate I. fig. 2.) - -Two--Separate and extend the arms and fingers, forcing them obliquely -back, till they come extended on a line with the shoulders; and as -they fall gradually from thence to the original position of Attention, -endeavour, as much as possible, to elevate the neck and chest. These -two motions should be frequently practised, with the head turned as -much as possible to the right or left, and the body kept square to the -front: this tends very materially to supple the neck, &c. - -Three--Turn the palms of the hands to the front, pressing back the -thumbs with the arms extended, and raise them to the rear, till they -meet above the head; the fingers pointing upwards, with the ends of the -thumbs touching. - -Four--Keep the arms and knees straight, and bend over from the hips -till the hands touch the feet, the head being brought down in the same -direction. (Plate I. fig. 3.) - -Five--With the arms flexible and easy from the shoulders, raise the -body gradually, so as to resume the position of Attention. The whole -should be done very gradually, so as to feel the exertion of the -muscles throughout. To these extension motions, drill-sergeants, in -their instructions, add the following: - -One--the forearms are bent upon the arms upward and toward the -body, having the elbows depressed, the shut hands touching on the -little-finger sides, and the knuckles upward, the latter being raised -as high as the chin, and at the distance of about a foot before it. -(Plate I. fig. 4.) - -Two--While the arms are thrown forcibly backward, the fore-arms are as -much as possible bent upon the arms, and the palmar sides of the wrists -are turned forward and outward (Plate I. fig. 5.) The two motions are -to be repeatedly and rather quickly performed. A modification of the -same movement is performed as a separate extension motion, but may be -given in continuation, with the numbers following these, as words of -command. - -Three--The arms are extended at full length in front, on a level with -the shoulder, the palms of the hands in contact. (Plate I. fig. 6.) - -Four--Thus extended, and the palms retaining their vertical position, -the arms are thrown forcibly backward, so that the backs of the hands -may approach each other as nearly as possible. These motions, also, -are to be repeatedly and rather quickly performed. Another extension -motion, similarly added, consists in swinging the right arm in a -circle, in which, beginning from the pendent position, the arm is -carried upward in front, by the side of the head, and downward behind, -the object being in the latter part of this course to throw it as -directly backward as possible. The same is then done with the left -arm. Lastly, both arms are thus exercised together. These motions are -performed quickly. - - -THE INDIAN CLUB EXERCISE. - -THE PORTION ADOPTED IN THE ARMY. - -1st. A club is held by the handle, pendent on each side (Plate II. -fig. 1);--that in the right hand is carried over the head and left -shoulder, until it hangs perpendicularly on the right side of the spine -(Plate II. fig. 2); that in the left hand is carried over the former, -in exactly the opposite direction (Plate II. fig. 2), until it hangs -on the opposite side; holding both clubs still pendent, the hands are -raised somewhat higher than the head (Plate II. fig. 3); with the clubs -in the same position, both arms are extended outward and backward -(Plate II. fig. 6); they are lastly dropped into the first position. -All this is done slowly. - -[Illustration: _Plate II_ - -_Page 22._ - -Indian Club Exercise.] - -[Illustration: _Plate III_ - -_Page 22._ - -Indian Club Exercise.] - -[Illustration: _Plate IV_ - -_Page 22._ - -Indian Club Exercise.] - -2nd. Commencing from the same position, the ends of both clubs are -swung upward until they are held, vertically and side by side, at arm’s -length in front of the body, the hands being as high as the shoulders -(Plate II. fig. 4); they are next carried in the same position, at -arm’s length, and on the same level, as far backward as possible (Plate -II. fig. 5); each is then dropped backward until it hangs vertically -downward (Plate II. fig. 6); and this exercise ends as the first. -Previous, however, to dropping the clubs backward, it greatly improves -this exercise, by a turn of the wrist upward and backward, to carry the -clubs into a horizontal position behind the shoulders, so that, if long -enough, their ends would touch (Plate III. fig. 1); next, by a turn -of the wrist outward and downward, to carry them horizontally outward -(Plate III. fig. 2); then by a turn of the wrist upward and forward, -to carry them into a horizontal position before the breast (Plate III. -fig. 3); again to carry them horizontally outward; and finally to drop -them backward as already explained; and thence to the first position. -All this is also done slowly. - -3rd. The clubs are to be swung by the sides, first separately, and then -together, exactly as the hands were in the last extension motion. - - -THE NEW AND MORE BEAUTIFUL PORTION NOW ADDED FROM THE INDIAN PRACTICE. - -1st. A club is held forward and upright in each hand, the fore-arm -being placed horizontally, by the haunch on each side (Plate IV. fig. -1); both are thrown in a circle upward, forward, and, by a turn of the -wrist, downward and backward, so as to strike under the arms (Plate -IV. fig. 2); by an opposite movement, both are thrown back again in a -similar circle, till they swing over the shoulders (Plate IV. fig. 3); -and this movement is continued as long as agreeable. - -2nd. The clubs are held obliquely upward in each hand, lying on the -front of the arms (Plate IV. fig. 4); that in the right hand is allowed -to fall backward (Plate IV. fig. 5), and swings downward, forward to -the extent of the arm, and as high as the head (Plate IV. fig. 6); -the moment this club begins to return from this point, in precisely -the same direction, to the front of the arm, that in the left hand is -allowed to drop backward, and to perform the advancing portion of this -course in the time that the other performs the returning portion, so -that each is at the same time swinging in an opposite direction. - -3rd. From either of the first positions now given, the clubs are, -by a turn of the body and extension of the arms, thrown upwards and -laterally (Plate V. fig. 1);--make, at the extent of the arms, and in -front of the figure, a circle in which they sweep downward by the feet -and upward over the head (Plate V. fig. 2), and fall in a more limited -curve towards the side on which they began (Plate V. fig. 3), in such a -manner that the outer one forming a circle around the shoulder and the -inner one round the head, (both passing swiftly through the position -in the last figure of the first exercise,) they return to the first -position;--this is repeated to the other side;--and so on alternately. - -4th. Beginning from either first position, the body being turned -laterally,--for example, to the left, the club in the right hand is -thrown upward in that direction at the full extent of the arm (Plate -VI. fig. 1), and makes the large circle in front and curve behind as in -the last exercise (Plate VI. fig. 2), while the club in the left hand -makes at the same time a smaller circle in front of the head and behind -the shoulders (Plate VI. figs. 1, 2, and 3), until crossing each other -before the head (rather on the right side), their movements are exactly -reversed, the club in the right hand performing the small circle round -the head, while that in the left performs the large one,--and these -continue to be repeated to each side alternately. - -[Illustration: _Plate V_ - -_Page 24._ - -Indian Club Exercise.] - -[Illustration: _Plate VI_ - -_Page 24._ - -Indian Club Exercise.] - -[Illustration: _Plate VII_ - -_Page 25._ - -Indian Club Exercise.] - -5th. The clubs being in either first position, the body is turned to -one side--the left for example, and the clubs being thrown out in the -same direction, make each, by a turn of the wrist, a circle three times -on the outer side of the outstretched arms (Plate VII. fig. 1):--when -completing the third circle, the clubs are thrown higher to the same -side, sweeping together in the large circle in front, as in the second -exercise, the body similarly turning to the right; but, instead of -forming the smaller curve behind, both are thrown over the back (Plate -VII. fig. 2);--from this position the clubs are thrown in front, -which is now toward the opposite side, and the same movements are -reversed;--and so it proceeds alternately to each side. - -6th. In this exercise, the clubs are reversed, both being pendent in -front, but the ends of their handles being upward on the thumb sides -of the hands. (Pl VII. fig. 3.) The exercise consists chiefly in -describing with the ends of the clubs two circles placed obliquely -to each other over the head. For this purpose, the club in the right -hand is, in a sweep to that side, first elevated behind the head, and -thence passing to the left (Plate VII. fig. 4), the front, the right -(Plate VII. fig. 5) behind, (where its continuation is indicated in -fig. 5, and completed in fig. 6), thus forms its circle;-- meanwhile -the club in the left hand, commencing when that in the right was behind -the head, has passed on the back of its circle to the right, (Plate -VII. fig. 5,) while that in the right hand has passed on the front of -its circle to the same side (Plate VII. fig. 5, the parts performed in -both being marked by complete lines, and the parts to be done merely -indicated);--and they continue, that in the right hand by the back, and -that in the left hand by the front, toward the left side (Plate VII. -fig. 6), and so on at pleasure, circling over the head. - -[Although but two-thirds of the body, viz., from the loins upward, -are called into operation in this exercise, its importance must be -estimated by the fact that they are precisely those requiring constant -artificial practice, being naturally most exempted from exertion. As an -adjunct to TRAINING, there is nothing in the whole round of gymnastic -performances that will be found of more essential service than this -exercise with the Indian clubs. It demands but little muscular -exertion, and such as it does require calls chiefly upon that portion -of the system which it finds in a state of comparative repose.] - -[Illustration] - - -[Illustration] - - - - -LOCOMOTIVE EXERCISES. - - -In Walking, the position is nearly the same as that already described -under the head POSITION. - -The head should be upright, easy, and capable of free motion, right, -left, up, or down, without affecting the body. The body must be kept -erect and square to the front, having the breast projected, and -the stomach retracted, though not so as to injure either freedom -of respiration or ease of attitude. The shoulders should be kept -moderately and equally back and low; and the arms should hang -unconstrainedly by the sides. The balance on the limbs must be perfect. -The knees straight, and the toes turned out as described, the weight -of the body should be thrown forward, as this facilitates progression. -The military position in walking does not essentially differ from this, -except in points that exclusively regard the soldier; as that the head -be kept well up, and straight to the front, and the eyes not turned -to the right or left; the arms and hands kept perfectly steady by the -sides, and on no account suffered to move or vibrate: care, however, -being taken that the hand does not cling to the thigh, or partake in -the least degree of the movement of the limb. - - -THE BALANCE STEP. - -The object of this is to teach the free movement of the limbs, -preserving at the same time perfect squareness of the shoulders, with -the utmost steadiness of body; and no labour is spared to attain -this first and most essential object, which forms, indeed, the very -foundation of good walking. The instructor must be careful that a habit -be not contracted of drooping or throwing back a shoulder at these -motions, which are intended practically to show the true principles of -walking, and that steadiness of body is compatible with perfect freedom -in the limbs. - - -1.--WITHOUT GAINING GROUND. - -To insure precision, the military words of command are prefixed. - -Caution--Balance step without gaining ground, commencing with the left -foot. The left foot is brought gently forward with the toe at the -proper angle to the left, the foot about three inches from the ground, -the left heel in line with the toe of the right foot. - -Rear--When steady, the left foot is brought gently back (without a -jerk), the left knee a little bent, the left toe brought close to the -right heel. The left foot in this position will not be so flat as to -the front, as the toe will be a little depressed. - -Front--When steady, the word Front will be given as above, and repeated -to the Rear three or four times. - -Halt--To prevent fatigue, the word Halt will be given, when the left -foot, either advanced, or to the rear, will be brought to the right. -The instructor will afterwards cause the balance to be made on the left -foot, advancing and retiring the right in the same manner. - - -2.--GAINING GROUND BY THE WORD “FORWARD.” - -Front--On the word Front, the left foot is brought gently to the front, -without a jerk; the knee gradually straightened as the foot is brought -forward, the toe turned out a little to the left, and remaining about -three inches from the ground. This posture is continued for a few -seconds only in the first instance, till practice gives steadiness in -the position. - -Forward--On this word of command, the left foot is brought to the -ground, at about thirty inches from heel to heel, while the right foot -is raised at the same moment, and continues extended to the rear. -The body remains upright, but inclining forward; the head erect, and -neither turned to the right nor left. - -Front--On the word Front, the right foot is brought forward, and so on. - - -WALKING. - -Of all exercises, this is the most simple and easy. The weight of the -body rests on one foot, while the other is advanced; it is then thrown -upon the advanced foot, while the other is brought forward; and so on -in succession. In this mode of progression, the slowness and equal -distribution of motion is such, that many muscles are employed in a -greater or less degree; each acts in unison with the rest; and the -whole remains compact and united. Hence, the time of its movements -may be quicker or slower, without deranging the union of the parts, -or the equilibrium of the whole. It is owing to these circumstances, -that walking displays so much of the character of the walker,--that -it is light and gay in women and children, steady and grave in -men and elderly persons, irregular in the nervous and irritable, -measured in the affected and formal, brisk in the sanguine, heavy in -the phlegmatic, and proud or humble, bold or timid, &c., in strict -correspondence with individual character. - -The utility of walking exceeds that of all other modes of progression. -While the able pedestrian is independent of stage coaches and hired -horses, he alone fully enjoys the scenes through which he passes, and -is free to dispose of his time as he pleases. To counterbalance these -advantages, greater fatigue is doubtless attendant on walking: but -this fatigue is really the result of previous inactivity; for daily -exercise, gradually increased, by rendering walking more easy and -agreeable, and inducing its more frequent practice, diminishes fatigue -in such a degree, that very great distances may be accomplished with -pleasure, instead of painful exertion. - -Moderate walking exercises the most agreeable influence over all the -functions. In relation to health, walking accelerates respiration -and circulation, increases the temperature and cutaneous exhalation, -and excites appetite and healthful nutrition. Hence, as an anonymous -writer observes, the true pedestrian, after a walk of twenty miles, -comes in to breakfast with freshness on his countenance, healthy blood -coursing in every vein, and vigour in every limb, while the indolent -and inactive man, having painfully crept over a mile or two, returns -to a dinner which he cannot digest. In all individuals, walking is -indispensably joined with the exercise of one or more of the external -senses. It receives from the cerebral faculties a powerful influence, -by which it is either accelerated or prolonged. Walking upon soft even -ground, at a moderate pace, is an exercise that may be taken without -inconvenience, and even with advantage, after a meal. It is adapted -for convalescents, who are not yet allowed to take stronger exercise. -A firm, yet easy and graceful walk, is by no means common. There are -few men who walk well if they have not learnt to regulate their -motions by the lessons of a master, and this instruction is still more -necessary for ladies. Having, now, therefore, taken a general view of -the character and utility of walking, I subjoin some more particular -remarks on the - - -GENERAL MECHANISM OF WALKING. - -For the purpose of walking, we first bear upon one leg the weight of -the body, which pressed equally on both. The other leg is then raised, -and the foot quits the ground by rising from the heel to the point. -For that purpose, the leg must be bent upon the thigh, and the thigh -upon the pelvis: the foot is then carried straight forward, at a -sufficient height to clear the ground without grazing it. To render it -possible, however, to move this foot, the haunch, which rested with its -weight upon the thigh, must turn forward and out. As soon as, by this -movement, this foot has passed the other, it must be extended on the -leg, and the leg upon the thigh, and in this manner, by the lengthening -of the whole member, and without being drawn back, it reaches the -ground at a distance in advance of the other foot, which is more -considerable according to the length of the step, and it is placed so -softly on the ground as not to jerk or shake the body in the slightest -degree. As soon as the foot which has been placed on the ground becomes -firm, the weight of the body is transported to the limb on that side, -and the other foot, by a similar mechanism, is brought forward in its -turn. In all walking, the most important circumstance is, that the body -incline forward, and that the movement of the leg and thigh spring from -the haunch, and be free and natural. Viewed in this way, the feet have -been well compared to the spokes of a wheel: the weight of the body -falling upon them alternately. - -This exercise puts in action the extensors and flexors of the thighs -and legs, a great number of the muscles of the trunk, and more or less -those of the shoulder, according to the rapidity of the pace, and -the greater or less degree of projection communicated to the arm, -which, in this exercise, acts as a balancer of the body, the motion -being exactly the reverse of that of the corresponding leg. It draws -the fluids more into the inferior than superior members: it gives -but little strength to the latter. Walking may be performed in three -different times,--slow, moderate, or quick--which somewhat modify its -action. - - -THE SLOW WALK, OR MARCH. - -In the march, the weight of the body is advanced from the heel to the -instep, and the toes are turned out. This being done, one foot, the -left for instance, is advanced, with the knee straight, and the toe -inclined to the ground, which, without being drawn back, it touches -before the heel, in such a manner, however, that the sole, at the -conclusion of the step, is nearly parallel with the ground, which it -next touches with its outer edge; the right foot is then immediately -raised from the inner edge of the toe, and similarly advanced, -inclined, and brought to the ground; and so on in succession. (Plate -VIII. figs. 1 and 2.) Thus, in the march, the toe externally first -touches, and internally last leaves the ground; and so marked is this -tendency, that, in the stage step, which is meant to be especially -dignified,--as the posterior foot acquires an awkward flexure when the -weight has been thrown on the anterior,--in order to correct this, the -former is for an instant extended, its toe even turned backwards and -outwards, and its tip internally alone rested on the ground, previous -to its being in its turn advanced. Thus the toe’s first touching and -last leaving the ground, is peculiarly marked in this grandest form of -the march. This pace should be practised until it can be firmly and -gracefully performed. - - -THE MODERATE AND THE QUICK PACE. - -These will be best understood by a reference to the pace which we have -just described; the principal difference between them being as to the -advance of the weight of the body, the turning out of the toes, and the -part of the foot which first touches and last leaves the ground. We -shall find that the times of these two paces require a further advance -of the weight, and suffer successively less and less of turning out -the toes, and of this extended touching with the toe, and covering the -ground with the foot. - -[Illustration: _Plate VIII_ - -_Page 32._ - -Walking.] - - -THE MODERATE PACE. - -Here the weight of the body is advanced from the heel to the ball of -the foot; the toes are less turned out; and it is no longer the toe, -but the ball of the foot, which first touches and last leaves the -ground; its outer edge, or the ball of the little toe, first breaking -the descent of the foot, and its inner edge, or the ball of the great -toe, last projecting the weight--(Plate VIII. figs. 3 and 4). Thus, in -this step, less of the foot may be said actively to cover the ground; -and this adoption of nearer and stronger points of support and action -is essential to the increased quickness and exertion of the pace. - -The mechanism of this pace has not been sufficiently attended to. -People pass from the march to the quick pace they know not how; and -hence all the awkwardness and embarrassment of their walk when their -pace becomes moderate, and the misery they endure when this pace -has to be performed by them, unaccompanied, up the middle of a long -and well-lighted room, where the eyes of a brilliant assembly are -exclusively directed to them. Let those who have felt this but attend -to what we have here said: the motion of the arms and of every other -part depends on it. - - -THE QUICK PACE. - -Here, the weight of the body is advanced from the heel to the toes; -the toes are least turned out; and still nearer and stronger points of -support and action are chosen. The outer edge of the heel first touches -the ground, and the sole of the foot projects the weight. - -These are essential to the increased quickness of this pace--(Plate -VIII. figs. 5 and 6); and it is important to remark, as to all these -paces, that the weight is successively more thrown forward, and the -toes are successively less turned out. In the grandest form of the -march, the toes, as we have seen, are, in the posterior foot, though -but for a moment, even thrown backwards; in the moderate pace, they -have an intermediate direction; and in the quick pace, they are thrown -more directly forward, as in the six figures of Plate VIII. - -It is this direction of the toes, and still more the nearer and -stronger points of support and action, namely, the heel and sole of the -foot, which are essential to the quick pace so universally practised, -but which, together with the great inclination of the body, being -ridiculously transferred to the moderate pace, make unfortunate people -look so awkward, as we shall now explain. The time of the moderate -pace is, as it were, filled up by the more complicated process of the -step--by the gradual and easy breaking of the descent of the foot -on its outer edge, or the ball of the little toe, by the deliberate -positing of the foot, by its equally gradual and easy projection from -its inner edge, or the ball of the great toe. The quick pace, if its -time be lengthened, has no such filling up: the man stumps at once down -on his heel, and could rise instantly from his sole, but finds that, -to fill up his time, he must pause an instant; he feels he should do -something, and does not know what; his hands suffer the same momentary -paralysis as his feet; he gradually becomes confused and embarrassed: -deeply sensible of this, he at last exhibits it externally; a smile or -a titter arises, though people do not well know at what, but, in short, -the man has walked like a clown, because the mechanism of his step has -not filled up its time, or answered its purpose. - -I trust that the mechanism and time of the three paces are here -simply, clearly, and impressively described. The following is the more -imperfect, but still useful, military description, with its words of -command:-- - - -SLOW STEP. - -March.--On the word March, the left foot is carried thirty inches to -the front, and, without being drawn back, is placed softly on the -ground, so as not to jerk or shake the body: seventy-five of these -steps to be taken in a minute. (The recruit is ordered to be carefully -trained, and thoroughly instructed in this step, as an essential -foundation for arriving at accuracy in the paces of more celerity. This -is the slowest step at which troops are to move.) - - -QUICK STEP. - -The cadence of the slow pace having become perfectly habitual, a quick -time is next taught, which is 108 steps in a minute, each of thirty -inches, making 270 feet in a minute. - -Quick March.--The command Quick March being given with a pause between -them, the word Quick is to be considered as a caution, and the whole -to remain perfectly steady. On the word March, the whole move off, -conforming to the directions already given. (This pace is applied -generally to all movements by large as well as small bodies of troops; -and therefore the recruit is trained and thoroughly instructed in this -essential part of his duty.) - - -DOUBLE MARCH. - -The directions for the march apply, in a great degree, to this step, -which is 150 steps in a minute, each of thirty-six inches, making 450 -feet in a minute. - -Double March.--On the word Double March, the whole step off together -with the left feet, keeping the head erect, and the shoulders square -to the front; the knees are a little bent; the body is more advanced -than in the other marches; the arms hang with ease down the outside of -the thighs. The person marching is carefully habituated to the full -pace of thirty-six inches, otherwise he gets into the habit of a short -trot, which defeats the obvious advantages of this degree of march. In -the army, great advantage attends the constant use of the plummet; and -the several lengths swinging the times of the different marches in a -minute, are as follow:-- - - In. Hun. - Slow time 75 steps in the minute 24,96 - Quick time 108 „ „ 12,03 - Double march 150 „ „ 6,26 - -A musket ball, suspended by a string which is not subject to stretch, -and on which are marked the different required lengths, answers the -above purpose, may be easily acquired, and is directed to be frequently -compared with an accurate standard in the adjutant’s possession. The -length of the plummet is to be measured from the point of suspension -to the centre of the ball. In practising all these paces, the pupils -should also be accustomed to march upon a narrow plane, where there is -room for only one foot, upon rough uneven ground, and on soft ground -which yields to the foot. - -Walking exercises a greater influence over the economy when it takes -place on inclined planes than on a flat surface. In ascending, the -effort is made in a direction directly opposed to the general tendency -of heavy bodies: the body is strongly bent, the upper part of the -trunk in advance; the action of the posterior and anterior muscles -of the thigh is considerable; and circulation and respiration are -speedily accelerated by the violence of the muscular contractions. -In descending, on the contrary, effort is requisite to keep up the -body, which tends to obey the laws of gravitation; and to moderate -the tendency of gravity to project forward in the centre, the body -is thrown back, the sacro-spinal mass, and the posterior muscles of -the neck, are strongly contracted, the knees bent, and the steps much -shorter. Men with long flat feet, and the heel bone little projecting, -are bad walkers. - - -FEATS IN WALKING. - -The power of walking great distances without fatigue is an important -matter, in which the English have of late excelled. A good walker will -do six miles an hour, for one hour, on a good road.[3] If in perfect -training, he may even do twelve miles in two hours. Eighteen miles in -three hours is a much more doubtful affair, though some are said to -have achieved it. - - [3] Seven miles in one hour are said to have been done by some. - -A Cork paper, of recent date, describes a match of ten miles in 120 -minutes, on the Mallow and Fermoy road, by Captain John T. G. Campbell, -of the 91st (Argyleshire) Regiment, accoutred in heavy marching order -of a private soldier, viz., with knapsack and kit, great-coat and -mess-tin, musket, bayonet, and sixty rounds of ball cartridge: total, -fifty pounds’ weight. Heavy bets were pending on the issue. The captain -started at eight o’clock, A.M., and performed this undertaking in the -short time of 107 minutes and a quarter, thus winning the match, and -having twelve minutes and three quarters to spare. - -At the rate of five miles an hour, pedestrians of the first class will -do forty miles in eight hours, and perhaps fifty in ten.[4] At the -rate of four miles an hour, a man may walk any length of time. Robert -Skipper walked 1000 miles in 1000 successive half-hours, on the same -ground Captain Barclay walked 1000 miles in 1000 successive hours. - - [4] A clever writer in Blackwood’s Magazine says, “There can be no - doubt that, out of the British army, on a war establishment, ten - thousand men might be chosen, by trial, who would compose a corps - capable of marching fifty miles a day, on actual service, for a whole - week. The power of such a corps is not to be calculated: it would far - outgo cavalry.” - -In the art of walking quickly, the circumstance perhaps most important -is, to keep the knees somewhat bent and springy. - - -RUNNING. - -“Running,” says one of our gymnasiarchs, “only differs from walking -by the rapidity of the movement.” This is quite incorrect. Running is -precisely intermediate to walking and leaping; and, in order to pass -into it from walking, the motion must be changed. A series of leaps -from each foot alternately must be performed, in order to constitute -it; the foot which is left behind quits the ground before the foot -in advance is firmly fixed, so that the centre of gravity remains -uncertain in passing from one leg to the other, which forms a series of -leaps, and renders a fall a common occurrence. - - -POSITION IN RUNNING. - -The upper part of the body is slightly inclined forward; the head -slightly thrown backward, to counteract the gravity forward: the breast -is freely projected; the shoulders are steady, to give a fixed point -to the auxiliary muscles of respiration: the upper parts of the arms -are kept near the sides; the elbows are bent, and each forms an acute -angle; the hands are shut, with the nails turned inwards; and the whole -arms move but slightly, in order that the muscles of respiration on -the chest may be as little as possible disturbed, and follow only the -impulse communicated by other parts--(Plate IX. fig. 1). There exists, -in fact, during the whole time of running, a strong and permanent -contraction of the muscles of the shoulder and arm, which, though very -violent, is less serviceable to the extended movements, than to keep -the chest immoveable, toward which the arms are brought close, the -flexors and adductors of which are especially contracted. - - -ACTION IN RUNNING. - -At every step, the knees are stretched out; the legs kept as straight -as possible; the feet almost graze the ground; the tread is neither -with the mere balls of the toes, nor with the whole sole of the foot; -and the spring is made rapidly from one foot to the other, so that they -pass each other with great velocity--(Plate IX. fig. 2). - -But the abdominal members are not the only ones in motion, although -it is in them that the greatest developement takes place. Throughout -the whole time of running, a strong and permanent contraction of -the muscles of the shoulder, arm, and forearm takes place: this, -though very violent, is less for the purpose of aiding motion than -of preserving the immobility of the thorax, which is pressed upon -the whole thoracic member, whose flexors and adductors are strongly -contracted. The degree of velocity, however, must be proportioned to -the length of the steps. Too slow and long, as well as too quick and -short, steps, may be equally injurious. - -[Illustration: _Plate IX_ - -_Page 38._ - -Running.] - - -RESPIRATION. - -Speed, and still more duration in running, are in proportion to the -developement of the lungs, and consequently the volume of oxygen and -blood which they can combine in their parenchyma at each respiratory -movement. Thus, of two men, one having the abdominal members -developed, and the other possessing good lungs, the former will run -with the greatest speed for a short distance, but if the distance be -considerable, he will soon be gained upon by the latter. A runner, -after performing a certain space, is seized with a difficulty of -breathing, long before the repetition of the contractions has produced -fatigue in the abdominal members. To excel, therefore, in running, -requires, like walking and dancing, a peculiar exercise. As the -muscular contractions depend, for their principle of excitement, on the -respiration, the chest should be firmly fixed, so as both to facilitate -this, and to serve as a point of support for the efforts of the lower -members. The best runners are those who have the _best wind_, and keep -the breast dilated for the longest time. - -During the whole time of running, long inspirations and slow -expirations are of the greatest importance; and young persons cannot be -too early accustomed to them. To facilitate respiration towards the end -of the race, the upper part of the body may be leant a little forward. -Running should cease as soon as the breath becomes very short, and a -strong perspiration takes place. - - -MODERATE RUNNING. - -This is performed gently and in equal time, and may be extended to a -considerable space. In practising this pace, it is necessary to fix -the distance to be run; and this should always be proportioned to the -age and strength of the runners. This exercise, more than all others, -requires to be proceeded with in a progressive manner. If, at the first -trial, you run too fast or too long a time, it may produce spitting of -blood and headache, or aneurisms of the heart and principal vessels, -especially if the weather be dry and cold. - -A moderately cool day may accordingly be chosen, a distance of three -hundred feet measured, and the runners placed in a line at one end. -They may then start, trot at the rate of about seven feet in a second -to the opposite end, turn, and continue until they reach the spot -whence they started. Frequent repetition of this is sufficient at -first. Afterwards, they may run over this space, two, three, or four -times without stopping; and the exercise may then be limited to this. -It may, on subsequent days, be extended to five, six, and seven times -the distance. - -Fatigue is then generally quite removed; and the run may either be -continued farther, or the runners, if neither heated nor winded, may -accelerate their pace. They may next attempt a mile in ten minutes; -and repeat this, till, being gradually less and less heated, they can -either extend the distance, or diminish the time, in any measured -proportion. At this pace, six miles may afterwards be run in an hour. - - -RAPID RUNNING. - -This is best applied to a short space in a little time. Three hundred -feet upon an open plain will not generally be found too great. At each -end of this, a cross line may be drawn, and the runners may arrange -themselves on one line, while the umpire is placed at the other. On -the latter giving the signal, the running commences, and he who first -passes him gains the race. It is extremely useful always to run beyond -the line at a gentler pace, as it gradually lowers the actions of the -respiratory and circulating systems. - -Running is more easy on a level surface, but should be practised on -ground of every variety: upon long, square, and circular plots of -ground. The pupils should be accustomed to turn promptly out of the -direct line--a faculty not possessed by animals, and exceedingly useful -when pursued. They should also run up hill, and particularly down, as -it is dangerous unless frequently practised. - - -FEATS IN RUNNING. - -The practice of running may be carried to a great degree of perfection. - -A quarter of a mile in a minute is good running; and a mile in four -minutes, at four starts, is excellent. - -The mile was perhaps never run in four minutes, but it has been done in -four minutes and a half.[5] - - [5] Half a mile was recently run in two minutes; but it was down a - fall as precipitous as a mountain’s side, and the performer was blind - in the last twenty yards.--ED. Fifth Edition. - -A mile in five minutes is good running. Two miles in ten minutes is -oftener failed in than accomplished. Four miles in twenty is said to -puzzle the cleverest. - -Ten miles an hour is done by all the best runners. Fifteen miles in an -hour and a half has never perhaps been done. - -It is reported that West ran forty miles in five hours and a half. -This, it is said, was done by one individual in four hours and three -quarters, or less. - -As to great distances, Rainer failed in two attempts to accomplish 100 -miles in eighteen hours. West is said to have accomplished this. - - -EFFECTS OF RUNNING. - -In running, the mass of our organs is agitated by violent and constant -shocks, which succeed with rapidity; but the abdominal members are -not the only ones in motion, although they are those in which the -developement is most considerable. Running developes not only the -abdominal members, but has a strong influence upon the respiratory -parts. This exercise is particularly suited to young persons, -especially those of a lymphatic temperament. It should not, however, be -practised after meals. - - -LEAPING. - -Leaping consists principally in the sudden straightening of the -articulations, performed by a strong and instantaneous contraction of -the extensors, by which the body is rapidly projected from the ground. - -The leaping-stand consists of two moveable posts, above six feet high, -having, above the second foot from the ground, holes bored through -them, at the distance of an inch from each other; two iron pins to be -placed in the holes at any height; a cord, at least ten feet long, -passed over these pins, and kept straight by two sand-bags at its -ends; and weights upon the feet of the posts, to prevent them from -falling--(Plate X. fig. 1). The leap over the cord is made from the -side of the stand towards which the heads of the pegs are turned; so -that, if the feet touch the cord, it will easily and instantly fall. - -In all kinds of leaping, it is of great importance to draw in and -retain the breath at the moment of the greatest effort, as it gives -the chest more solidity to support the rest of the members, impels the -blood into the muscular parts, and increases their strength. The hands, -also, should be shut, and the arms pendent. The extent of the leap in -height, or horizontally, is proportioned to the power employed, and the -practice acquired. As it is performed with facility only in proportion -to the strength exerted, and the elasticity and suppleness of the -articulations and muscles of the lower extremities, much exercise -is necessary to attain that degree of perfection which lessens all -obstacles, and supplies the means of clearing them without danger. -Lightness and firmness are the qualities necessary for leaping: every -thing should be done to acquire these two qualifications, for without -them leaping is neither graceful nor safe. - - -THE HIGH LEAP. - - -_Without a Run._ - -In this, the legs and feet are closed; the knees are bent till the -calves nearly touch the thighs; the upper part of the body, kept -straight, is inclined a little forward; and the arms thrown in the -direction of the leap, which increases the impulse, preserves the -balance, and may be useful in a fall. (Plate X. fig. 1.) - -[Illustration: _Plate X_ - -_Page 42._ - -Leaping. - -Leaping.] - -The vertebral column, and consequently the whole of the trunk, being -thus bent forward, a strong contraction of the muscles preserves this -bending till the moment when the leap takes place; then, by sudden -contraction of the extensors, the body stretches out like a bow when -the string breaks, is thus jerked forward, and remains suspended a -longer or shorter time in the air. - -In descending, the person should be rather inclined forward; and the -fall should take place on the fore part of the feet, bending the knees -and haunches, to deaden the shock and descent; for, the direct descent -in this leap, if not thus broken, would send its shock from the heels -to the spine and head, and might occasion injury. To perpendicularity -in this leap, should be added lightness, so that scarcely any noise -from the leap should be heard. - -This leap, without a run, may be practised at the height,-- - - 1. Of the knees. - - 2. Of the middle of the thighs. - - 3. Of the hips. - - 4. Of the lower ribs. - - -_With a Run._ - -The run preceding the leap should never exceed ten paces, the distance -between the point of springing and the cord being equal to half the -cord’s height from the ground. The view of the leaper should be -directed first to the spot whence he is to spring; and, the moment -he has reached that, to the cord, accustoming himself to spring from -either foot, and from both feet. - -The instant the spring is made, or (if it be made with one foot) -immediately after, the feet should be closed, and the knees drawn -forcibly towards the chin. Throughout, flexibility and skill, not -violent exertion, should be displayed. This leap, with a run, may be -practised at the height,-- - - 1. Of the hips. - - 2. Of the lower ribs. - - 3. Of the pit of the stomach. - - 4. Of the breast. - - 5. Of the chin. - - 6. Of the eyes. - - 7. Of the crown of the head. - - -_Feats in High Leaping._ - -A good high leaper will clear five feet; a first-rate one, five and -a half; and an extraordinary one, six feet. Ireland is mentioned as -having cleared an extended cord at the height of fourteen feet. Another -man, it is said, jumped to the height of seventeen feet, which was -three times the height of his own body.[6] - - [6] The author means, with the aid of a spring-board.--ED. Fifth - Edition. - - -THE LONG LEAP. - - -_Without a Run._ - -This is generally performed upon straight firm ground, on which there -are marks, or parallel lines, at equal distances. The first of these -lines is the place to leap from. The leapers succeed each other, and -clear a greater number of lines according to their strength and skill. -Here the feet are closed; the whole weight rests upon the balls of -the toes; and the body is inclined forward. Both arms are then swung -forward,--backward,--then drawn strongly forward,--and at the same -instant the limbs, having been bent, are extended with the utmost -possible force. - -In performing this leap, the hands and body must be bent forward, -especially at the end of the movement, when the leaper alights. On -level ground twelve feet is a good standing leap; and fourteen is one -of comparatively rare occurrence. - - -_With a Run._ - -This leap is best executed with a run; and we have therefore dwelt -less upon the former. Here, also, the body must be inclined forward. - -The run should be made over a piece of firm, and not slippery ground, -to the extent of ten, fifteen, or twenty paces; should consist of -small steps, increasing in quickness as they approach the point of -springing; and these should be so calculated as to bring upon the point -that foot with which the leaper is accustomed to spring. The spring, -as here implied, should be performed with one foot, and the arms -thrown forcibly towards the place proposed to be reached. The height -as well as the length of the leap, must be calculated; for the leap is -shortened by not springing a proper height. (Plate X. fig. 2.) - -In the descent, the feet are closed, the knees bent, the upper part -of the body inclined forward, and the toes first touch the ground, at -which moment, a light spring, and afterwards some short steps, are -made, in order to avoid any sudden check. In a much extended leap, -however, alighting on the toes is impossible. A sort of horizontal -swing is then achieved, by which the leaper’s head is little higher -than his feet, and his whole figure is almost parallel with the ground; -and, in this case, to alight on the toes is impossible. Care must here -be taken not to throw the feet so much forward as to cause the leaper -to fall backward at the moment of descent. The ground must be cleared, -or the leap is imperfect and unfair. - -This leap may be practised at,-- - - 1. Double the length of the body. - - 2. Twice and a half that length. - - 3. Three times that length. - - -_Feats in Long Leaping._ - -On level ground, twenty feet is a first-rate leap; twenty-one is -extraordinary; and twenty-two is very rarely accomplished.[7] With a -run and a leap, on a slightly inclined plane, twenty-three feet have -been done. - - [7] I have seen twenty-two feet covered forwards and backwards, by an - Irish tailor.--ED. Fifth Edition. - -Of the various kinds of leaps, the first or simple leap, which is -produced principally by the extension of the abdominal members, -which impel the body either straight upwards, in the vertical leap, -or obliquely upwards and forwards, in the horizontal or rather -parabolic leap, requires, in addition to the contraction of the -abdominal members, especially if the leap be executed with the feet -close together, a violent action of the muscles of the abdomen, upper -parts of the back, anterior parts of the loins, and of the thorax and -shoulders. - - -THE DEEP LEAP. - -This may be made either with or without the hands. In either way, to -avoid the shock, the body must be kept in a bent position, and the fall -be upon the balls of the toes. When the hands are used, the leaper -places them in front of the feet; and during the descent, the weight of -the body is checked by the former, and passes in a diminished state to -the latter; so that the shock is obviated. - -A flight of steps serves the purpose of this exercise. The leaper -ascends a certain number; leaps from the side; gradually increases the -number; and, by practising progressively higher, finds it easy to leap -from heights which at first appalled him. He afterwards combines the -long and deep leaps. For this purpose, a rivulet, which has one bank -high and the opposite one low, is very favourable. Children can easily -take a leap of nine feet in descending. - - -THE DEEP LEAP BACKWARDS, FROM A REST ON THE HANDS. - -This exercise is first performed from platforms of various heights, and -from walls of various elevations. The object is to lessen the shock -that the legs and body experience in reaching the ground at a depth of -more than six or seven feet, and to diminish the distance if possible, -at the same time that it diminishes the violence and velocity of the -fall. All this is easily managed by observing the following rules. - -Suppose the pupil placed upon a platform of four or six feet in height, -he must first examine the place he is about to leap to, so as to select -the most favourable part, free from stones and other obstacles. He will -then approach the extremity of the platform, with his back towards it, -and bend his body, placing his hands in the position shown in Plate -X. fig. 3. Having taken up this position securely, he will lean his -head a little forward, raise his toes from the platform, and remain -for an instant supported by the arms. The body then begins to extend, -and the legs to lengthen downward and backwards; the arms follow this -movement, bend, and support the body by the hands, which have a secure -resting-place on the edge of the platform, as in Plate X. fig. 4. This -descending movement is executed as slowly as possible: the arms stretch -out to their utmost length, till the body is sustained by the last -phalanx of the fingers, or touches the ground with the feet. If it does -not reach the ground, the pupil drops gently down on the tips of his -toes, bends himself, and recovers his upright position. - -There is another mode of descending, when the last resting-place for -the hands is the top of a counterfort, or prop on a wall without a -counterfort. This consists (see Plate X. fig. 3) in seizing the last -hold with the right hand for instance, and in hanging firmly by that -hand, whilst the left, being at liberty, is lowered and pushes back the -body from the projecting stones in the walls, to prevent injury in the -descent. The impulse thus given is, however, very trifling, and solely -to avoid hurt, without increasing the violence of the fall, which ought -to be facilitated on reaching the ground by the rules already given. By -these means, the height of a wall is relatively diminished, for a man -who hangs suspended by his arms, has six feet less to drop than he who -has his feet where he might put his hands. - -The down leap, unless gradually practised, may produce ruptures of -the diaphragm. When, however, the elevation from which the leap is -taken is gradually increased, the eye becomes accustomed to measure -the most extensive distances fearlessly, at the same time that by -practice the abdominal members learn to bend properly under the weight -of the trunk, and thereby preserve the organs contained in it from -serious injuries. In this kind of leap, the shocks will be diminished -by retaining the air in the chest, which may be done by closing the -glottis. - -Persons who have long toes, powerful calves, and prominent heels, are -the best adapted for leaping. - - -VAULTING. - -In vaulting, by a spring of the feet, the body is raised, and by -leaning the hands upon a fixed object, it at the same time receives, -in oblique vaulting, a swing which facilitates the action. As the -inclination thus given to the body depends not merely on the feet, but -on the hands, we have the power to guide the body in any direction. - -This exercise is conveniently practised on the vaulting bar, which -rests upon two or three posts. It may be performed with or without -running. The beginner may at first be allowed a run of a few paces, -ending in a preparatory spring; and he may afterwards be allowed only a -spring. - - -OBLIQUE VAULTING. - -To mount, the vaulter must place himself in front of the bar; make a -preparatory spring with the feet close; fix at that moment both hands -upon the bar; heave himself up, and swing the right leg over. The -body, supported by the hands, may then easily descend into the riding -position. To dismount, the vaulter, supported by the hands, must extend -the feet, make a little swing forward, and a greater one backward, so -as to heave both feet behind over the bar, and spring to the ground -with them close. - -To do this he must first clearly define to himself the place where he -intends to fall. Then, having placed both hands upon the bar, he should -first bend and then extend the joints, so as to raise the body with all -his strength, and throw his legs, kept close, high over the bar. (Plate -XI. fig. 1.) When the right hand (if he vault to the right) quits the -bar, the left remains, the feet reach the ground on the opposite side, -and he falls on both feet, with the knees projected, and the hands -ready, if necessary, to break the fall. - -[Illustration: _Plate XI_ - -_Page 48._ - -Vaulting.] - -In vaulting to the right, the left foot passes in the space which was -between both the hands, the right hand quits the bar, and the left -guides the body in the descent. In vaulting to the left, the right foot -passes in the space which was between both hands, the left hand quits -the bar, and the right guides the body in its descent. As, however, -it is difficult for beginners to vault either way, this is not to be -attempted until after sufficient practice in the way which may be -easiest. The vaulter may then, with a preparatory spring, try the -following heights,-- - - 1. That of the pit of the stomach. - - 2. That of a middling-sized horse. - - 3. His own height or more. - - -STRAIGHT-FORWARD VAULTING. - -For this purpose, both hands must be placed at such distance on the bar -as to give room for the feet between them; the body should be forcibly -raised; the knees drawn up towards the breast; and the feet brought -between the hands, without moving them from their place. (Plate XI. -fig. 2.) This should be practised until it can be done easily. - -This straight-forward vault may have three different terminations. When -the feet are in the space between the hands, the vaulter may stand -upright. He may pass his feet to the opposite side, whilst he seats -himself. He may continue the leap over the seat, through the arms, -letting both hands go at once after the legs have passed. - - -LEAPING WITH A POLE. - -This is a union of leaping and vaulting, in which the vaulter, instead -of supporting himself upon a fixed object, carries with him a pole, -which he applies to whatever spot he chooses. In supporting the body by -a pole during the leap, a great deal also depends upon balancing, as -well as on the strength of the arms and legs. - - -THE HIGH LEAP WITH A POLE. - -The pole prescribed for this exercise is the planed stem of a -straight-grown fir, from seven to ten feet long, and about two inches -thick at the bottom. Such a pole naturally diminishes towards the top; -and it is better to plane off the lower end a little. Care must be -taken that it be sufficiently strong; such as make a crackling noise -during the leap should be immediately thrown aside. - -The learner, supposed to be already expert in leaping and vaulting, -may at first place himself before a small ditch, with a pole, which he -holds in such a manner, that the right hand be about the height of the -head, and the left about that of the hips, and in this case he must -fix it in the ditch. (See Plate XII. fig. 1.) He must then, by making -a spring with his left foot, endeavour to rest the weight of his body -upon the pole, and, thus supported, swing himself to the opposite bank. -In this swing, he passes his body by the right of the pole, making, at -the same time, a turn, so that, at the descent, his face is directed -to the place whence he leaped. The faults usually committed by the -beginner, consist in his trusting to the pole the whole weight of the -body; and in losing the necessary purchase by keeping at too great a -distance from it. - -This leap cannot be made with proper force and facility unless the -fixing of the pole in the ground and the spring are made exactly at -the same moment. To acquire this, the learner should place himself at -the distance of a moderate pace in front of the ditch; raise the left -foot and the pole together; plant both together, the former in the spot -whence he intends making the spring, and the latter in the ditch; then -instantly swing himself round the pole, to the opposite bank. As soon -as he can easily take the proper position and balance, he may endeavour -to swing his legs higher; and in proportion as he becomes more expert, -he must place his hands higher up the pole, in order to have a greater -swing. He must afterwards make a previous run of two, three, or four -paces, gradually increasing in velocity; and always taking care that -the springing foot and the pole come to the ground at the same moment. -When this difficulty is overcome, he may practise the exercise over the -leaping-stand. - -In leaping over the cord, the learner must take the pole in both hands; -make a rather quick run; conclude this with the spring, and planting -the pole at the same moment; raise rapidly his whole body, by means -of this spring and a powerful support on the pole, and swing over the -cord; turning his body so that, at the descent, his face is directed to -the place whence he sprung. This is a general description of the high -leap; but it is necessary to explain the parts into which it may be -divided, as follows,-- - -1. In the handling the pole (Plate XII. fig. 1), it is immaterial, as -to the lower hand, whether the thumb or the little finger be uppermost: -the upper hand must have the thumb upward. The position of the upper -hand is regulated by that of the lower one: as this advances higher -up, the former must be proportionally raised. The lower hand then must -be placed at a height proportionate to that of the leap: thus, if the -latter be six feet, the lower hand must be at least from five and a -half to six feet from the lower end of the pole. The leaper is, after -a little practice, enabled to seize the pole in the proper way, from a -mere glance at the leap. - -2. The preparatory run of from twelve to fifteen paces is accelerated -as the leaper approaches the cord. Upon this run principally depend the -facility and the success of the leap. As the spring can take place -only with one foot, and as this must arrive correctly at the springing -place, it is necessary that the order of the steps should be arranged -so as to effect this object. If the leaper should be obliged to correct -himself by making a few steps, either longer or shorter, just before -making the spring, the leap is rendered difficult. - -3. The fixing of the pole in the ground, and the spring, must take -place at the same instant, because by that means the upper and lower -members operate together, no power is lost, and the swing is performed -with the greatest facility. The place of the pole, however, varies with -the height of the leaps; in leaps of about four feet, the distance of -one foot from the cord is sufficient; in higher leaps, it should be -from one and a half to two feet. The best plan is to have a small pit -dug in front of the cord (see Plate XII. figs. 2 and 3), and to remove -the stand from it, as the height of the leap increases; or the stand -may remain at a foot and a half from the pit, and the learner be taught -to make all the leaps from it. The spring is made with one foot, at the -distance of two, three, four, or five feet from the plant of the pole. -If the leaper keep the left hand lowest, he must spring with the left -foot, and _vice versâ_. - -4. The swing upward is effected by the force of the spring, the support -of the lower, and the pull of the upper hand; but principally by the -propulsion of the run, which being suddenly modified by the fixing of -the pole, has its horizontal direction changed into a slanting ascent, -and carries the body of the leaper over the cord. The leaper must -carefully observe that the spring of the foot, and the plant of the -pole, be in the direction of the preparatory run. - -5. The turning of the body during the swinging upward, is necessary. -When the leaper is going to spring, he has his face turned towards the -object of the leap, as in Plate XII. fig. 1; but as his feet swing, his -body turns round the pole. When his feet have passed over the other -side of the cord, the head is still considerably on this side: the -leaper then appears as in fig. 2. Speedily, the middle of his body is -on the other side of the cord, and he begins the descent, as in fig. -3. It would be impossible to descend in this position otherwise than -with his face directed to the place where the leap was commenced. - -6. The quitting of the pole during the leap is effected by giving it a -push with one hand, at the moment of greatest height, and this causes -it to fall on the inner side of the cord. - -7. The carrying of the pole over the cord is more difficult. The -leaper must then raise the pole a little from the ground at the moment -of beginning the descent, and instantly elevate the lower part of it -with the lowest hand, and depress the upper part with the other; the -consequence being, that, at the descent, the lower end of the pole will -point upward, and the upper end downward. This should be practised -first in low leaps. - -[Illustration] - -8. The descent depends entirely upon the manner in which the leap is -made: if the leap be perfect, the descent will be so. The usual fault -in descending is, that the leaper, having passed the cord, falls to -the ground almost perpendicularly instead of obliquely. In the annexed -figure, _a_ is the place whence the spring is made, _c_ the section of -the cord, _b_ the position of the leaper over it, _d_ his right, and -_e_ his wrong descent. The latter is faulty because it throws him so -much out of balance, that in order not to fall backward, he must run -backward to _d_. If, on the contrary, he descends in proper balance to -the ground, he moves not an inch from the spot where his feet alight; -and this complete rest following the descent is the sign of a perfect -leap. The descent, as already explained, must take place upon the balls -of the toes, and with a sinking of the knees. The position of the body -is sufficiently explained by Plate XII. figs. 1, 2, and 3; but many -learn to swing the legs so well as to raise them, during the highest -part of the leap, considerably above the head. Order of exercises in -the high leap, to be very gradually attempted:-- - - 1. The height of the hips. - - 2. That of the pit of the stomach. - - 3. That of the chin. - - 4. That of the crown of the head. - - 5. That of the points of the fingers--that is, as high as the latter - can reach. - -In performing these leaps, the pole is parted with. As many more may -form a repetition of the preceding, with this difference, that the -leaper carries the pole over with him. A similar number may repeat the -first, except that the leaper, between the spring and descent, makes -a complete turn round the pole, so as again to bring his face in the -direction of the leap. This enlarged turn is rendered easier by leaping -a little higher than the cord requires. - - -THE LONG LEAP WITH A POLE. - -This leap is the most useful, being applicable almost everywhere; and -particularly in a country intersected with small rivers, ditches, &c. -It should be first practised over a ditch about three feet deep, eight -feet broad at one end, and about twenty-one feet at the other, and of -any convenient length. In this exercise, the pole should be rather -stronger and longer than in the preceding one--depending, however, on -the length of the leap, and the height of the bank it is made from. The -usual length is from ten to thirteen feet. - -The handling of the pole is the same as in the high leap. The -preparatory run is rapid, in proportion to the length of the leap. The -spring takes place as in the preceding exercise. The swing is also -the same, except that the curve of the leap is wider. The turning of -the body may likewise be similar, but it is convenient to make only -a quarter turn. In the descent, the hand presses more upon the pole; -and the feet are stretched out to reach the opposite bank, as in Plate -XIII. fig. 1, in which the leaper is descending. Another method of -leaping a river, is to force the body up so high by the pressure of the -hands (of which one rests upon the end of the pole, or very near it), -as to swing over the top of the pole, and allow it to pass between the -legs when descending. (Plate XIII. fig. 2.) - -[Illustration: _Plate XII_ - -_Page 54._ - -Pole Leaping.] - -[Illustration: _Plate XIII_ - -_Page 55._ - -Pole Leaping.] - -Try the following:-- - - 1. The leap of two lengths of the body. - - 2. That of three lengths of the body. - - 3. That of four lengths of the body. - - 4. Persons of equal strength try to outleap one another. - -The lengths of 18, 20, 22, and 24 feet are frequently done by practised -leapers. - - -THE DEEP LEAP WITH A POLE. - -Here neither the preparatory run nor the spring occur: there is nothing -which requires the exertion of the lower members. The use of the -hands and arms, however, is peculiarly requisite, as well as a little -of the art of balancing. The leaper fixes the pole, at a convenient -distance from the place where he stands, in a chasm, ditch, or river, -having one bank high, and the opposite one low. Seizing it with both -hands in the usual way, he slips along it lower and lower; the whole -weight of his body, at last, resting upon it. Thus, if the depth is -considerable, as two lengths of the body, he may slide so far down -upon it, that his head appears slanting downward. In this position, -he makes a slight push against the bank, or merely quits it, with his -feet, which he swings by the side of the pole to the opposite bank. -Here, also, the descent is performed upon the balls of the toes, with -bending of the knees. The principal advantage in this leap lies in the -art of supporting the body, without tottering; and for this purpose, it -is absolutely necessary that the feet should be stretched out far from -each other, in an angular form, otherwise the balance might be lost. -The best way of practising this in an exercise ground, is by a flight -of steps. - -To the exercise of the abdominal members, these leaps unite a strong -action of the muscles of the thorax, arms, and fore-arms, and even -of those of the palms of the hand. The body is only half impelled -by the abdominal members; but this impulse is rendered complete by -considerable effort on the part of the thoracic members. The latter, -in the vertical leap, being supported by the narrow and moveable base -afforded by the pole, assist greatly in raising the body, and even keep -it a moment suspended for the legs to pass over (if the object to be -cleared is very high) before it allows the body to obey the force of -gravity which carries it down. - -This exercise communicates what is termed great lightness to the body, -and great suppleness--that is to say, great relative strength of the -abdominal members; and it also developes the superior members. It is -good for lymphatic temperaments and young persons, but it should not -be indulged in immediately after meals. It may occasion accidents of -the brain and spinal marrow, unless all the articulations are bent on -returning to the ground. - - -BALANCING. - -Balancing is the art of preserving the stability of the body upon a -narrow or a moving surface. The balancing bar consists of a round -and tapering pole, supported horizontally, about three feet from -the ground, by upright posts, one at its thicker extremity, and -another about the middle, between the parts of which it may be raised -or lowered by means of an iron peg passing through holes in their -sides. The unsupported end of the bar wavers, of course, when stepped -upon--(Plate XIV.) - -The upper surface of the bar being smooth in dry weather, the soles of -the shoes should be damped; the ground about the bar should consist of -sand, and the exercises be cautiously performed. - -[Illustration: _Plate XIV_ - -_Page 57._ - -Balancing.] - - -POSITION AND ACTION IN BALANCING. - -In this exercise, the head should be held up, the body erect, the -shoulders back, the arms extended, the hands shut, and the feet turned -outwards. At first, the balancer may be assisted along the bar; but he -must gradually receive less and less aid, till at last the assistant -only remains by his side. - -The pole may be mounted either from the ground or from the riding -position on the beam. In the latter case, the balancer may raise the -right foot, place it flat on the beam, with the heel near the upper -part of the thigh, and rise on the point of the foot, carrying the -weight of the body before him. (Plate XIV. fig. 1.) - -In this case, the beam must not be touched with the hands; the left leg -must hang perpendicularly, with the toe towards the ground, and the -arms be stretched forward. After keeping the balance for some minutes -in this position, he must stretch the left leg out before him, place -his heel on the middle of the beam, with the toe well turned outward, -and transfer the weight of the body from the point of the right foot -to the left heel--(Plate XIV. fig. 2). These steps he must perform -alternately, till he reaches the end of the beam. - - -TURNS IN BALANCING. - -When the balancer is able to walk firmly and in good position along the -bar, and to spring off whenever he may lose his balance, he may attempt -to turn round, first at the broad, then at the narrow end, and to -return. He may next try to go backward. - -In accomplishing this, it is no longer the heel, but the tip of the -toes, which receives the weight; the leg which hangs being stretched -backward, with the hip, knee, and heel forming a right angle, till the -toes, by a transverse motion, are so placed on the middle of the beam, -that the balancer can safely transfer to them the whole weight of the -body. - -To acquire the art of passing an obstacle placed laterally, two -balancers may pass each other thus:--They must hold one another fast -by the arms, advance breast to breast, place each his right foot close -forward to that of his comrade, across the bar (Plate XIV. fig. 3), and -turn completely round each other, by each stepping with his left foot -round the right one of the other, as in Plate XIV. fig. 4. - -To acquire the art of passing an obstacle placed inferiorly, a large -stone may be laid upon the bar, or a stick may be held before the -balancer, about the height of the knee. (Plate XIV. fig. 5.) - -To pass over men placed upon a beam, the pupil or pupils who are -astride in front lie down on the beam, which they grasp firmly by -passing their arms round it. The pupil _a_ (fig. 1, Plate XV.) having -to pass to the point on the beam marked _b_, places his hands on the -waistband of his comrade _c_: he then leans upon his arms, and raises -his body to pass forward over his comrade, opening his legs widely, so -as not to touch him, till he places himself astride at _c_. He then -extends his hands and arms for a second movement, places them at _b_, -and leans the body well forward, as shown in fig. 2, Plate XV. Being -thus placed, he makes the last movement, raises his body upon the arms -to pass over his comrade’s head without touching it, which is the chief -rule of this exercise, and places himself astride upon the beam at _b_, -moving his hands immediately, and extending them to rest at _d_. This -movement being finished, he continues advancing astride, along the -beam, over the others, if there be any; raises himself to an upright -position, and lies down in his turn on the beam. This last attitude -requires some care, because the head must incline either to the right -or left of the beam, as shown in the plates, and the pupil must hold -tight to the beam with the arms and thighs, which requires both skill -and strength. - -The pupil may also pass as shown in fig. 3, Plate XV. This method is -very easy for the person passing, and indeed more so than any other; -but it is necessary that the pupil who is in the position _b_ should -have learnt to raise himself up on the beam, or know how to advance -along it underneath, in a reversed position. - -[Illustration: _Plate XV_ - -_Page 58._ - -Balancing.] - -It is impossible for any one who has not seen the carnivals of Venice, -and other towns in Italy, to form an idea of all the difficulties that -have been surmounted in the art of equilibrium. To acquire the art of -carrying any body, the balancer may at first walk along the bar with -his hands folded across his breast, instead of using them to balance -himself; and he may afterwards carry bodies of various magnitudes. - - * * * * * - -To this notice of the rules by which the art of Balancing may be best -acquired, it will not be out of place to subjoin a slight outline of -its importance to all who desire to arrive at excellence in any of the -Manly Exercises. Motion--the source of them all--if not absolutely -dependent for existence upon equilibrium, without it would be but the -infancy of action--movement tottering, uncertain, powerless. The first -effort of locomotion--the walk, without it, possesses neither force nor -decision: in the same ratio that a higher degree of muscular exertion -is demanded, increases the value and importance of the art which -teaches how best to apply the vital energies to its service. What a -wise economy is to the social, this art is to the physical system: both -serve to augment our resources, by instructing us so to husband them -that the term “necessity” be not known to our vocabulary. - -While in every instance equilibrium adds greatly to physical power, in -many it stands altogether in its stead. To the most casual observer -of our usual sports it will be manifest that this is the case in -Skating;--the more attentive and competent will have little difficulty -in tracing its effects in Leaping, Vaulting, Swimming, and through -almost the whole catalogue. It is to the later writers on horsemanship -that we are indebted for the knowledge of its vital service to the -equestrian. The truth of their theory is proved by the fact that, -where formerly scarce a tithe of a hunting-field was found to ride to -hounds, now nine-tenths are ordinarily to be seen in good places. - - --------Scouring along, - In pleasing hurry and confusion toss’d, - Happy the man, who with unrivall’d speed - Can pass his fellows. - - -CARRYING WEIGHT. - -The power of raising and carrying weight is of great importance in a -general view. Many advantages will be derived from it; for besides -strengthening the locomotive muscles, upon which all our physical -operations depend, it will fortify also all the system and all the -organs. All persons, moreover, may find themselves under the necessity -of raising and carrying a wounded or fainting person, and may be glad -to have cultivated and acquired the power necessary to perform such an -act. - -In accustoming young persons to carry burdens, they should be taught -to support what is on the back first with one hand and then with the -other: by these means the muscles are equally exercised on each side, -and acquire an equal developement. These burdens, however, must not -exceed their strength; and they should be taught not to carry on -one side in preference, for fear of deforming the limbs. There are -several modes of supporting weights, and of trying the amount of power -possessed for this kind of exercise. - -Fig. 1, Plate XVI. represents one method. It consists in loading the -shoulders with sacks full of articles whose weight is previously known. -The position of the arms and hands is such that the pupil can support -a great weight: but in this way he can walk but very slowly; and it is -therefore, so far, disadvantageous. - -[Illustration: _Plate XVI_ - -_Page 60._ - -Carrying Weight.] - -Fig. 2, in the same plate, supports a weight by means of a hod. This is -filled with balls or stones, of which the weight is known. - -The form of the weight is of consequence. A soldier now carries with -ease a knapsack full of articles, and additional weight above it, -because the flat shape that has been lately adopted fits the body, and -lies close to the back, as in fig. 3, and the centre of gravity is thus -very little deranged. But if the knapsack were of the old shape, very -projecting and very round, as in fig. 4, the soldier would be forced -to incline his body forward, and would not be able to carry as great a -weight, nor march as long a time, in consequence of fatigue. It is for -this reason, among others, desirable to extend the knowledge of the -most simple rules of mechanics, because these rules are serviceable in -avoiding many dangers, and diminishing the fatigue and the efforts that -vacillation in the movements produces. We may make use of a hook to -bear boxes or bags in addition, with the weights marked, and thus learn -the carrier’s strength. - -Milo, says history, first carried a calf immediately after its birth, -and continued to do so every day till it had reached its full size. It -was said by this means that he was able to carry even the ox itself, -and afterwards throw it on the ground and kill it with his fist. - -Augustus the Second, King of Poland, carried a man upon his hand. - -A man named Roussel, a labourer in the environs of Lisle, who on a -smaller scale (being but four feet ten inches in height), was formed -exactly like the Farnese Hercules, raised on his shoulders a weight -of eighteen hundred pounds. He cleared a circle six feet in height -with very little spring and one hundred-weight in each hand. When -seated on the ground, he rose up without aid, carrying two men on his -arms. Equally astonishing in the strength of his loins, he took up -two hundred-weight leaning backwards over a chair. “I have seen this -remarkable man,” says Friedlander: “the whole of his family are very -strong: his sister and brother are equally remarkable in this point.” -It is very striking to find in him the characteristic traits with which -antiquity depicted the ideal of bodily strength. - -In the Encyclopædia of Krumtz, vol. lxxii., we find instances of some -men similar to Roussel, who lived at the commencement of the last -century. A man named Eckenberg raised a cannon of two thousand five -hundred pounds weight; and two strong men were unable to take from him -a stick that he held between his teeth. - -In number 446 of the Bibliotheque Britannique, is to be found a report -of some trials made by a Mr. Shulze, in his manufactory, of the -strength of men of different heights. These trials show what influence -an elevated stature has upon the vertical height to which a man can -raise any weight. A short man is, in his turn, capable of employing -more force in another direction. - - -THROWING THE DISCUS. - -Among the Greeks, throwing the discus did not form part of the games -till the eighteenth Olympiad. This exercise consisted in throwing, -as far as possible, a mass of wood or stone, but more commonly of -iron or copper, of a lenticular form. From the testimony of ancient -authors, there was no mark or butt fixed, except the spot where the -discus thrown by the strongest of the discoboli alighted. Mercuriali -has handed down to us three engravings, in which the discus is not -of the same shape. The first engraving represents four discoboli in -the act of throwing with the right hand a discus which is as thick at -the circumference as at the centre, which has been bored. The second -represents the statue of a discobolus holding a discus apparently of -a spherical form, in the left hand. The third shows the arm of an -athlete with a flat discus. The discus in the last two engravings now -mentioned, covers the greater part of the front of the forearm; and all -that the ancients have written respecting this instrument, tends to -show that it was of enormous size and weight. Homer tells us, that the -athletes threw the discus either up into the air merely as a prelude to -accustom their arms to it, or horizontally when they were striving for -the prize. - -[Illustration: _Plate XVII_ - -_Page 63._ - -Throwing the Discus.] - -To perform this exercise properly, the thrower should not only balance -the discus well on the right arm, (supposing it to be on that arm, as -in Plate XVII. fig. 1); but at the moment it leaves the hand, he should -throw the whole of the right side forward, so that the impulse may be -assisted by the weight of the whole body.--(Plate XVII. fig. 2.) This -exercise very much strengthens the body, and developes, in a particular -manner, the limb by which the discus is thrown. It may be usefully -employed in cases where it is desirable to remedy weakness in either of -the arms; and it is well calculated to bring up the power of the left -arm to that of the right. The modern quoit differs from the ancient -discus only in this, that the instrument so called is much smaller than -the discus, that its use is a mere idle pastime, and that the object is -always to throw it as close as possible to a fixed mark, requiring more -skill than strength. - -It is evident that the discus may be heaved from above the shoulder -as well as flung from below.--(See Plate XVII. fig. 3.) No exercises -can excel these for the acquirement of power. They ought to be much -practised with both hands. A man of moderate strength will throw a -pound weight of lead a distance of 140 feet, or thereabouts. - - Silex 1½ 126 feet. - Ditto ¼ 145 - Brick ½ 160 - - -CLIMBING. - -Climbing is the art of transporting the body in any direction, by -the aid, in general, both of the hands and feet. The climbing-stand -consists of two strong poles, about fifteen feet high, and from fifteen -to twenty-five feet distant, which are firmly fixed in the ground, -and support a beam strongly fastened to them. One pole is two inches -and a half in diameter; the other, which serves as a mast, should be -considerably thicker; and both serve the purpose of climbing. To the -beam are attached other implements of climbing: viz. a ladder, an -inclined board, a mast, an inclined pole, a horizontal bar, a rope -ladder, an upright, an inclined, and a level rope.--(Plate XVIII.) - - -KINDS OF CLIMBING. - -Climbing on fixed bodies should first be practised. - - -_The Ladder._ - -Exercises on the ladder may be practised in the following ways:-- - - 1. By ascending and descending as usual. - - 2. With one hand, carrying something in the other. - - 3. Without using the hands. - - 4. Passing another on the front of the ladder, or swinging to the - back, to let another pass. - - -_The Inclined Board._ - -This should be rather rough, about two feet broad, and two inches -thick. To climb it, it is necessary to seize both sides with the hands, -and to place the feet flat in the middle, the inclination of the board -being diminished with the progress of the pupil. - -At first, it may form with the ground an angle of about thirty degrees; -and the climber should not go more than half-way up. This angle may -gradually be augmented to a right angle, or the direction of the board -may be made perpendicular. When the board is thus little or not at all -inclined, the body must be much curved inward, and the legs thrust up, -so that the higher one is nearly even with the hand. In descending, -small and quick steps are necessary. - -[Illustration: _Plate XVIII_ - -_Page 64._ - -Climbing.] - - -_The Upright Pole._ - -The upright pole should be about two inches and a half in diameter, -perfectly smooth and free from splinters. - -The position of the climber is shown in Plate XVIII. fig. 1, where -nothing touches the pole except the feet, legs, knees, and hands. He -grasps as high as possible with both hands, raises himself by bending -the body and drawing his legs up the pole, holds fast by them, extends -the body, again grasps higher up with his hands, and continues the same -use of the legs and arms. The descent is performed by sliding down with -the legs, and scarcely touching with the hands, as in Plate XVIII. fig. -2. - - -_The Mast._ - -This is more difficult, as it cannot be grasped with the hands; and it -consequently should not be practised until the climber is expert in the -previous exercises. The position of the legs is the same as for the -pole; but, instead of grasping the mast, the climber lays hold of his -left arm with his right hand, or the reverse, and clings to the mast -with the whole body, as in Plate XVIII. fig. 3. - - -_The Slant Pole._ - -This must be at least three inches thick; and as, in this exercise, the -hands bear more of the weight than in climbing the upright pole, it -should not be attempted until expertness in the other is acquired. - - -_The Horizontal, or Slightly Inclined Bar._ - -This may be about two inches wide at top, from ten to fifteen feet -long, and supported by two posts, respectively six and seven feet high. -The climber must grasp with both hands as high a part of the bar as he -can reach, and, with arms extended, support his own weight as long as -possible. He must next endeavour to bend the elbows so much, that one -shoulder remains close under the bar, as seen in Pl XVIII. fig. 4. Or -he may place both hands on the same side, and draw himself up so far as -to see over it, keeping the legs and feet close and extended. - -He may then hang with his hands fixed on both sides, near to each -other, having the elbows much bent, the upper parts of the arms close -to the body, and one shoulder close under the bar; may lower the head -backwards, and may, at the same time, raise the feet to touch each -other over the bar.--(Pl XVIII. fig. 5.) In the last position, he may -move the hands one before the other, forward or backward, and may -either slide the feet along the bar, or alternately change them like -the hands, and retain a similar hold. - -Hanging also by the hands alone, as in Pl XVIII. fig. 6, he moves them -either forward or backward, keeping the arms firm, and the feet close -and extended. Or he may place himself in front of the bar, hanging by -both hands, and move laterally. Being likewise in front of the bar, -with his hands resting upon it, as in Pl XVIII. fig. 7, he may move -along the bar either to the right or left. In the position of Pl XVIII. -fig. 5, the climber may endeavour to sit upon the bar, for instance, -on the right side, by taking hold with the right knee-joint, grasping -firmly with the right hand, and bringing the left armpit over the bar. -The riding position is thus easily obtained. From the riding position, -he may, by supporting himself with one thigh, turn towards the front of -the bar, allowing the leg of the other side to hang down; and he may -then very easily move along the bar sideways, by raising his body with -his hands placed laterally on the bar. - - -_The Rope Ladder._ - -This should have several rundles to spread it out, and ought, in all -respects, to be so constructed, as not to twist and entangle. The only -difficulty here is that, as it hangs perpendicularly, and is flexible, -its steps are liable to be pushed forward, and in that case, the body -is thrown into an oblique position, and the whole weight falls on the -hands. To prevent this, the climber must keep the body stretched out -and upright.--(Plate XVIII. fig. 8.) - - -_The Upright Rope._ - -In this exercise, the securing the rope may be effected in various -ways. In the first method, shown in Pl XVIII. fig. 9, the hands and -feet alone are employed. The feet are crossed; the rope passes between -them, and is held fast by their pressure; the hands then grasp higher; -the feet are drawn up; they are again applied to the rope; and the same -process is repeated. In the second, which is the sailor’s method, shown -at Pl XVIII. fig. 10, the rope passes from the hands, generally along -the right thigh, just above the knee; winds round the inside of the -thigh, under the knee-joint, over the outside of the leg, and across -the instep, whence it hangs loose; and the climber, by treading with -the left foot upon that part of the rope where it crosses the right -one, is firmly supported. This mode of climbing requires the right -leg and foot to be so managed that the rope keeps its proper winding -whenever it is quitted by the left foot. In descending, to prevent -injury, the hands must be lowered alternately. - -To rest upon the upright rope, shown in Pl XVIII. fig. 11, the climber -must swing the right foot round the rope, so as to wind it three or -four times round the leg; must turn it, by means of the left foot, once -or twice round the right one, of which the toes are to be bent upwards; -and must tread firmly with the left foot upon the last winding. Or, to -obtain a more perfect rest he may lower his hands along the rope, as -in Figure 11, hold with the right hand, stoop, grasp with the left the -part of the rope below the feet, raise it and himself again, and wind -it round his shoulders, &c., until he is firmly supported. - - -_The Oblique Rope._ - -The climber must fix himself to the rope, as in Pl XVIII. fig. 12, -and advance the hands along it, as already directed. The feet may -move along the rope alternately; or one leg, hanging over the rope, -may slide along it; or, which is best, the sole of one foot may be -laid upon the rope, and the other leg across its instep, so that the -friction is not felt. - - -_The Level Rope._ - -This may have its ends fastened to posts of equal heights; and the same -exercises may be performed upon it. - - -_Climbing Trees._ - -In attempting this exercise, the kind of the wood and strength of the -branches must be considered. Summer is the best time for practising it, -as withered branches are then most easily discerned; and even then it -is best to climb low trees, until some experience is acquired. As the -surface of branches is smooth, or moist and slippery, the hands must -never for a moment be relaxed. - -[Illustration] - - -[Illustration] - - - - -SKATING. - - -Skating is the art of balancing the body, while, by the impulse of each -foot alternately, it moves rapidly upon the ice. - - -CONSTRUCTION OF THE SKATE. - -The wood of the skate should be slightly hollowed, so as to adapt it -to the ball of the foot; and, as the heel of the boot must be thick -enough to admit the peg, it may be well to lower the wood of the skate -corresponding to the heel, so as to permit the foot to regain that -degree of horizontal position which it would otherwise lose by the -height of the heel; for the more of the foot that is in contact with -the skate, the more firmly will these be attached. As the tread of the -skate should correspond, as nearly as possible, with that of the foot, -the wood should be of the same length as the boot or shoe; the irons -of good steel, and well secured in the wood. - -These should pass beyond the screw at the heel, nearly as far as the -wood itself; but the bow of the iron should not project much beyond the -tread. - -If the skate project much beyond the wood, the whole foot, and more -especially its hind part, must be raised considerably from the ice -when the front or bow of the skate is brought to bear upon it; and, as -the skater depends upon this part for the power of his stroke, it is -evident that that must be greatly diminished by the general distance of -the foot from the ice. In short, if the skate be too long, the stroke -will be feeble, and the back of the leg painfully cramped: if it be too -short, the footing will be proportionally unsteady and tottering. - -As the position of the person in the act of skating is never vertical, -and is sometimes very much inclined, and as considerable exertion of -the muscles of the leg is requisite to keep the ankle stiff, this ought -to be relieved by the lowness of the skates. Seeing, then, that the -closer the foot is to the ice, the less is the strain on the ankle, -it is clear that the foot ought to be brought as near to the ice as -possible, without danger of bringing the sole of the shoe in contact -with it, while traversing on the edge of the skate. The best height is -about three-quarters of an inch, and the iron about a quarter of an -inch thick. - -The grooved or fluted skate, if ever useful, is of service only to -boys, or very light persons, whose weight is not sufficient to catch -the ice in a hard frost. It certainly should never be used by a person -who is heavier than a boy of thirteen or fourteen years of age usually -is, because the sharp edge too easily cuts into the ice, and prevents -figuring. Fluted skates, indeed, are even dangerous: for the snow or -ice cuttings are apt to collect and consolidate in the grooves, till -the skater is raised from the edge of his skate, and thrown. - -In the general inclination of the foot in skating, no edge can have -greater power than that of rectangular shape: the tendency of its -action is downwards, cutting through rather than sliding on the -surface; and greater hold than this is unnecessary. The irons of -skates should be kept well and sharply ground. This ought to be done -across the stone, so as to give the bottom of the skate so slight a -concavity as to be imperceptible, which insures an edge whose angle is -not greater than right. Care must be taken that one edge is not higher -than the other; so that, when the skate is placed upon an even surface, -it may stand quite perpendicularly. The wear of the iron not being -great with a beginner, one grinding will generally last him through an -ordinary winter’s skating on clean ice. - -The bottom of the iron should be a little curved; for, if perfectly -straight, it would be capable of describing only a straight line, -whereas the skater’s progress must be circular, because, in order to -bring the edge to bear, the body must be inclined, and inclination can -be preserved only in circular motion. This curve of the iron should be -part of a circle, whose radius is about two feet. That shape enables -the skater to turn his toe or heel outwards or inwards with facility. - -A screw would have a firmer hold than a mere peg in the hole of the -boot; but, as it is less easily removed, skaters generally prefer the -peg. The skater should be careful not to bore a larger hole in the heel -than is sufficient to admit the peg. The more simple the fastenings of -the skate the better. The two straps--namely, the cross strap over the -toe, and the heel strap--cannot be improved, unless perhaps by passing -one strap through the three bores, and so making it serve for both. - -[Illustration] - -Before going on the ice, the young skater must learn to tie on the -skates, and may also learn to walk with them easily in a room, -balancing alternately on each foot. - - -DRESS OF THE SKATER. - -A skater’s dress should be as close and unincumbered as possible. Large -skirts get entangled with his own limbs, or those of the persons who -pass near him; and all fulness of dress is exposed to the wind. Loose -trousers, frocks, and more especially great-coats, must be avoided; -and indeed, by wearing additional under-clothing, they can always be -dispensed with. - -As the exercise of skating produces perspiration, flannel next the -chest, shoulders, and loins, is necessary to avoid the evils produced -by sudden chills in cold weather. The best dress is what is called a -dress-coat, buttoned, tight pantaloons, and laced boots (having the -heel no higher than is necessary for the peg), which hold the foot -tightly and steadily in its place, as well as give the best support to -the ankle; for it is of no use to draw the straps of the skate hard, if -the boot or shoe be loose. - - -PRELIMINARY AND GENERAL DIRECTIONS. - -Either very rough or very smooth ice should be avoided. The person who -for the first time attempts to skate, must not trust to a stick. He may -make a friend’s hand his support, if he require one; but that should -be soon relinquished, in order to balance himself. He will probably -scramble about for half an hour or so, till he begins to find out where -the edge of his skate is. - -The beginner must be fearless, but not violent; nor even in a hurry. He -should not let his feet get far apart, and keep his heels still nearer -together. He must keep the ankle of the foot on the ice quite firm; not -attempting to gain the edge of the skate by bending it, because the -right mode of getting to either edge is by the inclination of the whole -body in the direction required; and this inclination should be made -fearlessly and decisively. - -The leg which is on the ice should be kept perfectly straight; for, -though the knee must be somewhat bent at the time of striking, it must -be straightened as quickly as possible without any jerk. The leg which -is off the ice should also be kept straight, though not stiff, having -an easy but slight play, the toe pointing downwards, and the heel -within from six to twelve inches of the other. - -The learner must not look down at the ice, nor at his feet, to see how -they perform. He may at first incline his body a little forward, for -safety, but hold his head up, and see where he goes, his person erect, -and his face rather elevated than otherwise. - -When once off, he must bring both feet up together, and strike again, -as soon as he finds himself steady enough, rarely allowing both feet -to be on the ice together. The position of the arms should be easy and -varied; one being always more raised than the other, this elevation -being alternate, and the change corresponding with that of the legs; -that is, the right arm being raised as the right leg is put down, and -_vice versâ_, so that the arm and leg of the same side may not be -raised together. - -The face must be always turned in the direction of the line intended -to be described. Hence, in backward skating, the head will be inclined -much over the shoulder; in forward skating, but slightly. All sudden -and violent action must be avoided. Stopping may be caused by slightly -bending the knees, drawing the feet together, inclining the body -forward, and pressing on the heels. It may also be caused by turning -short to the right or left, the foot on the side to which we turn being -rather more advanced, and supporting part of the weight. - - -THE ORDINARY RUN, OR INSIDE EDGE FORWARD. - -The first attempt of the beginner is to walk, and this walk shortly -becomes a sliding gait, done entirely on the inside edge of the skate. - -The first impulse is to be gained by pressing the inside edge of one -skate against the ice, and advancing with the opposite foot. To effect -this, the beginner must bring the feet nearly together, turn the left -somewhat out, place the right a little in advance and at right angles -with it, lean forward with the right shoulder, and at the same time -move the right foot onwards, and press sharply, or strike the ice with -the inside edge of the left skate,--care being taken instantly to -throw the weight on the right foot. (Plate XIX. fig. 1.) While thus in -motion, the skater must bring up the left foot nearly to a level with -the other, and may for the present proceed a short way on both feet. - -He must next place the left foot in advance in its turn, bring the left -shoulder forward, inclining to that side, strike from the inside edge -of the right skate, and proceed as before. - -Finally, this motion has only to be repeated on each foot alternately, -gradually keeping the foot from which he struck longer off the ice, -till he has gained sufficient command of himself to keep it off -altogether, and is able to strike directly from one to the other, -without at any time having them both on the ice together. Having -practised this till he has gained some degree of firmness and power, -and a command of his balance, he may proceed to - - -THE FORWARD ROLL, OR OUTSIDE EDGE. - -This is commonly reckoned the first step to figure skating, as, when -it is once effected, the rest follows with ease. The impulse is gained -in the same manner as for the ordinary run; but, to get on the outside -edge of the right foot, the moment that foot is in motion, the skater -must advance the left shoulder, throw the right arm back, look over the -right shoulder, and incline the whole person boldly and decisively on -that side, keeping the left foot suspended behind. (Plate XIX. fig. 2.) - -As he proceeds, he must bring the left foot past the inside of the -right, with a slight jerk, which produces an opposing balance of the -body; the right foot must quickly press, first on the outside of the -heel, then on the inside, or its toe; the left foot must be placed down -in front, before it is removed more than about eight or ten inches -from the other foot; and, by striking outside to the left, giving at -the same moment a strong push with the inside of the right toe, the -skater passes from right to left, inclining to the left side, in the -same manner as he did to the right. He then continues to change from -left to right, and from right to left, in the same manner. At first he -should not remain long upon one leg, nor scruple occasionally to put -the other down to assist; and throughout he must keep himself erect, -leaning most on the heel. - -The Dutch travelling roll is done on the outside edge forward, in the -manner just represented, except that there is described a small segment -of a very large circle, thus: - -[Illustration] - -diverging from the straight line no more than is requisite to keep -the skate on its edge. - -The cross roll or figure 8 is also done on the outside edge forward. -This is only the completion of the circle on the outside edge; and -it is performed by crossing the legs, and striking from the outside -instead of the inside edge. In order to do this, as the skater draws -to the close of the stroke on his right leg, he must throw the left -quite across it, which will cause him to press hard on the outside of -the right skate, from which he must immediately strike, at the same -time throwing back the left arm, and looking over the left shoulder, to -bring him well upon the outside of that skate. By completing the circle -in this manner on each leg, the 8 is formed: - -[Illustration] - -each circle being small, complete, and well-formed, before the -foot is changed. - -The Mercury figure is merely the outside and inside forward succeeding -each other on the same leg alternately, by which a serpentine line is -described, thus: - -[Illustration] - -This is skated with the force and rapidity gained by a run. When -the run is complete, and the skater on the outside edge, his person -becomes quiescent, in the attitude of Mercury, having the right arm -advanced and much raised, the face turned over the right shoulder, and -the left foot off the ice, a short distance behind the other, turned -out and pointed. - - -FIGURE OF THREE, OR INSIDE EDGE BACKWARDS. - -This figure is formed by turning from the outside edge forward to the -inside edge backward on the same foot. The head of the 3 is formed like -the half circle, on the heel of the outside edge; but when the half -circle is complete, the skater leans suddenly forward, and rests on the -same toe inside, and a backward motion, making the tail of the 3, is -the consequence. The figure described by the right leg should be nearly -in the form of No. 1; and on the left leg should be reversed, and -resemble No. 2. - -[Illustration: 1.] - -[Illustration: 2.] - -At first, the skater should not throw himself quite so hard as hitherto -on the outside forward, in order that he may be able the more easily -to change to the inside back. He may also be for some time contented -with much less than a semicircle before he turns. Having done this, -and brought the left leg nearly up to the other, he must not pass it -on in advance, as he would to complete a circle, but throw it gently -off sidewise, at the same moment turning the face from the right to -the left shoulder, and giving the whole person a slight inclination to -the left side. These motions throw the skater upon the inside of his -skate; but as the first impulse should still retain most of its force, -he continues to move on the inside back, in a direction so little -different, that his first impulse loses little by the change. (Plate -XIX. fig. 1.) - -[Illustration: _Plate XIX_ - -_Page 77._ - -Skating.] - -If unable to change the edge by this method, the skater may assist -himself by slightly and gently swinging the arm and leg outward, so as -to incline the person to a rotatory motion. This swing, however, must -be corrected as soon as the object is attained; and it must generally -be observed that the change from edge to edge is to be effected merely -by the inclination of the body, not by swinging. - -When the skater is able to join the ends of the 3, so as to form -one side of a circle, then, by striking off in the same manner, and -completing another 3, with the left leg, the combination of the two -3’s will form an 8. In the first attempts, the 3 should not be made -above two feet long, which he will acquire the power of doing almost -imperceptibly. He may then gradually extend the size as he advances in -the art. - -Though, in this section, backward skating is spoken of, the term refers -to the skate only, which in such case moves heel foremost, but the -person of the skater moves sidewise, the face being always turned in -the direction in which he is proceeding. - - -OUTSIDE EDGE BACKWARDS. - -Here the skater, having completed the 3, and being carried on by the -first impulse, still continues his progress in the same direction, but -on the other foot, putting it down on its outside edge, and continuing -to go backwards slowly. - -To accomplish this, the skater, after making the 3, and placing the -outside edge of his left foot on the ice, should at once turn his face -over the right shoulder, raise his right foot from the ice, and throw -back his right arm and shoulder. (Plate XIX. fig. 2.) If, for awhile, -he is unable readily to raise that foot which has made the 3, and -leave himself on the outside of the other skate, he may keep both down -for some distance, putting himself, however, in attitude of being on -the outside only of one skate, and gradually lifting the other off the -ice as he acquires ability. - -When finishing any figure, this use of both feet backward has great -convenience and beauty. - -Before venturing on the outside backward, the skater ought to take care -that the ice is clear of stones, reeds, &c., and also be certain of the -good quality of his irons. When going with great force backward, the -course may be deflected, so as to stop by degrees; and, when moving -slowly, the suspended foot may be put down in a cross direction to the -path. - -Such are the four movements of which alone the skate is capable: -namely, the inside edge forward; the outside forward; the inside back; -and the outside back; in which has been seen how the impulse for the -first two is gained, and how the third flows from the second, and the -fourth from the third. By the combination of these elements of skating, -and the variations with which they succeed each other, are formed all -the evolutions in this art. - -The Double Three is that combination in which the skates are brought -from the inside back of the first three, to the outside forward of -the second. Here the skater, after having completed one 3, and being -on the inside back, must bring the whole of the left side forward, -particularly the leg, till it is thrown almost across the right, on -which he is skating. This action brings him once more to the outside -forward, from which he again turns to the inside back. While he is -still in motion on the second inside back of the right leg, he must -strike on the left, and repeat the same on that. - -It is at first enough to do two 3’s perfectly and smoothly. Their -number from one impulse may be increased as the skater gains steadiness -and skill; the art of accomplishing this being to touch as lightly as -possible on each side of the skate successively, so that the first -impulse may be preserved and made the most of. - -The Back Roll is a means of moving from one foot to another. - -Suppose the skater to have put himself on the outside edge back of the -left leg, with considerable impulse, by means of the 3 performed on the -right,--not bearing hard on the edge, for the object is to change it, -and take up the motion on the right foot,--this is effected by throwing -the left arm and shoulder back, and turning the face to look over them; -when, having brought the inside of his left skate to bear on the ice, -he must immediately strike from it to the outside back of the other, by -pressing it into the ice as forcibly as he can at the toe. Having thus -been brought to the backward roll on the right foot, he repeats the -same with it. - -The Back Cross Roll is done by changing the balance of the body, to -move from one foot to the other, in the same manner as for the back -roll. The stroke is from the outside instead of the inside edge of the -skate; the edge on which he is skating not being changed, but the right -foot, which is off the ice, being crossed at the back of the left, and -put down, and the stroke taken at the same moment, from the outside -edge of the left skate, at the toe. As in the back roll of both forms, -the strokes are but feeble, the skater may, from time to time, renew -his impulse as he finds occasion, by commencing anew with the 3. - -The large outside backward roll is attained by a run, when the skater, -having gained all the impulse he can, strikes on the outside forward -of the right leg, turns the 3, and immediately put down the left on -the outside back. He then, without further effort, flies rapidly over -the ice; the left arm being raised, the head turned over the right -shoulder, and the right foot turned out and pointed. - -It must be evident, that the elements described may be combined and -varied infinitely. Hence waltz and quadrille skating, &c., which may be -described as combinations of 3’s, outside backwards, &c. These are left -to the judgment of the skater, and his skill in the art. - -In the North it is common to travel in skates on the gulfs and rivers; -and, with a favourable wind, they go faster than vessels. It is a -kind of flight, for they only touch the ground in a very slight thin -line. As to feats in skating, we are told, that the Frieslander, who -is generally a skilful skater, often goes for a long time at the rate -of fifteen miles an hour. In 1801, two young women, going thirty miles -in two hours, won the prize in a skating race at Groningen. In 1821, a -Lincolnshire man, for a wager of 100 guineas, skated one mile within -two seconds of three minutes. - - -DANGERS IN SKATING. - -If the chest be irritable, it is neither salutary nor easy to skate -against the wind. In countries where these exercises are general, -inflammations of the chest are very common in winter. Skating sometimes -exposes to much danger. If the skater find that he cannot get away from -rotten ice, he must crawl over it on his hands and knees, in order -to reduce his weight on the supporting points. If he fall on it at -length, he must roll away from it towards ice more firm. If he fall -into a hole, he must extend his arms horizontally over the edges of the -unbroken ice, and only tread water, till a ladder or a plank is pushed -towards him, or a rope is thrown for his hold. - - - TREATMENT RECOMMENDED IN THE CASE OF DROWNED PERSONS. - - CAUTIONS.--1. Lose no time. 2. Avoid all rough usage. 3. Never hold - the body up by the feet. 4. Nor roll the body on casks. 5. Nor - rub the body with salt or spirits. 6. Nor inject tobacco-smoke or - infusion of tobacco. - - RESTORATIVE MEANS IF APPARENTLY DROWNED.--Send quickly for medical - assistance; but do not delay the following means. - - I. Convey the body carefully, with the head and shoulders supported - in a raised position, to the nearest house. - - II. Strip the body, and rub it dry; then wrap it in hot blankets, and - place it in a warm bed in a warm chamber. - - III. Wipe and cleanse the mouth and nostrils. - - IV. In order to restore the natural warmth of the body: - - 1. Move a heated covered warming-pan over the back and spine. - - 2. Put bladders or bottles of hot water, or heated bricks, to the pit - of the stomach, the arm-pits, between the thighs, and to the soles of - the feet. - - 3. Foment the body with hot flannels; but, if possible, - - 4. Immerse the body in a warm bath, as hot as the hand can bear - without pain, as this is preferable to the other means for restoring - warmth. - - 5. Rub the body briskly with the hand; do not, however, suspend the - use of the other means at the same time. - - V. In order to restore breathing, introduce the pipe of a common - bellows (where the apparatus of the Society is not at hand) into - one nostril, carefully closing the other and the mouth: at the - same time draw downwards and push gently backwards the upper part - of the windpipe, to allow a more free admission of air: blow the - bellows gently in order to inflate the lungs, till the breast be a - little raised: the mouth and nostrils should then be set free, and a - moderate pressure should be made with the hand upon the chest. Repeat - this process till life appears. - - VI. Electricity should be employed early by a medical assistant. - - VII. Inject into the stomach, by means of an elastic tube and - syringe, half a pint of warm brandy and water, or wine and water. - - VIII. Apply sal-volatile or hartshorn to the nostrils. - - IF APPARENTLY DEAD FROM INTENSE COLD.--Rub the body with snow, ice, - or cold water. Restore warmth by slow degrees; and after some time, - if necessary, employ the means recommended for the drowned. In these - accidents, it is highly dangerous to apply heat too early. - -[Illustration] - - -[Illustration] - - - - -AQUATIC EXERCISES - - -SWIMMING. - -Swimming, considered with regard to the movements that it requires, is -useful in promoting great muscular strength; but the good effects are -not solely the result of the exercise that the muscles receive, but -partly of the medium in which the body is moved. Both the considerable -increase of general force, and the tranquillizing of the nervous system -produced by swimming, arise chiefly from this, that the movements, in -consequence of the cold and dense medium in which they take place, -occasion no loss.[8] It is easy to conceive of what utility swimming -must be, where the very high state of the atmospheric temperature -requires inactivity in consequence of the excessive loss caused by the -slightest movement. It then becomes an exceedingly valuable resource, -the only one, indeed, by which muscular weakness can be remedied, and -the energy of the vital functions maintained. We must therefore regard -swimming as one of the most beneficial exercises that can be taken in -summer. - - [8] The expression “loss” here, is used as the result produced by - increased evaporation from the pores, consequent upon violent bodily - exertion. - -[Illustration: _Plate XX_ - -_Page 83._ - -Swimming--Attitude.] - -The ancients, particularly the Athenians, regarded swimming as -indispensable; and when they wished to designate a man who was fit for -nothing, they used to say, “he cannot even swim,” or “he can neither -read nor swim.” At many seaports, the art of swimming is almost -indispensable; and the sailors’ children are as familiar with the water -as with the air. Copenhagen is perhaps the only place where sailors are -trained by rules of art; and there, this exercise is more general and -in greater perfection than elsewhere. It may here be observed, that it -is not fear alone that prevents a man swimming. Swimming is an art that -must be learnt; and fear is only an obstacle to the learning. - - -PREPARATORY INSTRUCTIONS AS TO ATTITUDE AND ACTION IN SWIMMING. - -As it is on the movements of the limbs, and a certain attitude of the -body, that the power of swimming depends, its first principles may -evidently be acquired out of the water. - - -_Attitude._ - -The head must be drawn back, and the chin elevated, the breast -projected, and the back hollowed and kept steady. (Plate XX. figs. 1 -and 2.) The head can scarcely be thrown too much back, or the back too -much hollowed. Those who do otherwise, swim with their feet near the -surface of the water, instead of having them two or three feet deep. - - -_Action of the Hands._ - -In the proper position of the hands, the fingers must be kept close, -with the thumbs by the edge of the fore-fingers; and the hands made -concave on the inside, though not so much as to diminish their size and -power in swimming. The hands, thus formed, should be placed just before -the breast, the wrist touching it, and the fingers pointing forward. -(Plate XXI. fig. 1.) - -The first elevation is formed by raising the ends of the fingers three -or four inches higher than the rest of the hands. The second, by -raising the outer edge of the hand two or three inches higher than the -inner edge. - -The formation of the hands, their first position, and their two modes -of elevation, being clearly understood, the forward stroke is next -made, by projecting them in that direction to their utmost extent, -employing therein their first elevation, in order to produce buoyancy, -but taking care the fingers do not break the surface of the water. -(Plate XXI. fig. 2.) In the outward stroke of the hands, the second -elevation must be employed; and, in it, they must sweep downward and -outward as low as, but at a distance from, the hips, both laterally and -anteriorly. (Plate XXI. figs. 3 and 4.) - -The retraction of the hands is effected by bringing the arms closer to -the sides, bending the elbow joints upwards and the wrists downwards, -so that the hands hang down, while the arms are raising them to the -first position, the action of the hands being gentle and easy. In the -three movements just described, one arm may be exercised at a time, -until each is accustomed to the action. - - -_Action of the Feet._ - -In drawing up the legs, the knees must be inclined inward, and the -soles of the feet outward. (Plate XXII. fig. 1.) The throwing out the -feet should be to the extent of the legs, as widely from each other as -possible. (Plate XXII. fig. 2.) The bringing down the legs must be done -briskly, until they come close together. In drawing up the legs, there -is a loss of power; in throwing out the legs, there is a gain equal to -that loss; and in bringing down the legs, there is an evident gain. - -[Illustration: _Plate XXI_ - -_Page 84._ - -Swimming--Action of the Hands.] - -[Illustration: _Plate XXII_ - -_Page 85._ - -Swimming--Action of the Feet.] - -The arms and legs should act alternately; the arms descending while the -legs are rising--(Plate XXII. fig. 3); and, oppositely, the arms rising -while the legs are descending. (Plate XXII. fig. 4.) Thus the action -of both is unceasingly interchanged; and, until great facility in this -interchange is effected, no one can swim smoothly, or keep the body in -one continued progressive motion. In practising the action of the legs, -one hand may rest on the top of a chair, while the opposite leg is -exercised. When both the arms and the legs are separately accustomed to -the action, the arm and leg of the same side may be exercised together. - - -PLACE AND TIME OF SWIMMING. - - -_Place._ - -Of all places for swimming, the sea is the best; running waters next; -and ponds the worst. In these a particular spot should be chosen, where -there is not much stream, and which is known to be safe. - -The swimmer should make sure that the bottom is not out of his depth; -and, on this subject, he cannot be too cautious when he has no one with -him who knows the place. If capable of diving, he should ascertain if -the water be sufficiently deep for that purpose, otherwise, he may -injure himself against the bottom. The bottom should be of gravel, or -smooth stones, and free from holes, so that he may be in no danger of -sinking in the mud or wounding the feet. Of weeds he must beware; for -if his feet get entangled among them, no aid, even if near, may be able -to extricate him. - - -_Time._ - -The best season of the year for swimming is during the months of May, -June, July, and August. Morning before breakfast--that is to say, from -seven till eight o’clock--is the time. In the evening, the hair is -not perfectly dried, and coryza is sometimes the consequence. Bathing -during rain is bad, for it chills the water, and, by wetting the -clothes, endangers catching cold. In practising swimming during those -hours of the day when the heat of the sun is felt most sensibly, if the -hair be thick, it should be kept constantly wet; if the head be bald, -it must be covered with a handkerchief, and frequently wetted. - -It is advisable not to enter the water before digestion is finished. -The danger in this case arises less from the violent movements which -generally disorder digestion, than from the impression produced by -the medium in which these movements are executed. It is not less so -when very hot, or quite cold. It is wrong to enter the water in a -perspiration, however trifling it may be. After violent exercises, -it is better to wash and employ friction than to bathe. Persons of -plethoric temperament, who are subject to periodical evacuations, such -as hemorrhoids, or even to cutaneous eruptions, will do well to abstain -from swimming during the appearance of these affections. - - -_Dress._ - -Every swimmer should use short drawers, and might, in particular -places, use canvass slippers. It is even of great importance to be able -to swim in jacket and trousers. - - -_Aids._ - -The aid of the hand is much preferable to corks or bladders, because it -can be withdrawn gradually and insensibly. With this view, a grown-up -person may take the learner in his arms, carry him into the water -breast high, place him nearly flat upon it, support him by one hand -under the breast, and direct him as to attitude and action. If the -support of the hand be very gradually withdrawn, the swimmer will, in -the course of the first ten days, find it quite unnecessary. When the -aid of the hand cannot be obtained, inflated membranes or corks may be -employed. The only argument for their use is, that attitude and action -may be perfected while the body is thus supported; and that, with some -contrivance, they also may gradually be laid aside, though by no means -so easily as the hand. - -The best mode of employing corks is to choose a piece about a foot -long, and six or seven inches broad; to fasten a band across the middle -of it; to place it on the back, so that the upper end may come between -the shoulder-blades, where the edge may be rounded; and to tie the band -over the breast. Over this, several other pieces of cork, each smaller -than the preceding, may be fixed, so that, as the swimmer improves, -he may leave them off one by one. Even with all these aids, the young -swimmer should never venture out of his depth, if he cannot swim -without them. - - -_Cramp._ - -As to cramp, those chiefly are liable to it who plunge into the water -when they are heated, who remain in it till they are benumbed with -cold, or who exhaust themselves by violent exercise. Persons subject -to this affection must be careful with regard to the selection of -the place where they bathe, if they are not sufficiently skilful in -swimming to vary their attitudes, and dispense instantly with the use -of the limb attacked by cramp. Even when this does occur, the skilful -swimmer knows how to reach the shore by the aid of the limbs which are -unaffected, while the uninstructed one is liable to be drowned. - -If attacked in this way in the leg, the swimmer must strike out the -limb with all his strength, thrusting the heel downward and drawing the -toes upward, notwithstanding the momentary pain it may occasion; or he -may immediately turn flat on his back, and jerk out the affected limb -in the air, taking care not to elevate it so high as greatly to disturb -the balance of the body. If this does not succeed, he must paddle -ashore with his hands, or keep himself afloat by their aid, until -assistance reach him. Should he even be unable to float on his back, -he must put himself in the upright position, and keep his head above -the surface by merely striking the water downward with his hands at the -hips, without any assistance from the legs. - - -PROCEDURE WHEN IN THE WATER, AND USUAL MODE OF FRONT SWIMMING. - - -_Entering the Water._ - -Instructors should never force young swimmers reluctantly to leap into -the water. It would be advisable for delicate persons, especially -when they intend to plunge in, to put a little cotton steeped in oil, -and afterwards pressed, in their ears, before entering the water. -This precaution will prevent irritation of the organ of hearing. In -entering, the head should be wetted first, either by plunging in head -foremost, or by pouring water on it, in order to prevent the pressure -of the water driving up the blood into it too quickly, and increasing -congestion. The swimmer should next advance, by a clear shelving shore -or bank, where he has ascertained the depth by plumbing or otherwise, -till the water reaches his breast; should turn towards the place of -entrance; and, having inflated his breast, lay it upon the water, -suffering that to rise to his chin, the lips being closed. - - -_Buoyancy in the Water._ - -The head alone is specifically heavier than salt water. Even the legs -and arms are specifically lighter; and the trunk is still more so. Thus -the body cannot sink in salt water, even if the lungs were filled, -except owing to the excessive specific gravity of the head. - -Not only the head, but the legs and arms, are specifically heavier than -fresh water; but still the hollowness of the trunk renders the body -altogether too light to sink wholly under water, so that some part -remains above until the lungs become filled. In general, when the human -body is immersed, one-eleventh of its weight remains above the surface -in fresh water, and one-tenth in salt water. - -In salt water, therefore, a person throwing himself on his back, and -extending his arms, may easily lie so as to keep his mouth and nostrils -free for breathing; and, by a small motion of the hand, may prevent -turning, if he perceive any tendency to it. In fresh water, a man -cannot long continue in that situation, except by the action of his -hands; and if no such action be employed, the legs and lower part of -the body will gradually sink into an upright position, the hollow of -the breast keeping the head uppermost. If, however, in this position, -the head be kept upright above the shoulders, as in standing on the -ground, the immersion, owing to the weight of the part of the head out -of the water, will reach above the mouth and nostrils, perhaps a little -above the eyes. On the contrary, in the same position, if the head be -leaned back, so that the face is turned upwards, the back part of the -head has its weight supported by the water, and the face will rise -an inch higher at every inspiration, and will sink as much at every -expiration, but never so low that the water can come over the mouth. - -For all these reasons, though the impetus given by the fall of the -body into water occasions its sinking to a depth proportioned to the -force of the descent, its natural buoyancy soon impels it again to the -surface, where, after a few oscillations up and down, it settles with -the head free. - -Unfortunately, ignorant people stretch the arms out to grasp at -anything or nothing, and thereby keep the head under; for the arms and -head, together exceeding in weight one-tenth of the body, cannot remain -above the surface at the same time. The buoyancy of the trunk, then and -then only, occasions the head and shoulders to sink, the ridge of the -bent back becoming the portion exposed; and, in this attitude, water -is swallowed, by which the specific gravity is increased, and the body -settles to the bottom. It is, therefore, most important to the safety -of the inexperienced to be firmly convinced that the body naturally -floats. - -To satisfy the beginner of the truth of this, Dr. Franklin advises him -to choose a place where clear water deepens gradually, to walk into -it till it is up to his breast, to turn his face to the shore, and to -throw an egg into the water between him and it--so deep that he cannot -fetch it up but by diving. To encourage him to take it up, he must -reflect that his progress will be from deep to shallow water, and that -at any time he may, by bringing his legs under him, and standing on the -bottom, raise his head far above the water. He must then plunge under -it, having his eyes open, before as well as after going under; throw -himself towards the egg, and endeavour, by the action of his hands and -feet against the water, to get forward till within reach of it. In -this attempt, he will find that the water brings him up against his -inclination, that it is not so easy to sink as he imagined, and that he -cannot, but by force, get down to the egg. Thus he feels the power of -water to support him, and learns to confide in that power; while his -endeavours to overcome it, and reach the egg, teach him the manner of -acting on the water with his feet and hands, as he afterwards must in -swimming, in order to support his head higher above the water, or to go -forward through it. - -If, then, any person, however unacquainted with swimming, will hold -himself perfectly still and upright, as if standing with his head -somewhat thrown back so as to rest on the surface, his face will remain -above the water, and he will enjoy full freedom of breathing. To do -this most effectually, the head must be so far thrown back that the -chin is higher than the forehead, the breast inflated, the back quite -hollow, and the hands and arms kept under water. If these directions be -carefully observed, the face will float above the water, and the body -will settle in a diagonal direction. (Plate XXIII. fig. 1.) - -In this case, the only difficulty is to preserve the balance of the -body. This is secured, as described by Bernardi, by extending the arms -laterally under the surface of the water, with the legs separated, -the one to the front and the other behind: thus presenting resistance -to any tendency of the body to incline to either side, forward or -backward. This posture may be preserved any length of time. (Plate -XXIII. fig. 2.) - -The Abbé Paul Moccia, who lived in Naples in 1760, perceived, at the -age of fifty, that he could never entirely cover himself in the water. -He weighed three hundred pounds (Italian weight), but being very fat, -he lost at least thirty pounds in the water. Robertson had just made -his experiments on the specific weight of man; and everybody was then -occupied with the Abbé, who could walk in the water with nearly half -his body out of it. - -[Illustration: _Plate XXIII_ - -_Page 90._ - -Swimming--Buoyancy in Water. - -Swimming--Treading Water.] - - -_Attitude and Action in the Water._ - -The swimmer having, by all the preceding means, acquired confidence, -may now practise the instructions already given on attitude and action -in swimming: or he may first proceed with the system of Bernardi, -which immediately follows. As the former have already been given in -ample detail, there is nothing new here to be added respecting them, -except that, while the attitude is correct, the limbs must be exercised -calmly, and free from all hurry and trepidation, the breath being held, -and the breast kept inflated, while a few strokes are made. In swimming -in the usual way, there is, first, extension, flexion, abduction and -adduction of the members; secondly, almost constant dilation of the -chest, to diminish the mobility of the point of attachment of the -muscles which are inserted in the elastic sides of this cavity, and -to render the body specifically lighter; thirdly, constant action of -the muscles of the back part of the neck, to raise the head, which is -relatively very heavy, and to allow the air free entrance to the lungs. - - -_Respiration in Swimming._ - -If the breath is drawn at the moment when the swimmer strikes out with -the legs, instead of when the body is elevated by the hands descending -towards the hips, the head partially sinks, the face is driven against -the water, and the mouth becomes filled. If, on the contrary, the -breath is drawn when the body is elevated by the hands descending -towards the hips, when the progress of the body forward consequently -ceases, when the face is no longer driven against the water, but is -elevated above the surface,--then, not only cannot the water enter, -but if the mouth were at other times even with, or partly under the -surface, no water could enter it, as the air, at such times, driven -outward between the lips, would effectually prevent it. The breath -should accordingly be expired while the body, at the next stroke, is -sent forward by the action of the legs. - - -_Coming out of the Water._ - -Too much fatigue in the water weakens the strength and presence of mind -necessary to avoid accidents. A person who is fatigued, and remains -there without motion, soon becomes weak and chilly. As soon as he feels -fatigued, chill, or numbed, he should quit the water, and dry and dress -himself as quickly as possible. Friction, previous to dressing, drives -the blood over every part of the body, creates an agreeable glow, and -strengthens the joints and muscles. - - -UPRIGHT SWIMMING. - - -_Bernardi’s System._ - -The principal reasons given by Bernardi for recommending the upright -position in swimming are--its conformity to the accustomed movement of -the limbs; the freedom it gives to the hands and arms, by which any -impediment may be removed, or any offered aid readily laid hold of; -vision all around; a much greater facility of breathing; and lastly, -that much less of the body is exposed to the risk of being laid hold of -by persons struggling in the water. - -The less we alter our method of advancing in the water from what is -habitual to us on shore, the more easy do we find a continued exercise -of it. The most important consequence of this is, that, though a person -swimming in an upright posture advances more slowly, he is able to -continue his course much longer; and certainly nothing can be more -beneficial to a swimmer than whatever tends to husband his strength, -and to enable him to remain long in the water with safety. - -Bernardi’s primary object is to enable the pupil to float in an -upright posture, and to feel confidence in the buoyancy of his body. -He accordingly supports the pupil under the shoulders until he floats -tranquilly with the head and part of the neck above the surface, the -arms being stretched out horizontally under water. From time to time, -the supporting arm is removed, but again restored, so as never to -suffer the head to sink, which would disturb the growing confidence, -and give rise to efforts destructive of the success of the lesson. In -this early stage, the unsteadiness of the body is the chief difficulty -to be overcome. - -The head is the great regulator of our movements in water. Its smallest -inclination to either side instantly operates on the whole body; and, -if not corrected, throws it into a horizontal posture. The pupil -must, therefore, restore any disturbance of equilibrium by a cautious -movement of the head alone in an opposite direction. This first lesson -being familiarized by practice, he is taught the use of the legs and -arms for balancing the body in the water. One leg being stretched -forward, the other backward, and the arms laterally, he soon finds -himself steadily sustained, and independent of further aid in floating. - -When these first steps have been gained, the sweeping semicircular -motion of the arms is shown. This is practised slowly, without -motion forwards, until attained with precision. After this, a slight -inclination of the body from the upright position occasions its -advancing. The motion of striking with the legs is added in the same -measured manner; so that the pupil is not perplexed by the acquisition -of more than one thing at a time. In this method, the motions of both -arms and legs differ from those we have so carefully described, only in -so far as they are modified by a more upright position. It is optional, -therefore, with the reader, to practise either method. The general -principles of both are now before him. - -The upright position a little inclined backwards, (which, like -every other change of posture, must be done deliberately, by the -corresponding movement of the head,) reversing in this case the motion -of the arms, and striking the flat part of the foot down and a little -forward, gives the motion backward, which is performed with greater -ease than when the body is laid horizontally on the back. According to -this system, Bernardi says, a swimmer ought at every stroke to urge -himself forward a distance equal to the length of his body. A good -swimmer ought to make about three miles an hour. A good day’s journey -may thus be achieved, if the strength be used with due discretion, -and the swimmer be familiar with the various means by which it may be -recruited. - -Of Bernardi’s successful practice, he says, “Having been appointed to -instruct the youths of the Royal Naval Academy of Naples in the art of -swimming, a trial of the proficiency of the pupils took place, under -the inspection of a number of people assembled on the shore for that -purpose, on the tenth day of their instruction. A twelve-oared boat -attended the progress of the pupils, from motives of precaution. They -swam so far out in the bay, that at length the heads of the young men -could with difficulty be discerned with the naked eye; and the Major -General of Marine, Forteguerri, for whose inspection the exhibition was -intended, expressed serious apprehensions for their safety. Upon their -return to the shore, the young men, however, assured him that they -felt so little exhausted as to be willing immediately to repeat the -exertion.” An official report on the subject has also been drawn up by -commission (appointed by the Neapolitan government), after devoting a -month to the investigation of Bernardi’s plan; and it states as follows: - -“1st. It has been established by the experience of more than a hundred -persons of different bodily constitutions, that the human body is -lighter than water, and consequently will float by nature; but that the -art of swimming must be acquired, to render that privilege useful. - -“2dly. That Bernardi’s system is new, in so far as it is founded on -the principle of husbanding the strength, and rendering the power of -recruiting it easy. The speed, according to the new method, is no doubt -diminished; but security is much more important than speed; and the new -plan is not exclusive of the old, when occasions require great effort. - -“3dly. That the new method is sooner learnt than the old, to the extent -of advancing a pupil in one day as far as a month’s instruction on the -old plan.” - - -_Treading Water._ - -This differs little from the system just described. As in it, the -position is upright; but progression is obtained by the action of the -legs alone. There is little power in this method of swimming: but it -may be very useful in rescuing drowning persons. - -The arms should be folded across, below the breast, or compressed -against the hips, and the legs employed as in front swimming, except -as to time and extent. They should perform their action in half the -usual time, or two strokes should be taken in the time of one; because, -acting perpendicularly, each stroke would otherwise raise the swimmer -too much, and he would sink too low between the strokes, were they not -quickly to follow each other. They should also work in about two-thirds -of the usual space, preserving the upper or stronger, and omitting the -lower or weaker, part of the stroke. - -There is, however, another mode of treading water, in which the thighs -are separated, and the legs slightly bent, or curved together, as in -a half-sitting posture. Here the legs are used alternately, so that, -while one remains more contracted, the other, less so, describes a -circle. By this method, the swimmer does not seem to hop in the water, -but remains nearly at the same height. Pl XXIII. f. 3 represents both -these methods, and shows their peculiar adaptation to relieve drowning -persons. - - -BACK SWIMMING. - -In swimming on the back, the action of the thoracic member is weaker, -because the swimmer can support himself on the water without their -assistance. The muscular contractions take place principally in the -muscles of the abdominal members, and in those of the anterior part of -the neck. Though little calculated for progression, it is the easiest -of all methods, because, much of the head being immersed, little effort -is required for support. For this purpose, the swimmer must lie down -gently upon the water; the body extended; the head kept in a line with -it, so that the back and much of the upper part of the head may be -immersed; the head and breast must remain perfectly unagitated by the -action of the legs; the hand laid on the thighs (Plate XXIV. fig. 1), -and the legs employed as in front swimming, care being taken that the -knees do not rise out of the water.--(Plate XXIV. fig. 2.) The arms -may, however, be used in various ways in swimming on the back. - -In the method called winging, the arms are extended till in a line with -each other; they must then be struck down to the thighs, with the palms -turned in that direction, and the thumbs inclining downward to increase -the buoyancy, (Plate XXIV. fig. 3); the palms must then be moved -edgewise, and the arms elevated as before (Plate XXIV. fig. 4); and so -on, repeating the same actions. The legs should throughout make one -stroke as the arms are struck down, and another as they are elevated. -The other mode, called finning, differs from this only in the stroke of -the arms being shorter, and made in the same time as that of the legs. - -In back swimming, the body should be extended after each stroke, and -long pauses made between these. The act of passing from front to back, -or back to front swimming, must always be performed immediately after -throwing out the feet. To turn from the breast to the back, the legs -must be raised forward, and the head thrown backward, until the body is -in a right position. To turn from the back to the breast, the legs must -be dropped, and the body thrown forward on the breast. - - -FLOATING. - -Floating is properly a transition from swimming on the back. To effect -it, it is necessary, while the legs are gently exercising, to extend -the arms as far as possible beyond the head, equidistant from, and -parallel with its sides, but never rising above the surface; to immerse -the head rather deeply, and elevate the chin more than the forehead; -to inflate the chest while taking this position, and so to keep it as -much as possible; and to cease the action of the legs, and put the -feet together. (Plate XXV. fig. 1.) The swimmer will thus be able to -float, rising a little with every inspiration, and falling with every -expiration. Should the feet descend, the loins may be hollowed. - -[Illustration: _Plate XXIV_ - -_Page 96._ - -Swimming--Back Swimming.] - -[Illustration: _Plate XXV_ - -_Page 97._ - -Side Swimming. - -Floating.] - - -SIDE SWIMMING. - -For this purpose, the body may be turned either upon the right or left -side: the feet must perform their usual motions: the arms also require -peculiar guidance. In lowering the left, and elevating the right side, -the swimmer must strike forward with the left hand, and sidewise with -the right; the back of the latter being front instead of upward, and -the thumb side of the hand downward to serve as an oar. In turning on -the right side, the swimmer must strike out with the right hand, and -use the left as an oar. In both cases, the lower arm stretches itself -out quickly, at the same time that the feet are striking; and the upper -arm strikes at the same time that the feet are impelling, the hand of -the latter arm beginning its stroke on a level with the head. While -this hand is again brought forward, and the feet are contracted, the -lower hand is drawn back towards the breast, rather to sustain than to -impel, (Plate XXV. fig. 2.) As side swimming presents to the water a -smaller surface than front swimming, it is preferable when rapidity is -necessary. But, though generally adopted when it is required to pass -over a short distance with rapidity, it is much more fatiguing than the -preceding methods. - - -PLUNGING. - -In the leap to plunge, the legs must be kept together, the arms close, -and the plunge made either with the feet or the head foremost. With -the feet foremost they must be kept together, and the body inclined -backwards. With the head foremost, the methods vary. - -In the deep plunge, which is used where it is known that there is depth -of water, the swimmer has his arms outstretched, his knees bent, and -his body leant forwards (Plate XXVI. fig. 1,) till the head descends -nearly to the feet, when the spine and knees are extended. This plunge -may be made without the slightest noise. When the swimmer rises to the -surface, he must not open his mouth before previously repelling the -water. - -In the flat plunge, which is used in shallow water, or where the depth -is unknown, and which can be made only from a small height, the swimmer -must fling himself forwards, in order to extend the line of the plunge -as much as possible under the surface of the water; and, as soon as he -touches it, he must keep his head up, his back hollow, and his hands -stretched forward, flat and inclined upward. He will thus dart forwards -a considerable way close under the surface, so that his head will reach -it before the impulse ceases to operate. (Plate XXVI. fig. 2.) - - -DIVING. - -The swimmer may prepare for diving by taking a slow and full -inspiration, letting himself sink gently into the water, and expelling -the breath by degrees, when the heart begins to beat strongly. In order -to descend in diving, the head must be bent forward upon the breast; -the back made round; and the legs thrown out with greater vigour than -usual; but the arms and hands, instead of being struck forward as in -swimming, must move rather backward, or come out lower, and pass more -behind. (Plate XXVII. fig. 1.) The eyes should, meanwhile, be kept -open, as, if the water be clear, it enables the diver to ascertain its -depth, and see whatever lies at the bottom; and, when he has obtained a -perpendicular position, he should extend his hands like feelers. - -To move forward, the head must be raised, and the back straightened a -little. Still, in swimming between top and bottom, the head must be -kept a little downward, and the feet be thrown out a little higher than -when swimming on the surface (Plate XXVII. fig. 2); and if the swimmer -thinks that he approaches too near the surface, he must press the palms -upwards. To ascend, the chin must be held up, the back made concave, -the hands struck out high, and brought briskly down. (Plate XXVII. fig. -3.) - -[Illustration: _Plate XXVI_ - -_Page 98._ - -Plunging] - -[Illustration: _Plate XXVII_ - -_Page 98._ - -Swimming—Diving.] - -[Illustration: _Plate XXVIII_ - -_Page 99._ - -Swimming—Thrusting.] - - -THRUSTING. - -This is a transition from front swimming, in which the attitude and -motions of the feet are still the same, but those of the hands very -different. One arm, the right for instance, is lifted entirely out of -the water, thrust forward as much as possible, and, when at the utmost -stretch, let fall, with the hand hollowed, into the water, which it -grasps or pulls towards the swimmer in its return transversely towards -the opposite arm-pit. While the right arm is thus stretched forth, the -left, with the hand expanded, describes a small circle to sustain the -body (Plate XXVIII. fig. 1); and, while the right arm pulls towards the -swimmer, the left, in a widely-described circle, is carried rapidly -under the breast, towards the hip. (Plate XXVIII. fig. 2.) - -When the left arm has completed these movements, it, in its turn, is -lifted from the water, stretched forward, and pulled back,--the right -arm describing first the smaller, then the larger circle. The feet make -their movements during the describing of the larger circle. The thrust -requires much practice; but, when well acquired, it not only relieves -the swimmer, but enables him to make great advance in the water, and is -applicable to cases where rapidity is required for a short distance. - - -SPRINGING. - -Some swimmers, at every stroke, raise not only their neck and -shoulders, but breast and body, out of the water. This, when habitual, -exhausts without any useful purpose. As an occasional effort, however, -it maybe useful in seizing objects above; and it may then best be -performed by the swimmer drawing his feet as close as possible under -his body, stretching his hands forward, and, with both feet and hands, -striking the water strongly, so as to throw himself out of it as high -as the hips. - - -ONE-ARM SWIMMING. - -Here the swimmer must be more erect than usual, hold his head more -backward, and use the legs and arm more quickly and powerfully. The -arm, at its full extent, must be struck out rather across the body, -and brought down before, and the breast kept inflated. This mode of -swimming is best adapted for assisting persons who are drowning, and -should be frequently practised--the learner carrying first under, then -over the water, a weight of a few pounds. - -In assisting drowning persons, however, great care should be taken to -avoid being caught hold of by them. They should be approached from -behind, and driven before, or drawn after the swimmer to the shore, -by the intervention, if possible, of anything that may be at hand, -and if nothing be at hand, by means of their hair; and they should, -if possible, be got on their backs. Should they attempt to seize the -swimmer, he must cast them loose immediately; and, if seized, drop them -to the bottom, when they will endeavour to rise to the surface. - -Two swimmers treading water may assist a drowning person by seizing -him, one under each arm, and carrying him along with his head above -water, and his body and limbs stretched out and motionless. - - -FEATS IN SWIMMING. - -Men have been known to swim in their clothes a distance of 4000 feet. - -Others have performed 2200 feet in twenty-nine minutes. - -Some learn to dive and bring out of the water burdens as heavy as a man. - -[This art, however, has made little if any progress from the earliest -records that we possess of it. Leander’s feat of passing from Abydos -to Sestos was the crack performance of antiquity; and it was the ultra -achievement of Lord Byron, probably one of the best swimmers of our -day.--ED. Fifth Edition.] - - - - -ROWING. - - -RIVER ROWING,[9] WITH TWO SCULLS. - - [9] This should have the preference here, because the art is best - learned on the smooth water, and in the lighter boats, of rivers. - - -THE BOAT. - -It may be laid down as a general rule, that, in calm weather, a light -and sharp boat is preferable; and, in rough weather, a heavier and -broader one. The learner, however, should not at first begin in too -light a boat, nor should he practise in rough weather, until he gets -acquainted with its management. - - -TO LEAVE THE LANDING-PLACE. - -To leave the shore, the rower should, with the boat-hook, shove the -boat off, head upon tide, or opposite to the current. To leave stairs, -the rower must either shove the boat off with the boat-hook, or place -the blade of the scull forward, and perform what the London watermen -call belaying the boat’s head out from the shore, accordingly as there -is deep or shallow water. - -This being done, the rower sits down to his sculls. These he puts in -the rullocks, and turns the concave front, or filling of the scull, -towards the stern of the boat. - - -THE SEAT. - -The rower must sit a-midships on the thwart or seat of the boat, else -she will heel to the side on which he is sitting, and much of his -labour will be lost. He should sit with ease to himself, having his -feet on the middle of the stretcher, and his legs not quite extended; -but his knees, as he rows, should be brought down, and his legs -stretched. - - -THE PULL. - -The rower should make long strokes in a heavy boat, and shorter and -quicker strokes in a light boat. At the beginning of the pull, he must, -in general, bend his body till his head is over his knees, and extend -his arms as far aft as convenient, that the blades of the sculls may -be thrown correspondingly forward. Plate XXIX. f. 1. With regard to -the back in particular, some think that, if a short distance is to be -rowed, it should be bent; and that, if a long distance, it is less -fatiguing to keep it straight. When the arms are extended as far aft, -and the blades of the sculls as far forward as convenient--which must -never be so far as to jam in the rullocks--(Plate XXIX. f. 1) the rower -must dip the sculls into the water, and pull towards him, by at once -bending the arms and the body. - -When in the middle of the pull, if the sculls are not short enough, or -even if the head and body are slightly turned, one of the hands will -go higher than the other; and, as the right is generally the stronger, -it may go above, and the left below. It is often found difficult to -keep one hand clear of the other in pulling a pair of sculls. This is -so much the case, indeed, that the inexperienced frequently suffer -more from the knocking and rubbing of the backs and sides of the hands -against each other, than from the friction of the handles of the oars -in the palms of the hands. This may be easily obviated by attending to -the following advice:-- - -Having seated yourself in the centre of the thwart, with your feet -close together against the centre of the stretcher, ship your sculls, -but, before pulling a stroke, move your body three or four inches to -the right hand, and still retain your feet in the centre: thus you -will be sitting rather obliquely; this will throw your right shoulder -more forward, and consequently the right hand; and thus the hands -will work perfectly clear of each other. This rule, however, must be -modified by the circumstances of river-rowing. A waterman writes us as -follows:--“As to carrying one hand above the other, my way is, that -if, for instance, I go from Greenwich to Blackwall against tide, I -keep down on the Greenwich side, in general look toward the shore, and -having my face over the left shoulder, my right hand is then above. -If I go from Greenwich to London, my face is turned over the right -shoulder, and the left hand is then uppermost.” - -[Illustration: _Plate XXIX_ - -_Page 102._ - -Beginning of the Pull. - -Middle of the Pull.] - -[Illustration: _Plate XXX_ - -_Page 103._ - -End of the Pull. - -Return of the Sculls.] - -(The usual position in the middle of the pull is shown in Plate XXIX. -fig. 2.) - -The end of the pull must not take place till the elbows have approached -the tops of the hips, the hands are brought towards the chest, and the -body is thrown well back. There would be a loss of power, however, if -the hands were brought too near the chest; and the body should not be -thrown further back than it may easily and quickly recover its first -position for the next stroke.--(Plate XXX.) As the water is being -delivered from the sculls, the elbows sink, the wrists are bent up, and -the backs of the hands are turned towards the fore-arms, in order to -feather the sculls.--(Plate XXX. fig. 1.) - -In the return of the sculls, the hands must remain turned up until the -sculls are put into the water.--(Plate XXX. f. 2.) In the middle of the -return, if the sculls are not short, or if the head and body be turned, -one of the hands also goes higher than the other. - -As to the degree of the immersion of the sculls.--In the middle of -the pull, the blades must be covered by the water. The learner in -general dips them very deep; but that ought to be avoided, especially -in calm weather. In the whole of the return, the tips should, in calm -weather, be two or three inches above the water; and, in rough weather, -they should be higher, in order to clear it, as represented in the -preceding Plates. The head ought throughout to be very moveable--first -to one side, then to the other, but generally turned towards the shore -when against the tide. The same movements have only to be repeated, -throughout the course. - - -THE TIDE OR CURRENT. - -In river-rowing, when the tide or current is with the rower, a learner -should in general take the middle of the stream. In rowing with the -tide, however, watermen generally cut off the points, in order to keep -a straight course. When the tide or current is against the rower, he -should take the sides, preferring that side on which, owing to the -course of the river, the current is least. As there is an eddy under -the points, watermen generally, when rounding them, shoot the water to -the next point, and so on. - - -TO TURN. - -Back water with one scull, by putting the one on the side you wish to -turn to into the water, with its concave front or filling towards you, -and pushing against it; and at the same time pull strongly with the -other scull, until the boat’s head is turned round. - - -MEETING OR PASSING. - -In meeting, the boat which comes with the tide must get out of the way. -In this case, both boats, if close, lay the blades of their sculls -flat on the water, lift them out of the rullocks, and let them drift -alongside. Each replaces them when the other has passed. In passing a -boat, the rower who passes must take the outside, unless there is ample -room within, and must also keep clear of the other’s sculls or oars. -If one boat is crossing the water, and another coming with the tide, -the one coming with tide must keep astern of the other, and have a good -look-out ahead. - - -TO LAND. - -Give the boat its proper direction, and keep its head inclining towards -the tide, and its stern will turn up or down, as the tide runs; unship -the sculls by the manœuvre directed above; but, instead of letting them -drift alongside, lay them in the boat, the blades forward and the looms -aft; seize the headfast; jump ashore; and take two half-hitches round -the post or ring. - - -SEA-ROWING, OR ROWING IN A GALLEY ON THE RIVER. - -In launching a boat from the sea-beach, when it is rough, and there is -a heavy surf, the two bowmen must get into the boat with their oars run -out; and the other rowers follow the boat quickly in her descent; but -they should not jump in till she is quite afloat, lest their weight -might fix her on the beach, and she might ship a sea. - -It may happen, that immediately on the boat floating, a sea shall take -the bow (before the rowers are sufficiently prepared with their oars -to keep her head out), and place her broadside to the waves. In this -situation, the boat is in danger of being swamped, and the lives of -those on board are in peril. When thus situated, it is best for two -of the rowers to go near the bow of the boat, and immediately force -each his boat-hook or oar on the ground, on the shore side of the -boat, as the most effectual, safe, and expeditious method of bringing -her head again to the sea. Should there be more than a usual swell, -both the rowers and the sitter, or steersman, cannot be too particular -in keeping, throughout, the head of the boat to the swell, as lying -broadside to a heavy sea is extremely dangerous. - -In rowing, each man has in general a single oar, and sits on the -opposite side of the galley from the rullock through which his oar -passes. The oar must consequently cross the boat, and be held on its -opposite side, so as to clear the back of the man before. - -It should be neither held nor pulled obliquely to the side by twisting -the body, as is practised by many, because the muscles in that case act -disadvantageously, and are sooner fatigued. The stroke must be longer -in sea than in river rowing. The oar must be thrown out with a heave, -caused by the simultaneous extension of the body and the arms. It is -still more essential to feather in sea than in river rowing. - -The oar must be drawn back with great power, caused by the simultaneous -contraction of the body and arms; time with the other rowers being -accurately kept, and distinctly marked. - -When the oars are delivered from the water, the time, until they go -into it again, may be counted, one, two, three,--when they pass through -the water. This time is kept by the strokesman, or sternmost man of the -rowers. - -In landing, the word is, “in bow,” when the bowman or foremost man -gets the boat-hook ready to clear away for the shore, or the stairs. -The next word is from the coxswain, “rowed off all,” or “well rowed;” -when all the oars are laid in, with the blades forward, and the boat is -made fast. - -In landing on the sea-beach, when there is a surf, the rowers may watch -for a smooth, and then give good way ashore, when the bowman should -instantly jump out with the headfast or penter, and pull her up, to -avoid shipping a sea. The distances run in this way are very great. -We have known four men, in a short galley, row thirty miles in four -hours, namely, from Dover to eight miles below Calais, or abreast of -Gravelines, on the opposite coast. In such a row, a London waterman -would have no skin left on his hands; and a member of the Funny Club -would, we suppose, have no hands left on his arms! - - -SAILING. - - -BOATS, ETC. - -Cutters, owing to their excellent sailing qualities, are much employed -as packets[10], revenue cruisers, smugglers, privateers, and in all -cases requiring despatch. The boats commonly employed in parties of -pleasure, &c., are also cutters. - - [10] In the packet line, since the general adoption of steam, cutters - are seldom if ever met with.--ED. Fifth Edition. - -On the size of these vessels, however, it is necessary to remark, that -a cutter under one hundred tons is sufficiently handy; but, when the -size is equal to that of the larger yachts, a strong crew is necessary, -as the spars are very heavy, and a number of men requisite to set or -shorten sail. As a single-masted vessel, in the event of springing -a spar, becomes helpless, even large cutters are used only in short -voyages, or on the coast; for, in case of accident, they can always -manage to reach some harbour or anchorage to repair any damage they -may sustain. The peculiar qualities of beating well to windward, and -working on short tacks, adapt cutters peculiarly for Channel cruising. - -Although, some years back, large cutters were confined principally -to the navy and revenue, the Royal Yacht Squadron, in theirs, have -exceeded these not only in size, but in beauty and sailing qualities. -Some of the finest and fastest cutters in the world are the property of -this national club; and two of them, the Alarm (Mr. Weld’s), and the -Arundel[11], (the Duke of Norfolk’s), measure 193 and 188 tons. The -inconvenient size, however, of a cutter’s boom and mainsail has caused -the very general introduction of a ketch rig, which, by the addition -of a mizen, permits the boom to be dispensed with, and reduces the -mainsail considerably. This rig, indeed, when the mizen stands well, -is elegant; and, if a vessel is short-handed, it is very handy. As -cutter-rigged vessels, instead of a regular mainsail, with its boom -and gaff, have sometimes a mere spritsail, it is necessary we should -observe, that the inferior convenience and safety of these preclude our -noticing them here. It is also necessary that we should explain why, in -the sequel, we do not even refer to lugger-rigged vessels. - - [11] The tonnage of the Arundel is not given here according to the - Royal Yacht Squadron list: there it is stated to be 210 tons.--ED. - Fifth Edition. - -Luggers are more difficult to work or manœuvre; they require a greater -number of men; their spars are so heavy that they require all hands to -move them: their decks are inevitably lumbered with spars, &c.; their -canvass gets rotted from exposure; and their expense is much greater -than that of cutters. They generally have two sets of lugs--large ones, -which require dipping every time they tack, and small working lugs, -which do not require dipping, the tack coming to the foot of the mast. -The latter are generally used, except in making long reaches across the -Channel, &c. A lugger, moreover, is seldom fit to be altered to any -thing but a schooner, not having breadth enough for one mast, which, -after all, is the best for beauty and speed. - -Sailing men, indeed, are now so perfectly aware of the inferior speed -of luggers, that we never see a lugger or schooner enter against a -cutter at all near its tonnage. At sea, luggers would have a better -chance; though even there many would prefer cutters, except in foul -weather and a long reach. In short, these vessels suit only a few -noblemen and gentlemen who have enough of patriotic ambition to desire -to look like smugglers, enough of delicacy to disregard the being -thought dirty lubbers by their own men--some of whom are not dirty from -mere taste or choice, and enough of penetration not to discover, that -on their landing with filthy clothes and tarry hands, every old sailor -grins or laughs at their imagining, that it was they, and not the man -at the helm, who had kept the canvass from cracking, or the sticks from -going over the side. Our descriptions apply, therefore, to cutters -alone; and the Plates at the end of this article illustrate the various -parts therein referred to. - -Upon the Thames, the sailing clubs comprise the Royal Sailing Society, -the Royal Thames Yacht Club, the Loyal Victoria Yacht Club, the -Clarence, British, Royal Yacht, and several minor associations. Several -cups and prizes are annually given during the season; and the spirited -contests between the beautiful small craft which form these fancy -fleets, are highly interesting. The sailing matches on the river are -of two sorts--one above, and the other below the bridges. The smaller -yachts, of from six to twenty-six tons, are commonly entered for the -former, and a larger class for the latter, which take place between -Greenwich and Gravesend. These national amusements appear to be rapidly -gaining the first place among fashionable recreations, and now occupy -the season, from the period when hunting ends, till shooting begins. - -The Royal Yacht Squadron has nearly six hundred persons on its lists, -of which above one hundred are members, and about four hundred and -fifty honorary members. The number of yachts is one hundred and -nine[12]; of which eighty-seven are cutters, ten schooners, three -brigs, four yawls, two ships, two ketches, and one lugger. The -greater part of these vessels hail from Cowes or Southampton. The -shipping belonging to the club amounts to 7250 tons. Now, a vessel of -one hundred tons seldom perhaps stands the owner in less than from -five to six thousand pounds, varying from that to ten, according to -the profusion of ornamental parts, the internal fittings, and other -contingencies. At this rate, the shipping of the club would have cost -more than three millions and a half of money: but it is impossible to -speak decisively on this point, as the first cost of the yachts varies -much, and the numerous styles of rig are attended with expenses so -widely different. At a moderate computation, each vessel belonging to -the club carries ten men on an average: this gives the total number -employed 1090. During the summer months, then, while regattas are -celebrated, it may be said that the Royal Yacht Squadron alone employs -more than 1100 men. These, with some few exceptions, are discharged -on the approach of winter, and the yachts are laid up for the season, -retaining the master and one man in pay. The crews thus discharged -obtain employment in merchant-vessels, or otherwise, during the winter; -and in the middle of spring, are generally re-shipped in the yachts -in which they have previously served. On these conditions, active and -industrious men of good character are generally sure of employment -in the club; and many members justly pride themselves on the high -discipline, manly bearing, and crack appearance of their crews. The -situation of master, in particular, is one of much responsibility, and -is on all accounts respectably filled. In some of the largest craft, -junior officers of the navy are found to accept this office. The -sailing regulations of the Royal Yacht Squadron are as follow; - - [12] As the number is constantly fluctuating, we had better take the - average at a hundred, which will be found quite as high a one as we - should be justified in suggesting. - -First--Members entering their yachts must send the names of them to the -secretary one week previous to the day of sailing, and pay two guineas -entrance at the same time. - -Second--All vessels starting or entering must be the _bonâ fide_ -property of members, as well as their spars, sails, boats, &c. - -Third--Each member is allowed to enter one vessel only for all prizes -given by the club. - -Fourth--Cutters may carry four sails only, viz., mainsail, foresail, -jib, and gaff top-sail; yawls, luggers, schooners, and all other -vessels, in like proportion. No booming out allowed. - -Fifth--No trimming with ballast, or shifting of ballast allowed; and -all vessels to keep their platforms down, and bulkheads standing. - -Sixth--Vessels on the larboard tack must invariably give way to -those on the starboard tack; and in all cases where a doubt of the -possibility of the vessel on the larboard tack weathering the one on -the starboard tack shall exist, the vessel on the larboard tack shall -give way; or, if the other vessel keep her course, and run into her, -the owner of the vessel on the larboard tack shall be compelled to pay -all damages, and forfeit his claim to the prize. - -Seventh--Vessels running on shore shall be allowed to use their own -anchors and boats actually on board to get them off, afterwards -weighing anchor and hoisting the boat in; but, upon receiving -assistance from any other vessel or vessels, boats, or anchors, shall -forfeit all claim to the prize. - -Eighth--That nothing but the hand-line be used for sounding. - -Ninth--Any deviation from these rules shall subject the aggressor to -forfeit all claim to the prize. - -Tenth--If any objection be made with regard to the sailing of any -other vessel in the race, such objection must be made to the stewards, -within one hour after the vessel making the objection arrive at the -starting-post. - -Eleventh--No vessel shall be allowed to take in ballast, or take out, -for twenty-four hours previous to starting; and no ballast shall be -thrown overboard. - -Twelfth--Vessels shall start from moorings laid down at a cable-length -distance, with their sails set; and every vessel not exceeding one -hundred tons shall carry a boat not less than ten feet long; and -vessels exceeding one hundred tons, a boat not less than fourteen feet -long. - -Thirteenth--There shall be a member, or honorary member, on board each -vessel. - -Fourteenth--The time of starting may be altered by the stewards; and -all disputes that may arise are to be decided by them, or such persons -as they shall appoint. - - * * * * * - -The Northern Yacht Club is a highly interesting society, although -its plan is not so extensive as that of the Royal Club. It contains -about three hundred and fifty members. The documents for 1830 comprise -ninety-two in the Scottish, and ninety in the Irish division, with -fifty-two honorary members, in addition to ninety-three members of the -Cork Yacht Club, who are also entered on the honorary lists. It had, in -1830, sixty yachts, not equal in proportion to the tonnage of the Cowes -Club, as smaller vessels are admitted. Many R. Y. S. men are found in -the Northern Club. There are many fine vessels in this club. Cutters, -as usual, excel in number. - -At the lowest computation, the number of vessels at present employed -for pleasure in this country cannot be less than from three to four -hundred, ranging in bulk from ten to three hundred and fifty tons. -These are variously distributed along our shores, carrying their -opulence into every port and harbour. But there is another advantage -arising from yacht clubs--namely, that national spirit, which, to a -maritime people, is above all in worth. The yacht clubs keep alive this -feeling in an eminent degree. - - -COURSES, ETC. - -Even in describing the elementary nautical operations which such boats -require, it is necessary to lay down a position for the HARBOUR, -direction for the WIND, and trip for the VESSEL. - -Let us suppose, then, that the mouth of the harbour lies towards the -south; that the wind blows from the north, with a little inclination -to east, and that we wish first to sail due south to get out of the -harbour, next direct our course eastward, then return westward till we -get abreast the mouth of the harbour, and lastly, northward, to enter -the harbour and come to our moorings. - -These courses will, with variations in the force of the wind, -illustrate every common and useful manœuvre. - - -GETTING UNDER WAY. - -Ship[13] the tiller.[14] - - [13] Fix in its proper place. - - [14] The piece of wood or beam put into the head of the rudder to - move it. - -Set the mainsail[15]; hoist the throat[16] nearly close up; and half -hoist the peak.[17] - - [15] Unfurl it by casting the stops or gaskets off. - - [16] The foremost end of the gaff, or that end next the mast. - - [17] The outermost end of the gaff, or that farthest from the mast. - -Bend[18] and haul the jib out to the bowsprit end. - - [18] Hook it to the traveller, or ring on the bowsprit. - -Bowse the bobstay[19] and bowsprit shrouds[20] well taut. - - [19] A rope or chain from the end of the bowsprit to half-way down - the stem. - - [20] Ropes from the bowsprit end on each side to the bows. - -Hoist the jib, and bowse it well up. - -Get the topmast stay[21], backstays[22], and rigging[23] well taut. - - [21] A rope from the topmast head to the outer end of the bowsprit, - where it passes through a sheave or small block, comes in by the stem - head, and is belayed or made fast (done generally by winding several - times backwards and forwards in the manner of a figure 8), to its - cleat or pin. - - [22] Ropes from the after-part of the head of the topmast to the - after-part of the channels on each side. - - [23] Or shrouds--ropes from each side the top-mast head, through the - cross-tree arms, to the fore part of the channels, between the first - and second lower shroud. They are set up or hauled taut, as are the - backstays, by means of a small tackle, one block of which is hooked - to the thimble spliced into the lower end of the shroud or backstay, - and the other to an eye-bolt in the channels. - -Hoist the foresail ready to cast[24] her when the moorings are let go. - - [24] To turn her head in the most advantageous direction. - -Send a hand to the helm.[25] - - [25] This term includes both the tiller and the wheel; but, as the - yawing motion of a small light vessel is correspondingly light and - feeble, though much quicker than that of a large vessel, she is best - without a wheel, which is meant to gain power at the expense of time. - -Overhaul the main-sheet[26], and the lee[27] runner and tackle[28]; -lower the throat, and hoist the peak of the mainsail taut[29] up. - - [26] A rope or tackle for regulating the horizontal position of the - main boom. - - [27] The leeward or lee-side is the opposite to windward. - - [28] A compound tackle, used in cutter-rigged vessels, instead of a - backstay to the lower mast, on account of its easy removal allowing - the main boom to go forward, in going large. - - [29] The nautical way of pronouncing and writing _tight_. - -Hoist the gaff topsail[30], keeping the tack[31] to windward[32] of the -peak halyards[33], and hauling the slack of the sheet out before you -hoist the sail taut up. - - [30] The sail above the mainsail. The sheet hauls out to a small - block on the outer end of the gaff. - - [31] Tack is the lowermost corner opposite to the sheet, in all - fore-and-aft sails and studding sails. - - [32] The windward or weather side, is that side on which the wind - blows. - - [33] The rope by which the peak of the gaff or boom, to which the - head of the mainsail is fastened, is hoisted. Halyards always - signifies a rope by which a sail is hoisted. - -Set the tack, and heave the sheet well taut. - - -BEFORE THE WIND.[34] - - -_With the Main Boom over to Starboard._[35] - - [34] That is, going the same way the wind blows. Her course is then - sixteen points from the wind. (See Compass.) - - [35] Starboard is the right, and larboard the left hand side, when - looking toward the head of the vessel. - -In managing the helm, be careful not to jibe the mainsail. - -When a vessel is going large[36], the helmsman should always place -himself on the weather side of the tiller, or the side opposite to that -which the main boom is over, as his view of the vessel’s head will -then be unobstructed by the sails. The boat now running before the -wind, haul the tack of mainsail up. If the wind come dead aft, you may -flatten aft the jib and foresail sheets[37], or haul the foresail down -to prevent chafing. If the wind come at all round on the starboard -quarter[38], slack off the boom guy[39]; haul in the main-sheet till -you get the boom a-midships[40], or nearly so; port[41] the helm, and -jibe the mainsail; slack off the main-sheet again, and hook the guy -on the larboard side; haul taut the starboard runner and tackle, and -overhaul the larboard one; the same with the topping-lift[42]; hoist -the head sails[43], and shift the sheets over. - - [36] Or free, not close-hauled. Generally understood as having the - wind abaft the beam, or that her course is then eight points from the - wind. - - [37] Ropes fast to the aftermost lower corner of the jib and - foresail, to hold them down. The jib has two ropes or sheets fast to - its corner, one of which comes on each side the forestay, for the - convenience of tacking, &c. The foresail has only one sheet, which - is fast to the traveller, or ring on the horse or bar of iron, which - crosses from one gunwale to the other, just before the mast. - - [38] The point on either side where the side and stern meet. - - [39] A small tackle, one end of which is hooked to the main boom, and - the other forward, to keep the boom from swinging. - - [40] Midway between the sides of the vessel. - - [41] Instead of larboard, when speaking of the helm, port is the - proper term, in contrariety to starboard, used for the sake of - distinctness in directing the helmsman. - - [42] Stout ropes which lead, one from each side the main boom, near - its outer end, through a block on its respective side the mast, just - under the cross-trees, whence it descends about half-way, and is - connected to the deck or gunwale by a tackle. - - [43] Jib and foresail. - -N.B. If you are obliged to jibe as above, you must, in the following -directions for bringing the wind on your beam, read larboard for -starboard, and _vice versâ_. - - -BRINGING THE VESSEL WITH THE WIND ON THE LARBOARD BEAM.[44] - - [44] That is, athwart or across the waist of the vessel, called - a-beam, because it is in the same direction that her beams lay, or at - right angles with her keel. Her head is then eight points from the - wind.--The wind is said to be abaft the beam, or before the beam, - according as the vessel’s head is more or less than eight points from - the wind. - -Supposing that you have not jibed, starboard the helm a little, and let -the vessel spring her luff[45] with her head to the northward. Slack -the boom guy, and haul in the main-sheet. Haul aft[46] the jib-sheet, -and bowline[47] the foresail. - - [45] Sail nearer to the wind. - - [46] That is, toward the hinder part or stern. - - [47] A rope made fast to the foremost shroud, and passed through a - thimble in the after-leach of the foresail, then round the shroud - again, and round the sheet. - -If she come up fast, port the helm[48] a little, and meet her, then -right[49] it when she lays her proper course. - - [48] Always put the helm the contrary way to that which you want the - vessel’s head to turn. - - [49] That is, bring it a-midships; the same with _steady_. - -Hook and haul taut the lee runner and tackle. You will now find it -necessary to carry the helm a little a-port or a-weather. - - * * * * * - -If, instead of directing our course eastward, we had preferred doing so -westward, we must have jibed previous to bringing the wind on the beam, -and then the preceding operations would necessarily have been, to a -corresponding extent, reversed. - - -CLOSE-HAULING THE VESSEL.[50] - - [50] To haul the sheets aboard, or more a-midships, by which means - the vessel’s head will come closer to the point the wind blows from. - -To haul the vessel to the wind, ease the helm down[51] a little. Haul -in the main-sheet upon the proper mark. Bowse the foresheet, and haul -the jib-sheet well aft. Bowse the runner and tackle well taut. - - [51] To leeward. - -The vessel is now on the wind, plies to windward, or is -close-hauled.[52] - - [52] These terms all imply one thing, viz., that the vessel is - sailing as near as possible to the point whence the wind blows. - No square-rigged vessel will sail within less than six, and no - fore-and-aft rigged vessel within less than five, points of the wind, - to have any head-way. - -Being now apt to gripe, or come up into the wind with a sudden jerk, -now and again, she wall carry her helm more or less a-weather. The -helmsman must watch the weather-leach of the mainsail, to prevent the -vessel getting her head in the wind. - - -TACKING.[53] - - [53] To turn a vessel from one side to the other with her head toward - the wind. When a vessel is obliged to tack several times successively - to get to windward, she is said to be beating to windward; when to - get up or down a harbour, channel, &c., beating up or down, &c.; when - trying to get off a lee shore, clawing off. - - A vessel’s tacks are always to windward and forward; and her sheets, - to leeward and aft; whence the terms larboard or starboard tack, - meaning that she has her tacks aboard on the larboard or starboard - side. - -Having got abreast or opposite the mouth of the harbour, haul the fore -bowline. “Ready about.”[54] Put your helm up, or to windward a little, -and let the vessel go rather off the wind, to get good way on her; then -gently down or to leeward with it, which is announced by the helmsman -calling “Helm’s a-lee.” Let fly the jib-sheet: this takes off the -balance of wind from her head, and acts in concert with the helm in -sweeping her stern to leeward, or rather in allowing her head to come -quicker up into the wind. - - [54] A command that all hands are to be attentive, and at their - stations for tacking. - -The man who attends the jib-sheet must carefully gather in the -slack[55] of the one opposite to that which he let go. When the jib -comes over the larboard side of the stay[56], haul the larboard -jib-sheet well aft. When the mainsail is filled, let draw the -foresail.[57] Right the helm, and shift over the tack of the mainsail. - - [55] Or loose rope. - - [56] The fore-stay, or large rope from the lower mast head to the - stem head, to prevent the mast from springing when the vessel is - sending deep, or fallen into the hollow between two waves, after - pitching. - - [57] That is, let go the bowline which holds the sail to this, now - weather shroud. It was held there till now, that the wind might act - upon it with greater power to turn the vessel, from the time her - head was about half-way round. The expression is derived from its - being necessary, in larger vessels of a similar rig, to ease the - rope gradually as the sail draws it. From the time the jib-sheet is - let fly, till the foresail is let draw, the vessel is said to be _in - stays_. - -One hand should attend the main-sheet, to gather in the slack till -the boom is a-midships, and then ease it off as the sail fills, and -the vessel lays over to port. When the vessel is in stays, and it is -doubtful whether she will come round, or, in order to make her come -round when she gathers stern-way, shift the helm to the opposite side. -She is now about upon the starboard tack. - - -REEFING, TAKING IN SAIL, ETC. - -Haul the fore-sheet up to windward; bowline it there, and heave her to. -Keep the tiller shipped, and lash it a-lee. In gaff topsail; lower the -halyards; and haul down. Send a hand aloft to unbend the sheet from -the sail, and make it fast to the main halyard bolt; and unlash the -gaff topsail, and send it down. Lower the main halyards and peak to the -second reef cringle, and reef the mainsail. - -Hook the reef tackle[58] to the first earing[59]; haul upon it till the -cringle[60] is close down upon the boom; and belay the tackle. Pass a -small gasket[61] through the tack and the first reef cringle, and lash -the two firmly together, taking care to gather in snug the luff of the -sail, so that the leach rope belonging to it forms a sort of snake -near the mast. Haul up the tack, and bowse upon the weather peak line, -keeping the other part fast a-midships of the boom. This will hold the -belly of the sail partly to windward, and make it easier to tie the -reef-points. Observe to keep the foot-rope outside and under the sail. - - [58] A small tackle formed of two hook blocks, one of which is hooked - to the under part of the boom about one third from the mast, and the - other farther aft. The fall is belayed to a cleat under the boom. - - [59] A stout rope, one end of which is made fast to the boom at the - same distance from the mast as the reef cringle to which it belongs. - It ascends, passes through the cringle, descends and passes through a - sheave on the side of the boom, then in board, and is stopped to the - boom by means of its lanyard, or small line spliced into its end for - the purpose. This lanyard is also to make it fast when the sail is - reefed, and you wish to remove the tackle. - - [60] A short loop of rope with a thimble or small ring of iron inside - it, spliced to the leach of the sail. - - [61] A rope made by plaiting rope-yarns. - -Let one man jump upon the boom to tie the outer points so far that -the rest can be tied on board. Let go the tack and peak line, always -keeping the ends of this fast under the boom. Hoist the sail taut up; -and set taut the tack tackle. Shift the jib to No. 2. Overhaul the -jib purchase; let go the outhaul; haul the jib down; unhook the tack; -unbend the sheets; and send the sail down below. - -You have now got one reef in the mainsail. If it come on to blow -harder, and you want a second reef, lower the sail, and haul on the -peak line as before; nipper the first reef-earing so as to hold it a -short time; let go the reef tackle, and unhook it from the earing, -which make fast with its lanyard round the boom. - -You have now got the tackle to use for the second reef. Proceed as -for the first reef. Shift the jib to No. 3, and proceed as before. If -third, the same, after rigging the bowsprit. Take the fid[62] or bolt -out of the heel of the bowsprit, and rig the bowsprit in about one fid -hole. Haul taut the topmast stay and bowsprit rigging. Bend and set the -small jib in the same way as any other. - - [62] A bar of wood or iron, which passes horizontally through a hole - in each bitt and the heel of the bowsprit, to secure it in its place, - much in the same way that a carriage pole is secured. - -You may want to stow the mainsail, set the trysail, and make her -otherwise snug in proportion. Sway away upon the top rope; lift the -mast a little to let the man unfid it; and lower topmast down in the -slings. Lower the fore halyards, and reef the foresail. Gather the luff -of the sail up; make the foremost reef-earing cringle fast to the tack; -shift the sheet from the clue of the sail to the after reef cringle; -and tie the points. If the weather is very heavy, haul down the -stay-sail, and tend the vessel with a tackle upon the weather jib-sheet. - - * * * * * - -When it comes fine weather again, make sail in precisely the reverse -order to that in which you shorten it. Continue to tack in the wind’s -eye till you are to windward of the harbour. - -[Illustration: _Plate XXXI_ - -_Page 119._ - -The Mariner’s Compass. - -Plan of the Deck.] - - -PASSING OTHER VESSELS. - -All vessels sailing before the wind keep out of the way of those upon -the wind. In the river Thames, vessels which sail with the larboard -tack aboard, keep away for those with the starboard tack aboard. - - -BRINGING THE VESSEL INTO HARBOUR. - -Lower and haul down the gaff topsail. Let go the jib tack or -outhaul[63]; lower the jib; and pull on the down-hauler, to bring the -traveller in. Haul the tack of the mainsail up; and lower the peak. -Down foresail. - - [63] A rope made fast to the traveller, to haul it out to the - bowsprit end. - -Let a small boat run away the wrap to the quay. Lower, and stow the -mainsail. Unbend the jib, and stow it below if dry and not immediately -wanted, and hook the halyards to the traveller, close in by the stem. -If otherwise, hoist upon the halyards, and let it hang to dry if it -require it, or stop it up and down the foremost shroud. Haul the vessel -to the moorings, and moor properly, putting fenders over to keep her -from the quay. - - -DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XXXI. - -_Fig. 1._ - -The mariner’s compass. - -_Fig. 2._ - -Plan of the deck, with the bowsprit rigged out, &c. - - 1. Bowsprit. - 2. 2. Bowsprit shrouds. - 3. Stem head. - 4. Bowsprit bitts. - 5. Fore hatchway. - 6. Windlass and bitts. - 7. Fore-sheet horse. - 8. Place of the mast. - 9. 9. Channels. - 10. Main hatchway. - 11. Companion and binnacle. - 12. Tiller. - 13. Cabin skylight. - 14. Rudder-head and case. - 15. Taffrail. - - -PLATE XXXII. fig. 1. - -Pleasure boat, cutter-rigged, lying at anchor; foresail and mainsail -bent and stowed. - - 1. Vane and spindle. - 2. Truck. - 3. Topmast. - 4. Cap. - 5. Trussel trees. - 6. Lower mast. - 7. 7. Cross trees. - 8. Bowsprit. - 9. Gaff, with mainsail furled. - 10. Main boom. - 11. Tiller. - 12. Rudder. - 13. Stem. - 14. 14. Topmast shrouds. - 15. Topmast backstay. - 16. Topmast stay. - 17. Runner and tackle. - 18. Traveller. - 19. Channel. - 20. Forestay with the foresail furled to it. - 21. Bobstay. - 22. Topping-lifts. - 23. Topping-lift blocks. - 24. Main-sheet. - 25. 25. Peak halyards. - 26. Jib halyards. - 27. Cable. - 28. Fore-sheet. - - -PLATE XXXII. fig. 2. - -The vessel going down the harbour with all sails set, steering south, -before a light breeze. - - 1. Gaff topsail. - 2. Foresail. - 3. Mainsail. - 4. Tack tricing line. - 5. Peak line, or signal halyards. - 6. 7. 8. The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd reefs. - 9. 9. 9. Reef-earings. - 10. 10. 10. Cringles. - 11. Balance reef. - 12. Anchor stock. - 13. Windlass. - 14. Foresheet horse. - 15. Main hatch. - 16. Companion and binnacle. - - -PLATE XXXIII. fig. 1. - -The vessel outside the harbour, steering east, with a smart breeze on -the larboard beam. - - 1. Jib. - 2. Foresail. - 3. Anchor. - 4. Eyebolt of the bowsprit shrouds. - - -PLATE XXXIII. fig. 2. - -The vessel trying for the harbour in a heavy gale, close to the wind -as she can lay, on the starboard tack, under a reefed mainsail and -foresail, bowsprit reefed, and topmast lowered. - -[Illustration: _Plate XXXII_ - -_Page 120._ - -Parts in Pleasure Boat at Anchor. - -Boat before a light breeze.] - -[Illustration: _Plate XXXIII_ - -_Page 120._ - -Boat with a breeze on the larboard beam. - -Boat close to the wind on the Starboard tack.] - - -[Illustration] - - - - -RIDING. - - -The general art of riding, sometimes called manège riding, to -distinguish it from its modifications in road-riding, hunting, racing, -&c., teaches us to place every part of the body so that it can act -upon the horse in every emergency, shows the effect of all the aids -or modes of guiding him, and enables us to render him obedient to the -slightest touch. By never suffering the ascendancy to be transferred -to the horse, by in general preventing him from making all his speed, -and by exhausting him the sooner the more he exerts himself without -permission, it bestows upon the rider perfect security. - -An intimate knowledge of this method is necessary even to our -abandoning it when convenient, to our adopting the styles, afterwards -to be described, for more extended and rapid paces, or for long -continued riding, to our suffering the horse to take more or less -of ascendancy, and to our, when necessary, easily recovering that -superiority of the hand, of which those who are ignorant of this -fundamental method are less capable. - -The recent practice has been to carry the foot rather more forward -than is represented in our Plates, approaching in this respect, to the -ancient position, as seen in the Elgin marbles, &c. - -A Parisian bit, which is attached to the mouth of the horse, without -a headstall, has been lately used. It is, however, applicable only -to _horses_, on account of its being retained in the mouth by means -of the side tusks, which _mares_ do not possess. It is composed of -a semicircular bar of iron, which goes under the chin, to which its -concavity applies; while a short bar, firmly attached to one of its -ends, passes nearly half-way through the mouth. Through the other end -of the semicircle is a hole, into which, when the bit is on, must be -screwed a bolt, similar to the one just described. These two bolts, it -is easily understood, pass behind the tusks, and nearly meet in the -centre of the mouth.[64] - - [64] THE SADDLE (_Fig. 1_).--_a_, pommel; _b_, cantle; _c_, panel; - _d_, flaps; _e_, stirrup leather; _f_, girths. - - BRIDLES (_Fig. 2_)--_a_, _b_, headstall with the cheekstraps; _c_, - do. of the curb; _d_, do. of the bridoon or snaffle passing through - it over the poll; _e_, nosetrap (seldom found in any but military - bridles), _f_, throatlash. _Fig. 3._ A twisted snaffle-bit. _Fig. - 4._ A plain snaffle-bit. _Fig. 5._ A Weymouth curb, with chain and - chainstrap (_a_) attached. _Fig. 6._ A common curb-bit, with the - upset in the mouthpiece. - - -THE HORSE AND EQUIPMENTS. - -Plates XXXIV., XXXV. f. 1 give better ideas of the horse and his -equipments than the longest and most detailed description. The reader -will therefore examine them in succession. We have here only to add -those circumstances as to the equipment of the horse, which could not -be communicated by that otherwise briefer and more impressive method. - -The shoes of a horse have much to do with his, and consequently with -his rider’s, comfort. It is therefore important to know that he is -properly shod. To effect this, the shoe should be fitted to the foot, -and not the foot to the shoe. - -[Illustration: _Plate XXXIV_ - -_Page 122._ - -Horse Equipments.] - -[Illustration: _Plate XXXV_ - -_Page 122._ - -The Parts of the Horse. - -First View of Mounting.] - -Neither heel nor frog should be pared more than merely to take off what -is ragged; for no reproduction takes place here, as in the case of -the hoof. Farriers ruin nearly all horses by doing otherwise. Indeed, -they are not to be trusted with this operation, which, after shoeing, -any gentleman may perform with his pocket-knife. The sole of the foot -must not be hollowed out, but only the outer wall pared flat or even -with the sole, and most at the toe. Nor, above all things, ought the -farrier’s finishing rasp all round the edge of the horn immediately -above the shoe to be permitted. Neither ought nails to be driven far -backward towards the heel, where the horn is softer and more sensible, -especially at the inner quarter. When a horse has a high heel, the -foot, except the frog, may be pared flat, but not hollowed out or -opened. When a horse has a low heel, the foot should be pared only at -the toes. - -It is common to allow the fore part or toe of the hoof to grow long, -thereby throwing the horse much on his heels. This position is -unnatural, because, were the horse in a state of nature, without shoes, -the toe, from constant contact with the ground, would be worn down to -its proper level with the heel. This growth, then, of the fore part of -the hoof, by throwing him on his heels, renders them tender, and causes -lameness: while the foot, not being flat on the ground, also strains -the ligaments of the fetlock joint. These evils may be obviated by -doing as nature directs--by cutting away the toe to the proper level -with the heel, so as to allow the foot to bear flat upon the ground. -When a horse has a short pastern, he should have a short shoe, because -a long one would compel him to bring his heel more backward than the -unpliableness of his pastern would easily admit. - -The saddle should be proportioned to the size of the horse. Before, the -bearings should be clear of the plate bone; behind, they should not -extend further than within four inches of the hips; and their pressure -should be equal on every part intended to be touched. The closer the -saddle then comes the better, if neither the weight of the rider nor -settling of the panel can possibly injure the withers or chine. Before -mounting, the rider should examine whether the saddle, girths, straps, -bits, bridle, &c., are all good and well fixed. - -When the saddle is on the horse, the lowest part of the seat should -rather be behind its centre, as it is there that the weight of the -body should fall, and by that means the thighs can keep their proper -position. The best test of the adaptation of the seat is, when the -rider, without stirrups or effort, easily falls into his proper place -in the saddle. - -Stirrups should not be used until the pupil is capable of riding -without them. Their proper length is when the upper edge of the -horizontal bar reaches a finger’s breadth below the inner ankle-bone. -When the feet are in the stirrups, the heels should be about two inches -lower than the toes. No more than the natural weight of the limbs -should be thrown upon them. It is by an accurate position, and an easy -play of the ankle and instep, that the stirrup is retained, so as to -slip neither forward nor backward, even if the toe be raised for a -moment. - -The position on horseback with stirrups differs from that without them -only in this, that the thigh being, by the stirrup, relieved from the -weight of the leg and foot, the knee is slightly bent, and rather -before the lines which these form in the position without stirrups. -In hussar riding, hunting, &c., the breadth of four fingers should -intervene between the fork and the saddle when the rider stands up. - -Spurs should never be used but by an accomplished rider. When it is -necessary to employ them, they should be applied a few inches behind -the girth, as low as possible, and with the lightest touch capable of -producing the effect. - -As to the bridle, in order to give the greatest possible ease to the -snaffle, a large and polished bit is necessary. Most bits are too -small and long, bend back over the bars of the horse’s jaw, work like -pincers, and cut his mouth. - -To give the greatest degree of severity, the bit, while hot, is -twisted into a spiral form, so as to present to the jaw a rough and -sharp surface, capable of pressing the bars or lips with greater or -less severity. The degrees of punishment which this bit is capable of -inflicting are generally sufficient for all the purposes of correction. -It is therefore best to ride with a snaffle, and to use a curb only -occasionally when absolutely necessary. In all cases, the rider should -observe that the horse is furnished with a bit proper for him. If too -light, it may have the effect already described. If too heavy, it may -incline him to carry the head low, or to rest upon the hand, which -jockeys call “making use of a fifth leg.” The simplest and most useful -of the _curb_ kind is the Weymouth bit, which consists of a strong -plain mouth-piece of uniform thickness, without any upset, but merely a -curve forwards, to give ease to the tongue. - -The centre of the reins should be accurately marked; and, when both -reins are held in one hand, and the near rein has to pass under -the little finger, and over the fore-finger, on the outside of the -off-rein, the latter should be held about half an inch shorter, and the -centre should be brought proportionally towards the left. In adjusting -the bridle on the horse’s head, the headstall, parallel to and above -the cheekbone, must have its length so regulated as to permit the -mouth-piece of the curb to rest on the bars, an inch above the lower -tushes in horses, and about two inches above the corner teeth in mares, -which have no tushes. The nose-band, lying under the snaffle headstall, -must be buckled so loosely that a finger can pass freely under it and -over the horse’s nose. The bit of the snaffle must be higher, but not -so much so as to wrinkle the corner of the mouth. The throat-lash -must be buckled rather loose. The mane is usually cut close under the -headstall; the finger clears any part of the foretop interfering with -it; and the remainder, when combed smooth, is put either over or under -the front. - -If the rider uses a curb, he should make it a rule to hook on the chain -himself; for the quietest horse may bring his rider into danger, if the -curb hurt him. The curb-chain must pass under the snaffle. The rider -should, therefore, put his right hand under the snaffle reins to take -hold of the curb-chain, and introducing two fingers of his left within -the cheek of the bit, and aiding these with his thumb, take hold of the -curb hook. The end links of the curb-chain being in his right hand, he -should turn the chain to the right and under, or as he would a screw, -till every link lies flat and smooth, and then, without losing a half -turn, put that link on the hook which appears to be neither tight nor -slack. The finger should pass between the horse’s jaw and curb, which -in this case hangs down upon his under lip. It is necessary also to see -how it operates. If the branch has liberty to move forty-five degrees, -or to a right angle, it is the degree which is in general best. If, -however, one link of the chain confine it to thirty-five degrees, and -if one link lower give it fifty-five degrees, then the manner of the -horse’s carrying his head must determine which is most proper: if the -horse naturally carry his nose high, the branch may have fifty-five, if -he bring his nose in, he should have thirty-five degrees. If there be a -chain-strap, it must be placed so high on the branch, that when passed -through the ring in the curb-chain, it may be buckled tight enough to -prevent the horse lodging the branch on his teeth. - -When a horse’s head is steady, when he is light in hand, can obey its -motions with ease, and stop readily, the bit is properly adjusted. On -the contrary, if he open his mouth as if gagged, writhe his jaws, draw -his tongue above the mouth-piece, or thrust it out sidewise; if he fear -the impression of the bit, have no appuy, toss his head up and down, -carry it low, and endeavour to force the hand, or refuse to go forward, -or run backward, the bit is not properly adjusted. - - -MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING. - -In mounting, the rider,--presenting himself rather before the horse’s -shoulder, with his left breast towards that shoulder, and with his whip -or switch in his left hand,--takes, with the right hand, the snaffle -reins in the centre;--introduces the little finger of the left hand -between them from before, the back of that hand being towards the -horse’s head;--places the left hand below the right on the neck of -the horse, about twelve inches from the saddle;--draws with the right -hand the reins through the left, and shortens them, till the left has -a light and equal feeling of both reins on the horse’s mouth;--throws, -with the right hand, the reins to the off side;--takes, with the same -hand, a lock of the mane, brings it through the left hand, and turns it -round the left thumb:--and closes the left hand firmly on the mane and -reins. - -[Illustration: _PLATE XXXVI_ - -_Page 127._ - -Second View of Mounting. - -The Seat.] - -The right hand, after quitting the mane, lays hold of the left stirrup, -the fingers being behind, and the thumb in front of it;--the left foot -is raised and put into the stirrup as far as the ball of it, Pl XXXV -f 2 the right foot is then moved until the rider’s face is turned to -the side of the horse, and looking across the saddle; while the right -hand is placed on the cantle, the left knee against the saddle on the -surcingle, with the left heel drawn back, to avoid touching the horse’s -side with the toe;--by a spring of the right foot from the instep, -not by any pull with the right hand, the rider raises himself in the -stirrup, the knees firm against the saddle, the heels together, but -drawn back a little, and the body erect, and partially supported by the -right hand Pl XXXVI f 1 the right hand moves from the cantle to the -pommel, and supports the body;--the right leg at the same time passes -clearly over the horse’s quarters to the off side;--the right knee -closes on the saddle; the body comes gently into it;--the left hand -quits the mane, and the right the pommel. - -The left, or bridle hand, with the wrist rounded outwards, is placed -opposite the centre of the body, and at three inches’ distance from -it;--the right hand is dropped by the side of the thigh;--the stirrup -is taken instantly with the right foot, without the help of hand or -eye;--the clothes are adjusted;--and the whip is exchanged from the -left hand to the right, being held with the lash upwards, but inclining -a little towards the left ear of the horse, and never leaving the right -hand, except while mounting or dismounting,--(Plate XXXVI. f. 2.) - -The horse is to be accustomed to stand till the rider request him to -move. The habit of unsteadiness is acquired from grooms, who, on going -out to water and exercise, throw themselves over a horse from some -elevation, and give a kick to the animal even before being fairly upon -it. If a groom attend at mounting, he ought not to be suffered to -touch the reins, but only that part of the bridle which comes down the -cheek. - -In dismounting, the whip is to be returned into the left hand;--the -right hand takes hold of the rein above the left;--the right foot -quits the stirrup;--the left hand slides forward on the rein, to -about twelve inches from the saddle, feeling the horse’s mouth very -lightly;--the right hand, dropping the reins to the off side, takes -a lock of the mane, brings it through the left, and twists it round -the left thumb;--the fingers of the left hand close on it;--the right -hand is placed on the pommel; the body being kept erect. The body is -supported with the right hand and left foot;--the right leg is, without -touching the horse’s hind-quarters or the saddle, brought gently to the -near side, with the heels close, care being take not to bend the right -knee, lest the spur should touch the horse;--the right hand passes at -the same time to the cantle, to preserve the balance, as in the act -of mounting;--the body is gently lowered until the right toe touches -the ground;--resting on the right foot, the left stirrup is quitted, -and the left foot placed in line with the horse’s hoofs;--the hands -remaining as in the former motion. Both hands then quit their holds of -the mane and cantle;--and the right hand lays hold of the snaffle rein -near the ring of the bit. - -In mounting without stirrups,--after taking up the reins, instead of -seizing the mane, the rider lays hold of the pommel and cantle, and, -by a spring of both legs from the insteps, raises the body to the -centre of the saddle. By a second spring of both arms, the right leg is -carried over the horse, and the rider enters his proper seat by closing -the knees on the saddle, and sliding gently into it. - -In dismounting without stirrups, on either side of the horse, the -rider throws the weight of the body on the hands placed on the pommel, -and, by a spring, raises the body out of the saddle before the leg is -brought over the horse. - - -THE SEAT. - -The seat must be understood in an extended sense as the disposition of -the various parts of the body, in conformity with the action of the -horse; and its effect is the rider’s being firm in the saddle, when he -might be otherwise thrown forward over the horse’s head, or backward -over his tail. - -The fundamental seat is that intermediate one of which all others are -modifications, and in which the rider sits when the horse is going -straight forward, without any bend in his position. In describing -this, it is first necessary to consider the rider’s relation to the -horse.--He must sit on that part of the animal’s body which, as he -springs in his paces, is the centre of motion: from which, of course, -any weight would be most difficultly shaken. The place of this seat is -that part of the saddle into which the rider’s body would naturally -slide were he to ride without stirrups. This seat is to be preserved -only by a proper balance of his body, and its adaptation to even the -most violent counteractions of the horse. Turf jockeys necessarily sit -further back, that they may employ the pulls. - -It is necessary to consider the horseman in various parts, and to -explain their different functions: 1st, the lower part, as being here -the principal one, namely, the thighs, with the legs as dependent on -them; 2dly, the upper part, namely, the body, with the arms dependent -on it. The thighs, from the fork to the knees, are commonly called -the immovable parts, and upon them the whole attitude depends. They -must not wriggle or roll, so as either to disturb the horse, or render -the seat loose; but they may be relaxed when the horse hesitates to -advance. The legs occasionally strengthen the hold of the thighs by a -grasp with the calves; and they likewise aid, support, and chastise the -horse. The body, from the fork upwards, must always be in a situation -to take the corresponding motion, and preserve the balance. The -position of the arms is dependent on that of the body, but they also -exercise new functions. - -As a good seat is the basis of all excellence in riding, we shall -consider these parts in detail. - -In relation to the thighs, the rider, sitting in the middle of the -saddle, must rest chiefly upon their division, vulgarly called the -fork, and very slightly upon the hips. The thighs, turned inward, must -rest flat upon the sides of the saddle, without grasping; for the -rider’s weight gives sufficient hold, and the pressure of the thighs on -the saddle would only lift him above it. The knees must be stretched -down and kept back, so as to place the thighs several degrees short of -a perpendicular; but no gripe must be made with them, unless there be -danger of losing all other hold. If the thighs are upon their inner -or flat side in the saddle, both the legs and the feet will be turned -as they ought to be. Thus turned, they must be on a line parallel to -that of the rider’s body, and hang near the horse’s sides, but must -not touch; yet they may give an additional hold to the seat, when -necessary, and the calves must act in support of the aids of the hands. -The heels are to be sunk, and the toes to be raised, and as near the -horse as the heels, which prevents the heel touching the horse. - -As to the body.--The head must be firm, yet free. The shoulders thrown -back, and kept square, so that no pull of the bridle may bring them -forward. The chest must be advanced, and the small of the back bent a -little forward. - -The upper parts of the arms must hang perpendicularly from the -shoulders, the lower parts at right angles with the upper, so as to -form a horizontal line from the elbow to the little finger. The elbows -must be lightly closed to the hips, and, without stiffness, kept -steady, or they destroy the hand. The wrist must be rounded a little -outwards. The hands should be about three inches from the body, and -from the pommel of the saddle, and from four to six inches apart; the -thumbs and knuckles pointing towards each other, and the finger nails -towards the body.[65] - - [65] When in motion round the manège, or the circle, the inward hand, - or that towards which we turn, is to be a little lower than the - outward one. - -When the rider is in the proper position on horseback without -stirrups, his nose, breast, knee, and instep are nearly in a line; and, -with stirrups, his nose, breast, knee, and toe, are in a line.--(Pl -XXXVI.) The man and the horse throughout are to be of a piece. When -the horse is at liberty, or disunited, as it is termed, the rider sits -at his ease; and, as he collects and unites his horse, so he collects -and unites himself. There must, however, be no stiffness of manner, -more than in sitting on a chair; for it is ease and elegance which -distinguish the gentleman. - - -THE BALANCE. - -The balance in riding preserves the body from that inclination to -one side or the other which even the ordinary paces of the horse, -in the trot or gallop, would otherwise occasion. It accompanies and -corresponds with every motion of the animal, without any employment of -strength, and consequently, the rider sits so firmly that nothing can -move his seat. His skill consists essentially in balancing himself on -the horse in such a manner as not to fetter the animal’s movements. To -illustrate this, if the horse work straight and upright on his legs, -the body must be in the same upright direction: as the horse moves -into a trot, the body must be inclined a little more back; in the -gallop, also in leaping, or in any violent movements, the body must -chiefly be kept back; and, when the horse bends and leans, as he does -when on a circle, or trotting briskly round a corner, the body must -lean similarly, or the balance will be lost. Throughout the whole, the -figure must be pliant to every action of the horse; for the balance can -be maintained only by as many different positions as he is capable of -working in. - -To help his balance, the rider must never take the slightest assistance -from the reins. Whatever the position of the body, the hand must be -fixed, and the reins of such a length as to feel and support the horse, -but never to hold on. To acquire the balance, the practice on circles, -or the longe, is useful; working equally to both hands, and not -using stirrups till the pupil has acquired the balance without them. -Experience proves that the body, if in the manège seat and fundamental -position, almost involuntarily takes the corresponding motion, whether -the horse stumbles, rears, springs forward, or kicks. - - -THE REIN-HOLD. - -There are various methods of holding the reins, according to the style -of riding, the design of the rider, and the propensities of horses. - -In holding the snaffle-reins separately, one rein passes into each -hand, between the third and fourth fingers, and out of it over the -fore-finger, where it is held down by the thumb.--(Pl XXXVII f. 1.) -When afterwards further advanced, the reins are held in the left hand, -as at first taken up; the left rein passing under the little finger, -and the right under the third finger, both lying smooth through -the hand, the superfluous rein hanging over the first joint of the -fore-finger, and the thumb being placed upon it.[66]--(Plate XXXVII. -fig. 2.) - - [66] Sometimes, however, the right rein is made to enter the hand - from above over the fore-finger, and crosses the left rein in - the palm, where the fingers close upon them, a loop or bow being - formed of the residue between the hand and body, whence it hangs - down.--(Plate XXXVII. fig. 3.) - -Riders should not throw their right shoulders back, as they are apt to -do, when they first take the reins in one hand. The right arm should -hang by the side, with the hand by the side of the thigh; or, if -holding the whip, it may be kept a little lower than the left, in order -not to obstruct the operation of the bridle. - -We have already said, that we think it best to ride with the snaffle -alone, and use the curb only occasionally. In this case, the curb reins -may have a slide upon them, and may hang on the pommel of the saddle, -or the horse’s neck. When the rider, however, holds the curb as well as -the snaffle, having both, as is most usual, in the left hand,--while -the curb reins are placed as above described of the snaffle reins, the -snaffle reins are placed within them; that is, the left snaffle rein -enters under the second, and the right under the first finger, and -both pass up through the hand, and out of it, over the fore-finger, -precisely as do the curb reins, except that they lie at first above, -then within, and lastly, under them.--(Plate XXXVII. fig. 4.) - -[Illustration: _Plate XXXVII_ - -_Page 133._ - -The Rein-hold.] - -Shifting the reins should be done expertly, without stopping the horse, -altering the pace, breaking the time, or looking to the hands. When the -snaffle reins are held in one hand, the method of shifting from the -left hand is as follows:--Turn the thumbs towards each other; carry -the right hand over the left; in place of the little finger of the -left hand, put the fore-finger of the right hand downwards between the -reins; lay the reins smoothly down through the right hand, and place -the thumb upon the left rein between the first and second joint of the -fore-finger.--(Pl XXXVII. f. 5.) To shift them again into the left -hand, it is only necessary to carry the left hand over the right; to -put the little finger of the left hand downwards between the right and -left reins; to place them smoothly upward through the hand, and to let -the ends hang over the fore-finger, as at first.--(Plate XXXVII. fig. -6.) - -When both curb and snaffle reins are held in the usual method, we shift -them into the right hand in a similar manner, by turning the thumbs -toward each other; carrying the right hand over the left; putting the -fore-finger of the right hand into the place of the little finger of -the left; the second finger of the right into the place of the third -finger of the left; and the third finger of the right into the place -of the second finger of the left; and laying the reins smoothly down -through the right hand.-- (Pl XXXVII. f. 7) When we shift the reins -again to the left hand, we put the fingers of the left hand into the -places we took them from, and turn the reins smoothly upward through -the hand, and over the fore-finger.--(Plate XXXVII. fig. 8.) - -Separating the reins is sometimes necessary. When a horse refuses -obedience to one hand, we use two. It is seldom, however, necessary to -take more than one rein in the right hand; and this is the right rein -of the snaffle only. For this purpose, the rider turns the back of his -right hand upwards, puts the first three fingers over the snaffle -rein, receives it between his little and third fingers, lets the -superfluous end hang over the fore-finger, with the thumb upwards, as -he does the bridle hand. (Plate XXXVII. fig. 9.) - -Adjusting the reins is shortening or lengthening them, wholly or -partially, as occasion may require. To adjust the whole, we take the -superfluous reins that hang over the fore-finger of the left hand into -the right, so that with that hand we support the horse, and feel every -step he takes; and we then open the fingers of the left hand so as to -slip it up and down the reins smoothly and freely, and thereby adjust -them to our pleasure. - -To shorten the curb rein, and lengthen the snaffle, we take in -the right hand the centre of the curb rein, that hangs over the -fore-finger, slip the whole of the reins too long, pass the left hand -down them, and feel with the fingers whether both the curb reins are -of equal length, before we grasp with the left hand, or quit with the -right. Similarly, we shorten the snaffle, and lengthen the curb, by -taking in the right hand the centre of the snaffle that hangs over the -fore-finger, and proceeding in the same way. - -When any single rein wants shortening, we apply the right hand to that -part which hangs over the fore-finger, and draw it tighter. When the -reins are separate, or occupy both hands, and want adjusting, we bring -the hands together to assist each other; remembering that the inner -hand, or that which supports the attitude the horse works in, is not to -depart from its situation, so as to occasion any disorder, but that the -outer hand is to be brought to the inner, for the purpose of adjusting -them. - - -THE CORRESPONDENCE. - -To have a correct notion of the manner in which the hand operates on -the horse’s mouth, it must be understood that the reins, being held -as described, are collected to such definite length, that bracing the -muscles of the hand would rein the horse back, and easing them permit -him freely to advance; the hand, for preserving a medium effect on the -mouth, being only half shut, and the knuckles near the wrist nearly -open. The hand, then, being connected to the reins, the reins to the -bit, the bit operating in the curb on the bars, and in the snaffle on -the lips, the rider cannot move the hand, and scarcely even a finger, -without the horse’s mouth being more or less affected. This is called -the CORRESPONDENCE. - -If, moreover, the hand be held steady, as the horse advances in the -trot, the fingers will feel, by the contraction of the reins, a slight -tug, occasioned by the cadence of every step; and this tug, by means of -the correspondence, is reciprocally felt in the horse’s mouth. This is -called the APPUY. - -While this relation is preserved between the hand and mouth, the horse -is in perfect obedience to the rider, and the hand directs him, in any -position or action, with such ease, that the horse seems to work by the -will of the rider rather than by the power of his hand. This is called -the SUPPORT. - -Now, the correspondence or effective communication between the hand -and mouth,--the appuy, or strength of the operation in the mouth,--the -support, or aid, the hand gives in the position or action,--are always -maintained in the manège and all united paces. Without these, a horse -is under no immediate control, as in the extended gallop, or at full -speed, where it may require a hundred yards to pull before we can stop -him. - - -THE ACTION. - -The degree of correspondence, appuy, and support, depends, in horses -otherwise similar, on the relative situation of the hand. The act of -raising the rider’s hand increases his power; and this, raising the -horse’s head, diminishes his power. The depressing of the rider’s -hand, on the contrary, diminishes his power; and this, depressing the -horse’s head, increases his power. On these depend the unitedness or -disunitedness in the action of the horse. - -A writer on this subject (Beranger, we believe) gives the following -useful illustration:--“If a garter were placed across the pupil’s -forehead, and a person behind him held the two ends in a horizontal -direction, the pupil, if he stood quite upright, could not pull at the -person’s hand, nor endure the person’s hand to pull at him, without -falling or running backwards.” This is the situation of a horse when -united. - -Accordingly, when the pupil felt the hand severe, or expected it to -pull, he would guard against it by bending the body, projecting the -head, and planting one foot behind. This is the situation of a horse -when disunited, or defending himself against the heaviness of the hand. -Hence the perpetual pull of a timid rider, or a heavy insensible hand, -cannot keep a horse united, because the horse cannot then bear its -severity. Thus heavy hands make hard-mouthed horses; and hence it is in -this condition that we generally find horses, for the best broke become -so, if ridden a few times by an ignorant horseman. In such cases, the -horse makes the rider support the weight both of his head and neck, or -goes on his shoulders, and is apt to stumble. - -If, then, the appuy be heavy, from the head being carried too low, and -the horse not sufficiently united, the rider must raise the hand, and -let the fingers, by moving, rather invite than compel the head, or more -properly the neck, to rise, for the object is to bring in the head -by raising the neck, the legs at the same time pressing the haunches -under. By these means, the horse will be united, and the appuy will be -lightened. Should the hand, however, be too confining to the horse when -united, he may become so balanced on his haunches that he can neither -disunite himself nor advance one step; and, should the rider then press -him without yielding or dropping the hand, he would compel him to rear. - -Such are the two extremes, where the horse is disunited, and where he -is too much united. The intermediate effect of the hand and heel must -be acquired by practice. - - -THE HAND. - -To a masterly hand, firmness, gentleness, and lightness, are very -properly described as being essentially necessary. - -Firmness of the hand does not, however, do more than correspond -exactly with the feeling in the horse’s mouth, unless the horse -attempts to get the ascendancy, to abandon that delicate correspondence -producing the appuy, and keeping him under the strictest obedience, -and to make a dull or insensible pull on the hand. To frustrate these -attempts, the hand is kept firm, and the fingers braced; and, should -the horse plant his head low to endure this, the fingers are moved, the -reins shaken, &c., to raise the head and divert him from his purpose; -or, if this be unavailing, the hand is yielded that the reins may -become slack, and a snatch is given in an upward direction, which will -not only make him raise his head, but will deter him from putting it -down again. - -Gentleness of the hand relaxes a little of its firmness, and mitigates -the feeling between the hand and the horse’s mouth, without passing, -however, from one extreme to another. Lightness of the hand lessens -still more the feeling between the rider’s hand and the horse’s mouth, -and consists in a slight alternate feeling and easing of the bridle, -regulated by the motion of the horse; for, if the appuy were always in -the same degree, it would heat the mouth, dull the feeling, and render -the horse’s bars callous. The rider must also distinguish whether -the horse washes to disengage himself from restriction, or wants a -momentary liberty to cough, to move if cramped, to dislodge a fly, &c. - -The curb, if used, requires always a light hand to manage it; and the -horse should never be put to do any thing in a curb at which he is not -perfectly ready. The curb is adapted for acting in a direct line only: -the snaffle should be used in all other cases. Still, as to all these -qualities, the transitions must be gradual. Were the rider, passing -over that degree of restraint which is derived from the easy or gentle -hand, to go at once from a firm to a slack one, he would deprive -his horse of the support he trusted to, and precipitate him on his -shoulders. On the contrary, were he to pass from the slack to the tight -rein all at once, he would give a violent shock to the horse’s mouth. - -All the operations of the hand, then, should be firm, gentle, and -light; and in these, the fingers and wrist alone must act. Certain -liberties called descents of the hand, are also taken with well-bred -horses. These are made three different ways:--by advancing the arm a -little, but not the shoulder, still keeping the usual length of rein, -or by dropping the knuckles directly and at once upon the horse’s -neck;--by taking the reins in the right hand, about four fingers’ -breadth above the left, and letting them slide through the left, -dropping the right hand at the same time upon the horse’s neck;--and by -taking the end of the reins in the right hand, quitting them entirely -with the left, and letting the end of them fall upon the horse’s neck. -These graceful freedoms must never be used but with great caution, when -the horse is quite together, and in hand; and the rider, by throwing -back his body, must counterbalance the weight of the horse upon his -haunches. - -There are still minuter rules belonging to this head; for instance, -both snaffle reins being in one hand, and that in the first -position,--if we open the first and second fingers, we slacken the -right rein;--if we open the little finger, we slacken the left -rein;--if we shut the hand entirely, and immediately open it again, we -lessen the tension of both reins. By these methods, we may relieve and -freshen the two bars in which the feeling and appuy resides. So also in -the second descent of the hand. While the right hand holds the reins, -we may slide the left hand up and down these in that degree of appuy -which belongs to the easy and slack hand: during which the horse will -endeavour to preserve that mutual sensation between the mouth and the -hand, which makes him submit with pleasure to constraint. By this play -of the rein and movement of the bit to avoid pressure in one continued -way, the horse’s head is kept high, and his neck and crest are raised. - - -THE GUIDANCE OR AIDS. - -The modes of guiding the horse are called aids, because they not only -direct, but assist him to execute. They also check him in acting -contrarily. These aids are certain positions of the hand, body, legs, -and sometimes of the switch or whip. The hand is so far the principal -of these, that the others are sometimes called accompaniments, as only -giving power and efficacy to the hand. - - -_Aids of the Hand._ - -A horse can move four different ways--forward, to the right, to the -left, and backward; but he cannot perform these motions unless the hand -of the rider makes four corresponding motions. There are accordingly -five different positions for the hand, including the general one from -which the other four proceed. - - -_The five Positions when one Rein is held in each Hand._ - -In the first position, the reins pass up between the third and fourth -fingers of each hand, their ends are thrown over the fore-fingers, the -thumbs are closed on them, and the fingers are shut:--the hands being -held as already described in treating of the seat. The second position -consists of a slight relaxation of the preceding, and permits the horse -to advance. The third position shortens the right rein rather upward, -and turns the horse to the right. The fourth position shortens the left -rein rather upward, and turns the horse to the left; and the fifth -position shortens both reins, and stops or reins the horse backwards. - - -_The five Positions when the Reins are held in one Hand._ - -The aids of the hand, as forming these positions, when the reins are -held in one hand, may be very simply given by a little extending, or -bending the wrist, to make the horse advance, or go backward,--and by -slightly carrying the hand to the right or to the left, and in both -cases rather upward, to make the horse turn in these directions. - - -_The Twistings of the Bridle Hand._ - -Several modifications of the rules already given occur. We do not, -however, approve of these positions, as they, in a great measure, -reverse and destroy the natural aids of the hand, by leaving the -right rein slack in the turn to the right, and the left rein slack -in the turn to the left. Indeed, they could not possibly be obeyed -by the horse, were it not that, on this point, he seems to have more -understanding than his rider, and draws his conclusions as to the -latter’s intentions, not from the inconsistent action of his hand, -but from the more natural accompanying aids of his body and legs. -Fortunately, however, these twistings of the bridle hand, though always -taught, are, we believe, rarely practised. - -We give these positions here, only in compliance with custom. - -In the first position the under surface of the fore-arm and hand forms -a horizontal line from the elbow to the joint of the little finger; the -elbow is lightly closed to the hips; the wrist is rounded; the knuckles -are kept directly above the neck of the horse, the hand being at three -inches from the body, and as much from the pommel of the saddle; the -nails are turned towards the body, the little finger being nearer to it -than the others; the reins, in entering the hand, are separated by the -little finger; and the thumb is placed flat upon them as they pass out -over the fore-finger. - -In the second position the hand is yielded to the horse by turning -the nails downward, so as to carry the thumb nearer the body, and the -little finger further from it, yet somewhat obliquely, for the thumb -passes nearly into the place where the knuckles were in the first -position, the nails being now directly above the horse’s neck. This -permits the horse to advance. - -In the third position the hand, leaving the first, is turned upside -down, so that the thumb is carried out to the left, and the little -finger brought into the right. This carries the operation of the reins -nearly three inches more to the right, by which the left reins press -the neck, the right reins are slack, and the horse is turned to the -right. - -In the fourth position the hand, leaving the first, the back is turned -upward, so that the little finger is carried out to the left, and the -thumb brought in to the right. This carries the operation of the reins -to the left, by which the right reins press the neck, the left reins -are slack, and the horse is turned to the left. - -In the fifth position, quitting the first, the wrist is rounded, the -nails turned upwards, and the knuckles towards the horse’s neck. This -stops him, or compels him to go backward. - -These aids, however, when the reins are held in one hand, are not so -effective as those where the reins are separate. - - -_Aids of the Body._ - -To aid the second position of the hand, and cause the horse to advance, -the body may be thrown a little forward, but not so as to press -heavily on his fore-parts. To aid the third and fourth positions of -the hand, a mere turn of the body is sufficient.--Thus, in entering -an angle, it is only necessary to turn the body imperceptibly toward -the corner, just as if the rider intended to go into it himself; his -body then turning to the right or left, his hand must necessarily turn -likewise, and the leg of the side on which he turns will infallibly -press against the horse, and aid him. In coming out of a corner, it is -only necessary to turn the body again, the hand will follow it, and the -other leg, approaching the horse, will put his croupe into the corner, -in such a manner that it will follow the shoulders, and be upon the -same line.--The same motion of the body is likewise necessary to turn -entirely to the right or left. To aid the fifth position of the hand, -and make the horse go backward, the body must be thrown gently back, -and the hand will go with it. - - -_Aids of the Legs._ - -To aid the second position of the hand, and make the horse advance, the -legs must be closed. Even when a horse stands still, the legs held near -him will keep him on the watch, and with the slightest upward motion of -the bridle, he will raise his head and show his forehead to advantage. -To aid the third position of the hand, and turn to the right, the right -leg must determine the croupe to the left, and facilitate the action -of the shoulder, which the hand had turned to the right. To aid the -fourth position of the hand, and turn to the left, the left leg must -determine the croupe to the right. In making a change to the right, the -left leg confines the croupe, so that it must follow the shoulders. In -changing again to the left, the right leg acts similarly. To aid the -fifth position of the hand, and stop the horse, while he is held in, -the legs must be gently brought to the sides. - -The aids of the legs have their degrees progressively increasing, -thus:--the leg being brought nearer the side is the lightest; placing -the leg further back, with the toe turned out, is the next; a touch -with the calf of the leg, is the third; a stroke with it, having the -toe kept up firmly, that the muscles of the leg may be hard, is the -fourth; and the strongest is the scratch, which, when the legs are laid -on hard without effect, is given by dropping the toe, when, if the spur -be properly placed, the rowel will scratch the horse’s side, and this -is succeeded by giving the spur sharply. Aids with the whip are also -used to give greater effect to the heel. These are gentle taps on the -hind quarters, and sometimes on the shoulders. When given on the near -side, the hand is either applied behind the back, with the whip held -by the fingers like a pen, the lash being downwards, or across the -bridle-hand before, the whip being held with the lash upwards. - - -ANIMATIONS, SOOTHINGS, AND CORRECTIONS. - -Animations proceed from the hand, the leg, the whip, or the tongue; -those of the hand and of the legs have been described among the aids. -Animations of the whip are mild taps to quicken the horse, or, if the -lash is upwards, switching it in the air. Those of the leg and whip -threaten punishment; and accordingly, with sluggish horses, both may -be necessary. The animation of the tongue is produced by placing the -tongue flat against the roof of the mouth, and suddenly displacing -the posterior part of it by drawing the air laterally between it and -the palate. This noise is animating to the horse; but, if too much -continued, or too frequent, its effect is destroyed. - -Soothings are the reverse of animations, and are used to dispel the -fears of horses, and to give them confidence. The voice soothes by -soft and mild tones; the hand, by gentle patting, or stroking: the -body and legs, by relinquishing all unnecessary firmness, and sitting -easy. A horseman should have perfect command of his temper, as well -as invincible patience and perseverance, to make the horse comprehend -and perform. He must demand but little the first time; he will be more -readily obeyed the next; and he may increase his demands as the horse -improves in habit and temper. - -Corrections are given either with the spurs or switch, or by keeping -the horse in a greater degree of subjection. In these a good horseman -endeavours rather to work upon the mind than the body of the horse. -The corrections which render a horse most obedient, and yet dishearten -him least, are not severe, but rather oppose him by restraint, and -make him do directly the contrary. If, for example, he do not go off -readily, or if he be sluggish, make him go sidewise, sometimes to one -hand, sometimes the other, then drive him forward.--If he go forward -too fast, moderate the aids, and make him go backward more or less -according to his conduct.--If he be disorderly and turbulent, walk him -straight forward, with head in and croupe out. - -When correction is given with the whip, it should be with strength; -the lash being upwards, the arm lifted high, and the whip applied -behind the girths round the belly: or it may be given forward, over -the shoulders, between the fore-legs. Should the horse kick at the -application of the whip to his flank or quarter, the rider must -instantly apply it smartly, and must repeat it more sharply, should he -kick at that. By this, he may be made sensible of his fault. - -To give a horse both spurs properly, the rider must change the posture -of his legs, and, bending his knee, strike him with them at once, -quickly and firmly. Some horses disregard the whip, but fly at the -spurs; others disregard the spurs, and are terrified at the whip; the -rider consequently will apply that which is most likely to produce the -desired effect. When, however, the whip or spurs are applied two or -three times sharply to restive horses without effect, the rider must -desist, and try other methods. - - -THE WALK. - -The rider should not suffer his horse to move till his clothes are -adjusted, and whip shifted, when, collecting his reins, and taking -one in his right hand, he must close his legs, to induce the horse to -move slowly forward in the walk. If he wish to increase the pace, the -pressure of the knees must be increased. When the horse moves, the -legs must resume their former position,--the hands remain perfectly -steady,--and the body yield to the movement. - -As to character, the walk is the pace performed with the least -exertion; only one leg at a time being off the ground, and three on. In -this pace, accordingly, four distinct beats are marked, as each foot -comes to the ground in the following order:--first the off fore foot, -next the near hind foot, then the near fore foot, and lastly, the off -hind foot.[67] - - [67] The amble may perhaps be considered as a natural pace, as most - foals, following their dams, amble more or less to keep up with them. - The difference between the walk and the amble is, that two legs of a - side are raised in the latter at the same instant. - -The perfection of the walk consists in its being an animated quick -step, measuring exact distances, and marking a regular time, by putting -the feet flat to the ground. Its excellence depends on that uniting -of the horse which supports his head and raises his feet, without -shortening or retarding the step; and that animation which quickens the -step and sharpens the beats without altering the time or the action. - -In performance, if the rider do not support the horse sufficiently, his -head will be low, and his walk slovenly: if he support him too much, he -will shorten his step so that he cannot walk freely. If the rider do -not animate him, he will not exert himself: if he animate him too much, -he will trot. If the horse trot when the rider designs him to walk, he -will find either his hand or the degree of animation communicated by -the whip, tongue, legs, or bracing of the body, too high, and this he -must instantly modify, as well as check the horse. (Plate XXXVIII. fig -1.) - -[Illustration: _PLATE XXXVIII_ - -_Page 145._ - -The Walk. - -The Stop.] - - -_Turns in the Walk._ - -Turns in general should be made slowly; and all the aids should combine -in producing them. - -In performance, the hand to which we turn, or inner hand, is to be a -little below the outer one, and the inner rein held with double the -force of the outer one, which is to be exerted by the little finger -pulling gently upwards and towards the body, while the outer hand -retains a steady hold of the outer rein. At the same time, the legs, -by a slight pressure with the calves, must support the horse, keep him -up to the bridle, make him bring his haunches under him, and obey the -leading rein. The pressure of the inward leg alone would make him throw -his haunches too much outwards. All this is to be done in proportion to -the effect meant to be produced; and great precision and delicacy are -required in the execution. - -Wheels may also be briefly noticed here. A horse may wheel or turn on -his own ground, on three pivots,--on his centre, on his fore feet, -and on his hind feet. In all these, the hand directs all before the -horseman, and the heel all behind him. In wheeling on centres, the hand -and heel operate together--the hand leading the shoulder round--the leg -directing the croupe, by which means, in going about, the fore feet -describe one half-circle, and the hind feet another. Here the aids of -the hand, body, and legs, must exactly correspond; and the degree of -appuy must be merely such as will carry its aid into effect; for, if -the appuy is too weak, the horse will advance over his ground, and if -too strong, he will retire from it. - -On terminating the wheel or quarter circle, the about or half-circle, -or the about and about, or whole circle, the hand, the body, and leg, -must instantly resume their proper position. The wheel on the fore, and -that on the hind feet, are still more rarely of use in common practice. - - -_Stops in the Walk._ - -Horses and horsemen generally stop by a gradual cessation of action, -in a time and distance which depend on circumstances. As to character, -however, the stop, when properly performed, is an instant cessation of -advance, without any previous indication. - -When the stop is properly performed, it shows the great superiority -of the rider’s hand over the horse. It confirms him in obedience, -unites him, supples the haunches, and bends the houghs. Much mischief, -however, may occur from a too frequent or injudicious practice of it. -The perfection of the stop consists in the action ceasing at the finish -of a cadence, without breaking the previous time; and in the horse -being so balanced on his haunches, and so animated, that, with liberty -given, he can advance with the same rapidity as before. - -In performance, the time to be seized is when the first part of the -cadence is coming to the ground; so that its finish completes the stop. -If this is not done, the cadence will be broken, and the stop rendered -irregular. At such a moment, the stop is performed by the rider bracing -his arms to his body, holding both reins equally and firmly, drawing -the fingers towards the body, closing for an instant both legs, to -press the horse up to the bridle, and throwing the body back, with -precisely such strength of all the muscles as is proportioned to the -effect; all this being done at the same instant, and making but one -motion. If the rider do not close his legs, the horse may not bring his -haunches under, the stop will be on the shoulders, and its effect will -be destroyed. - -If, in stopping, a horse toss up his nose, or force the hand, the -bridle hand must be kept low and firm, no liberty must be given, his -neck must be pressed with the right hand till he has brought down his -nose, and immediately all his bridle may be given him. (Plate XXXVIII. -fig. 2.) If the horse has not readily obeyed, he should be made to go -backwards, as a proper punishment for the fault. - - -_Going Backward in the Walk._ - -The action of the horse when he goes backward is to bend his haunches, -to have always one of his hinder legs under his belly, on which to rest -and balance himself, and to push his croupe backward. In performance, -the horse’s head must be steady and right, his body gathered up under -him, he must be upon his haunches, and his feet be even. To aid him -in this, there should be an equal and steady feeling of both reins; -the hand must be held centrically, and kept from rising, with the -knuckles a little down, inviting the horse to back; the body bent a -little forward, with the belly drawn in; and the legs gently pressing -the sides of the horse, in order to keep him up to the bridle, and to -prevent him from swerving. - -The instant he yields to the hand, the body and hand yield to the -horse, that he may recover his balance; and he may then be pressed to -back again. If either the deviation of the hand from its centrical -situation, or any other cause, make the croupe go off the line in an -opposite direction, the heel must support and direct him. Thus, should -the croupe traverse to the right, the right leg must direct; and, to -assist, the hand must be carried a little to the right; but this must -be done with delicacy, lest the croupe be thrown too much to the left. -Here the hand and the heel change their functions; the hand compels the -action, and the heel directs it. - - -THE TROT. - -As to the character of the trot, when we urge the horse to proceed -faster than he can by moving one leg after the other in the walk, we -oblige him to take up two at a time in the trot. Here the off fore-foot -and the near hind-foot give one beat; and the near fore-foot and the -off hind-foot give another; so that there are two legs crosswise -off the ground, and two legs on; the beats being sharp and quick, in -proportion to the degree of animation and extension. - -The perfection of the trot consists in its suppleness, giving the horse -a free use of his limbs; in its union, distributing his labour more -equally, his fore legs having more to sustain than the hind, especially -when he is disunited, or on the shoulders; and in its action, which -should be true and equal, the liberty of the fore-quarters not -exceeding the hind, nor the hind the fore--the knee being up, the -haunches bent, springy, and pliant, the step measuring exact distances, -and marking a regular time. In the trot, there is a leading foot, -either right or left, by which the corresponding side is a little more -advanced than the other. This leading with either foot is valuable, as, -in horses that have not been thus suppled, if chance or fatigue makes -them change their leg for that which they are not accustomed to, the -action is stiff, confined, and irregular. - - -_Kinds of Trot._ - -There are three kinds of trot--the extended, the supple, and the even. - -In the extended trot, the horse steps out without retaining himself, -being quite straight, and going directly forwards. - -In the supple trot, at every motion he bends and plays the joints of -his shoulders, knees, and feet. - -In the even trot, he makes all his limbs and joints move so equally and -exactly, that his limbs never cover more ground one than the other, nor -at one time more than at another. - -These three kinds of trot depend upon each other. We cannot pass -a horse to the supple trot without having first worked him to the -extended trot; and we can never arrive at the even and equal trot -without having practised the supple. To pass from the extended to the -supple trot, the horse must be gently and by degrees held in. When, by -exercise, he has attained sufficient suppleness to manage his limbs -readily, he must insensibly be held in more and more, till he is led to -the equal trot. - - -_The Trot in particular._ - -In performance the rider must apply, for an instant, both legs to his -horse’s sides; and at the same time raise the fore hand by drawing the -lower finger on each side rather upwards and towards the body, avoiding -all jerks or sudden motions. - -During the trot he must sit close to the saddle, preserving his seat by -the balance of his body, and not by the pressure of the knees; he must -neither rise nor stand in the stirrups; his body must incline a little -backwards; the whole figure must partake of and accompany the movements -of the horse; and he must keep the hands up in their proper situation, -steady and pliant, preserving a due correspondence, and just appuy. If -the action be too rapid, it must be checked by strengthening the hand. -If the action be too slow, it may be quickened by easing the fingers, -and giving more animation. - -To give more animation, and encourage the horse to put his foot out -freely, the rider must support his fore hand up, and his haunches -under, by a touch of the fingers, the excitement of the tongue, the -switch of the whip, or the application of the legs, varied so as not to -lose their effect. If the action be not sufficiently united, that also -must be corrected. - -To unite the horse, the reins must be collected, and the head raised. -By bringing his haunches under him, he may be pressed up to the bridle -by the aid of the legs; care being taken that this is not done hastily -or violently. He must not, however, be confined in the hand, in -expectation of raising him, and fixing his head in a proper place, as -by this means his bars and mouth would soon grow callous. - -The most certain sign of a horse’s trotting well is, that when, in his -trot, the rider presses him a little, he offers to gallop. If the horse -gallop when he ought not, the waist should be pushed forwards toward -the pommel of the saddle, and a bend or hollow at the same time be made -in the loins. - - -_Turns, Stops, &c. in the Trot._ - -As to turns, seeing that the operations directed to be performed at -the walk are to be practised in the trot, nothing further need be said -of them. As stops are required to coincide with cadences, it must be -observed, that the first part of the cadence in the trot is performed -by the two feet that lead; and that the conclusion of the cadence is -performed by the two feet that follow, and this should complete the -stop. The rider should occasionally alter the measure of the action, by -strengthening the hand, and at the same time keeping up a sufficient -degree of animation to prevent the horse from stopping. He may then -give him liberty, and proceed with the same spirit as before. He may -make a stop; and may even rein him back two or three steps; in both -cases keeping him so united and animated that the instant the hand -gives him liberty he advances as rapidly as before. (Plate XXXIX. fig -1.) - - -ROAD RIDING. - -Road riding is here introduced, because the trot is its most -appropriate pace. - -The difference between manège and road riding, consists chiefly in a -shorter seat and a shorter stirrup being used in the latter. A certain -freedom and ease are also admissible. These, however, must not exceed -propriety, lead to neglect of the horse, or risk security. The hand -should keep its situation and property, though the body be turned to -any extreme for the purpose of viewing or conversing; and the body must -not, by any freedom it takes, throw itself out of balance, or take -liberties when it cannot be done with safety. - -When the trot is extended to an unpleasant roughness, the jolting -may be eased by rising upward and slightly forward in the stirrups. -The faster the horse trots, the easier it is to rise; for it is the -action of the horse, and not any effort of the rider, that must raise -him. The foot he leads with determines that which the rider must rise -to; and, if the horse change his foot, he must change with him. He -must accordingly rise and fall with the leading foot, rising when the -leading foot is in the air, and falling when it comes to the ground. -The rise and fall of the body are to be smooth, and as regular as the -beats of the feet. - -[Illustration: _Plate XXXIX_ - -_Page 150._ - -The Trot. - -Road Riding.] - -Though this is called rising in the stirrups, no great stress or -dependence is to be put on them. Such improper use of the stirrups -causes many persons to be thrown, by the horse shying or suddenly -turning round. The rising of the body must not be accompanied by any -motion of the arms, or lifting of the shoulders. The hand is to be held -steady as well as low, to prevent galloping (which the forwardness of -the haunches would render inevitable if the hand were either eased or -lifted), and the reins should be of that precise length which preserves -as much correspondence as possible between the hand and mouth. The -steadiness of the hand is also necessary for the support of the horse. - -The slight inclination of the body permitted in road riding must not -occasion any roundness in the back, which is invariably to be hollow, -not only for appearance sake but for safety. The action of the body -likewise must not cause the legs to move or press the horse, which -might cause him to gallop. In trotting, the rider must pay the greatest -attention to correct every propensity to lift, hitch, overrate, or -gallop; and, whenever he feels these propensities, he must check them -with the greatest nicety, in order not to retard the horse’s speed. (Pl -XXXIX. f. 2 illustrates the Seat, &c., in Road Riding.[68]) - - [68] In road riding, the rule of taking the right hand of all you - pass is well known; but there are some exceptions, which are thus - noticed by Mr. Bunbury, in his ironical style:-- - - “In riding the road, should a man on horseback be in your way leading - another horse, always dash by the led one; you might otherwise set - the man’s horse capering, and perhaps throw him off; and you can - get but a kick or two by observing my instructions.--In passing a - waggon, or any tremendous equipage, should it run pretty near a bank, - and there be but a ditch, and an open country on the other side, - if you are on business, and in a hurry, dash up the bank without - hesitation; for, should you take the other side, and the horse shy - at the carriage, you may be carried many hundred yards out of your - road; whereas, by a little effort of courage, you need only graze the - wheel, fly up the bank, and by slipping or tumbling down into the - road again, go little or nothing out of your way.” - - -THE GALLOP. - -As to the character of the gallop, when we press a horse in the trot -beyond his capacity, or animate him with the legs while we raise or -retain him with the hand, we compel him to lift his two fore-feet after -each other, which commences the gallop. The near fore-foot is first -raised from the ground; then the off fore-foot, which, however, passes -the other, and they come to the ground in the same order, the near -fore-foot making one beat, and the off fore-foot another, that being -the most advanced or leading foot. The hind feet follow in the same -manner; the near hind-foot marking a third beat, and the off hind-foot -passing forward, and marking a fourth beat. Thus, when this pace is -united and true, the feet mark a regular, sharp, and quick time of -one, two, three, four. The perfection of the gallop consists in the -suppleness of the limbs, the union of the horse, the justness of the -action, and the regularity of the time. - -The gallop is of three kinds--that of the racer, that of the hunter, -and that of the pleasure horse, commonly called the canter. The -last of these is by far the most difficult, as it requires skill to -fore-shorten and throw the horse on his haunches. In the gallop, as in -the trot, there is a leading foot. On a straight line, it is immaterial -with which fore-leg the horse leads, provided the hind-leg of the same -side follows it. But to lead always with the same leg is injurious. -In galloping to the right, the horse must lead with the inward or off -fore-leg, followed by the off hind-leg. This action is termed true or -united.--(Plate XL. [69] shows this in the canter.) In galloping to the -left, he must lead with the inward or near fore-leg, followed by the -near hind-leg. This also is termed true or united.[70] - - [69] In galloping to the right, if the horse lead with the off - fore-leg and near hind-leg, or if he lead with the near fore-leg and - off hind-leg, he is said to be disunited. If, in galloping to the - right, he lead with both near legs, he is said to be false. - - [70] In galloping to the left, if the horse lead with the near - fore-leg and off hind-leg, or if he lead with the off fore-leg and - near hind-leg, he is said to be disunited. If, in galloping to the - left, he lead with both off legs, he is said to be false. - -[Illustration: _Plate XL_ - -_Page 152._ - -The Canter.] - - -_The Canter in particular._ - -To put the horse to the canter from rest at any spot, or from any pace, -he must be pressed with the legs, or animated with the tongue, and at -the same time, by a motion of the fingers, and a little raising of the -hand, be invited to raise the fore-legs. If he do not obey this, the -animation must be increased, and the hand kept more firm, to prevent -his trotting; and this will constrain him to raise his fore-legs -together. It is also necessary to direct the foot he is to lead with. -That of course is the inner, which he will readily take by putting the -croupe in, by means of the opposite thigh, thereby enabling him to -advance the inner side. - -As the position of the horse renders necessary a corresponding position -of the horseman, it will readily be seen that whichever side the horse -leads with, the rider’s thigh on that side must be rather more turned -in towards the saddle, and the hip on that side brought more forward, -and consequently that the other thigh must be a little turned outward, -and the hip brought backward; and all this more or less in proportion -to the position of the horse. This turn of the hip effects a turn of -the body. The hands are carried with it, and at the same time kept up, -rather above than below the elbow, and quite steady, that the cadence -of every step, and the support given by the hand, may be felt. The -rider’s head is of course to be directed to the horse’s nose, his eye -glancing on the ground the horse’s fore-feet go over. - -If the horse strike off with the wrong leg, false or disunited, the -rider, at the first corner, must endeavour, by an additional feeling -of the inward rein, and application of the outward leg, to make him -change, and lead with the proper one. When he leads with the proper -leg, the hand must resume its usual position, the rider bending him a -little inwards by shortening the inward rein; the fingers slackened, if -necessary, to let him advance; but the hand kept up, and every cadence -felt of the fore-feet coming to the ground. - -There is far more skill displayed in keeping up an animated action in -the canter, at the rate of three miles an hour, than in the gallop, at -that of twelve or fifteen. If the animation fail, or the action be not -supported by the hand, the horse will break into a trot, particularly -as the gallop is shortened or united. If the action is felt to be -declining, it must be corrected instantly, by an animating touch of -the fingers, the leg, or the tongue. The hand first discovers this -declension, and is the first to correct it. - -When the rider can put his horse off to either hand with the proper -leg, and support the action, he must particularly attend to its truth -and union, and try to raise it to the highest animation, riding -sometimes rapidly, sometimes slowly, yet always united. - -When the gallop is disunited and extended to speed, even though -the horse is supple and just on his legs, it loses its harmony and -regularity of time. The fore-legs then measure less space from each -other, and so do the hind-legs, which makes the beats quicker in each, -and leaves a space between the beats of the fore-legs and the beats of -the hind. In these gallops, it would be highly imprudent to circle or -turn, but on a very large scale. - - -_Turns, Changes, Stops, &c. in the Gallop._ - -In turning the horse to the right and left, at a canter, his fore-hand -must be raised with the leading rein, and the haunches pressed forward -and under him: at the same time, the outward rein must assist to steady -him, and a pressure of the calf of the outward leg keep the haunches -from falling too much out. If he is turned suddenly with the inward -rein only, without lifting the fore-hand, or applying the outward leg, -he must turn on his shoulders, lose power to halt on his haunches, and -being twisted round unprepared, will change to the outer leg. - -In changing, the operation must be performed smoothly and evenly at the -same instant; so that, at the finish of the cadence, the body, hands, -thighs, and legs of the rider are reversed, for the horse to commence -his next cadence with the contrary leg. - -In stopping in the gallop, the rider must seize the time when the -horse’s fore-feet are coming to the ground, which is the beginning of -the cadence: and he must take care that the hind feet, coming up to -their exact distance, and finishing the cadence, complete the stop: -leaving the horse so balanced that he can readily set off again with -the same rapidity as before. Besides seizing the exact time, a due -degree of power must thus be exerted, conformably to the readiness, -obedience, union, or rapidity of the action; for, should the power -be deficient, the stop would not be properly effected; and if it -be excessive, the horse will be overbalanced on his haunches, and -compelled consequently to move his feet after the cadence is finished. -Till horses are ready and obedient to the stop, it should not be -attempted in violent and rapid gallops; nor even then if they are weak, -or the rider heavy.--In these cases, the double arret is used. - -The double arret is the stop completed in two cadences of the gallop, -which is far less distressing both to man and horse. The body being -gently thrown back, will not make the action instantaneously cease; -but the obedience of the horse makes the effort which checks half his -career in the first cadence; and, the body still being kept back, he -completes it in the second. However, till practised and made obedient -to the stop, he will not easily perform the double arret; for, in the -first instance, he must be taught to stop by compulsion; and it is only -when practice has brought him to obedience, that he readily stops at -the easy throwing back of the body. - -The half stop is a pause in the gallop, or the action suspended for -half a second, and then resumed again. Here the body is thrown back -less determinately, lest we should so overbalance the horse that he -cannot readily set off again after the finish of the cadence, which no -sooner occurs than the body is brought forward, to permit the action -to go on. Thus the half stop is only a pause in the gallop, and it -is mostly used to effect a change from the right leg to the left, or -the opposite. The cadence of the stop should be no shorter than the -readiness and obedience of the horse will admit; the half stop not -quite so short; and the two arrets still more moderate. - - -LEAPING. - -The moveable bar for leaping should be ten feet in length, which will -admit of two horses leaping abreast; at first from one to two feet -high; and never very high. - -As to the seat, it should be again observed that stirrups are no -security in any situation on horseback; and those who cannot forbear -pressing a weight on them, had better have none when learning to leap. -An accurate balance must prevent all disturbance of the seat; for the -slightest, whether the rider is thrown up from the saddle, or his body -falls forward, or he gets out of balance, is as disgraceful as falling -to the ground. He should sit so close as to carry a shilling under each -thigh just above the knee, one in each stirrup under the toe, and one -under his breech. - -When any action of the horse tends to lift the rider from the saddle, -stirrups cannot keep him down. Bearing on the stirrup, indeed, must -lift the rider from the saddle, and would even loosen any hold he -might take with the thighs or legs. Nothing but the weight of the body -can press to the saddle. When the action is violent, however, the -pressure of the thighs may be employed to hold it down; and, when the -hold of the thighs is not sufficient, the legs may take a deeper, and -stronger hold. Leaps are taken standing or flying; the first being most -difficult to sit, though always practised first, because the slow and -steady leaping of a properly managed horse gives the rider time and -recollection, and the riding-master an opportunity to direct, and to -prevent accidents. - -[Illustration: _Plate XLI_ - -_Page 157._ - -The Rise in Leaping] - -[Illustration: _Plate XLII_ - -_Page 157._ - -The Fall in Leaping] - - -_Standing Leap._ - -In the standing leap, the horse first shortens, and then extends -himself. Readiness in the hand of the rider is therefore requisite to -give the appropriate aids. These, if well timed, assist the horse: if -otherwise, they check or embarrass him, and endanger both the animal -and his rider. (Plates XLI. XLII. illustrate the Leap.) - -The rider must therefore, by a ready and fearless yielding of the -bridle, leave the horse at liberty to extend himself, preserving his -own equilibrium only by leaning forward, as the horse rises, and -backward as he alights. When he is brought to the bar, the body is to -be upright. The legs are to be applied to his sides with such firmness -as to keep the rider down to the saddle, and in such a manner--viz., -perpendicularly from the knee--that the action of the body shall not -loosen or disturb them. The toes must be pulled up, to make the muscles -firm, and to prevent the spur from approaching too near the horse; and, -if necessary, they may be turned out a little to strengthen the hold. -The hand must be kept in the centre, and quite low; and the reins not -too short, but just by the pressure of the fingers to feel the horse’s -mouth. When at the bar, the pressure of the legs and fingers will -invite the horse to rise; and, as he rises, the body comes forward and -preserves its perpendicular. The back must then be kept in, and the -head firm. - -As the horse springs from his hind legs, and proceeds in the leap, -the rider must slip his buttock under him, and let his body go freely -back, keeping his hands down, legs close, and body back, till the -horse’s hind legs have come to the ground. The propriety of applying -the legs to hold firm in the saddle is obvious. The hand being kept low -is essential; and the bad consequences of raising it are numerous, as -confining the horse, preventing the body going back, throwing the rider -forward, &c. - -The body coming forward to preserve its perpendicular as the horse -rises before, prevents the weight of the rider from hanging on his -mouth, and checking his leap, if not pulling him over backwards. The -back being hollow when the spring forward is made, the body will of -itself fall backward, if the hand be not raised to prevent it; and the -head being firm may prevent a wrench of the neck, or a bite of the -tongue. Slipping the breech under gives the body more liberty to lean -back, and prevents the shock of the horse’s feet meeting the ground, -from throwing it forward. - -While the seat is thus maintained, the hand must not be neglected. In -riding up to a leap, the rider should yield the bridle to the horse, -guiding him straight to the bar at an animated pace; halt him with a -light hand, and upon his haunches; when he rises, only feel the reins -to prevent their becoming slack; when he springs forward, yield the -hand without reserve; and, when his hind feet come to the ground, -again firmly collect him, resume his usual position, and move on at -the former pace. If the horse be too much collected previous to his -leap, he will bound, or buck over, as it is called. If not sufficiently -collected or animated, he will probably not clear the leap. The degree -in which a horse should be collected and animated depends on the -temperament of the animal, and must be left to the judgment of the -rider. - - -_Flying Leap._ - -The flying leap is distinguished from the standing leap by its being -made from any pace without a previous halt; and although the action is -quicker, it is much easier. The pace, however, at which the rider goes -at a flying leap, should always be moderate, in order that the horse -may not rise too soon or too late. - -A horse who rises too far from the bar seldom clears his leap, and -risks straining by the effort to cover it; one who rises too near is -likely to strike his knees against it, and throw his rider, or hurt -himself. If a horse be indolent, and require animation, it is better -to rouse his apathy by the spur just before his head is turned towards -the leap, than while he is running at it. If he leap willingly, let him -take his own pace to it, and he will spring from his proper distance, -and give himself due velocity. Twelve yards from the leap, the rider -may turn his horse to it in a trot; he will strike into a gallop; and, -by a stroke or two before he springs, increase his velocity, if he -perceive that the height he has to cover requires that exertion. - -The seat in the flying leap is exactly the same as in the standing one; -but, as the horse keeps a more horizontal position, it is easier. The -rider, however, must not bring his body forward at the raising of the -fore legs, because the spring from the hind legs immediately follows, -and the body not only might not get back in time, but, if the horse did -not come fair, or refused to take his leap, and checked himself, the -body, if forward, might cause the rider to tumble over his head. He -should therefore keep his body upright; take hold with his legs; keep -his hand down; and, as the horse springs forward, his body is sure to -take the corresponding action of leaning back, particularly if he, at -the instant, slip his breech under him, and bring his waist forward -with an exertion proportioned to the spring the horse makes. He must -also take care not to bring his body upright, nor slacken the hold with -his legs, till after the hind feet have come to the ground. - -In this leap, the horse requires but little support or assistance -from the hand till he is coming to the ground, when the hand aids in -bringing the body upright, and in supporting the horse. The assisting -and lifting a horse over leaps may be done only by experienced riders, -and even by them only when he leaps freely and determinedly. Whips -should not be used when the rider first practises leaping. - - -CRITICAL SITUATIONS. - -When a horse is addicted to stumbling, rearing, kicking and bolting, -plunging, shying and restiveness, the seat is maintained as in leaps; -and the arms are held firm to the body, the hands kept up, and the -reins separate, rather short than otherwise. By these means, the -horse’s head being raised, he can with less ease either rear or kick, -because, for such purposes, he must have his head at liberty. It is -fortunate that horses which rear high seldom kick, and _vice versâ_. - -On these occasions, the first operation of the rider is to separate the -reins, &c. The body must be kept upright, but flexible, to repel every -effort the horse may make; the balance must be preserved by the muscles -of the thighs; the legs are to be kept near the horse, but not to grasp -till absolutely necessary. When he lifts his fore legs, the breech must -be thrust out behind, by which the rider is prepared if he rears. As -the fore feet come to the ground, the breech must be slipped under, -which prepares for his kicking or springing forward; the legs being -then in a situation to grasp, and the hands to keep a firm hold. In all -displays of vice, the rider should first see that the saddle or girths -do not pinch the horse, that the bit does not hurt his lips by being -too high in his mouth, &c. - - -_Stumbling._ - -By the rider pressing his legs to the horse’s flanks, and keeping up -his head, he may be made to go light on his fore legs; and the same -should be done if he actually stumble, so as to afford him instant -assistance. Hence it is evident that the bridle should be of such -length in the hand, that, in case of stumbling, the rider may be thus -able to raise the horse’s head by the strength of his arms and the -weight of his body thrown backward. If the rein be too long, it is -evident that, in effecting this manœuvre, the rider is in danger of -falling backward as the horse rises. By thus pressing the legs to the -horse’s sides, he may be made to keep his haunches under him in going -down hill, or may be helped on the side of a bank. - - -_Rearing._ - -The principal danger in rearing is the hazard of the horse’s falling -backwards. When, therefore, he rises straight up, the rider must throw -his body forward, giving him all the bridle. The weight of the body -will oblige him to come down; and the moment that his fore feet are -_near_ the ground, and _before_ he touches it, both the spurs must be -given him as firmly and as quickly as possible. - -Another mode of subduing him is, whenever the rider is aware of the -horse’s disposition to rear, to have the reins separated; and the -instant he perceives him going to rise, to slack one hand and bend him -with the other, keeping the hand low. This compels him to move a hind -leg, and being thrown off his balance, he necessarily comes down with -his fore feet. He should then be twisted round two or three times, -to convince him of the rider’s superiority, which confuses, baffles, -and deters him from rearing to any dangerous height. To break horses -of this dangerous vice, it has been sometimes expedient to leap from -them, and pull them backwards. This so frightens them that they are -wary of giving the opportunity again. It is, however, an expedient to -be attempted only at a particular crisis, and by persons perfectly -collected, active, and agile.[71] - - [71] On this subject, an anonymous writer, in answer to a query, - says, “I would advise you by no means to try the experiment in - question, either as operator yourself, or on your own horse. At all - events, pray make trial first of the following prescription, which - will in most cases be found an excellent preventive, if not a total - cure, of the propensity complained of, and which has the advantage - over the method respecting which you inquire, of being much easier - and safer in its application, and, I may perhaps add, surer in its - effects, and less expensive on the whole. - - “Get a strong thick curb bit, with a good deep port reversed--that - is, the curve of the mouth-piece must project towards the outside of - the horse’s mouth, and not inwardly towards his throat, as in the - common port bit. The thickness and exact curve of the bit should be - calculated according to the size, strength, and hardness of mouth - of the animal for which it is intended. For a very hard-mouthed - horse, the bit should be made with a very deep port, and as thin as - possible, consistently with the strength requisite. - - “In nine cases out of ten, 1 have found that confirmed rearers are - tender-mouthed, and the habit has been probably induced by their - being bitted and handled too severely. A martingale will be found a - useful addition to the bit I have described. Its full efficacy can - only be sufficiently appreciated by its being used several times, - till the horse has become in some degree accustomed to it.” - - -_Kicking._ - -Horses apt to kick, either when they go forward or stand still, must -be kept much together, or held in closely. When this is attempted, -the hands, though fixed, must not pull at the horse, if he does not -attempt to force the hand, and get his head, but leave him at liberty -to go forward. If, however, he attempt to get his head down, which -would enable him to kick with such violence as to throw himself, he may -have the head confined up. This disarms him, and he makes a bolt from -all-fours. - -When a horse kicks, the rider must throw the body backward. It is an -effective punishment to twist him round a few times for this fault. If -this is done towards his weak or unprepared side (for every horse has a -favourite side), astonishment and confusion will deter him from farther -contention. In case of bolting, the rider must not exert one continued -pull, but make repeated pulls until the horse obeys. Horses accustomed -to be allowed to bear on the bit would not understand the steady pull -as a signal to desist; and some would so throw up their heads as to -deprive the rider of all power without dropping his hand, when the -horse would drop his head. In that case, a second pull would find his -mouth, and thus speedily his progress might be stopped. - - -_Plunging._ - -In plunging, a horse gets his head down, cringes his tail between his -quarters, sets his back up, swells his body to burst his girths, and, -in this position, kicks and plunges till his breath can be held no -longer--that is, till he makes six or eight plunges. To sit these is -to cure them; and to do this, the rider must take a firm hold with his -legs, and be mindful that the horse, in getting his head down, does not -pull him forward. There is no danger of his rearing; and therefore the -rider has only to keep his body back, and hold firmly with his hands, -to prevent him throwing himself down. - - -_Shying._ - -When a horse, either by shying or restiveness, springs to one side, or -turns short round, the rider’s security depends on strict conformity to -the rules already laid down, as to not bearing on the stirrups; keeping -the legs near to the horse, to be ready on these sudden and unexpected -occasions to lay hold; and yielding the body to go with him. - -When a horse is about to fly to one side, he may be stopped by his -rider’s leg being pressed on the side he would fly to, and by keeping -his head high and straight forward, so as to prevent his looking -towards the object he starts at, unless indeed it be something you -desire to accustom him to the sight of, and then, whether you keep his -face to it throughout, or avert it at first, and turn it gently towards -it at last, great steadiness is necessary. When he curvets irregularly, -and twists himself to and fro, his head should be turned to one side, -or both alternately, without permitting him to move out of the track; -and the rider’s leg should be pressed against the opposite side. In -this case, he cannot spring on one side, because the pressure of the -leg prevents him, nor will he spring to the other, because his head is -turned that way, and a horse never starts to the side to which he looks. - -Moreover, he will not fly back from anything, but go forward, if both -legs be pressed against his sides. Thus he may be made to pass a -carriage or other object in a narrow road; and here perseverance is -especially necessary when the object is just reached, or partly passed, -for if in the habit of going back and turning round when frightened, he -will certainly do so when, if, by the hands slackening and legs failing -to press, he discovers that you are irresolute; and this he would -probably do at the most dangerous moment, when there was scarcely room -for him to turn, and the wheels might take him in the rear. To touch -his curb rein at such a moment would add to the confusion and danger. - - -_Restiveness._ - -The horse generally commences his attack by stopping, turning short -round, mostly to the right hand, as taking the rider to the greatest -disadvantage. He expects the rider will oppose the opposite hand, -designedly attacks the weakest, and is so prepared against its efforts -that it is vain to attempt them. It must be the rider’s rule never to -contend with the horse on that point on which he is prepared to resist. - -Instead, therefore, of attempting to prevent the horse with his left -hand, the rider must attack him with his right, turn him completely -round, so that his head is again presented the right way, and then -apply the whip. If he turns round again, the rider must still attack -his unguarded side, turn him two or three times, and let the heel -and spur, if necessary, assist the hand, before he can arm or defend -himself against it. - -If he still refuse to go the right way, the rider must take care that -he go no other, and immediately change his attack, turning him about -and reining him backward, which the horse is easily compelled to do -when he sets himself against going forward. In these contests, the -rider must be collected, and have an eye to the surrounding objects; -for restive horses try their utmost to place their riders in awkward -situations, by sidling to other horses, carriages, the foot-pavement, -the houses, &c. - -In this case, the rider, instead of pulling him from the wall, must -bend his head to it, by which his side next the wall is rendered -concave, and his utmost endeavours to do injury are prevented. The -instant, therefore, that the rider perceives his horse sidling to any -object, he must turn his head to that object, and back him from it. - -There are some horses who fix themselves like stocks, setting all -endeavours to move them at defiance. There, happily, their defence -can in no way endanger the rider. It must, however, be converted -to punishment. Let them stand, make no attempt to move them, and -in a short space--frequently less than a minute--they will move of -themselves. - -When these various defences, however, are not powerfully set up, the -general rule is to push the horse forward; and, for this purpose, -at first to make use of the switch, as it alarms him least, for the -spurs surprise a horse, abate his courage, and are likely to make -him restive. Indeed, the application of the whip or spurs, except to -shift the croupe, or give efficacy to the hands, is of little use; and -to repeat either, to make a restive horse go forward, is certainly -wrong. When passion possesses the rider, it prevents that concord and -unity taking place which ever should subsist between the rider and -his horse. He should always be disposed to amity, and never suffer -the most obstinate resistance of the horse to put him out of temper. -If the contest does not demand his utmost exertion of strength, he -should be able to hum a tune, or converse with the same composure -and indifference as though his horse were all obedience. By these -means, the instant a horse finds himself foiled, he desists, having no -provocation to contend farther, and is abashed at his own weakness. It -is the absence of passion which, added to cool observation, makes the -English the best riders and drivers in the world. - - -TREATMENT OF THE HORSE. - -Stables are generally too dark and too hot. They should be kept quite -cool, though without any draughts. - -“A way,” says De Beranger, in Helps and Hints, “of making the most of -your horses, is to rise early in the summer, in order to do half your -day’s work before the heat of the day; for lying by the whole of the -rest of the day, not only affords a traveller time and opportunity for -examining what is worthy of being seen, but enables him to start with -horses quite fresh, and to finish the remaining stage after sunset: not -only will your horses go through their task with less labour in the -cool of the evening, but you will find them travel more freely towards -a resting-place, which darkness leads them to expect.” - -A horse ought not to be ridden a stage while in physic, nor on the -day of its coming off. If he be pushed at first setting out on a -journey, or be compelled to make long stages, or be deprived of his -customary baits, he gets jaded, and every additional mile adds to his -uneasiness. Moreover, at setting out in the morning, a well-kept horse -is necessarily full of food, and consequently, until his great gut be -properly emptied, brisk action occasions uneasiness or pain, which -causes restlessness. - -“When I travel on horseback,” says the same writer, “I make it a rule -to walk every seventh mile, be the roads ever so level: it affords a -wonderful relief both to man and horse, and, instead of producing a -loss of time, helps you on. When you dismount for such ends, always -slacken your girths, slightly lift up the saddle to let a little air -under it, and teach your horse (what he soon will learn) to walk -briskly by your side, and keep the step with you, taking care to hold -either of the reins lightly in your hand, and without shifting it over -the horse’s head. Your steed will soon give you demonstrations of his -gratitude, for he will be full of affectionate playfulness as he jogs -along at your side, only to be rivalled by his willingness to let you -mount after you have tightened the girths again. I need hardly tell you -not to put your arm or wrist through a rein whilst walking or running -by the side of a horse, for it is replete with danger. A good run with -one hand on the horse’s withers is pleasant, and greatly removes the -stiffness of the joints so frequently occasioned by much riding; but -the reins should be held between the fingers only, and rather loosely.” - -Hence, it follows that, although expedition be indispensable, the horse -ought not to be put on his best pace at first, but considerably within -it. Even this pace should be for a short space only; the reins should -be loosened; the mouth played with; and if he do not evacuate, the pace -may be repeated once more,--unless, indeed, he sweat much with the -first, which is a sign of weakness, or that his dung is hard, and he -requires purging. - -While on the journey, the rider should be less attentive to his horse’s -nice carriage of himself, than to his own encouragement of him, and -keeping him in good humour. Though generally he should raise his -horse’s head, yet when he flags in consequence of a long day or hard -work, he may indulge him with bearing a little more upon the bit than -he would in taking a mere airing exercise, or afternoon’s canter in the -Park. Keeping company with some other horseman facilitates a stage, by -the emulation it excites; so that a dull animal, which one can scarcely -get seven miles an hour from, will do nine or ten without fatigue when -in company. - -In road-riding, a picker is indispensable both in winter and summer. -In winter, it is necessary to relieve the sole when snow accumulates -there. When, however, the traveller knows that snow is on the ground, -he may avoid the trouble of dismounting, by previously ordering his -horse’s soles to be payed over with tar, or with tallow having no salt -in it. At all times, when the roads have received fresh dressings, a -picker is indispensable, because a loose stone is very liable to lodge -in the hollow of the foot, and is dangerously driven backwards between -the frog and the shoe, at every step the horse takes. - -Pace and length of stage must be adapted to the heat of the weather -in summer, and to the depth of the roads in winter; both seasons -having the effect of knocking up the horse. In either case, a cordial -promptly administered recovers him for the prosecution of his journey. -The cordial readiest provided, and which should be kept at hand by -the provident traveller, is in the form of a ball, and composed of -aniseeds, ginger, carraway, of each, powdered, half an ounce, and mixed -up with treacle and meal to the proper consistence. But good ale or -porter, from one pint to a quart, made warm, operates sooner, and, upon -emergency, is nearly as readily obtained as the ball. - -Walking a horse the last mile, especially of a long stage, is a -practice highly beneficial. As, upon setting out, we should not go off -at the quickest pace, so upon coming in, we should not dash into our -quarters with the perspiration streaming from each pore, in the mild -season, nor covered over with dirt, in consequence of the pace, in wet -weather. Even in winter, the perspiration flies from a strong horse, if -in condition, upon coming in more sheltered places, and the practices -he is then subjected to are commonly of such a nature as to cause -disease in one way or another, in embryo, if not immediately. - -The rider is greatly to be blamed who stands quietly by, or hides -himself in the parlour, while his horse is brought in hot, stripped of -every thing, and led about to cool, in the draught of a gateway, or has -the dirt washed off by plunging him in a horse-trough or pond, or his -legs brushed in cold water in the open yard, while pailfulls, at the -same time, are thrown over them; the consequence of all which is cough -or colic, bad eyes, swelled legs, or inflammation of some vital part, -which deprives the animal of life. - -The horse should have a large and comfortable stall, and without any -door behind him, a draught from which, by blowing up his coat, might -expose him to cold. On coming in, after being coaxed to stale, he -should undergo (in winter-time in doors) a wisping all over with straw, -beginning at the head, and proceeding to the neck and fore-quarters. -His eyes, nostrils, &c., should also be cleansed with a sponge, and his -ears rubbed. He should, at the same time, have before him a lock of -sweet hay, in his rack, or a prickle, or the hand; and the rider should -see whether he eats or not, whether he enjoys the wisping, and whether -he chiefly evince a desire to lie down or a craving for food. - -The girths having been already loosened, but the saddle still -remaining on his back, his head should be turned to the rack, and his -hind-quarters, legs, and belly, sheath and fork, wisped, and his feet -picked clean and washed. After this, the saddle should be removed by -sliding it back over the croupe; and the dressing be extended to the -withers, back, and so completely all over the carcass, until it is dry. -The saddle should be hung out, with the inside toward the sun; and when -the pannels have been duly aired and dried, they should be slightly -beaten and well brushed. - -If the horse refuse the first proffer of hay, the rider may conclude -that he has been pushed too much, as to time or length. If he still -refuse his food, though the dressing be finished, he may be assured -that his stomach is disordered, and he must be cordialled. In winter, -a warm mash of malt is most eligible; but, if not at hand, a bran mash -with an admixture of oatmeal, and a quart of good ale, may be given. In -summer, a cordial ball will restore the tone of his stomach, without -increasing the heat of his body so much as a mash would. If he is not -aged, nor inured to cordialling, a small pail of stout water-gruel, -almost cold, excels all other cordials, and supersedes the necessity -of watering; he will take his supper an hour or so afterwards, with a -relish. - -The traveller ought to look to every particular himself.--In the next -place, let him see that his horse gets his allowance of corn, that it -be good, and that it contain no indications of having been in a manger -before; for, in that case, he must wait by him until all the food is -devoured. Dry food is alone proper to travel upon, and oats are the -best; much hay being apt to engender flatulencies. When, however, a -very long stage is to be taken, or it is cold, dreary, wet, or windy, -a handful of crushed beans sustains him admirably, staying by him, and -imparting vigour for a long time. The horse should not be denied water -often; though too much at one time should not be given, nor, without -its being chilled, any immediately after being fed. - -His feet and shoes should be looked to, to ascertain if aught require -repair, in order that it may be furnished as soon as he has recovered -from his fatigue.--His limbs, moreover, should be examined all over, -for cracks, pricked foot, &c., and the body, for saddle-galls, &c. Now, -as ever, his dunging should be looked to. Even if in full condition, -having been well and regularly fed, and as regularly worked, he will -contract a tendency to constipation; the least ill consequence of which -is defective pace, or short step, arising from more laboured action. -As the inconvenience may be suffered to last, he sweats immoderately -at the least extra exertion, his eyes lose their wonted brightness, -his mouth becomes hot, and his manner is languid. All these evils may -be prevented by timely physicking, whenever the dung is seen to fall -upon the ground without the pellets breaking. Even a little green food, -or a day’s mashing with bran, thin oatmeal gruel, and the like, will -soften the dung considerably. It must be remembered that these things -are to be undertaken on blank days, when the traveller is certain the -horse will not be ridden a stage. The following allowance per week is -generally enough to keep a horse in good condition:-- - - _Oats._ _Beans._ _Hay._ - For a horse of from 14½ to 16 hands 1¾ bushel; 2 quarterns; 1¼ truss. - For a horse under 14½ hands 1½ bushel; 1½ quartern; 1 truss. - - -DRIVING. - -Among the ancients, for more than one thousand years, the greatest -honour that could be bestowed upon a man was a sprig of the wild -olive tree entwined round his brow, for having gained a victory in -the chariot-race at the Olympic games of Greece. This sprig of olive, -moreover, was accompanied by other marks of distinction: the wearer -of it was not only honoured with statues and inscriptions during -his life-time, but the immortal Pindar, or some other great poet, -was called upon to hand his name down to posterity in an ode. The -Olympic games were revived, as a religious ceremony, by Iphitus, an -Elean, about nine hundred years before Christ. They were celebrated -near Olympia, in the territory of Elis. Horse and chariot races were -considered their noblest sports. No one was there prevented from -driving his own chariot; and kings were often seen contending against -kings. - -The Greeks were the most enlightened of the ancients, and their taste -in the arts has never been even rivalled. What they did, therefore, -on this occasion, could not be considered as in bad taste; and, when -we remember that the celebration of these pastimes outlived the laws, -customs, and liberty of their country, we need not say more in their -vindication. The honours of victory were not even confined to the brave -and skilful man who won the race: even the horses were crowned amidst -the applauses of the spectators; and in one race, where forty chariots -were broken, the victorious one was preserved in the temple of Apollo. -Such being the havoc among the competitors, it is not wonderful that -Ovid should say, that the honour of contending for the Olympic prize -was almost equal to the winning of it. - -Sophocles modestly speaks of ten starting at the same time in the race; -but Pindar, availing himself, perhaps, of poetic licence, makes the -number forty. Four horses driven abreast was the usual number. The -length[72] of the course on which they ran did not exceed an English -mile, and as they had to make twenty-two turnings round the two -pillars--generally, we may suppose, at full speed--it is not difficult -to imagine what dreadful accidents must have happened. - - [72] The Circus Maximus at Rome, in which the Romans exhibited their - chariot-races, was an oval building of one thousand eight hundred - feet in length, and four hundred in breadth. - -Nothing indeed but the form of chariot used could have ensured safety -to any one. From the representations on ancient coins, it appears to -have been very low, and only on two wheels, somewhat resembling our -curricle. It had of course no springs; and, as there was no seat for -the charioteer, much of his skill consisted in preserving his balance, -and keeping upon his legs. - -According to Pausanias, the following was the method of starting:--The -chariots entered the course according to order, previously settled by -lot, and drew up in a line. They started at a signal given, and to him -who passed the pillar at the top of the course twelve times, and that -at the bottom ten times, in the neatest manner, without touching it, or -overturning his chariot, was the reward given.--As, however, it was the -aim of every one who started to make for this pillar, as to a centre, -we can easily imagine the confusion there must have been in forty, -twenty, or even ten chariots, all rushing to one given point, amidst -the clanging of trumpets, &c. - -The following translation of a description of a chariot-race, from the -Electra of Sophocles, is worthy of a place. - - “When on the sacred day, in order next - Came on the contest of the rapid car, - As o’er the Phocian plain the orient sun - Shot his impurpled beams, the Pythic course - Orestes enter’d, circled with a troop - Of charioteers, his bold antagonists. - One from Achaia came; from Sparta one; - Two from the Lybian shores, well practised each - To rule the whirling car: with these the fifth, - Orestes, vaunting his Thessalian mares: - Ætolia sent a sixth, with youthful steeds - In native gold arrayed: the next in rank - From fair Magnesia sprang: of Thrace the eighth - His snow-white coursers from Thesprotia drove: - From heaven-built Athens the ninth hero came: - A huge Bœotian the tenth chariot filled. - These, when the judges of the games by lot - Had fix’d their order, and arranged their cars, - All, at the trumpet’s signal, all at once - Burst from the barrier; all together cheer’d - Their fiery steeds, and shook the floating reins. - Soon with the din of rattling cars was filled - The sounding hippodrome, and clouds of dust - Ascending, tainted the fresh breath of morn. - Now mix’d and press’d together, on they drove, - Nor spared the smarting lash; impatient each - To clear his chariot, and outstrip the throng - Of dashing axles, and short-blowing steeds, - They panted on each other’s necks, and threw - On each contiguous yoke the milky foam. - - “But to the pillar as he nearer drew, - Orestes, reining-in the nearmost steed, - While in a larger scope, with loosen’d reins, - And lash’d up to their speed, the others flew, - Turn’d swift around the goal his grazing wheel. - - “As yet erect, upon their whirling orbs - Roll’d every chariot, till the hard-mouth’d steeds - That drew the Thracian car, unmaster’d, broke - With violence away, and turning short, - (When o’er the hippodrome with winged speed - They had completed now the seventh career), - Dash’d their wild foreheads ’gainst the Lybian car. - From this one luckless chance a train of ills - Succeeding, rudely on each other fell - Horses and charioteers, and soon was fill’d - With wrecks of shatter’d cars the Phocian plain. - - “This seen, the Athenian, with consummate art, - His course obliquely veer’d, and, steering wide - With steady rein, the wild commotion pass’d - Of tumbling chariots and tumultuous steeds. - Next, and, though last, yet full of confidence - And hopes of victory, Orestes came; - But when he saw of his antagonists - Him only now remaining, to his mares - Anxious he raised his stimulating voice. - And now with equal fronts abreast they drove, - Now with alternate momentary pride - Beyond each other push’d their stretching steeds. - - “Erect Orestes, and erect his car, - Through all the number’d courses now had stood; - But luckless in the last, as round the goal - The wheeling courser turn’d, the hither rein - Imprudent he relax’d, and on the stone - The shatter’d axle dashing, from the wheels - Fell headlong; hamper’d in the tangling reins - The frighted mares flew diverse o’er the course. - - “The throng’d assembly, when they saw the chief - Hurl’d from his chariot, with compassion moved, - His youth deplored; deplored him, glorious late - For mighty deeds, now doom’d to mighty woes; - Now dragg’d along the dust, his feet in air: - Till, hasting to his aid, and scarce at length - The frantic mares restraining, from the reins - The charioteers released him, and convey’d, - With wounds and gore disfigured, to his friends. - The just Amphictyons on the Athenian steeds - The Delphic laurel solemnly conferr’d.” - -In a political view, these games were productive of local advantages; -for, being sacred to Jupiter, they protected the inhabitants of Elis -against all the calamities of war. In an economical point of view, -they were of general use; for, as Greece was generally short of -horses, nothing was so likely to encourage the breeding of them as the -emulation thus raised among the different states. The circulation of -money also was not a trifling consideration; for the olive crown was -obtained at great expense. By these games being celebrated at the -beginning of every fifth year, the Greeks settled their chronology -and dates; and as they lasted a thousand years, a great part of the -traditional history of Greece rests upon their base. That the honour of -the prize was above all price, the following anecdote shows:--A Spartan -having gained the victory at the Olympic games with much difficulty, -was asked what he should profit by it? “I shall have the honour,” said -he, “of being posted before my king in battle.” As a further proof of -the value and the moral effect of these contentions for honour, it is -stated that, when a conqueror returned to his native city, he made his -entry through a breach in the wall--by which was implied that cities -inhabited by such men had no need of walls. - -A senator of Rome, indeed, says Gibbon, “or even a citizen, conscious -of his dignity, would have blushed to expose his person or his horses -in a Roman circus. There, the reins were abandoned to servile hands; -and, if the profits of a favourite charioteer sometimes exceeded -those of an advocate, they were considered as the effect of popular -extravagance, and the high wages of a disgraceful profession.” The -Romans, with more pride, were far less intellectual than the Greeks; -but it must still be borne in mind, that, inconsistently enough, the -interest taken in the charioteers of Rome shook the very foundation of -the government. - -In modern times, notwithstanding the sneers directed against -gentlemen-coachmen and driving-clubs, it is to them chiefly that -this country is indebted for the present excellent state of the -roads, and for safe and expeditious travelling. The taste for driving -produced, between men of property and those connected with the -road, an intercourse which has been productive of the best results. -Road-makers, and those who have the care of roads, if they have not -acted under the immediate direction of these amateur drivers, have -been greatly benefited by their advice--doubly valuable, as proceeding -from knowledge of what a road ought to be. The intercourse also that -has lately been carried on between proprietors of inns and of coaches, -and gentlemen fond of driving, has greatly tended to direct the -attention of the former to the accommodation and comfort of travellers. -The improvement in carriages--stage-coaches more especially--would -never have arrived at its present height, but for the attention and -suggestions of such persons. - -Moreover, the notice taken by gentlemen of coachmen, who are at once -skilful and who conduct themselves well, has worked the reformation -which has been of late years witnessed in that useful part of society. - -Gentleman-driving, however, has received a check, very few -four-in-hands being visible. The B. D. C., or Benson Driving Club, -which now holds its rendezvous at the Black Dog, Bedfont, is the only -survivor of those numerous driving associations whose processions -used, some twenty years ago, to be among the most imposing, as well as -peculiar spectacles in and about the metropolis.[73] - - [73] The reader will bear in mind that this is many years after date. - The R.D.C., which is now in the “Crescent,” promises an ascendant of - no mean effulgence.--ED. Fifth Edition. - - -THE ROADS. - -The excellence of our present mail-coach work reflects the highest -credit on the state of our roads. The hills on great roads are now cut -triangularly, so that drivers ascend nearly all of them in a trot. -Coachmen have found out that they are gainers here, as, in the trot, -every horse does his share, whereas, very few teams are all at work -together when walking. - -As, however, dreadful accidents have occurred to coaches when -descending hills, a very simple expedient has been suggested, by which -these accidents may be avoided. It is merely a strip of gravel, or -broken stone, about one yard wide, and four or five inches deep, left -on the near side of the hill, and never suffered to bind or diminish. -This would afford that additional friction (technically called a bite) -to the two near-side wheels, so that the necessity of a drag-chain -(never to be trusted) would be done away with, and even in case of a -hame-strap or pole-chain giving way, one wheel-horse would be able -to hold back a coach, however heavily laden. No inconvenience to the -road, it is observed, could arise from this precaution, as carriages -ascending the hills would never be required to touch the loose gravel, -it not being on their side of the road. This has been objected to, -because some of the loose stones might find their way into the middle -of the road. But, admitting this might be the case, a trifling -attention on the part of the surveyor would obviate the objection. A -man might be employed every second or third day to rake these stones -back again. At the same time, it is obvious that the neat appearance of -a road is not to be put in the scale against the limbs and lives of the -people.--Some more permanent contrivance than loose stones even might -be found. - - -CARRIAGES. - -Of carriages, those with two wheels are the cheapest, lightest, and -most expeditious; but, however sure-footed the horse, and however -skilful the driver, they are comparatively dangerous vehicles. - -As to gentlemen’s carriages, in this country, it has justly been -observed, that the view at Hyde Park Corner, on any fine afternoon, in -the height of the London season, is enough to confound any foreigner, -from whatever part of the world he may come. He may there see what -no other country can show him. Let him only sit on the rail, near -the statue, and in the space of two hours he will see a thousand -well-appointed equipages pass before him to the Mall, in all the -pomp of aristocratic pride, in which the horses themselves appear to -partake. The stream of equipages of all kinds, barouches, chariots, -cabriolets, &c., and almost all got up “regardless of expense,” flows -on unbroken until it is half-past seven, and people at last begin to -think of what they still call dinner. Seneca tells us that such a blaze -of splendour was once to be seen on the Appian Way. It might be so--it -is now to be seen nowhere but in London. - -As to stage-coaches, their form seems to have arrived at perfection. -It combines prodigious strength with almost incredible lightness; many -of them not weighing more than about 18 cwt., and being kept so much -nearer the ground than formerly, they are of course considerably safer. -Nothing, indeed, can be more favourable to safety than the build of -modern coaches. The boots being let down between the springs, keep the -load, and consequently the centre of gravity, low; the wheels of many -of them are secured by patent boxes; and in every part of them the best -materials are used. The cost of coaches of this description is from -£130 to £150; but they are generally hired from the maker at 2½_d._ to -3_d._ per mile. - -It is said to be the intention of Government[74] to substitute light -carriages with two horses for the present mail-coaches drawn by four. -On this, a writer in the _Quarterly Review_ observes, that when the -mail-coach of the present day starts from London for Edinburgh, a man -may safely bet a hundred to one that she arrives to her time; but let -a light two-horse vehicle set out on the same errand, and the betting -would strangely alter. It is quite a mistaken notion that a carriage is -less liable to accidents for being light. On the contrary, she is more -liable to them than one that is laden in proportion to her sustaining -powders. In the latter case, she runs steadily along, and is but little -disturbed by any obstacle or jerk she may meet on the road: in the -former, she is constantly on “the jump,” as coachmen call it, and her -iron parts are very liable to snap. - - [74] The era of rail-roads has however now arrived, and there remains - no need for such an experiment.--ED. Fifth Edition. - -It may in this place be observed, that no stage-coach should be -permitted to travel the road with wheels secured only by the common -linchpin. It is in consequence of this that innumerable accidents have -happened to coaches from wheels coming off; and in these improving -and fast times, such chances should not be allowed to exist. It may -not be uninteresting to the uninitiated to learn from the same clever -and experienced writer how a coach is worked. Suppose a number of -persons to enter into a contract to horse a coach eighty miles, -each proprietor having twenty miles; in which case he is said to -cover both sides of the ground, or to and fro. At the expiration of -twenty-eight days a settlement takes place, and if the gross earnings -of the coach be £10 per mile, there will be £800 to divide between -the four proprietors, after the following charges have been deducted, -viz., tolls, duty to government, mileage (or hire of the coach to the -coach-makers), two coachmen’s wages, porters’ wages, rent or charge of -booking-offices at each end, and washing the coaches. These charges may -amount to £150, which leaves £650 to keep eighty horses, and to pay the -horse-keepers for a period of twenty-eight days, or nearly £160 to each -proprietor for the expenses of his twenty horses, being £2 per week per -horse. Thus it appears that a fast coach properly appointed cannot pay, -unless its gross receipts amount to £10 per double mile; and that even -then the proprietor’s profits depend on the luck he has with his stock. - - -COACH-HORSES. - -A great change has lately taken place as to the English coach-horse; -and this is the foundation of many other accompanying changes. -Fifty years ago, the putting a thorough-bred horse into harness -would have been deemed preposterous. In the carriages of gentlemen, -the long-tailed black, or Cleveland bay--each one remove from -the cart-horse--was the prevailing sort; and six miles an hour -was the extent of the pace. Now, however, this clumsy-barrelled, -cloddy-shouldered, round-legged animal, something between a coach and -a dray horse, as fat as an ox, and, with all his prancing at first -starting, not capable of more than six miles an hour, and rendered -useless by a day’s hard work, is no more seen; and, instead of him, we -find a horse as tall, deep-chested, rising in the withers, slanting in -the shoulders, flat in the legs, with more strength, and with treble -the speed. - -The animal formerly in use cost from 30_l._ to 50_l._-- Two hundred -guineas is now an every-day price for a cabriolet horse; and 150 -guineas for a coach-horse, for a private gentleman’s work. A pair of -handsome coach-horses, fit for London, and well broken and bitted, -cannot be purchased under 200 guineas; and even job-masters often give -much more for them to let out to their customers. The origin of this -superior kind of coach-horse is still, however, the Cleveland bay, -confined principally to Yorkshire and Durham, with perhaps Lincolnshire -on one side, and Northumberland on the other, but difficult to be -met with pure in either county. Cleveland indeed, and the Vale of -Pickering, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, are the best breeding -counties in England for coach-horses, hunters, and hackneys. - -When the Cleveland mare is crossed by a three-fourth or thorough-bred -horse of sufficient substance and height, the produce is the -coach-horse most in repute, with his arched crest and high action. From -the same mare and the thorough-bred of sufficient height, but not of -so much substance, we obtain the four-in-hand, and superior curricle -horse. From less height and more substance, we derive the hunter, and -better sort of hackney. From the half-bred, we have the machiner, the -poster, and the common carriage-horse. - -The best coach-horse is a tall, strong, over-sized hunter. The hackney -has many of the qualities of the hunter on a small scale. There is some -deception, however, even as to the best of these improved coach-horses. -They prance nobly through the streets, and they are capable of more -work than the old clumsy, sluggish breed, but still they have not the -endurance that is desirable; and a pair of poor post-horses, at the end -of the second day, would beat them hollow. - -In this carriage-horse, the bending of the upper joints, and the -consequent high lifting of the feet, are deemed an excellence, because -they add to the grandeur of his appearance; but this is necessarily -accompanied by much wear and tear of the legs and feet, the effect -of which is very soon apparent. The most desirable points in the -coach-horse are--substance well placed, a deep and well-proportioned -body, bone under the knee, and sound, open, tough feet. - -One part of the old system, however, remains--namely, that although -little horses, well bred, are the fashion, large horses are still -employed in heavy work. It must indeed be so. Horses draw by their -weight, and not by the force of their muscles, although these, by -carrying forward the centre of gravity, assist the application of that -weight. It is the weight of the animal which produces the draught, -and the power of the muscles serves to direct it. The hind feet form -the fulcrum of the lever by which this weight acts against a load, -and the power exerted is in proportion to the length of the lever, if -the weight remains the same. Large animals, therefore, draw more than -small ones, though they may have less muscular power, and are unable -to carry weight so well. Nothing can better show that horses draw by -their weight than the frequent occurrence that a horse is unable to -draw a cart out of a slough until a sack of corn is thrown on his back, -when he has little difficulty in doing it. Thus it is, that what are -technically called lobbing-goers take more weight with them than horses -of better action. - -As the application of the weight or force proceeds from the fulcrum -formed by the hind feet, good hind legs and well-spread gaskins are -essential points in a coach-horse. We even sometimes see that a -waggon-horse, when brought to pull, will not touch the ground at all -with his fore feet. Another reason why little horses are unfit for -heavy work is, that they will seldom walk and draw at the same time; -for if they walk, they catch at their collars, and do but little. They -never take anything like an even share of draught. - -By calculations as to the mean strength of animals, it appears that a -horse drawing horizontally, and at the rate of two miles and a half in -an hour, can work for eight hours in succession against a resistance -of 200 pounds. If that pace be quadrupled, he finds an eighth part of -the time sufficient. Thus we can pretty nearly measure a horse’s power -in harness. Whether we are carrying supposed improvement too far, -and sacrificing strength and endurance to speed, is a question not -difficult to be resolved. - -A horse at a pull is enabled, by the power and direction of his -muscles, to throw a certain weight against the collar. If he walk -four miles in the hour, part of the muscular energy is expended in -the act of walking; and consequently, the power of drawing must be -proportionally diminished. If he trot eight miles in the hour, more of -that energy is expended in the trot, and less remains for the draught; -but the draught continues the same, and, to enable him to accomplish -his work, he must exert his energies in a degree so severe and cruel, -that it must speedily wear him out. Hence, there is no truth so easily -proved, or so painfully felt by the postmaster, as that it is the -pace that kills. Moreover, many a horse used on our public roads is -unable to employ all his natural power, or to throw his weight into the -collar, in consequence of being tender-footed, or lame. Being bought, -however, at little price, he is worked on the brutal principle that he -may be “whipped sound!”--and so he is apparently. At first he sadly -halts; but, urged by the torture of the lash, he acquires a peculiar -mode of going. The faulty limb keeps pace with the others, but no -stress or labour is thrown upon it; and he gradually contrives to make -the sound limbs perform among them all the duties of the unsound one. -Thus he is barbarously “whipped sound,” and cruelty is for the time -undeservedly rewarded. After all, however, what is done? Three legs are -made to do that which was almost too much for four. Of course, they are -most injuriously strained, and quickly worn out; the general power of -the animal is rapidly exhausted; and, at no remote time, death releases -him from his merciless persecutors. - -Happily, art is doing what humanity refuses. Railroads are rendering -draught comparatively easy. An instance has been described of the -power of a horse when assisted by art, as exhibited near Croydon. -The Surrey iron railway being completed, a wager was laid that a -common horse could draw thirty-six tons for six miles along the -road, drawing his weight from a dead pull, and turning it round the -occasional windings of the road. A numerous party assembled near -Merstham to see this. Twelve waggons loaded with stones, each waggon -weighing above three tons, were chained together, and a horse taken -promiscuously from a timber cart, was yoked to the train. He started -from a house near Merstham, and drew the chain of waggons with apparent -ease almost to the turnpike at Croydon, a distance of six miles, in -one hour and forty-one minutes, which is nearly at the rate of four -miles an hour. In the course of the journey he stopped four times, to -show that it was not by any advantage of descent that his power was -facilitated; and, after each stoppage, he again drew off the chain -of waggons with great ease. A person who had wagered on the power of -the horse then desired that four more loaded waggons should be added -to the cavalcade, and with these the same horse set off again with -undiminished pace. Still further to show the effect of the railway in -facilitating motion, the attending workmen, to the number of fifty, -were directed to mount on the waggons, and the horse proceeded without -the least distress. Indeed, there appeared to be scarcely any limit -to the power of his draught. After this trial, the waggons were taken -to the weighing-machine, and it appeared that the whole weight was as -follows:-- - - tons. cwt. qrs. - 12 waggons first linked together 38 4 2 - 4 ditto, afterwards attached 13 2 0 - Supposed weight of fifty labourers 4 0 0 - ------------ - 55 6 2 - ------------ - -It is fortunate for breeders of horses that a perfect form is not -necessary to a good coach-horse. Some of those, indeed, which the -London dealers sell at high prices for gentlemen’s work, are such -brutes, when out of harness, that no man would ride them for their -worth. The strong and lengthy shoulder, with well-bent hind legs, are -not absolutely necessary; and a good head and tail, with a little high -action, are all that is essential. - -The following are useful hints for purchasers of coach-horses: - -No gentleman should purchase a horse without a good trial of his mouth -and temper. To be perfect in the first respect, he should be what is -called on the road “a cheek horse,”--that is, should require very -little curb, should always be at play with his bit. and yet not afraid -of it, and should have each side of his mouth alike. To a gentleman’s -leader, a good mouth is most essential, and then, the higher his -courage, the safer he is to drive. With stage-coach horses, mouth is -not of so much consequence, because they are always running home, and -there is no turning and twisting, as in gentlemen’s work, which is -often in a crowd. A whistle, or a click with the tongue, should make -a gentleman’s leader spring to his collar in an instant: one that -requires the whip should be discharged. - -With wheel horses which are steady, and hold well, a coachman may -almost set his leaders at defiance; but if they are otherwise, danger -is at hand. It is not a bad plan to purchase wheelers out of coaches, -after they have been about six months in regular work. For from -sixty to eighty guineas, the best of any man’s stock may be picked; -and a sound, well-broke coach-horse is not dear at that price. The -coach-horses of gentlemen should be high in flesh, as it enhances their -appearance, and is no obstacle to pace. A sound five-year-old horse, -with good legs and feet, and driven only in harness, will last, on an -average, from six to ten years in gentlemen’s work, and will afterwards -be very useful for other purposes. - -The average price of horses for fast stages is about 23_l._ Fancy -teams, and those working out of London, may be rated considerably -higher; but, taking a hundred miles of ground, well horsed, this is -about the mark. The average period of each horse’s service does not -exceed four years in a fast coach--perhaps scarcely so much. In a -slow one, it may extend to seven. In both cases, horses are supposed -to be put to the work at five or six years old. The price named as -the average may appear a low one; but blemished horses find their way -into coaches, as do those of bad temper, &c. As no labour, while it -lasts, is harder than that of coach-horses in fast work, it is wrong -to purchase those which are infirm, as many proprietors do. Generally -speaking, such horses are out of their work half their time, and are -certain to die in their owner’s debt. As the roads now are, blind -horses are less objectionable than infirm ones. A blind horse that -goes up to his bit is both pleasanter and safer to drive than one with -good eyes that hangs away from his work. Blind horses, however, work -best in the night. - -A horse cannot be called a coach-horse unless he has good legs and -feet. As a wheel-horse, he is never to be depended upon down hill, if -he has not sound limbs. He cannot resist weight, if he be weak in his -joints. To bad legs and feet are owing numerous accidents to coaches, -many of which the public hear nothing of. If horses, on the contrary, -have good legs and feet, they will last, even in the fastest work, -many years, provided they are shod with care, and well looked after. -Proprietors of coaches have at length found out that it is their -interest to be humane and liberal to their horses, because the hay -and corn market is not so expensive as the horse market. They have, -therefore, one horse in four always at rest; in other words, each horse -lies still on the fourth day. Generally considered, perhaps, no animal -toiling solely for the profit of man, leads so comfortable a life as -the English coach-horse: he is sumptuously fed, kindly treated, and if -he does suffer a little in his work, he has mostly twenty-three hours -in the twenty-four of perfect ease; he is now almost a stranger to -the lash, nor do we ever see him with a broken skin. No horse lives -so high as a coach-horse. Hunters, in the hunting season, do not eat -the quantity of corn that coach-horses do; for the former are feverish -after their work, which is not the case with the latter, as they become -accustomed to this almost daily excitement. In the language of the -road, the coach-horse’s stomach is the measure of his corn--he is fed -_ad libitum_[75]. The effect of this is that he soon gathers flesh, -even in this severe work,--for there is none more severe while it -lasts; and good flesh is no obstacle to speed, but the contrary. - - [75] Some coachmasters give their horses all manger-meat; but this - is wrong, as it often produces indigestion and disease. A certain - portion of long hay is necessary. - -It is not found, however, that (barring contagious diseases) where -their owners are good judges of condition, coach-horses are much -subject to disease. After a hot summer, coach-horses are most liable -to derangement; and the month of October is the worst in the year for -them, in consequence of it being their moulting season. Coach-horses, -indeed, are certain to sweat three days out of four, which keeps their -blood pure, and renders almost unnecessary medicine, of which, in -general, they have but a small portion--perhaps less than they should -have. It is a mistake, however, that fleshy horses cannot go fast in -harness; they are more powerful in draught than thin ones; and, having -only themselves to carry, flesh does not injure their legs, as in -riding. In a fast coach, then, a horse ought not to work more than four -days without rest, as he becomes leg-weary, and wears out the sooner; -and he becomes also too highly excited. A horse a mile, reckoning only -one side of the ground, is about the proportion. Thus we may suppose -that ten horses work the coach up and down a ten-mile stage, which -gives eight at work, and two at rest. Every horse, then, rests the -fourth day. In slow, heavy work, however, coach-horses will do their -ground every day, barring accidents or illness. - -In slow work, the average duration of coaching stock may be from six to -seven years, provided they are at first fresh, and firm on their legs. -In fast work, their time may be from three to four years, or scarcely -perhaps so much. Coach proprietors on a large scale should have a -break for their young horses, previous to going into regular work. -The practice of putting a young horse unaccustomed to harness into a -coach laden with passengers is most reprehensible; and when injury is -sustained by it, it should be visited by the severest penalties the law -can inflict. - - -HARNESS. - -In the manufacture of harness we have arrived at a degree of -perfection, to which the invention of the patent shining leather has -mainly contributed. A handsome horse well harnessed is a noble sight; -yet in no country, except England, is the art of putting a horse into -harness at all understood. If, however, our road horses were put to -their coaches in the loose awkward fashion of the continental people, -we could not travel at the rate we do. It is the command given over the -coach-horse that enables us to do it. - -In regard to mails, it should be observed that the proprietors who -horse them are not sufficiently attentive to the state of the harness -on the ground worked by night; whereas it should in reality be the -best. If anything break by daylight, it is instantly observed; but it -is not so in the night, as lamp-light is uncertain and treacherous. -In speaking of particulars, it may be observed, that bearing-reins -are a relief to the arm of the driver, but by no means to the horses. -Indeed, they materially lessen the power of horses in drawing, become -insufferable to them in a long journey, and fatigue them much sooner -than they would otherwise be. Not only do these reins by no means serve -to keep horses up; but they prevent their rising after having fallen. - -When a wheel-horse has the habit of throwing up his head, which greatly -annoys the mouth of the leader before him, a nose-martingale should -be used. This, however, is rarely sufficient. Indeed, it is a bad -custom to run the leader’s reins through terrets over the heads of the -wheelers; for then every movement which the wheelers make with their -heads, acts powerfully on the mouths of the leaders, whether they be -good or bad. If the former, it is sometimes attended with danger: thus, -a wheeler throws up his head, suddenly and powerfully shortens the rein -of the leader, who is checked, and as the wheeler goes on, he brings -the bar with force against the hocks of the leader, which instantly -flies forward, and mischief ensues. - -This, perhaps, does not last long; but one evil only takes the place -of another: leaders soon learn to be, from custom, equally heedless of -this check and of their driver’s hand: and their mouths become steeled -by the constant tossing of the wheeler’s heads. It is thus that we -sometimes hear of leaders choosing their own road in spite of the best -efforts of good coachmen; and so it will always be till terrets are -totally abolished. This may easily be done by conducting the leader’s -rein through the rosette in which the wheeler’s outside bearing-rein, -of which we have just disapproved, at present passes, and thus -supersede the terret. - -Terrets, however, are supposed to look well, and to have the advantage -of keeping the head steady. To obviate their disadvantages, therefore, -in some measure, rollers are placed in the bottom of each terret, -over which the rein passes. This, in some degree, obviates the evil, -as the rein no longer holds in the terret, but slides easily, giving -the wheeler’s head more freedom. In all kinds of work, a tool-box -is a necessary appendage to the coach. It should contain a strong -screw-wrench, wheel and spring clips, a spring shackle or two, with -bolts and nuts, and two chains--one for a trace, and the other shorter, -with a ring at one end and hook at the other, in case of a tug giving -way. In his pocket the coachman should have a short strap with a buckle -at each end, as in case of almost any part of the reins, or indeed most -parts of the harness breaking, it comes into use in a moment. - -The following are interesting extracts on this subject, from an article -in a late number of the _Quarterly Review_; and the work quoted and -referred to in the article is intitled Bubbles from the Brunnens of -Nassau. “With regard to the management of horses in harness, perhaps -the most striking feature to English eyes is, that the Germans intrust -these sensible animals with the free use of their eyes. ‘As soon as, -getting tired, or, as we are often apt to term it, lazy, they see the -postilion threaten them with his whip, they know perfectly well the -limits of his patience, and that after eight, ten, or twelve threats, -there will come a blow. As they travel along, one eye is always -shrewdly watching the driver; the moment he begins his slow operation -of lighting his pipe, they immediately slacken their pace, knowing as -well as Archimedes could have proved, that he cannot strike fire and -them at the same time: every movement in the carriage they remark; and -to any accurate observer who meets a German vehicle, it must often -be perfectly evident that the poor horses know and feel, even better -than himself, that they are drawing a coachman, three bulky baronesses, -their man and their maid, and that to do this on a hot summer’s day is -no joke.’ - -“Now, what is our method? ‘In order to break-in the animal to draught, -we put a collar round his neck, a crupper under his tail, a pad on his -back, a strap round his belly, with traces at his sides; and, lest -he should see that, though these things tickle and pinch, they have -not power to do more, the poor intelligent creature is blinded with -blinkers, and in this fearful state of ignorance, with a groom or two -at his head, and another at his side, he is, without his knowledge, -fixed to the pole and splinter-bar of a carriage. If he kick, even -at a fly, he suddenly receives a heavy punishment which he does not -comprehend; something has struck him, and has hurt him severely; but, -as fear magnifies all danger, so, for aught we know or care, he may -fancy that the splinter-bar which has cut him is some hostile animal, -and expects, when the pole bumps against his legs, to be again assailed -in that direction. Admitting that in time he gets accustomed to these -phenomena--becoming, what we term, steady in harness, still, to the -last hour of his existence, he does not clearly understand what it is -that is hampering him, or what is that rattling noise which is always -at his heels;--the sudden sting of the whip is a pain with which he -gets but too well acquainted, yet the _unde derivatur_ of the sensation -he cannot explain--he neither knows when it is coming, nor what it -comes from. If any trifling accident or even irregularity occurs--if -any little harmless strap which ought to rest upon his back happens to -fall to his side, the unfortunate animal, deprived of his eyesight, the -natural lanterns of the mind, is instantly alarmed; and, though from -constant heavy draught he may literally, without metaphor, be on his -last legs, yet if his blinkers should happen to fall off, the sight -of his own dozing master, of his own pretty mistress, and of his own -fine yellow chariot in motion, would scare him so dreadfully, that off -he would probably start, and the more they all pursued him the faster -would he fly!’” - -[Illustration: _PLATE XLIII_ - -_Page 189._ - -Four Horse Harness.] - -DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XLIII. - - 1. Face-strap. - 2. Terret for the leader’s rein. - 3. Leader’s rein. - 4. Head-piece. - 5. Hame-strap. - 6. Bearing-rein hook. - 7. Winker. - 8. Cheek-strap. - 9. Nose-strap. - 10. Rosette. - 11. Throat-lash. - 12. Bearing-rein roller. - 13. Front piece, or fore-top. - 14. Bearing-rein. - 15. Hames. - 16. Hame-tug. - 17. Collar. - 18. Hame-terret. - 19. Wheeler’s rein. - 20. Crupper. - 21. Pad. - 22. Terret for wheeler’s rein. - 23. Belly-band. - 24. Trace-bearer. - 25. Trace-buckle. - 26. Trace. - 27. False belly-band. - 28. Bit. - 29. Swivel-hook. - 30. Pole-hook. - 31. Pole-chain. - 32. Pole. - 33. Shackle or swing-bars. - 34. Tug. - 35. Splinter-bar. - - -RELATIVE PLACES OF HORSES. - -In placing horses in a team, we speak of near and off horses. The term -of “near” is probably a borrowed one. In a waggon, the near horse is -the one which is nearest the driver, who always walks with the horses -to his right hand; and the other, running abreast of him, is called -the off or far horse, because he is the farthest from the driver. This -term indeed does not refer to coaching so well as to waggoning, as the -coachman does not walk by the side of his horses; but many of the terms -of coachmanship are drawn from the same source, and the expression -“near” horse seems to be among the number. - -The word “near” having been thus made use of in its original -acceptation, has, in some counties, gradually superseded the word left, -in contradistinction to right; as we hear occasionally of the “near -side of the road,” the “near wheel of a carriage,” the “near leg of a -horse;” in short, it is substituted for the word left. Or the term may -have arisen intermediately from this: that on the first introduction -of carriages into this country there was no driving on the box, but on -the saddle, and that hence the term “near” was used to distinguish the -saddle-horse, and the term “off,” of course, the other horse. These -terms were afterwards applied to the road, where, in meeting carriages, -according to the adage, “If you go to the left, you are sure to go -right;--if you go to the right you are wrong.” - -Wheel-horses have the hardest place, as they are at work up hill and -down. Nevertheless, if favour be shown, it must be to the leaders, -because a tired wheeler may be dragged home; but, in the road phrase, -if a leader cuts it, you are planted. It is a rule always to put the -freest leader on the near side, as he is better in hand than on the -other. If a leader be weak, and cannot take his bar, the wheeler that -follows him must be tied up, and this will place him by the side of -his partner. Leaders should be fast trotters for fast coaches; for, -if they gallop, the bars are never at rest, and consequently much of -the draught is lost in the angles described. To a coach-horse in fast -work, wind is almost as essential as to a hunter. Many high-blowers, -however, keep their time very well, with a little attention on the -part of the driver. If he see them distressed, he ought to keep them -off their collar, and let them only carry their harness for a hundred -yards or so, when they will recover, if their condition be good. They -work best as night-horses; and, if driven in the heat of the sun, they -ought to be out of the throat-lash. Indeed, a leader should never be -throat-lashed in very hot weather, if he can be driven without it. Many -horses pull, and are unpleasant in it, but go temperately out of it. - -In coach-horses, temper is much to be regarded. Some contend that a -horse should never know his place,--should go either wheeler or leader, -and on either side. If, however, a horse working constantly in a coach -prefer any place, he should have it, and he will generally pay for the -indulgence. Some horses, indeed, care not where they are put--working -equally well or ill in all places. As to the mode of putting young -horses in harness, the best way is to put one, for the first time, with -only one other, which ought to be steady, good-collared, and quick. A -great deal of room should be given his head, and he should be driven at -the cheek of an easy bit, with his pole-piece rather slack. There is -great want of judgment in throat-lashing a young horse--either wheeler -or leader. - -Many horses go perfectly quiet as leaders, that would never go as -wheelers, because they will not bear being confined by the pole-piece. -All ought to have their sides frequently changed, particularly young -ones. As to horses’ mouths, some will not bear a curb-chain at all, -while the bars and chins of others are so hard, that it is difficult to -make an impression upon them; the latter being most prevalent. - -It is difficult, however, to handle a coach-horse, particularly a -leader, whose mouth is very tender. A snaffle is not safe, as, in case -of his dropping or bolting, it has not sufficient power to catch him up -quickly, at such a distance from the driver’s hand. Fora gig-horse, it -may occasionally answer. The usual plan then is to “cheek him,” as it -is technically called, that is, to put his coupling-rein to the cheek -instead of the bottom of the bit. Should this be severe for him, and he -swing his head too much towards his partner, his draught-rein should -be put down to the bit, which will bring him straight. He should have -liberty in his bearing-rein, and his curb-chain should not be tight. A -check-rein to a nose-martingale is often of service in this case, as -it keeps his head steady, and makes him face his work. Such horses in -general work more pleasantly out of the throat-lash. - -Horses with very hard mouths require the bit with double port, the -Chiffney bit, or the plan of putting the curb-chain over the tongue -instead of under the chin, which in some prevents what is termed a dead -mouth. Letting out the head of the bridle in the middle of a stage, -has also considerable effect, as causing the bit and curb-chain to -take hold in a fresh place. A check-rein likewise is sometimes put to -the middle link of the curb-chain, to retain the bit in the middle of -the mouth, and to keep it alive, as it is termed. In hard pullers, -moreover, putting the bearing-rein to the _top_, and the coupling-rein -to the lowest loop in the bit, creates a counter-action, not only -making the bit more severe, but keeping the mouth in play. A hard -puller is generally safest, and more in place before the bars than at -wheel; for, with a good pair of wheel-horses, leaders are soon checked, -and he pulls less with a free than with a slack partner. - -A coach-horse, if obedient to the hand, cannot well carry his head too -high, while a horse that goes with his head down has a mean appearance -in harness. The horse, however, that carries his head higher than his -partner, should have his coupling-rein uppermost. A coach-horse should -not be broken in a fast coach, as in fast work there is no time to -try his temper, and to humour him. By being put at first into quick -work, many horses get into a habit of cantering, and never trot well -afterwards. - -A kicking wheel-horse should be put on the near side, where he is less -liable to be touched by any thing that might annoy him; for, on the off -side, throwing the reins on his back, or touching his tail when getting -any thing out of the boot, may set him off, and cause mischief.--A -kicking leader should have a ring on the reins, for many accidents -arise by a leader’s getting a rein under his tail, owing to the want of -this. With first-rate coachmen, however, this precaution is the less -essential, that they generally have their horses better in hand. With -horses very fresh in condition it sometimes happens, especially in a -turn, that a wheeler kicks over his trace, and an accident is sometimes -the consequence. A light hip-strap prevents this, by taking the trace -up with him when he rises. In London, this is particularly useful; -for, when horses are turning short, or in a crowd, they frequently -have their traces slack, and therefore more easily kicked over. The -hip-strap looks slow, but it is safe. - - -COACHMEN. - -Of late years, a superior class of men form our coachmen; and for this -we are mainly indebted, first, to the driving clubs, and the notice -taken of coachmen by men of fortune; and, secondly, to the boxes -being placed on springs. The latter renders it a common practice for -passengers to pay an extra shilling for the box-place, whereas formerly -a man would have given something to be any where else. We are told -that good coachmen are becoming, in proportion to their number, more -scarce every year, because, owing to the fine state of the roads, -the condition of the cattle, and the improved method of road-work, -coach-horses are so above their work, that the assistance of the driver -is seldom required. When in town, says a writer in the _Sporting -Magazine_, “I sometimes take a peep at the mails coming up to the -Gloucester Coffee-house; and such a set of spoons are, I should hope, -difficult to be found: they are all legs and wings; not one of them -has his horses in hand; and they sit on their boxes--as if they were -sitting on something else.” - -Certain it is that coach-work in perfection is not to be seen a hundred -miles from the metropolis--seldom so far. The build of coaches, the -manufacture of harness, and the stamp and condition of horses are -greatly inferior in the northern counties; and as to the coachmen, -few that at all deserve the appellation. There are few things in -which knowledge of an art without execution is of less value than in -driving four-in-hand; for, although a coachman may have knowledge, it -is possible that, from natural awkwardness, he may be unable to put it -into practical effect with a neat and appropriate movement of his arms -and hands; and seldom is a certain propriety and neatness more required -than in handling the reins and whip. To make a man a good driver, there -is one requisite, and that is, what are called on the roads “hands”--a -nice faculty of touch. No man with a hard, heavy hand can ever make a -good horseman or driver. Neither will a nervous man ever be safe on a -coach-box, for presence of mind and strong nerve are there very often -called into action. - -The air and manner of a coachman have been cleverly described by -some periodical writers. Let us, say they, suppose the horses put to -their coach, all ready for a start--the reins thrown across the off -wheel-horse’s loins, with the ends hanging upon the middle terret of -his pad, and the whip thrown across the backs of the wheelers.--The -coachman makes his appearance. If he be a coachman, a judge will -immediately perceive it; for, as a certain philosopher observes, “every -situation in life serves for formation of character,” and none more -so than a coachman’s. I was going to say--only let a judge see him -come out of his office, pulling on his glove; but this I will say--let -one see him walk round his horses, alter a coupling-rein, take up his -whip and reins, and mount his box, and he will at once pronounce him -a neat, or an awkward one.--The moment he has got his seat and made -his start, you are struck with the perfect mastership of his art--the -hand just over his left thigh, the arm without constraint, steady, and -with a holding command, that keeps his horses like clockwork, yet, to -a superficial observer, with reins quite loose. So firm and compact -is he, that you seldom observe any shifting, except perhaps to take -a shorter purchase for a run down hill, which he accomplishes with -confidence and skill untinctured with imprudence. - -In a coachman, temper is also one of the essentials to a good -workman.--We are told of a great artist, that, having four “rum ones” -to deal with, and being unable to make them work to please him, he -threw the reins on the footboard, and exclaimed, “Now, d--n your eyes, -divide it among you, for I will be troubled with you no longer.” The -impertinences of passengers sometimes increase this irritability. In -steam-vessels, they adopt the plan of writing in large letters on the -wheel which directs the helm, “Do not talk to the helmsman.” It would -be as well in some coaches to have the same rule adopted--“Do not -babble to the coachman.” - -It is not possible to obtain a better idea of a good coachman -than from the following account of one who is said to be the first -coachman in England for bad horses. “Having all his life had moderate -horses--some strong and heavy, some light and blood-like, old hunters, -old posters,--most of the teams going and returning,--their work at the -utmost stretch, always overpowering,--having also had always, besides -difference in character, weak horses to nurse,--this ordeal has worn -him down to a pattern of patience. With these, and great weight upon -severe ground, he is steady, easy, very economical in thong and cord, -very light-handed and sometimes playful.--I observed him closely, and -discovered from his remarks, as well as from what I saw, that his great -secret of keeping his nags in any thing like condition, and preserving -them when apparently worn out, is by putting them properly together, -by constantly shifting their situations, and by the use of check-reins -with remarkable judgment--by which means he brings their powers as near -to equality as possible, besides preventing the evil of boring. Indeed, -his horses all go light and airy; and though at times his hold of -necessity becomes powerful, yet, generally speaking, he takes his load -without a severe strain upon his arms.--I own it is this particular -knack which always wins me. Both in driving and riding, give me the man -who can accomplish his object with a light hand.” - -The duty of a coachman is apt to injure the eyes--particularly in -cold blowing weather. He must keep his eye forward; and it is found -that the sight cannot be fixed upon any thing beyond the head of the -wheel-horses (not so far as this, in short men,) without raising the -eyelids, and consequently exposing the eyes to the weather. Six parts -of cold spring water, to one of brandy, is a good lotion when the eyes -suffer from this cause.--Coachmen should also preserve their feet and -bodies from cold. In very cold weather, the chin should be protected -by a shawl, and the knees by thick cloth knee-caps. In very severe -weather, the breast should be protected; for which purpose hare-skins -are now manufactured, and are getting into use on the road. - -A coachman ought not to drive more than seventy miles a day; and, if -this is done at two starts, so much the better. The wearing of the -frame, under daily excitement, must tend to produce premature old age, -and to shorten life; and this excitement must be very considerable when -a man drives a fast coach eighty or a hundred miles a day without a -stop--particularly if his coach be strongly opposed. Coachmen who wish -to keep themselves light, take walking exercise in their hours of rest -from road-work. - -As to amateur coachmen, it has been observed, that if a diet were -formed, before whom gentlemen-coachmen were to be examined previous to -their being considered safe, it would not be amiss if they were put to -the test of having the harness of four horses taken to pieces, strap -from strap, and then requested to put it together again in the presence -of the judges. There would be no hesitation in pronouncing him safe -who succeeded in this, as his experience on the road must have been -considerable. How these amateurs are trusted with the reins, coachmen -are now obliged to be careful, owing to the speed of coaches, and the -improved breed and condition of coach-horses. Hence, we see fewer -amateurs at work than formerly. It would indeed be highly culpable in -a coachman to trust the lives of passengers and his master’s property -to any one whom he did not know to be safe, or even without reflecting -that a man may be a very safe coachman with horses he knows, and a very -unsafe one on some roads with horses to which he is a stranger. - -To gentlemen who wish to drive, and are really capable of doing -so, the following is recommended as not a very bad way of doing -business:--“When travelling with a coachman I do not know,” says an -amateur, “I always adopt the following plan--that is, if I wish to -work. In the first place, I never got upon a coach-box yet with any -thing like half-pay about me; such as a black handkerchief around my -neck, or in blue pantaloons; neither do I think I ever shall. I always -take care to have a good deal of drag about me:--a neat pair of boots, -and knee-caps, if cold weather: a good drab surtout--if not a poodle; -a benjamin or two about the coach, and a little of the spot about the -neck. For the first mile, I always observe a strict silence, unless -broken by coachee; but at this time he generally runs mute. He is -perhaps but just awake, or is considering about his way-bill--reckoning -his passengers, thinking what he has to do on the road, and, if a -workman, looking over his team to see if all is right. Leave him alone -for a short time, and when his mind is at ease, he will look you over -as you sit beside him. He will begin with your boots, proceeding -upwards to the crown of your hat, and if he like you, and you make a -remark or two that please him, and show you to be a judge of the art, -the first time he stops he will say--‘Now, sir, have you got your -driving gloves on; would you like to take ’em?’--I am here alluding to -country work, and not to the roads near London.” - -Coachmen’s expenses on the road being heavy, should be taken into -consideration by passengers. They have their horse-keepers to pay every -week, or they will not do their best for them; and the wear and tear -of their clothes is a heavy tax on their pockets. They are satisfied, -however, with one shilling under, and two shillings for anything over, -thirty miles; and they are well entitled to that sum--more especially -when we recollect that they are liable to have empty coaches. No man, -certainly, should give them less than a shilling, and if he often -travel the same road, his money is not ill bestowed. In respectable -coaches, no great difference is now made between the fees given by in -and outside passengers, as it often happens that the latter are best -able to pay. - -Guards on mail coaches are necessary appendages to the establishment; -and, that they may be equal to their duty, they go only moderate -distances--as from sixty to eighty miles, when they are relieved by -others. Those on the long stages, however, are imposed upon by their -masters; and, by being made to do more than they are equal to--many of -them two nights up for one in bed, are half their time asleep. Some go -from London to Exeter, Shrewsbury, and other places equally distant, -without stopping more than three quarters of an hour on the road, -which, in bad weather, is hard enough. Indeed, it is wonderful how with -their means they always contrive to live. - -Guards are by no means useless appendages to stage coaches; for no -coach, running a long distance and in the night, should be without -one; but such guards should be provided with fire-arms in good repair. -Setting aside the idea of highway robbery, it is impossible that, in -the night, a coachman can see to the luggage on his coach,--nor indeed, -can the guard, if he be asleep, and asleep he must be a great part of -his time, if worked in the way above stated. He should not go more than -one hundred miles, and he should be paid by the proprietors. But if the -public should not be left to pay an armed guard, it is monstrous that -they should pay an unarmed one. As to mail-guards, government allows -them only a mere pittance of a few shillings a week, leaving the public -to pay them; whereas the public have nothing to do with them, and it -is the most impudent imposition that these servants of government -should be paid by persons travelling. That they carry fire-arms is -true; but it is to protect the letter-bags--property which government -is paid to protect--that they would use these arms, and not on account -of passengers. Strictly speaking, they have nothing to do with the -passengers, nor their luggage; their sole duty being to protect the -mail. As, therefore, government is paid for carrying the mails, -government, and not the public, should pay the persons who actually do -protect them. - - -MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING. - -Before getting upon the box, a coachman should walk round his horses’ -heads, to see that his curb-chains and coupling reins are right, and, -above all, that the tongues of his billet-buckles are secure in their -holes. Many accidents have arisen from the want of this precaution. No -man is a safe coachman who does not see to these things. Of mounting -and dismounting, there is nothing particular to be said; except that, -in the former, the reins are to be taken in the right hand, and -transferred to the left as soon as the seat is reached. - - -THE SEAT. - -The driver should sit in the middle of the box, quite straight towards -his horses, rather upright or backward, than forward, with his knees -nearly straight, and with his feet together, toward the edge of -the footboard. With the exception of a pliant motion of his loins, -on any jolting of the coach, his body should be quite at rest, and -particularly so when he hits a horse. Independently of appearance, a -firm seat on a box is very necessary for safety to a coachman and his -passengers, for a trifle will otherwise displace him. - - -STARTING. - -Before starting, four horses should stand clear, or at their proper -length from each other. They should have some notice--a click, or a -whistle given them to move. If the whip is used, the wheelers should be -touched, as generally the ablest horses. - -It is with coach-horses as with mankind--that where the physical -strength is in the governed, they must be humoured a little. When -starting, the coachman must not pull at their heads, but feel their -mouths lightly, or they may bolt, throw themselves down, or break -through their harness. If they are old, and the stage commences with a -descent, they should be allowed to go a couple of hundred yards before -they are put to their usual pace. A young horse should be started very -quietly, making the old horse take collar first. This is especially -necessary if the young one is inclined to be hot, as it will prevent -his plunging. - -A young horse should first be started in a wide space, so that he may -get off without a check. If he be alarmed, and inclined to bounce, he -should not be held hard, and still less stopped; for, if so, he may not -like, particularly if high mettled, to start again. The old horse will -prevent his running far. If a young horse be shy of his collar, he -should not at first be pressed to it; as he may thereby take a dislike -to it, and become a jibber. - -A young horse, when first put to a coach, should be turned to the pole -very carefully, to prevent its touching his hind quarter, which might -make him kick. When he has been driven long enough to be steady, he -should be taken up in his bearing-rein, put down lower on his bit, and -driven in a wide circle, or figure eight--keeping the inner horse well -up to his collar and bit. In breaking, he should be frequently stopped, -but not held after being pulled up, as, if high mettled, it will make -him restless, and if dull, he does not require it. If, on the contrary, -a young horse is heavy, and not ready to start when the command is -given, he should be whipped till he answer it. - - -THE PACES. - -These, in driving, must always be a walk or a trot--never a canter, -which, owing to the draught, would be equally injurious to the horse -and to the carriage. Either of these paces, moreover, should be suited -to the nature of the road. Rapid driving, on the stones especially, -exposes a carriage to injury, both from shocks against others, and -from those which attend its own motion. However, it is sometimes for a -moment necessary, in order to get out of the way of carts, waggons, &c. - -In public coaches, the pace is often too rapid; and, should any -passenger plead for the horses, on the score of the excessive heat, -the coachman with the utmost _sang froid_ replies that he must keep -his time, although the probability sometimes is, that one or more of -them may drop, by which considerable time may be lost, as well as -reduction in force ensue for the rest of the stage. Horses should be -more frequently watered during hot weather than they generally are; -increased perspiration renders it necessary. - -However well pleased thoughtless people may be at going at an -accelerated rate, it is certainly hard that other passengers should be -obliged to hazard their existence at the pleasure of a reckless driver, -who, in answer to all remonstrance, coolly answers, he must “keep his -time.” Something should certainly be done to prevent the cantering -system[76]; for no coach, be it ever so well built, can preserve its -equilibrium so well when the horses are in the canter or gallop, as -when in the trot. At the same time, it is to be borne in mind, that, at -the rate our coaches now travel, some slight degree of it may sometimes -be unavoidable, owing to horses trotting so variably, and its being -very difficult to obtain teams every individual of which shall be able -to trot through the distance at the required rate. - - [76] There is an act which requires that all four shall not gallop - together; and many teams, especially in the neighbourhood of town, - have one good trotter to defeat the informer, known as the “Act of - Parliament horse.”--ED. Fifth Edition. - -In driving four-in-hand, it is not every man who knows when a -coach-horse is at work, as a horse may keep a tight trace, and yet be -doing little. There is, however, an increased tension of the horse’s -frame when taking weight with him, which is the surest test, and which -never escapes a quick and experienced eye. As already observed, those -called lobbing-goers take greater weight with them than horses of finer -action, provided they are equally close workers. Heavy draught shortens -the stride of horses, after they have been a few years at work. - - -THE TIME. - -In short distances, to know precisely at what time it is necessary to -start, to arrive at any place at a certain hour, the driver has only -to ascertain the distance, and to regulate the pace by the following -table:-- - - 4 miles an hour, 1 mile in 15 minutes. - 5 ditto ditto 12 ditto - 6 ditto ditto 10 ditto - 7 ditto ditto 8½ ditto - 8 ditto ditto 7½ ditto - 9 ditto ditto 6½ ditto - 10 ditto ditto 6 ditto - -In the streets of London, ten minutes at least, in every hour, must be -allowed for stoppages. - - -THE WHIP. - -“We are too apt,” said the late Lord Erskine, “to consider animals -under the domination of man in no view but that of property. We should -never forget that the animal over which we exercise our power has -all the organs which render it susceptible of pleasure and pain. It -sees, it hears, it smells, it tastes, it feels with acuteness. How -mercifully, then, ought we to exercise the dominion intrusted to our -care!” - -Speaking to coach-horses from the box is now considered slow, but it is -not without its effect. Whipping, however, is sometimes indispensable. -The manufacture of four-horse whips has arrived at great perfection, -and affords employment to many hundred hands. - -Refined management of the whip is not of many years’ birth; and even -now there are but few who execute this effectually and with grace. -There are as many ways of whipping coach-horses, says a clever writer -in the _Sporting Magazine_, as there are horses in the coach; and, as -there is a right and a wrong way of doing most things, a young beginner -may observe the following directions, beginning with the wheel-horses:-- - -Before a coachman hits a wheel-horse, he should twist his thong three -times round the crop of his whip, holding the crop at that moment -somewhat horizontally, by which means the thong will twist towards the -thin end of the crop, when the thong, being doubled, will not exceed -the length of a pair-horse thong, and in some measure resemble it. -Being double renders it of course more severe, as it falls more heavily -on the horse; and by the two ends of the thong not being spread, but -close together at the time of the blow, it falls with increased force. - -When the off-side wheeler is struck, the coachman’s right arm should -be put out from his body in the same position in which he presents it -to his tailor to measure him for a coat, but the blow should proceed -entirely from the wrist. The part on which the horse should be struck -is about four inches behind his false belly-band, or somewhere near the -short rib on his right side. The stinging part of the blow is then -felt under the belly; and, unless he is quite beaten, or of a sulky -and bad disposition, he seldom fails to answer it. If he do not answer -it here, he must be struck before the belly-band, when the blow falls -just behind the fore-arm, on a part on which the skin is very thin. -In hitting a near-wheeler, the coachman brings his right hand exactly -opposite to his face, and, turning the crop three times around, as -before directed, he lets the thong fall sharply across the horse’s -loins three times in succession, if he do not answer sooner,--observing -that, after the third blow, he draws the thong obliquely across the -horse’s back, by which means his arm returns to a state of rest, and -the crop falls gently across his reins, just about his left hand, the -crop pointing a little upwards to prevent the thong getting under or -touching the near wheel-horse’s tail. Should the latter be the case, if -the driver lower his crop, the thong will almost always get released; -but should it not, he must let the thong loose, and draw it out from -the point. When it comes up from the tail, let the coachman throw back -his crop a little to his right hand, and the point of the thong will -fall across his fingers, when he catches it, and puts it back into his -hand. It must be observed, that, in striking the near wheel horse, the -wrist only, as in sword exercise, is at work: the body must be quite -at rest; and, after the whip is brought to bear, the arm must be quiet -also, until the third blow is struck. - -There is only one other method of hitting a wheel-horse, which is -called pointing him. This is done by hitting him with the point of -the thong, when loose, just behind his shoulders, but it is not -considered neat execution. If there should be a free leader before -the bars it causes him to fret, and is only to be had recourse to in -emergencies--as, for instance, in turning round a corner, or into -a gateway, when a leader is to be hit, and before the coachman can -recover his thong a wheel-horse requires whipping also. - -If a wheel-horse show symptoms of vice, as a disposition to kick, &c., -or, in short, if he refuse to answer either of the other calls upon -his exertions, a blow with the double thong on his ears generally -brings him to his senses. Without great necessity, however, it is very -reprehensible to strike a coach-horse over the ears, the parts being -very sensible. - -It is generally supposed it is in whipping a leader that neatness of -execution is more especially displayed. It is, however, quite a mistake -to suppose that it is in the power of a coachman to punish a leader -with the single, as he can a wheel-horse with the double thong. No -doubt, however, the blow from the loose thong falls very sharp, as it -falls on a tender part--the inside of the thigh. - -As the off-leader presents himself more fully to the right hand of the -coachman than his partner does, the horse that is the less free of the -two is generally put on that side. There are but two ways of hitting -an off-leader: one, by letting the thong fall gently over his neck, -or just behind his pad, when his driver merely wishes to refresh his -memory, and let him know that he has a whip in his hand; and the other, -when he wants to hit him sharply, by striking him with the point of -the thong just under his bar. The hard hitters of the old school never -conceived they had done the latter effectually, unless they struck -their horse twice at least, if not three times, the last stroke always -ending in a draw. - -As this word “draw” is peculiar to the road, it must be explained to -such as may not exactly comprehend it. Suppose a coachman to hit his -off-leader three times. The first two blows are given, as it were, -under-handed--that is to say, the hand is lowered so as to admit of the -thong going under the bar the first two strokes. When the third or last -is given, the point of the elbow is thrown outwards, so as to incline -the thong inwards, which brings it up to the coachman’s hand after the -stroke, it generally falling across his breast, which would not be the -case were it not for the draw. Another advantage also attends the draw: -a thong so thrown very seldom hangs in the bars, and nothing is more -uncoachman-like than to hit a leader above his bar. A horse’s mouth -should always be felt before his coachman hits him. - -Hitting the near leader with neatness and effect is the most difficult -part of the use of the whip. There are two ways of doing it: one, by -two common strokes and the draw; and the other by a sort of back-handed -stroke, which is a very neat one, and sufficiently severe, but it does -not bring the thong so immediately up to the coachman’s hand as the -drawn stroke does. In the back-handed stroke, the wrist describes an -exact figure of eight, and the arm cannot be kept, as before, quite -still. In the other method of hitting, the coachman’s arm is brought -about opposite his chin, the first two blows proceeding from the wrist -alone; but in the third, or the draw, the hand descends, the elbow is -thrown outwards, and by two jerks of the arm, which it is difficult to -describe on paper, the draw is effected, and the thong comes, as before -stated, across the coachman’s breast, so as to enable him to catch it -instantly. - -There is one other way of hitting a leader; and that is, by what is -called the chop. This is done by throwing out the right arm rather -forward, and with it, of course, the thong, and then bringing it back -sharply with the wrist inclined downwards. The thong falls severely -on the horse’s thigh, and comes up to the hand again, as in the draw. -This is a very useful blow in a narrow confined place, or when it is -necessary to lose no time before a leader is hit; and, when neatly -done, has a very workman-like appearance. This blow generally falls -above the bar, particularly if a horse is not at work at the time. - -It has been said that leaders should always be hit under their bar. -This, however, cannot always be done; for if a horse hang back from his -collar, his bar is so low that it may be difficult to get under it. -In this case, however, the blow is made to tell smartly, as it is in -the coachman’s power to throw his whip into the flank, which is a very -sensible part. When a leader is well up to his collar, he always can, -and always should, be hit under his bar. - -Should the point of the thong catch, or, as they say on the road, “get -hanged,” in the bars or the pole-pieces--neither of which it will do -when properly drawn after the last stroke, as the inclination of the -hand in the act of drawing enables it to clear them--no violence should -be used to loosen it, or a broken crop will be the consequence. On -the contrary, the arm should be thrown forward, and the thong lightly -moved, when in a minute or two it will shake out. If it be fast between -the eye of the main bar and the pole-hook, the leaders should be eased -a little, and it will get released. Sometimes, however, on a wet day, -a thong will lap round some of these things so fast as to make it -necessary for the guard or some person to get down to untie it. This is -technically called having a bite. The double thong will also sometimes -hitch in the ends of the wheelers’ traces, as also in the point of the -false belly-band. To obviate this, in gentlemen’s harness, these parts -are always covered, or piped, as it is called. - -A free leader should not be hit in a short turn, or he may break his -bar, perhaps the pole-hook, or even the main-bar. Neither should -leaders be hit in going over a small bridge which is much raised, or -when the pole points upwards, as their draught on the end of it may -snap it in the futchels. Some drivers perpetually whip or fan their -horses, which first irritates and afterwards injures them, by rendering -them insensible to the proper aids or correction. It must be observed -that the whip should never be used but in case of necessity. Indeed, -one of the best proofs of a good coachman is to see his right arm -still; and although, for the safety of his coach, he ought to be able -to punish a horse when he requires punishment, yet he should, on all -accounts, be as sparing of it as he can. Horses may be whipped till -they become callous to whipping, and therefore slow. In the condition -in which coach-horses are now kept, a pound of Nottingham whipcord -will last a good coachman his lifetime. The very act of throwing the -point of the thong over the leaders’ heads, or letting it fall on their -backs, as a fisherman throws his fly upon the stream, will set half the -coach-horses in England, in these days, into a gallop. - - -THOROUGHFARES, PASSING, &c. - -The driver should avoid passing through the great thoroughfares, and -prefer the widest of the less frequented streets which run parallel to -them. In London, he should never go into the City through the Strand, -Fleet-street, and Cheapside, between twelve and five o’clock, if he can -possibly avoid it, as these streets are then crowded with every kind -of vehicle. He should also avoid going into the City about mid-day, on -Mondays and Fridays, on account of the droves of oxen passing through -the principal streets. - -The middle of the road is safest, especially for a loaded coach, except -under peculiar circumstances. - -In driving four horses, to keep them well in hand is a most material -point, both as regards their work and for the safety of the coach. The -track made by a coach in descending a hill shows whether the horses are -properly held together or not. Accidents from horses taking fright, -and bolting across the road, happen only to clumsy fellows, of whom -the list is considerable. The rules for passing and meeting carriages -on the road have already been given, yet there are times when they -need not be strictly adhered to, and a little accommodation becomes -expedient. Thus, if one coachman has the hill in his favour--that -is, if he be going down, and a loaded coach be coming up at the same -time--he who is descending, if he can do it with safety, ought to give -the hardest side of the road to the other coachman. - -As to narrow spaces, it is evident that where the bars can go the coach -can go, as they are wider than the wheels; and consequently, if they -are cleared, all is safe. The swing-bar is an excellent invention, as -a horse works in it from either shoulder, and therefore quite at his -ease. A sharp and experienced driver may calculate exactly the space -sufficient to pass between two bodies at rest, and may therefore pass -with confidence and at ease. As, however, in streets, he must meet many -carriages driven by inexperienced or intoxicated fellows, who do not -for a moment move in any direct line, he should allow them ample room, -and proceed with the utmost caution. A driver must be incessantly on -the look-out, must watch every vehicle that approaches, and give it -more room than it may seem to require. - - -ASCENDING AND DESCENDING. - -In going up hill, it is in general best to trot up at first, and -to walk afterwards. In going down hill, it is best to keep the -wheelers tight in hand, to let the leaders just clear the bars, and -to come gently down. In the latter case, a turn of the reins of the -wheel-horses may be made round the little finger. (Plate XLIV. fig. 4.) - -Although, however, it may be necessary to catch up wheel-horses, -and make them hold back their coach down hill, there is nothing in -which a light finger is more essential to safety. The manner in which -some persons haul at horses’ mouths, when descending with a load, -considerably adds to the difficulty, by trying the strength of the -tackle. But this is not all: these persons should be aware that all -this force employed on their horses’ mouths is so much added to the -pressure of the coach; in proportion to it is that pressure increased. -The horses are then drawing by their heads! - -The objections to a locked wheel, with a top-heavy load, have already -been stated. If, however, with a heavy load, and upon a smooth hard -road, a wheel must be locked, it should be that next a ditch, or other -dangerous part. In going down hill, a coach always strikes on the side -on which the wheel is not locked. The coachman should therefore keep as -much as possible on that side of the road on which the wheel is locked: -by crossing the road, if he meet or have to pass any thing, the coach -will not strike; and by holding that way, at any time, it will prevent -overturning. The coach naturally strikes in a direct line from the -perch-bolt. - -The generality of passengers know not the danger of galloping a coach, -with three tons’ weight in and out, down hill, at the rate of twelve or -fifteen miles an hour, with no wheel locked, the whole resistance of -the wheel-horses depending on a small leather strap and buckle at the -top of the hames,--these coachmen deeming it beneath their dignity to -drive with breechings. Even thus, however, accidents would be much less -frequent if coachmen took the precaution of pulling up their horses -short, when on the point of descending. In night-work, this is doubly -useful, because it often happens that a pole-chain is unhooked, or a -hame-strap gets loose, without being discernible by lamp or moonlight. - -[Illustration: _Plate XLIV_ - -_Page 208._ - -The Rein-hold in Driving] - -“With wheel-horses that will hold back at all, I will be bound,” says -a clever writer and experienced coachman, “to take a loaded coach -down most of the hills now met with on our great roads, without a -drag-chain, provided I am allowed to pull up my horses at the top, and -let them take it quietly the first hundred yards. This, it may be said, -would be losing time, but, on the contrary, time would be gained by it; -for, as soon as I perceived I was master of my coach, I should let her -go, and by letting my horses loose at the bottom, I could spring them -into a gallop, and cheat them out of half the hill, if there were one -(as frequently happens) on the next portion of road. This advantage, it -must be recollected, cannot be taken if the chain be to be put on; and -I have therefore in my favour all the time required to put the chain -on, and to take it off again.” - -There are, however, some horses which no man can make to hold a loaded -coach down hill. Of this description are, first, the stiff-necked -one, as he is called, who turns his head away from his partner, and -shoulders the pole; and, secondly, one who, when he feels the weight -pressing upon him, begins to canter and jump, as coachmen term it; with -these holding back properly is out of the question. With such cattle, -the drag-chain must be had recourse to; as well as when there is the -least reason to suspect the soundness of the harness. All this confirms -the necessity of checking the force of a coach before descending a -steep hill, and indeed in some cases--as with bad holders--before -coming upon a slight descent. The term which coachmen have for this -species of road, is “pushing ground;” and if the fall be long, it is -astonishing how the pressure of a loaded coach upon wheel horses is -increased before getting to the bottom of it, and how difficult it -would be, with wheelers not of the very best stamp, to pull up short, -if any accident should happen. - -Young coachmen, in descending a hill, should take care that their -leaders do not draw on the end of the pole, which many free ones do -when they find the coach coming quickly after them; for this not only -increases the pressure of the coach on the wheelers, but, should either -of them stumble, it must assist in bringing him down. The following -good and characteristic directions were given by a very experienced -coachman, to a gentleman who undertook to take his coach a journey for -him, but who, although he knew the road well, had never driven on it -before. “That middle twelve miles of ground,” said he, “is a punisher, -and you must mind what you are at with this load. You have two hills -to go down, and three to go up, in the first seven miles. Don’t stop -to put the chain on, as they’ll hold well, and the tackle is good; and -don’t let them walk up the hills, for they are bad hands at that--you -will lose a horse’s draught by it, and perhaps get hung up on one of -them. You must take fifty minutes to do the first seven miles, and good -work too. When you get at the top of the last hill, get down and put -your near leader to the cheek, and they’ll toddle you over the last -five miles in half an hour, with all the pleasure alive.” - -The following observations on this subject from the number of the -_Quarterly Review_ already quoted, are too interesting to be omitted -here. - -“Many years have elapsed,” he says, “since I first observed that, -somehow or other, the horses on the continent manage to pull a heavy -carriage up a steep hill, or even along a dead level, with greater -ease to themselves than our English horses. If any unprejudiced person -would only attentively remark with what little apparent fatigue three -small ill-conditioned horses will draw, not only his own carriage, -but very often that huge over-grown vehicle the French diligence, or -the German eilwagen, I think he would agree with me; but the whole -equipment is so unsightly--the rope harness is so rude--the horses -without blinkers look so wild--there is so much bluster with the -postilion--that, far from paying any compliment to the turn-out, one is -very much disposed at once to condemn the whole thing, and, not caring -a straw whether such horses be fatigued or not, to make no other remark -than that in England one would have travelled at nearly twice the rate -with one-tenth of the noise. But neither the rate nor the noise is -the point--our superiority in the former, and our inferiority in the -latter, cannot be doubted. The thing to account for is, how such small, -weak horses do actually manage to draw a heavy carriage up hill with so -much ease to themselves. Now, in English, French, and German harness, -there exists, as it were, three degrees of comparison as to the manner -in which the head of the horse is treated; for, in England, it is -elevated, or borne up, by what we call the bearing-rein,--in France it -is left as Nature placed it (there being to common French harness no -bearing-rein),--and, in Germany, the head is tied down to the lower -extremity of the collar, or else the collar is so made that the animal -is by it deprived of the power of raising his head. Now, passing over -for a moment the French method, which is, in fact, the state of nature, -let us for a moment consider which is better--to bear a horse’s head -up, as in England, or to pull it downwards, as in Germany.” - -Evidently fired with a favourite theme, he thus proceeds:--“In a -state of nature, the wild horse, as every body knows (?), has two -distinct gaits or attitudes. If man, or any still wilder beast, come -suddenly upon him, up goes his head; and as he first stalks and then -trots gently away--with ears erect, snorting with his nose, and -proudly snuffing up the air, as if exulting in his freedom--as one -fore-leg darts before the other, we have before us a picture of doubt, -astonishment, and hesitation, all of which feelings seem to rein him, -like a troop-horse, on his haunches; but, attempt to pursue him, and -the moment he defies you--the moment, determining to escape, he shakes -his head, and lays himself to his work--how completely does he alter -his attitude! That instant down goes his head, and from his ears to the -tip of his tail there is in his vertebræ an undulating action which -seems to propel him, which works him along, and which, it is evident, -you could not deprive him of without materially diminishing his -speed. Now, in harness, the horse has naturally the same two gaits or -attitudes, and it is quite true that he can start away with a carriage -either in the one or the other; but the means by which he succeeds -in this effort--the physical powers which he calls into action, are -essentially different:--in the one case he works by his muscles, and in -the other by his own dead, or rather living, weight. In order to grind -corn, if any man were to erect a steam-engine over a fine, strong, -running stream, we should all say to him, ‘Why do you not allow your -wheel to be turned by cold water instead of hot? Why do you not avail -yourself of the weight of the water, instead of expending your capital -in converting it into the power of steam? In short, why do you not -use the simple resource which Nature has presented ready-made to your -hand?’ In the same way, the German might say to us, ‘We acknowledge a -horse can drag a carriage by the power of his muscles, but why do you -not allow him to drag it by his weight?’ - -“Let any one observe a pair of English post-horses dragging a heavy -weight up a hill, and he will at once see that the poor creatures are -working by their muscles, and that it is by sheer strength that the -resistance is overcome: but how can it be otherwise; their heads are -higher than nature intended them to be, even in walking in a state -of liberty, carrying no weight but themselves: the balance of their -bodies is therefore absolutely turned against, instead of leaning in -favour of their draught; and if my reader will but pass his hands down -the back sinews of our stage-coach or post-chaise horses, he will soon -feel (though not so keenly as they do), what is the cruel and fatal -consequence. It is true, that in ascending a very steep hill an English -postilion will occasionally unhook his bearing-reins; but the jaded -creatures, trained for years to work in a false attitude, cannot in -one moment get themselves into the scientific position which the German -horses are habitually encouraged to adopt. Besides this, we are so -sharp with our horses,--we keep them so constantly on the _qui vive_, -or, as we term it, in hand, that we are always driving them from the -use of their weight to the application of their sinews. That the figure -and attitude of a horse working by his sinews are infinitely prouder -than when he is working by his weight, (there may exist, however, -false pride among horses as well as men), I most readily admit; and -therefore, for carriages of luxury, where the weight bears little -proportion to the powers of the noble animals employed, I acknowledge -that the sinews are more than sufficient; but, to bear up the head of -a poor horse at plough, or at any slow, heavy work, is, I conceive, a -barbarous error, which ought not to be persisted in. - -“Whether there is most of the horse in a German, or of the German in -a horse, is a nice point, on which people might argue a great deal: -but the broad fact really is, that Germans live on more amicable -terms with their horses, and understand their dispositions infinitely -better, than the English; in short, they treat them as horses, while -we act towards them and drill them as if they were men; and, in case -any reader should doubt that Germans are better horse-masters than we -are, I beg to remind him of what is perfectly well known to the British -army,--namely, that in the Peninsular war the cavalry horses of the -German Legion were absolutely fat, while those of our regiments were -skin, and bone.” - - -THE TURNINGS. - -These must be regulated by the ground. A good driver avoids all quick -and sharp turnings. In town, it is much better to drive on a little -further, where another street may allow the ample room requisite in -turning. If a carriage do not pass quite across a channel without -turning, the perch must be twisted according to the descent, because -one wheel falls as that at the opposite angle rises. By such a wrench, -especially when going fast, the main or perch bolt is frequently -broken, and every part strained. - -A loaded coach should never be turned short, even at a slow pace, -for the coach is never safe when there is not an even bearing on the -transom beds. If turned short, at a quick pace, the higher and looser -part of a coach must go over, because all bodies put in motion by one -power will proceed in a straight line, unless compelled to change their -course by some force impressed. Hence a horse at full speed is with -difficulty turned to right or left; and, if he turn suddenly, and of -his own accord, he puts his rider’s horsemanship to the test. So with -a coach, a sudden turn to one side the road allows the body to swag -towards the other, and the centre of gravity is lost. - -In a turn, a coachman must point his leaders well, that is, take proper -ground for them to make the turn, and let his wheelers follow them. -Moreover, as wheel-horses are always in haste to make the turn, the -driver must shoot them out on the opposite side, just as he has pointed -his leaders. Thus, if the turn be to the right, he must catch up his -near wheel rein, and hit his off wheel-horse; and _vice versâ_. This -will keep the head of the pole (which he should have his eye upon) just -between the leaders, and the wheelers will follow, as if they were -running on a straight road. This will also secure him against danger, -by clearing his coach of posts, gutters, &c. No man can make a neat -turn with four horses, unless he shoot his wheelers, at the same time -that he points his leaders. In turning, the wheelers must rather be -kept up, and the leaders be tight in hand, to avoid the corner; for, if -the wheelers flag, and the leaders draw, the carriage must be brought -against it. - - -THE RANKS IN TOWN. - -These must never be broken, either in driving through crowded streets, -or in setting down at crowded places. As to admitting others into the -rank, every driver should do as he would be done by. - - -STOPS. - -It is a good plan to use horses to stop by notice, as it may prevent -accidents. In pulling up, the driver must pull the reins equally, -but rather those of the wheelers first. If this is attended with -difficulty, take the wheelers’ reins in the right hand, and pull till -they hang well on the breeching, or on the pole chains, thus increasing -the leaders’ draught so much that they will easily be pulled up. - -When a young coach-horse is stopped, it should be very -gradually--allowing at least ten yards to do it in; for, if it be -attempted to stop him short, he will resist. A careful driver will -never keep his carriage standing in a great thoroughfare; but when -obliged to stop in a crowded street, the driver should, if possible, -avoid the spot where another carriage is stopping; should choose as -much as possible the widest part of the street; and draw up close to -the curb. - -There is no part of stage-coach economy in which greater alteration -has been made than in changing horses. Unless business is to be -transacted--as taking fares for passengers, setting down, getting out -parcels, &c.--the average with fast coaches is three minutes for each -change. - - -ACCIDENTS, &c. TO HORSES. - -A cantering leader, or one that frets, is generally mismanaged by young -coachmen. They are apt to pull him back, and endeavour to get him to -trot, by the bit, which generally fails, or makes him even worse, by -bringing him back on his bar. The right way is to pull him back by his -harness; that is, to keep the wheelers back, so that he may feel his -collar and bit at the same time. - -A horse that kicks ought to be taken very short in his pole-piece, -and gagged; and, when he begins to kick, he should be whipped on -the ears--a punishment which should never be inflicted but for -vice.--Hallooing to a horse when he kicks, has sometimes an effect. A -hot leader is sometimes benefited by mopping. An experienced driver -says, “I once bought a capital coach-horse for twenty-six pounds, -because no one could drive him: and, as he had broken two carriages, he -was the terror of the neighbourhood. I mopped him, and could drive him -with the greatest safety, either leader or at wheel.” - -In the case of a horse falling, a periodical writer, replying to -another, states, “In one of his letters on ‘the Road,’ he says, ‘If the -coachman be driving with the short wheel rein, and a horse fall beyond -recovery, he had better open his hand, and let the reins fall out, than -run the risk of being pulled off the box.’ With all due deference to -such authority, I cannot subscribe to this, as it frequently happens -that a horse falls, is dragged along the ground for a short distance, -and recovers himself the moment the coach stops, and then starts off at -full gallop, the other horses following his example. Now, if coachee -has opened his fist, and let the reins tumble out, and the above -occurrence should take place, I would certainly rather be on the top of -Cheviot than on the top of the said coach, as the catastrophe would not -be very difficult to foretell.” - -On many horses, hot weather has a singular effect; and, therefore, it -often happens that a good winter horse is an indifferent summer one. -Coach-horses are subject to many accidents, of which one is peculiar -to them--namely, fracture of the legs in trotting on level ground.[77] -Fractures of the foot in draught-horses and others are common; but -fractures of the leg in coach-horses when trotting over level ground, -are probably caused by over-tension of the limb in the act of drawing. -It is said that a coach-horse’s leg is more frequently broken, when, -with a heavy load behind him, he snatches at his collar in a turn of -the road. - - [77] When driving one of the Birmingham fast coaches, just entering - the town of Dunstable, my near leader fell with her off hind-leg - snapped clean in two, held together merely by the skin. On pulling - up to clear her from the coach, I found the cause of the accident; a - piece of flint, shaped like a hatchet, and with a blade as keen as a - razor, still adhering to the bone, against which it had either been - whirled by a kick from one of the other three, or had flown upwards - from the tread of the mare herself,--ED. Fifth Edition. - -They are also subject to an affection known by the appellation of the -lick, which greatly injures their condition. In this state they lick -each other’s skins, and gnaw their halters to pieces. This probably -proceeds from the state of the stomach, caused by the excitement of -high feeding and work. It may be removed by opening or alterative -medicines. - -They are likewise subject to a kind of vertigo, which on the road -is called megrims. This, of which the immediate cause is temporary -pressure on the brain, is often brought on by running in the face -of a hot sun; and, therefore, horses subject to megrims ought to -work at night. The attack appears to come on suddenly, though a -snatching motion of the head is sometimes observed to precede it. -If not immediately pulled up, the horse thus affected drops. Such -horses should have attention paid to the state of their bowels, and -have frequent antimonial alteratives. What is called “a megrim horse” -is always dangerous, especially near a precipice or ditch, as, when -seized, he rolls away from his partner, and, of course, takes him with -him. - - -ACCIDENTS TO COACHES, &c. - -A necessary precaution in a gig is--never to sit with the feet under -the body, but always to have one, if not both, out before it. “I -had a passenger by the side of me,” says the driver who gives this -caution, “who was sitting with his feet under his belly, and who was -consequently thrown with much violence into the road. I had five miles -further to drive him, during which he took care to have his feet before -him.” - -In stage-coaches, accidents no doubt occur, and no one will assert -that the proprietors guard against them to the utmost of their power. -The great competition, however, which they have to encounter, is a -strong stimulant to their exertions on this score. In some respects, -also, the increase of pace has become the traveller’s security: coaches -and harness must be of the best quality; horses fresh and sound; -coachmen of skill and respectability can alone be employed; and to this -increased pace is owing the improvement in these men’s character. They -have not time now for drinking, and they come in collision with a class -of persons superior to those who formerly were stage-coach passengers, -by whose example it has been impossible for them not to profit. A -coachman drunk on his box is now a rarity--a coachman quite sober was, -but a few years ago, still more so. On the whole, however, travelling -by public conveyance was never so secure as it is at the present time. -Axle-trees and springs do not often break now; and if proprietors go to -the expense, their wheels are made secure against coming off. - -The worst accidents, and those which, with the present structure of -coaches, can never be entirely provided against, arise from broken -axle-trees, and wheels coming off on the road. The guard, therefore, in -whose department this lies, ought to examine the axle-tree every time -it is fresh greased. He should also remove it once in ten days, put a -string through the bolt that receives the linch-pin, and hang it up -and cleanse it; and he should then strike it with a hammer, when, if -uncracked and sound, it will ring like a bell--the coachman attending -to take care that it be again properly screwed on. - -Reins also break, though rarely, except in those parts which run -through the terrets, the rings of the throat-lash, or in the billets; -and attention to these would make all safe, as far as accidents from -this cause are concerned. - -Accidents happen also from want of attention to the security of -the bridles. The throat-lash, therefore--particularly of the -wheelers--should be as tight as can be allowed without injuring -respiration. There otherwise is always danger of the bridle being -pulled off. Accidents, moreover, happen from galloping coach-horses -down hill, or on even ground. If, indeed, a casualty then happen, it -must be a bad one. The goodness of a road is no preservative against -it: on the contrary, it is possible that if a coach begin to swing, it -may go over from the very circumstance of the road being so level and -so smooth that there is nothing on its surface to hold the wheels to -the ground. If, moreover, there be two horses at wheel whose stride in -their gallop differs much as to extent, the unequal draught invariably -sets the coach rolling, and, unless the pace moderate, the fore-wheel -passing over even a small stone, may, under such circumstances, cause -the coach to upset. In respect to lateral motion, however, much depends -upon the build of the carriage. In galloping coach-horses, if the -leaders lead off with two legs, the motion of the coach is considerably -truer, and the swing-bars are also much more at rest, than when each -horse uses the same leg. - -It appears, then, that accidents to coaches are chiefly to be -attributed either to the want of proper skill and care in the servants -employed, or to what is still less pardonable, inattention on the part -of their masters. Road-coachmen, fortunately, are well aware that the -law looks sharply after them; and that for neglect proved against them, -they are equally answerable to their employers, as these are to the -public. - -“If I were to go upon the road,” says an amateur, “I would be a night -coachman through a well-inhabited country. For six months of the -year, it is undoubtedly the pleasanter service; and I never found any -difference between taking rest by day or by night.” It is, however, -calculated only for a man in the prime of his days, as all his energies -are required. The night coachman ought to know his line of road well. -He must take rest regularly, or he will be sure to become drowsy, if he -do not go to sleep. He must also keep himself sober; keep a tight hand -on his horses; keep the middle of the road; and be sure to keep time. - -The night coachman must cast his eye well forward, and get out of the -way of carts and waggons in time. Although, by looking perpendicularly -from his box or at the hedges, if there be any, he may always see if -he be in the road, yet if he cannot throw his eye some way before -his leaders’ heads, he is going at random. He will often get close -to things he may meet in the road before he is aware of them; and -therefore, as I have already said, it is essential that he should be -wide awake, and have his horses well in hand. - -Chains and springs on the bars are good things for night-work, as they -prevent the leaders’ traces coming off. A narrow road, sufficiently -wide, of course, for carriages to pass with convenience--with no ditch -on the side--is much the best for night-work. Unless when the moon -is very bright, a dark night is in favour of safe travelling. When -it is what coachmen term “a clear dark,” the lamps give much better -light than when the darkness approaches to grey. In very wide roads, -particularly where there are no hedges to confine them, lamplight -is both weak and deceiving; and moonlight is often glimmering and -doubtful, particularly when clouds are passing rapidly. Lamplight is -treacherous, both in fogs and when horses are going at a moderate pace, -with the wind just behind them; for then the steam arising from their -bodies follows them, and necessarily obstructs the light. Sometimes, -from driven rain or snow, a coachman can scarcely open his eyes so as -to see the road to the extent of the light given by the lamps, in which -case a tight hand on the horses is especially necessary. - -A heavy fog is the only thing which baffles the skill and intrepidity -of our night coachmen. In this case, lamps are of no avail as to -showing light forward; and, in the worst cases, the only use that can -be made of them is for the guard to hold one in his hand behind the -coach, by which he will be able to see whether the horses are in the -road or not. Lamps, however, are always useful in case of accidents; -and, except in very clear moonlight, a night coach should never travel -without them. - -Accidents often occur from coachmen neglecting to light their lamps in -going into a town. It often happens that, when a coach comes down the -road in the morning, there may be no obstruction in the streets; but -rubbish from buildings, stones, or many other things, may be thrown out -by the time it comes up again at night. When an accident happens to a -coach, presence of mind is much required. Outside passengers should -never think of quitting by jumping, from the fore part, at least, until -she falls to the ground. From the box, indeed, a man may get over the -roof into the guard’s seat, and thence descend. - -Among the various contrivances for dragging wheels, we may mention a -very ingenious one by Mr. Rapson. The drag is applied to the nave of -the wheel, with a chain attached, which is fastened to the breeching, -a small pin on each side going into the bar of the drag. If one of -these pins be taken out, the wheel will be dragged, and if both are -withdrawn, the wheels are both acted upon during the descent, by the -breech bearing against the horse. - -[Illustration] - -In the first of these diagrams we have a representation of the break -attached to the wheel, but inoperative, the jointed circle separating -the chain, _c_, and bolt, _b_, from the nave. In the second figure, the -entire frame _a_, _b_, _c_, is seen in direct collision with the nave, -and by its friction retarding the locked wheel. This, however, does not -occur till the breeching of the harness is drawn tight by the pressure -of the carriage upon it. - - -OBSTRUCTIONS, OFFENCES, AND INJURIES. - -By the 1st Geo. I. c. 57, drivers of hackney coaches are to give way to -gentlemen’s carriages, under a penalty of 10_s._ - -If a carriage be obstructed by disorderly persons, the driver should -take out his pocket-book, and let the persons guilty of this see that -he is taking a note of their number; and he should then coolly tell -them that he will summon them if they do not immediately clear the way. - -If a carriage be injured by another running against it, the driver -should ascertain whose carriage has done the mischief, and let his -coachmaker give an estimate of the charge for repairing it; but, -before he has it done, he should let the person who injured it see the -mischief, and pay the charge; or, as is the custom, let the repair be -made by the coachmaker of the party who committed the injury. - -[Illustration] - - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE TURF. - - -It is singular that no portion of our domestic annals should be so -obscure as that which relates to the early history of our first of -National Sports. In the remotest ages of civilization (so far at least -as any existing records carry us back), a taste for horse-racing was -fostered and promoted as a social engine peculiarly adapted to rural -and political purposes. The Greeks--the wisest and most polished people -that the world has ever seen--carried their estimate of its importance -so far, that their chiefs not only took part in the sports of the -hippodrome, but acted as officials in the regulation of its details. -Philip of Macedon thought it not unbecoming the imperial crown, that he -who wore it should discharge the office of judge at the Pythian Games, -and his son repaid in gold every line written by Pindar in honour of -the chaplet of wild olive.[78] The verse of Pindar, and the prose of -Pausanias, have immortalized the names of Olympia and Elis. The latter -has left us the minutest particulars of the economy of racing in his -day. He describes the Olympian Hippodrome at Elis, and all its gorgeous -display of splendid embellishments and ingenious machinery, with a care -and prodigality of narrative that give assurance of the importance -which attached to the matter delineated. Of the perfection to which, -in that era, the science of the course had attained, we need no better -proof than the classification observed in the Olympic Games--where -horses were matched according to their ages, and prizes instituted for -races between mares only (called Calpe). It is needless, however, to -encumber our subject with ancient lore, by continuing these classic -references. Enough has, perhaps, been already adduced to establish this -point--that we possess more knowledge of the condition of racing three -thousand years ago, than we do of the state it was in three hundred -years since in our native land. - - [78] The crown given to the victors in the Olympic games. - -But because we are in possession of such scanty materials, it by no -means follows that the little we do know should be withheld. The reader -will therefore have the courtesy to look back with me to the tenth -century, and I promise to bring him again into the nineteenth with all -convenient speed. As far back, then, as the reign of Athelstan (925), -we read that a present of “running horses” was sent to that monarch -from France, the gift of Hugh Capet. As nothing however is known of the -character of those animals, we will pass on to the reign of William, -which affords better data. At that period a nobleman (the Earl of -Shrewsbury) appears to have imported several Spanish horses for his own -use. Now, as the Moors had had a footing in Spain for several centuries -prior to the Norman conquest, there is little doubt that the blood of -the Barb was, in the eleventh century, extensively diffused through -that country, and that a highly improved breed of the horse was at the -time extant there. Here we have a reasonable era from which to date an -amelioration of the indigenous race in our island. A little more than -a century later, in the reign of Henry the Second (1154), we come to, -as far as I have been able to discover, the earliest mention of racing -to be found in our national records. This refers to a barbarous sort -of running practised upon the plain now occupied by Smithfield, which -does not appear to have been subjected to any regulations of time or -method. Smithfield, indeed, was then the great horse-mart, and very -probably the contests, exalted by their chronicler (Fitzstephen the -monk), to Olympic honours, were nothing more than exhibitions, by rival -horse-croupers, of the mettle, speed, and action of their respective -“palfreys, hackneys, and charging-steeds.” - -Still, that horse-racing was about this time a popular pastime, and -one in which the nobles of the land were wont to take pride, is fully -established by the allusions to it that abound in the many metrical -legends, yet in existence, composed in honour of Richard of the Lion -Heart. These preserve the names of the coursers, and speak of them as -being valued at sums that, allowing for the difference in the worth of -money, quite exceed any prices known in our day. The domestic troubles -which marked the reign of John, and the succession of wars in which we -were subsequently engaged, probably interrupted the progress of this -sport materially--at all events, we do not find any of our sovereigns -giving their countenance to it from Richard to the bluff Harry. -Henry VIII. was constitutionally disposed for manly occupations and -amusements--of his moral tendencies we speak not. We have it on the -authority of Challoner that he was much disposed to improve the breed -of horses, for which purpose he imported various descriptions from -Spain and Turkey. Fortune, too, enabled his daughter Elizabeth to do -much for our native breed; the destruction of the Spanish Armada having -supplied us with many barbs and Spanish-bred horses, their descendants, -found in the vessels of that fleet which fell into the hands of Lord -Howard of Effingham. - -We now come to her successor, James I.,[79] who must be considered as -the founder of legitimate racing in this country. He introduced the -first Arab into England of which we have any knowledge--that purchased -by Mr. Markham, and known as the Markham Arabian. The training system, -which has now reached such perfection, was then practised in its -various divisions of physic, work, sweating, and the etcetera of stable -economy; and the weight to be carried for public prizes arranged by -authority. The Roodee, at Chester, was an established course in this -reign, one of the prizes being a silver bell, of the value of ten -pounds or thereabouts, run for in five-mile heats. Similar prizes were -also given at Theobald’s on Enfield Chase, at Croydon, and Gatherly, -in Yorkshire, whence the popular term “bearing the bell,” no doubt, -had its origin. His unfortunate son Charles I. had little opportunity -of forwarding the social concerns of himself or others. In his reign, -however, the first races on record at Newmarket were held, and, by -a singular fatality, to Newmarket was he borne a prisoner to the -parliamentary forces. The “civil dudgeon” of the Protectorate of course -was not friendly to the amusements of the turf, but, though suspended, -they were not lost sight of. Mr. Place, the stud-master to Oliver -Cromwell, imported the celebrated horse known as the White Turk. He -was also the owner of some very capital mares, one of which, during -the search after Cromwell’s property at the Restoration, he saved from -destruction by hiding in a vault, whence she took the name of the -“Coffin Mare.” - - [79] The palace at Newmarket was built by this monarch for the - purpose of enjoying the diversion of hunting--no races having been - held upon the heath till the succeeding reign. - -With the Restoration came the palmy days of the Turf. Regular meetings -were established at Newmarket, and various other parts of England; -silver cups and bowls of the value of one hundred pounds were presented -as royal gifts, and, more than all, the light of royal favour shone -upon it in shape of Charles the Debonair and Mistress Eleanor Gwynne. -William III. had no taste for racing, and died by a fall from his -horse. Prince George of Denmark, on the other hand, was warmly attached -to the Turf, and promoted its interest by every means in his power. We -are indebted for many royal plates to his influence with his consort -Queen Anne. George I. was no sportsman; in his reign, however, the -alteration in the royal plates took place, by which a sum of one -hundred guineas was substituted in their stead. Shortly after George -II. ascended the throne, arose a morbid yearning after legislating -for the Turf. Some of the acts enacted were mischievous; very many -were very silly; one was good:--“That no plate or prize of a less -value than £50 should be run for, under a penalty of £200.” It was -during this reign that the Darley and Godolphin Arabians were brought -into this country,--two horses from whom have descended all the most -celebrated racers that adorn the annals of our turf. This is the period -at which the genealogy of our unrivalled thorough-bred horse then, was -_naturalized_, and it is the date whence I think it most convenient to -begin my notice of English racing. - -Even a notice so confined as this is beset with obscurities that few -would conceive possible. As an instance, I will adduce the case of an -old and well-informed inhabitant of Epsom, who some years ago published -a very clever history of that place. He starts somewhere about the -Conquest, and never halts for want of materials as he goes on, till he -comes to the great stumbling-block, concerning which he shall speak for -himself:--“When the races on Epsom Downs were first held periodically, -_we have not been able to trace_; but we find that from the year 1730 -they have been annually held in the months of May or June, and about -six weeks previous to which the hunters’ stakes are occasionally run -for on the Epsom race course, at one of which, in 1730, the famous -horse Madcap won the prize, and proved the best plate-horse in England.” - -To return, however, to the reign of George II., though we find little -bearing on the business of the Turf to be gleaned from its records, -it introduces us to the great forefathers of our thorough blood, -and stirs one of the most interesting questions in our domestic -natural history--the problem of the seed or origin of the English -thorough-bred horse. A brief search through the stud-book will convince -the inquirer that, almost without exception, our great racers were and -are descendants of the Darley and Godolphin Arabians: I use the latter -term merely because its conventionality now identifies those celebrated -animals. They were both, as has been stated, imported in this reign: -the question that I would here investigate applies equally to each, -but, for the sake of simplifying it, I will treat it with reference to -the latter only. “That he was a genuine Arabian,” says the stud-book, -“his excellence as a sire is deemed sufficient proof;” a little further -on we read, “It is remarkable that there is not a _superior_ horse now -on the Turf without a cross of the Godolphin Arabian, neither has there -been for several years past.” The probable date of his arrival in this -country was 1725, or thereabouts. Hundreds of Arabs had preceded him as -sires, their introduction for that purpose having been a very general -speculation from the time of Charles I. That the indigenous island -breed had thereby been rendered good service, there can be no doubt; -but that the Turf derived any signal advantages from the importations -is more than problematical. - -Are our celebrated strains of racing blood derived at all from an Arab -source, and, if so descended, are they excellent _consequently_, or -of accident? As regards the first moiety of the inquiry, a work has -just appeared in Paris, the production of a gentleman of some literary -celebrity[80], relating to the genealogy of the horse so long known -to us as the Godolphin Arabian. His statements go to show that he was -a pure _Barb_, presented, with seven others, by the Bey of Tunis to -Louis XV., _about_ the year 1731. All the portraits I have ever seen -of him certainly go to strengthen this reading of his descent, and -proclaim him not of Asiatic origin. The date is an erroneous one, as he -was a sire in England in the year in which he is said to have reached -France; but we must be content with very vague data in all that -concerns our subject a century ago. As to the second division of the -question, after-time must furnish the means of replying to it, if it -be ever answered. My bias is to a belief that there exist families of -the horse in the East possessed of a perfection infinitely surpassing -any generically inherited. This I have attempted to demonstrate in a -work upon which I am at present engaged, some portion of which has -been already published.[81] The fact (of which I was made conscious -by authority beyond question) that the Imaum of Muscat, one of the -most powerful sovereign princes of India, expended ten years of active -search, backed by the enormous bribe of ten thousand pounds, before he -could procure a descendant of a line sufficiently pure to present to -King George IV., seems to establish the truth of the theory to which -I profess being inclined. All that we learn from our knowledge of the -almost religious veneration with which the genealogy of the horse is -treated in the East, goes to the like confirmation. “It is remarkable -that there is not a _superior_ horse _now_ on the turf without a cross -of the Godolphin Arabian,” I leave the reader to interpret as his own -reflections may lead him. - - [80] M. Eugene Sue. - - [81] Annals of the British Turf, from the Introduction of Eastern - blood to the present Time. The first century concluded in the Old - Sporting Magazine. - -Shall I venture, at the hazard of pursuing my theory “ultra fines,” -to offer one more example in support of it? That no structural -organization available to the eye, no individual excellence in the -parents, influence, in our raising stock, the performances of their -offspring, are truisms taught by every stud in the kingdom. All that -exist among us, descended from the great forefather of the Turf, are -capable of producing offspring of equal pretension, as regards the root -from which they are sprung. Far different was the result in relation -to the importations of Eastern blood contemporary with the Godolphin, -and the same it has been with all more recently introduced. Enough, at -all events, has been adduced, if not to _prove_ my position, to warrant -me, at least, in its assumption, as well as for offering it to the -consideration of those who hold the subject to which it relates of -sufficient interest to engage their attention. - -From such speculations on the origin of the British racehorse, we will -turn to the annals of his exploits,--a theme more generally attractive, -though intrinsically less important. Here, to begin with the early -worthies of the turf, all is as obscure as is the genealogical -problem with which we have been already engaged. Of the performances -of Childers, detailed, as they are, with all apparent microscopic -observations of the seconds’ hand, I am convinced that we know rather -worse than nothing. In a recent work of more than an ordinary character -on the subject to which it addresses itself (Lawrence’s History of -the Horse), Childers--Flying Childers, as he was designated _par -excellence_--is stated to have been a chestnut, whereas he was a rich -bay with four white legs. The same slovenly style, no doubt, attaches -to the records of the early performances, as well as to the more recent -attempts of equestrian historians. Again, the only criterion by which -we can estimate them is, when we can refer to a timed race, because, -knowing little of the principals, we cannot be supposed to have a -better knowledge of the pretensions of their contemporaries. Now, even -in our day, when all the appliances for chronometrical accuracy are so -vastly improved and multiplied, we rarely hear of the time of a race -being kept at all, even accidentally: it is never done by authority, or -on a principle deserving of confidence. - -We know that the taste, in the middle of the last century, inclined to -long distances, and repeated exertion--six and eight-mile heats being -events of constant recurrence; and yet we are required to believe that -there existed at and previous to that time a flight of speed unknown -to our degenerate days. Moreover, by far the greater portion of the -early racers were undersized, Galloways as the old Calendars have them -in every page; and stride is, save in rare exceptions, indispensable -to a high degree of swiftness. In the absence of any actual data as to -speed, worthy being confided in, it may not be inconvenient to relate -a performance of one of the first-class horses of that period; and, -by contrasting it with a match against time, done by a contemporary -hackney, some deduction may be drawn of the qualities of the racers of -that era. - -Gimcrack, a grey horse bred in 1760, by Cripple out of Miss Elliot, -was considered one of the best of his day. In consequence of his -superiority, he was sent to France, where he was matched for a large -sum to do a certain distance against time. Whatever it was, he was -the winner, having accomplished twenty-three miles in fifty-five -minutes. This was probably in 1770. In 1778, a foundered hackney, aged -twenty-two, belonging to a Mr. Hanks, did twenty-two miles within the -hour, upon the high road in the neighbourhood of London. Gimcrack -carried eight stone: the weight on the hackney is not given, but there -is no reason for believing it less than eight stone; so that one of the -best race-horses of that day could only beat a broken-down hack a mile -and five minutes in an hour! - -It is a conventional fallacy to attribute to past days virtues superior -to those in which were live. Every thing, from the seasons to the -flavour of home-brewed, was better, if we credit the popular voice, “in -the good old times.” To examine the application of this rule to the -matter before us, I may perhaps be permitted to borrow a leaf out of my -own book, seeing that I could scarce make my argument stronger in any -other form of words. - -“After a careful examination of all the best authorities bearing upon -the condition of the Turf in that so emphatically called its palmiest -era--the middle of the last century--I find nothing to warrant the -belief that, as a species, the contemporaries of King Herod, Imperator, -Eclipse, Florizel, and Highflyer, possessed either speed, power, or -symmetry, unknown to the racer of our day. At the very date to which -this extraordinary excellence is ascribed, we find the degeneracy of -that particular breed the subject of legislative consideration; and -in 1740 that an Act of Parliament was passed, denouncing the Turf as -the cause of the growing debasement of the breed of horses all over -the kingdom, and fixing the weights to be carried in all plates and -matches at ten stone for five-year-olds, eleven stone for six, and -twelve stone for seven-year-olds and upwards, on pain of a penalty -of £200, and forfeiture of the horse. It is true that this Act was -repealed soon afterwards, through the intervention, as it was believed, -of the Duke of Cumberland; nevertheless it is manifest that there -must have existed strong grounds for complaint against the system of -breeding and racing before the consideration of its economy would -be made a subject of Parliamentary interference. Let us turn to the -weights carried by two-year-olds fifty years ago, and those common to -the present period,--the former averaging from six stone to six stone -six pounds, the latter from eight stone five pounds to eight stone -seven pounds, and what evidence of degeneracy does that furnish?” -Racing, wherever we meet it existing as a popular sport, is the growth -of a root indigenous to England. All the appliances of civilization -are carried to a higher degree of perfection among us, in the present -day, than at any former period of our history: the Turf, and all its -_materiel_, it cannot be doubted, has attained a comparative condition -of excellence. - -In a nation peculiarly attached to rural sports, that, as matter of -course, becomes entitled to the place of honour which diffuses the -greatest portion of enjoyment to the greatest number of people. In this -view, racing is well entitled to the pre-eminence which it has so long -claimed, and had conceded to it; but it prefers demands of a higher -nature than its mere pleasurable results. In a political sense, it is -an engine of no mean importance. A state must benefit largely from an -agency which exhibits its nobles promoting, at great individual cost, -a sport in which all classes can participate equally with themselves, -and which brings together all the divisions of society for one end and -purpose--social recreation. Where shall we seek the great moral of -England’s power and station?--In the wealth which commerce pours upon -her shares?--In her wooden walls?--In the skill, learning, and valour -of her sons? We can scarce study it in a more impressive page than that -yearly spread before us at the great popular re-unions of Epsom, Ascot, -and Doncaster. Let such as love such lore, then, search after it where -the examination will surely reward their industry: we will take it up, -abstractedly, as a pastime, and in that character look into the nature -and influence of its present economy. - -As a treasury of art, an assembly of learning, ingenuity, and pleasure, -our metropolis has many rivals--some superiors: in our rural life we -stand alone. Mainly this has been brought about by--is the consequence -of--a general taste for field sports. Whether the cause of morality is -served by horse-racing, it is not our province to inquire. An inelegant -but most _apropos_ salt-water axiom says, “every man to his post, and -the cook to the fore-sheet.” Mankind, since the creation, has set its -face against all work and no play, and will do so to the end of the -chapter. We are of the disciples of Democritus; and, feeling in the -vein, will just touch in here, merely in outline, a faint sketch of a -DERBY DAY. - -Perhaps, with one exception alone, none of the realities of life come -up to the anticipations of them; and what, you ask, is that singular -deviation from the general rule?--It is a DERBY DAY. Imagine a -conglomeration of two millions of souls stirred to its _penetralia_, -shaken from its propriety, morally earthquaked, because of the -necessity which annually requires that a certain portion of the mass -(say a fortieth) should rendezvous in a neighbourhood where certain -horses are to contend some two minutes and sundry seconds for certain -monies, and you arrive at a general idea of something by no means -in the ordinary course. The scene of this commotion is London, the -majority of the actors automata that make yearly one solitary diversion -(in both the word’s interpretations) from the regular cycles of -their orbits. But such a Saturnalia demands a word anent its note of -preparation. - -As soon as the month dawns, big with the catastrophe of Epsom Races, -straightway from Belgrave Square to Shoreditch, from the Regent’s -Park to uttermost Rotherhithe, forth the sackage goes that guts, from -garret to cellar, every Pantechnicon, Bazaar, and Repository of all -and singular the wheeled conveniences and inconveniences peculiar -to each. Anon the horse, in all its infinite gradations, is had in -requisition, from Newman’s choicest specimens of blood, that devour the -Surrey highways, to the living quadrupedal skeleton redeemed from the -knacker’s knife at the last Smithfield show for fifteen shillings, and -a “drop o’ summut for luck.” The day arrives, and lo! a mighty chain -of carriages, “in linked grumbling long drawn out,” extends from the -Elephant and Castle to the merry Downs of Epsom, whitherwards we will -suppose thy anxious way hath at length been achieved. The moisture of -travel encumbereth thy brow: searchest thou for thy best Bandana to -relieve thee of the damp? Luckless wight!-- - - “----That handkerchief - Did an Egyptian from thy pocket prig.” - -Is not the tide of humanity at the flood of spring? Ten deep do -vehicles of all kinds, definite and undefinable, line the course. -Opposite and around the stand all is high-bred and aristocratic: -lower down, leading for Tattenham’s classic corner, you haply take -your curious path. What lots of pretty girls you encounter as you -go!--each so lady-like and _bien mise_, you would never dream of their -metropolitan whereabouts, were it not for those awful mortalities that -cluster around them; brothers, cousins, lovers it may be--pale shadows -that haunt the glimpses of Bow Church--horrible illusions from Ludgate -Hill and the Ward of Cheap, with prickly frills to their linen, swallow -tails to their coats, green velvet waistcoats, or, still more shocking, -similar habiliments of black satin, whereon the indecent chain of -Mosaic grins ghastly, like the gilding on a coffin!--faugh! - -Drawing near to the lines, hark! from glass coach, britscha, jarvey, -phaeton, proceed various sounds of discontent.--“Cold chickens, veal -pie, lobsters and _no_ salt.”--“Half-a-dozen bottles is all very fine, -and never no corkscrew.”--“Sir, I’ll set that right if you’ll only -accommodate us with the loan of a glass; really it’s too provoking.”... -Ascend the hill, approach the Ring, and hear what sums are jeopardied -on the coming event!--enough to purchase half-a-score of German -principalities; but the warren is open, and thither you are borne by -the countless thousands who throng for a glance of the coursers on whom -hang the hopes and fears of all. - -No spot can be better adapted for the purpose to which it is assigned -than the so well-known warren; but all that nature has done man takes -especial care to frustrate. Instead of its cool quiet alleys being -kept for the tranquil preparation of animals peculiarly disposed to -excitement (their most dangerous foe at a moment when the entire -possession of every faculty is of such vital consequence), every -“dingle, nook, and bosky bourn” is invaded by a horde of ravenous, -sight-seeing cockneys, of all beasts of prey the most reckless -and perverse. Amid this restless crowd of babbling, cigar-smoking -untameables, the process of saddling is effected, and, with graceful -steps, the fiery-footed adversaries depart for the lists. - -You reach the place of starting, and what awaits you there? Order, -decorum, and all fitting arrangement for the important essay of -which it is the arena? A second chaos!--all the human elements -thrown together in a moral whirlpool. A score of men in buckram -suits (blue linsey-wolsey), attempting to dispose of twice as many -thousands--something like barring the gates of a beleagured town with -boiled carrots! They draw together for the start--infinitely the -most influential point in the great game to be played. Here all is -confusion worse confounded: the multitude opens its thousand throats -of brass; the steeds are frantic; the jockeys (born and bred devils -from their cradle) practise every conceivable stratagem ever hatched -in Fiendom; and there stands one nervous old man to front the pitiless -pelting, and produce from such materials a result with which all are -to be satisfied. “They are off!” and the old gentleman, in his agony, -pronounces “go,” and the fatal signal has gone forth. Over the hill, -adown the fall, there is a meteoric flash, as though a rainbow had -borrowed the wings of the lightning, and all is over! - -The Derby is decided--the steeds turned round--the jockeys approach -the scales--Holy Mother of Moses! has it entered the heart of man (even -an Irishman) to conceive the tearing and swearing, the howling and -screeching, that instant rends the empyrean! Quick as thought a circle -of bludgeons and constables is formed, into which the horses as they -arrive are received, and against which a roaring ocean of humanity -is dashing as fiercely as the vexed Atlantic. Look towards the grand -stand--behold whole acres of countenances uplifted to the sky, wedged -as closely as a crate of French eggs, and resembling nothing as yet -discovered but a monstrous dish of opened oysters! The round earth is -shaken, and echo gives up the ghost--the thunder hides its diminished -head, as with the bellowings of ten thousand volcanos myriads of -furious lungs crash forth, “WHO HAS WON?” Thus whilom did I sing of -this scene; and with better experience, save in the episodes of flying -voltigeurs, men “with never no back-bones at all, only a slip of -gristle to hold head and heels together,” and epicures in cutlery, “who -swallow knives and forks for all the world like gingerbread nuts,” I -can add nothing to the _beau ideal_ of a DERBY DAY. - -How little can they, who first give existence to a principle, foresee -how it will operate, and what may be its results. The pastime of -horse-racing, fostered and promoted simply as a channel of amusement -by the gay and thoughtless Charles, called into being the strongest -impulse of man’s nature--emulation, and thus entailed upon this -country a race of the noblest of all existing animals, of a character -apparently superior to that originally destined by nature. This may -be an erroneous theory, but as yet we are unacquainted with any -variety of the horse comparable to the artificial stock known as -our thorough-blood. The very general efforts that were made from -that period by the nobles and great landed proprietors to improve -by lavish outlay, and all the appliances which it can command, the -best strains of the recently imported Oriental blood, towards the -middle of the last century, seem to have carried the race-horse _as -a species_ as near to perfection as his generic organization will -admit. True, every year produced some few infinitely superior to their -contemporaries, but they were phenomena,--indebted to no individuality -of parentage for their excellence, and unpossessed of the faculty -of endowing their descendants with similar gifts. As a race, when -opposed to the indigenous horse of any quarter of the earth, the -English thorough-blood is universally victorious; among the various -families into which it is divided at home, no _constant_ succession of -superiority has ever discovered itself. - -I am aware that those who only take a superficial view of the economy -of our racing system will at once pronounce against this position. -They will adduce the sons and daughters of King Herod, Eclipse, and -Highflyer; in our day, of Sultan and Emilius, as far surpassing the -ordinary run of their contemporaries. But they do not bear in mind -that not only did and does the progeny of these justly celebrated -sires greatly outnumber that of their less favoured brothers, but that -the best mares of their respective eras were and are exclusively put -to them. Not to travel beyond our own day for proofs, did excellence -ensure its like, what chance would have remained to those who now and -then breed a solitary nomination against the gigantic studs of Hampton -Court, Riddlesworth, or Underly? To confine the question to the present -year (1838), we had evidence that not all the wealth, skilful training, -Sybarite care and treatment of the best of England’s blood could -produce a match for the son of one of our indifferent racers,--the -despised of an Irish tenth-rate stable,--the wonderful and the -basely-abused Harkaway.[82] I may be told that he was defeated here, -and by second-raters, too,--but under what circumstances? With ordinary -care, without having been subjected to actual ill-treatment, at weight -for age there was nothing of the year in England that could have stood -any chance with him. - - [82] This extraordinary animal is now (December 1838) advertised for - sale, his price six thousand guineas, with this strange addition, - “that his owner (Mr. Ferguson) rides him hunting once or twice a - week!” - -From these premises the deduction at which we arrive bearing upon the -economy of the turf, its nature and influence is twofold, and admits -of a very brief solution,--the first being that the day is long passed -since the means of winning upon the race-course were to be obtained -by breeding; the second, that the vast advantages still to be derived -from a proper application of our thorough-blood is most strangely -neglected. Mr. Bowes began his racing career by breeding a winner of -the Derby, while the late Duke of Leeds, the most extensive breeder of -blood stock in the north, toiled in vain for the Leger till he won it -with a colt bought from the tail of the plough. Lord George Bentinck, -the best winner on the turf of modern days, if the Calendar be any -criterion, regards breeding racers as an expedient no man in his senses -should dream of, and, acting upon his theory, has put money in his -purse. A first-class racer, a colt of extraordinary promise, are each -productions of chance-medley, only to be come at by being secured where -and when they can be found. - -But if the Turf be thus restricted in further profiting, save as matter -of hazard, by the means which securely ministered to the success of its -first speculators, it furnishes materials from which may be moulded -other distinct races, as valuable, each in its province, as the flying -family of the modern race-course, now the sole representatives of our -thorough-blood. The ragged regiment of cock-tails will, it is devoutly -to be hoped, speedily be disbanded; the day soon arrive when no -gentleman shall be seen bestriding the mongrel of a base-bred hackney, -scarce worthy the shafts of a costermonger’s trap. And first, as is -befitting, such reform must commence with its next of kin--THE FIELD. -Shall this, assuredly the second--nay, the twin-sport of racing, in the -esteem of Englishmen, long continue dependent upon chance for a supply -of horses for its service? Impossible; the period cannot be far distant -in which the British thorough-bred hunter will be as distinct a race, -and of as high renown, as his progenitors were the pride of the Turf. - - -[Illustration] - - - - -HUNTING. - - -As the whole object of the Manly Exercises is not accomplished in the -attainment and practice of them, it was thought convenient that the -business of their details should be succeeded by a partial notice of -some of those sports of which they form the elementary process, and -which may be regarded as their ultimate “end and aim.” It has been well -said by my talented friend, Nimrod, that all the writing in the world -will not make a sportsman. The pen of Pindar, and the pencil of Grant, -indeed, exhibit him in all perfection to our admiration; but, could -they both write for the education of the student whose ambition is -Olympic fame, they would not insure success. Like the poet, he must be -born, in a manner, to his cunning. - -The Exercises, upon which Mr. Walker has written, admitted of being -inculcated by methodical rules, and acquired by a systematic routine -of practice. An acquaintance with them will be found of service to -youth, whatever the destination of its manhood may be; while they are -essential to the formation of a frame and character fitted for the -maturity likely to be devoted to the wear and tear of our hardy Rural -Sports. Driving and Yachting, though neither of them strictly coming -within the pale of a course of physical exercises, still are not out of -place in a practical book devoted to the science of manly recreations, -because each is governed by certain rules, which may be taught and -acquired. It is not so with the subjects constituting the matter on -which we are at present engaged. A man may out-study Zoroaster without -being one whit the better qualified for winning a fifty-pound plate, -hitting off the line of a fox that has been headed, or bringing down -his woodcock in cover; these are arts which, being decimated, leave -one part to theory and nine in favour of practice. For this cause I -have made my Article on the Turf of a character more suited to the -purposes of the general reader than those of the visionary theorist, -who may fondly hope to meet, on page traced by mortal hands, a recipe -for breeding, training, and managing an embryo winner of Derby or -Leger. The Chase, however, admits of a certain code of general maxims: -it has, if not limits, at all events courses better defined than those -of the Turf, and to the application of them by practical men of modern -experience we will at once proceed. - -Assuming that a tolerable proficiency in horsemanship has been attained -before the young disciple of Diana ventures to show at all with hounds, -he will do well to dedicate the first of his novitiate to hare-hunting, -whether his future destination be that of a M. F. H., or merely a -partaker of the “light from heaven,” dispensed by the “noble science.” -As this little treatise addresses itself more particularly to the -latter, it will be sufficient to point out what should be his aim in -his early lessons. Of these, the most essential to the formation of -a good sportsman, and the only one that will enable any man to live -to the end of a severe run, is, that he cultivate the faculty of a -_quick eye to hounds_. With harriers he will constantly have practice -in this task: the perpetual doubles to which nine hares out of ten, -when chased, resort, will soon convince him of the necessity of keeping -a wary look out for the line towards which the leading hounds incline. -He will have little difficulty in deciding with which portion of the -pack, or with which individual of it, the scent is, if he only observe -closely when there is any indication of a check. The instant a hound -catches the scent, he will see him drop his tail horizontally, and -spring to the front, the one who has lost it elevating his, as if -engaged in questing. Keeping his look-out always upon the leaders, -and leaving the body of the pack to follow a similar system, he -turns his horse as he sees the chase lean, and thus is going at his -ease _inside_ the circle, around which others can hardly live at the -best their nags can accomplish. When a huntsman is coming past with -hounds,--particularly at check in a lane or road,--get out of his way -all you can; the narrower the pass the greater the necessity that you -give room, or hounds must break over the fence, and so run the risk of -putting up, or crossing the line of, another hare: moreover, horses -on such occasions are apt to strike out at hounds, and it is far from -pleasant to be constituted by such a casualty “the observed of all -observers.” - -In the matter of riding at fences, with harriers you will be more -enabled to suit your practice to the individual case than when you come -to ride alongside fox-hounds. With the former, when any thing very -cramp crosses your line, you may “look before you leap,” and this is -no bad maxim, whoever may choose to sneer at it. Let this too be an -axiom from which you never depart, as far as regards the hounds: when -you are out with the jolly dogs, “hear and see, and say nothing”--so -shall you earn golden opinions from the field in general, and prevent -much out-pouring of wrath from the officials in particular. It will -serve you to bear in mind that in almost every difficulty of ground a -horse can serve himself better than you can assist him. I do not mean -to say that in heavy, deep galloping you should not hold him together, -and if there be a furrow or path at hand, that you should not give -him the advantage of it. But in woodlands, for instance, where young -timber has been felled, and the surface is covered with live stubs, -give him his head: let him pick his own way; never touch his mouth with -the bridle to guide him, and you will find how rarely he will give a -chance away. Thus in a rabbit warren the difficulty is doubled by the -nervous man who attempts to steer his horse. The biped is looking at -one hole, the quadruped at another, and being diverted from the spot -where he intended to place his foot, puts it _in_ where it was meant -that he should not. Still, however, you may attempt it: never charge -ground of this nature without using the precaution of slacking your -pace. I remember a well-known bruising rider, who thought it impossible -that he could be hurt, once trying the experiment over a warren in -the neighbourhood of Whitchurch, in Shropshire, and being assured of -the affirmative in the first hundred yards by the fracture of his -collar-bone, and the dislocation of a shoulder. - -With the common run of fences, where the grip is from you, go faster at -them than when it lies on the side you take off from. When they consist -of live thorns and quicks newly laid down, take them, whenever the -chance presents itself, _aslant_, rising where the top of the thorn is -laid, as being the least capable of holding your horse’s knees, should -they catch in rising at it. In your noviciate it is hardly necessary to -offer you any advice as to water. As a general rule, however, it may as -well be said here as elsewhere that, in brook-jumping, pace comes first -and then judgment. With a powerful impetus you get over; should your -horse blunder, somehow--if with a fall at the other side, no matter: -less speed enables you to pick your ground better, but it throws all -the odds on the side of a cold-bath, should the span be wider than you -calculated on, or the bank be soft, and let you in. Never take hold of -your horse’s head till you feel that he is safely landed; if there is a -scramble for it, and you pull at him but an ounce, it may turn the beam -of his equipoise, and in you go together. - -Young hands are prone to think that it is necessary to the acquisition -of the reputation of a sportsman that they show in front throughout a -run. Indeed I might have said this idea seems to hold with many who -ought to be wiser. The sooner the youthful Nimrod discards this fallacy -the better. The chances are so multiplied and various against a good -run that it is next to a miracle how a real clipper ever occurs. From -foil, to which ground is every where exposed, down to an infant of -three years old that heads your quarry, on every side you are beset -with risk, even _with_ a scent. Without it your difficulty becomes -almost an impossibility, and that is the time when over-riding, more -fatal than all other obstacles put together, is to be seen in its -superlative degree. There is your hard-rider, _par excellence_, who -_will_ be first: the leader pulls up at a check--the nuisance passes -him, even with hounds at fault, without a moment’s care for the -mischief he must do the chase, or what he may do himself. Let such as -this teach you that which you should avoid: acquire in youth the way -you should go, and in your maturity you will not depart from it. - -We now come to the matriculation of the “noble science,” and consider -the _quondam_ novice entered to fox-hunting. It would be bootless here -to offer any eulogy upon a sport admitted, by authorities allowing no -question, to be, in a political as well as a social view, a powerful -moral engine. In a letter now before me, which I lately received from a -gallant general, himself a master of fox-hounds, he ascribes to a taste -for the chase that characteristic manly daring which distinguishes the -officers of our service from those of any other. Of all field sports -its claims are the most general upon the properties of manhood. The -tiger-hunts of the East may appeal more directly to the courage, but -with activity and physical endurance they have little or nothing to -do. But see the qualities that must combine to form the accomplished -fox-hunter. He must be bold, ready, decisive, capable of commanding -and sustaining great bodily exertion: he must join unity of purpose -to promptness of action; capability of foreseeing events, that he may -best turn them to advantage, with a frame and a spirit alike competent -to meet and oppose undauntedly difficulties and dangers, how and when -they may assail him. I would not have it supposed that I claim for the -chase a higher station for enterprise than any other of the adventurous -occupations in which we find mankind employed. It would be absurd for -an instant, for example, to compare it with that most exciting and -magnificent of all the daring offices to which man has ever addressed -himself--the South Sea fishing. But as a sport,--an act to which -pleasure alone induces him, fox-hunting has nothing at all bearing -comparison with it in modern days. To the present fashion of its -details we will now turn our consideration. - -I do not think it necessary here to enter into any foreign matter, such -as the nature and economy of the establishment with which the field -may be taken with reference to the country hunted, or the number of -days weekly to be devoted to its business. We will suppose our young -Nimrod has completed all such arrangements in a convenient fashion, and -proceed to the _res gestæ_ for which he has made preparation. In this -hard-riding era, it is regarded as a dashing style of going to cover, -by your aspiring tyro, to approach it as the crow would fly. If he -_must_ go thither across country, let him, at all events, avoid passing -through, or riding too near any of the covers likely to be drawn during -the day. If they hold a good fox, it is sure notice for him to quit, -for he is ever on the _qui vive_. The result is, should the hounds be -thrown in, they come upon a scent some hours old--crawl upon it over -probably the cream of the country, never come on terms with him; and a -capital day’s sport is lost to a whole field by a selfish half-hour’s -lark. Arrived at the place of meeting, he should not address himself -to the master, if he hunt his own hounds; or, in the other case, to -the huntsman, notwithstanding he may be on familiar terms with them, -beyond the mere exchange of a passing civility. Even then, a man, bent -upon showing a good day’s sport, has his mind sufficiently engaged on -the business before him. He is consulting temporary causes, by which -to be directed as to the particular cover to begin with, and how it -is to be drawn. The point of wind, the nature of the day, the weather -of the preceding week,--all must be weighed, and brought to assist -his judgment. A fox well found is always the most likely to be well -accounted for. - -But if conversation with the master or huntsman be inconvenient before -hounds are thrown off, afterwards it becomes a positive impertinence. -It is no excuse for doing so that they are not actually engaged at the -moment. A huntsman, having drawn without a find, is probably waiting -for some of his hounds; at the same time he is debating with himself -what cover he shall next try, and how to get to it, as the wind may -affect the best lying in it for his fox. He has also observed how his -hounds have behaved, and has orders to give to a whip as to the conduct -of some one prone to riot; or that a particular corner of the cover -about being drawn shall be carefully watched. In short, success or -failure are dependent on his management; and how can he deliberate if -he is to stand a general catechism? - -If it be a large cover, keep within hearing of the hounds and huntsman. -This can only be effected by being down wind, and should be done -without any reference to the distance round, which it may impose. Of -course, it is not intended that a man should take any thing he can -avoid out of his horse by galloping round a cover, but let him keep -on steadily opposite the hounds, taking heed that he does not get so -far forward as to endanger heading back the fox, and so spoiling his -own and his neighbours’ sport. This I only recommend where covers are -very large, and even then it may not be the best system. In all cases -where it is practicable, I never throw a chance away by losing sight -of hounds. I remember, some years ago, meeting Sir Richard Puleston -at Cresford village, whence we trotted to a wood that skirts the high -road to Chester. As we jogged forward, a friend overtook me, accosting -me with, “You need not hurry yourself, for they’ll find nothing -where they’re going: it has been beaten within an hour by a party of -coursers, who have left nothing alive on four legs within it, you may -rely.” In ten minutes, the pack and field were streaming, best pace, -after a fox found in that same coppice, away for Shavington, over a -country like the cream of Leicestershire or Northampton. - -In fox-hunting, depend solely upon yourself, and keep with the pack. -Even in going from cover to cover, be with them. Circumstances -frequently arise which induce a huntsman to abandon trying a place upon -which he may have previously fixed; and how often has a fox jumped out -of a hedge-row in the centre of a pack trotting industriously away to -look for a chance probably half a dozen miles off! In windy weather, -when hounds are in cover, unless you draw it with them, it is two to -one you never get away at all, and ten to one against a good start. -I have had some experience of horses in my day, and have ever found, -that, of all ways of beating them, the surest is that of trying to -catch hounds. Laying aside the excitement and energy produced by the -music, alongside of which they go sailing away in wild delight, it -must be remembered that the pace of fox-hounds with a scent is equal -to the best, if not superior, that any first-class hunter possesses. -What sort of a nag then is it, that you can expect to catch them with -ten minutes’ law? In calm weather, also, the danger of losing sight of -hounds is by no means to be disregarded. There are some days (those -which invariably carry the best scent) when hounds will find, and fly -away like magic, not one in the pack attempting to throw tongue. Here, -if the cover be large, unless you have them in your eye, the odds are -you never get away; and see what you lose--the excellence of the scent -has stopped the cry: the faster hounds go, the less they say about it. - -When in a large cover, with hounds unavoidably out of sight, depend -upon your ear much rather than upon the movements of others. You will -constantly find men riding straight on end, merely because the hounds -were running so when they entered, while very probably the fox has -turned short, and is already away, with the pack at his brush, in an -opposite direction. With a little patience and attention, your ear -will soon come to the knack of detecting the line of hounds in cover: -it is well worth your while to take pains to acquire this art. When -you have learnt it, you will speedily find out the advantage it will -confer upon your horse, and yourself too. It is by no means easy to -lay down rules for that which so mainly depends upon circumstances; -but it may be convenient to offer a few examples, upon which you may -found a system for general application. Suppose, for instance, you have -had a burst with your fox, and he has reached a large cover, in which -there are strong earths, or beyond which lies a country too open for a -blown fox to set his head for. If the earths are open, in he goes, and -there is an end of him; if stopped, he turns, or leans to the right or -left. During this time, brief as it maybe, you have eased your horse; -he gets his wind (a minute, in many cases, will put him right after a -very quick thing), and you are fresh, while your hard rider has been -going best pace beyond the hounds, and comes toiling after you in vain. -These points of practice, however, require good judgment, and great -promptness of action. You must know well how to distinguish between a -cry that grows faint and fainter, as a failing scent leads to a final -check, and one that, from a crash, at once becomes almost wholly lost, -as the pack flies to their fox with a view, or a scent breast-high. - -You will, no doubt, at the commencement of your career, hear a great -deal about the influence the wind has upon the line of chase. Do not -take all such theory for gospel. I have tried my hand at a few systems -of the kind, but only found one that admitted general adoption. When -a fox, on being found, takes up wind at first, do not ride, though -the pace be first-rate, so as to take much out of your horse. Foxes -constantly, after going a mile or so up wind, turn and head back. This -will let you in with a good start, and a fresh nag; and even should the -chase hold on up wind, you run little risk of being thrown out, as you -will have the cry to guide you, and the puff in, to enable you to get -to them when the first brush is over. - -One good effect of the hard riding of modern days is, that hounds are -much less meddled with by strangers than they used to be when first I -remember fox-hunting. Indeed, I am not sure that too much etiquette -does not now exist upon that point. The total disappearance of the -thong to the hunting-whip seems like carrying a good thing rather too -far. A fox breaks probably under your horse’s nose: out comes the pack, -none of the servants are at hand, and they run a field or two from the -cover before any one stops them, or their own mettle allows them to -turn: one crack of your whip would have saved all that. One thing you -_can_ do without your thong, but you should be very careful how you do -it. I allude to hallooing a fox away. Never attempt to lift up your -voice till he is evidently bent on going, and then give him at least a -field’s law, or the odds are, back he goes, perhaps into the hounds’ -mouths. When he _is_ gone, then clap your hand behind your ear, and -give the “Tally-ho--_away_!” to the best of the lungs that are in you. -Should he merely show for a moment outside, and then pop in again, give -a “Tally-ho--back!” that it maybe known where he was seen, as well as -that he is not away. Another service in this latter halloo is, that all -the points where it is likely he will try to break will be left clear -for him. If a fox is seen crossing a ride or path, in cover, in front -of you, pull up; and if hounds are at check, tally him, as it will -serve as a guide to the huntsman. - -In drawing a cover you may give this signal, should any fox cross you, -but if you have run him in, be awake not to tally any but the hunted -one, or you will have few thanks for your trouble. A little experience -will easily teach you the difference between one just unkennelled and -that which has stood any time before hounds. Not only will the former -be sleek and unstained, but the method of going be very dissimilar. A -fresh fox bounds off, throwing his hind legs clear from him, and his -whole frame, from the tip of his nose to that of his brush, as straight -as an arrow; if hunted, and at all blown or beaten, his action is -laboured, like that of a rocking-horse, his back is curved, his brush -drooping, and the ears thrown back, all the fire for which when found -his eye is so remarkable, quenched, and exchanged for an air of cunning -and subdued resolution. I am far from any design of counselling you -to interfere with the business of a pack of fox-hounds that you may be -either in the habit of hunting with, or one that you may merely meet by -accident occasionally. Still there are instances in which to withhold -all assistance would be to put the chance of sport in jeopardy, and -in which the true lover of the chase ought to act first and think -afterwards. Should any casualty, for example, so find you that, _with -hounds at fault_, you catch a halloo that the huntsman does not or -cannot hear, contrive so to place yourself between the halloo and the -hounds that you may be heard by huntsman or pack, and so lead them on -the line that the halloo proceeds from. I repeat, however, that these -and similar aids must be offered with due discretion. The halloo may be -a false one--true, but had you gone to make inquiries, you, too, would -have been out of hearing--the points of fox-hunting require temporary -and local adaptation, and a headpiece to direct all. Mere physical -endowments will never make an accomplished fox-hunter--combined with -judgment they are very excellent subsidiaries: for him who would shine -in the chase - - “Orandum est, ut sit mens sana in corpore sano.” - -In riding to hounds it will essentially serve you if you bear in mind -what ninety-nine out of a hundred seem never to give a thought to, -namely, that the pack only acts _pro tanto_ upon the line of country -which a fox is likely to take. Independent of the point which it is -assumed he will make for, he has a hundred other things to avoid, as -well as the enemies baying on his trail. He settles his point, but -he must also get to it unseen. Unless beaten and all but run into, -he will give a wide berth to any thing like the habitation of man as -well as man himself. Thus, by keeping your eye well before you, there -is a chance that the turn hounds will take may be so far anticipated, -that you avoid riding outside of their circle. It has been well said -that when hounds are running, a man ought to consider what, under the -circumstances in which things happen to be, be would do were he the -fox. I cannot offer you better counsel. By adopting such a principle -you will be enabled to foresee a check should you detect any thing in -the line that the chase is taking, however far ahead--and if you have a -knowledge of the country, you will calculate such chances almost to a -certainty. In a district with which you are acquainted, the line a fox -takes when found, will enable you to judge whether he has been before -hunted, and if he has, the odds are he runs the same again. Even in -cover you may fairly assume that he is accustomed to be stirred by the -ring he takes, the points he tries, the gaps he uses in the fences, and -similar observations, which should be the business on which you are -intent from the moment the hounds are thrown in. - -More than once it has been my good fortune to secure a clipping run for -a sporting field by keeping a clear look-out upon the matter at issue, -_and nothing else_, when a long series of covers drawn blank, and such -dampers, have sent one-half of the morning’s muster home, while the -other had taken _to the dernier ressort_ of cigars and gossip. As an -instance of this, several years ago, with the Shropshire, when Mr. -Cresset Pelham had them, we had been at it from the hour of meeting -till past three, in November too, and no luck. Having trotted on to our -last hope for the day, it was tried, and pronounced--blank! Already -twilight had commenced, the huntsman outside the cover was blowing his -horn, the pack mustered, and home was the order of march. I had watched -the gathering with care; and, as we were already trotting from the -side of the spinny, it struck me that an old and favourite bitch was -missing. I called the huntsman’s attention to it. There was a pause--a -faint wimple was heard in the still valley--anon it opened into a cry, -“Hark to it!”--the pack flew to the challenge--there was a mighty -crash: in a minute a fox broke away in sight of every man who had had -the patience to await the last throw on the dice. A burst of twenty -minutes was the result, without a pull from best pace; and we turned -him up in the open just as the parish lantern gave us notice to look -out for squalls. - -There exists, in some masters of hounds, a disposition to keep back -such men as, when hounds are in chase, follow them through the covers -they take in their line. It is not my desire to inculcate disobedience -to the powers that be; but certainly I cannot second that principle, -either with reference to those who adopt it, or those to whom it is -intended to apply. When a hunted fox has reached a cover, not only -is it the best way to cheer hounds to him, that they should not feel -themselves alone, but also the noise made by men following them is -the most likely way to make a fresh fox break, without any of the -stragglers getting on him. I have seen a fox crawl into cover dead -beat, and already in the mouths of the pack. The huntsman and a whip -followed them--the “whoo-whoop” was given--the master and the rest -of the field waited on the outside. They remained in patience till -ten minutes had elapsed. “Surely,” said an old hand at last, “they -are doing more than baying him with all that cry. Hark! it has got to -the opposite side of the wood:--by heavens! they’re away with a fresh -fox.” And so they were; and they killed him at the end of forty minutes -without a check, and without a sight of them ever being caught, save by -the servants, who had followed to lift the fox that had crawled dead -beat into the cover. - -I have thus attempted to sketch, for the young disciple of the “noble -science,” a slight code of maxims of general application. For the -principles of practice to direct him in the constantly occurring -cases, which admit of no rule save that arising out of individual -circumstances, he must rely upon himself. Under this general head of -HUNTING, I have not thought it necessary to enter upon any varieties -of the chase, save those of the fox and the hare. Stag-hunting, as a -rural sport, is limited to a very few districts; and for its pursuit -requires only a knowledge of horsemanship, and a quick eye to a -country. Fox-hunting and hare-hunting I have treated with reference -only to the points of practice which apply to the convenience of those -who select them as appliances of recreation. This work, in its nature, -is rudimentary, it professes to deal with the elements of our manly -exercises, and so far to treat of our national sports of RACING, -HUNTING, and SHOOTING. Its office is to instruct the beginner, leaving -the higher classes to volumes of more pretension. With this view of its -purpose, I have brought the subject of the Chase to the limit which I -designed for it. It is a truly manly--a noble sport. Long may it be -cherished and fostered in our land! The qualities which it calls into -action are those which confer honour on manhood,--courage, promptness, -activity, and decision. Surely these are rare properties in which to -exercise a youth, and these the Chase will engender and nourish: while -to such as require that a moral attach to every occupation of life, it -has this to recommend it, that, in riding to hounds, this great truth -is hourly inculcated--“Honesty is the best policy.” - -[Illustration] - - -[Illustration] - - - - -SHOOTING. - - -It is my purpose, in the present chapter, as in the two preceding, -to offer, as companion to the system of exercises described in the -first part of this work, certain practical rules upon another of -those popular field sports, a knowledge of which has in all ages -been considered, in this country, part of a gentleman’s education. -The perfection to which we have attained in the manufacture of all -the implements connected with this branch of sporting, would make -a dissertation on the _materiel_ of shooting a piece of useless -information to those for whose service these notices are intended. -Instead, therefore, of filling these pages with elaborate instructions -for selecting his guns, gun-cases, flasks, belts, and the whole -catalogue of shooting gear, I present my reader with one solitary -golden maxim, which will ensure to him the possession of a perfect -apparatus, and that eventually on the most economical terms: Let him -go, for every article of his equipment, to the most celebrated artist -in the item of which he has need. It is true that, compared with the -scale of prices in the provinces, the charges of the first-rate London -gunmakers are startling things upon paper, and so are those made by -coachmakers of the same class. Indeed, the same may be said of the -rate of demand common to the leading dealers of the metropolis; but -he will find that _finis coronat opus_. An economical friend of mine, -who was recently quartered in Ireland, ordered, of one of the most -respectable firms in Dublin, a travelling chariot, the price, with the -usual _et ceteras_, being two hundred and fifty pounds: here it would -have cost him three hundred, or three hundred and twenty. Just as it -was completed, he was ordered home; and his new bargain broke down with -him fourteen times between Liverpool and London. As a contrast to this: -An old sporting associate, never particularly distinguished for his -thrift, recently showed me a pair of shooting shoes, for which he paid -Hoby two guineas, that he has had in constant work for sixteen years! -No record has been preserved of the number of times they have had new -bottoms. The only perishable portions of these cordwaining phenomena, -however, are their _soles_: their bodies appear to be immortal. - -To return to the appointments of the young aspirant to the honours -of the trigger. Although I set out with supposing him equipped with -the best double detonator that money can procure from a maker of -known character, and all other mechanical appliances for the field, -a proper management and judicious arrangement of them is by no means -to be similarly obtained. Upon the condition of those mechanical aids -his success depends, quite as much as the adroitness to which he may -arrive in the use of them. Whether that department be in the hands of -a gamekeeper fully competent to all its details, or there be an actual -necessity for the master’s eye to direct it, a knowledge of the most -approved means will be found equally essential. Proficiency in any -art or science requires an intimacy with the whole machinery of its -economy. It was this conviction that made an emperor a labourer in a -dockyard, and should induce every sportsman to acquaint himself with -the minutest particulars bearing upon his craft. To this end I will -give a few rules, derived as well from personal experience as from some -of the most approved authorities on the subject that have appeared in -print. - -GUN-CLEANING.--Use cold water for the purpose of cleansing the barrel, -and finish by pouring in boiling water, taking care to stop the -touch-hole. Shake it up and down well, and drain it from the muzzle, -which will clear the chamber. The hot water greatly aids the process -of drying,--one of the most important parts of gun-washing. After the -washing is concluded, by looking down the barrel with the touch-hole -open, you will be enabled to see into the chamber, and ascertain -whether it be effectually cleared out or otherwise. The foulness of the -barrel of course must be the criterion by which the person employed in -cleaning it will be decided. Should it require to be scoured, to remove -powder encrusted on its sides, very fine sand and hot water should be -used, and care taken to rinse it out thoroughly, at the last, with -boiling water, to clear the chamber of anything that may have been -driven into it by the washing-rod. The material in ordinary use for -gun-cleaning is tow, to which there is the objection that particles are -apt to become detached from it, and lodge in the chambers. To prevent -any chance of this kind, I would recommend the substitution of cloth, -which will be found to answer the purpose quite as well, being at the -same time free from all such hazard. It is a bad habit to fall into, -that of laying by your gun loaded: let the charge be drawn after the -day’s work. If you have had but a few shots, the less trouble there -will be in the cleaning: a mere hot-water rinse, and a good drying, -will be enough. Should your gun contain an old charge when you go out, -do not put your faith in it: the odds are all in favour of its hanging -fire. Squib it off, first drawing the shot, and load again while the -barrels are warm; probe your touch-holes; wipe your locks within and -without; and if you cannot command success afterwards, you will have -the satisfaction of knowing that you have taken the best course to -ensure it. - -Every time you load, observe whether your touch-hole be free: it is -but a moment’s occupation, and a certain security against a monstrous -annoyance--missing fire, probably at one of your best chances during -the day. In all cases of hanging or missing fire, the seat of disease -is the touch-hole or chamber, if your cap has exploded: to these apply -the remedy. I speak only with reference to detonators, as they have -now become so very universal: of course when a flint gun is used, the -mischief may be caused by a faulty flint. Your last act should be, when -the day’s sport is over, before you enter the house, to let down the -springs of your locks: the less stress you keep upon them, the more -power and elasticity they will retain. This is the plan to make one -lock wear out the best Damascus barrel. - -POWDER.--The names of most of the great manufacturers of gunpowder are -now sufficient guarantee for the excellence of the article bearing -their signatures. Purchase your supply from any respectable house, -and you will be secure that it is genuine: beyond the label you need -not seek. Your care, then, must be to preserve the original strength, -by putting it into canisters closely corked and sealed, after first -having carefully dried it,--a process for which Colonel Hawker gives -this excellent recipe: “Your powder should always be properly _dried_, -in order to do which make _two_ or _three_ plates very hot before the -fire, and (first taking care to wipe them well, lest any particle of -cinder should adhere to them) keep constantly shifting the powder from -one to the other, without allowing it to remain sufficiently long in -either to cool the plate. The powder will then be more effectually -aired, and more expeditiously dried, than by the more common means -of using only _one_ plate, which the powder, by lying on it, soon -makes cold, and therefore the plate requires to be two or three times -heated.” Nothing can be added to this, save the admonition that the -operation be performed at such a distance from the fire as to prevent -the possibility of a spark or cinder reaching you. The surest way is to -dry your powder in one room, and to heat your plates in another. - -SHOT.--Here is a division of my subject much less easily disposed of -than the last. The selection of shot is a question upon which many of -the best authorities are at issue. Some deal with it only in reference -to the game for which it is intended; others consider it merely as -having relation to the length and diameter of the barrel for which it -is required. I recommend the middle course,--_medio tutissimus ibis_. -Colonel Hawker tells us that “it is not so much the magnitude of the -pellet, as the force with which it is driven, that does the execution.” -No one can accord more cheerful fealty than I do to the generality of -that first-rate sportsman’s opinions; but I cannot allow my admiration -to dazzle my common sense, or to subscribe to this hypothesis. With a -swan-drop, you break the leg of wild-boar or red-deer; but could any -force known to the science of projectiles accomplish it with a grain of -number 9, or dust-shot? The rule should be, to suit your number to your -game--the exception, to your gun and its calibre. Taking the average -size at which fowling-pieces are now made, and the general character -of English sporting, I have no hesitation in saying that there are -very few instances in which number 7 will not be found to answer -the purposes of a day’s shooting. It is not the power to penetrate -that fills the bag. Many a bird carries off a quarter of an ounce of -lead in his body; but break his wing, and what can he do then? The -advocate of small shot urges the increased space which it covers, and -_consequently_ the increased chances in favour of its hitting; but to -hit your bird, and to bring him down, are two very different things. -Catch him anywhere with a good-sized pellet, and the odds are that he -comes to bag; stuff him with _dust_, and he flies away with a whole -charge, unless it has encountered a vital part. It is to be remembered -that I am not here addressing my observations to first-rate masters -of the trigger,--to such professors as Ross, Sutton, or Osbaldiston. -I have not deemed it necessary to go into the relative merits of shot -upon such minute niceties as the increased rotatory motion of the -larger pellets, and the like. In an epitomised treatise like this, -the length of my design only extends to offering the best general -hints that suggest themselves to me, as applicable to the service of -the novice. To such, then, I say, in all ordinary cases, make use of -number 7: never go higher, for a jack-snipe will often fly away with -the full of a charger of number 9 in his body. If, however, your sport -lies exclusively in thick woodlands, or where only very long shots are -likely to be had, supply yourself with numbers 2 or 3; but at the same -time take care to provide a long and heavy gun, that will throw them -even, and not in lumps and clusters. - -PERCUSSION CAPS.--Detonating guns have now been so long in general use, -that the familiarity thus produced with the various properties and -kinds of fulminating powders, ensures the very general perfection to -which these invaluable auxiliaries of the shooter have attained. They -are to be had, of an almost uniform excellence, at all the respectable -gunmakers in town and country. - -WADDING.--Here again is a matter on which you will find a vast variety -of opinion. Some get rid of it altogether by adopting the new system -of cartridges. Upon this point I do not wish to offer any of the -results of my own limited experience. I have shot with these, and with -average success--a low average I admit, for I have no pretensions to -the name of a crack. They are, however, worth the experiment of a -trial, though I am disposed to believe the success or failure of it -will much depend upon the accidental properties and effects of the -materials submitted to the test. To return to the sort of wadding -which may best serve those who still adhere to the old system of mere -powder and shot. After enumerating the various claims of paper, hat, -card, and leather, Colonel Hawker gives the preference to punched -pasteboard,--the thickness to increase in the ratio of the diameter of -the barrel. The best that have ever come under my notice are Cherry’s -prepared waddings, suited to every calibre. They are manufactured from -felt which has undergone a process that prevents the accumulation of -damp after firing, and are to be procured at any gunmaker’s for the -cost of the materials in ordinary use. These I do recommend, and I am -sure those who accord them a trial will have no reason to regret it. -They cover the powder effectually, and offer but little resistance to -the shot, which is all that is required of wadding. Mr. Cherry would -improve upon his invention by piercing the waddings intended to cover -the shot, as it would facilitate the operation of loading, while the -shooter made the distinction by carrying those for the powder in his -left-hand pocket, and those for the shot in his right. - -THE POWDER-FLASK.--It is strange that, among the many ingenious -improvements effected in the implements of the shooter, the -powder-flask, certainly the most important of all, should have been -left in its present dangerous condition. I am aware that an attempt, -and a praiseworthy one, was made some years ago by Mr. Egg, to reduce -the chances of accident which the present construction of the flask -involves; but I ask why has not some contrivance, without any of the -old leaven in it, been suggested and effected? In the shot-belt the -charger is wholly detached--where no risk, at all events, would follow, -were it otherwise--whereas, when loading with powder, the charger, with -the flask attached, is introduced into the muzzle of the gun, so that -should it, by any accident, become ignited, an explosion (and most -probably a fatal one) of the whole ensues as matter of consequence. -However, to deal with it as you find it, with proper precaution, when -you fill your charger let back the spring gradually, that no chance -may be given away in the event of a bit of flint, or any substance -that might throw out a spark, being struck by it. Never lose sight of -the material which your flask contains. Let nothing induce you to fire -with it in your hand. If a chance shot offer while you are loading a -discharged barrel, throw it behind you, if there is not time to return -it to your pocket. - -LOADING.--I have not thought it necessary to occupy any of my limited -space with the shot-belt, because it is so simple, and at the same -time so excellent in construction, that the merest novice cannot be -astray in the use of it. Not so is it with the important office--that -of loading your gun aright, although it is impossible to lay down any -rules for it applicable to every case. Experience alone will enable you -so to proportion your charge that you shall come at the full powers -of which your gun is capable. The gauge, the length, the weight--all -must be taken into account, and provided for. For the ordinary run of -fowling-pieces, the following is a fair proportion:--A shot-charger -that holds an ounce and a half of shot may be filled to the brim with -powder, which wall serve to load with, as also to prime: the same -measure filled up with shot will constitute your charge of lead. By -these proportions, you can thus regulate the chargers of your belts and -flasks. Against this system it is contended, by the ultra-particular, -that it is a bad one in reference to powder, which is manufactured -without regard to weight, only the projectile force being considered. -These are minutiæ, however, into which I do not desire to introduce -the learner. He will have enough to do with the more immediate affairs -of preparing his nerves, forming a judgment upon sight and distance, -and laying a foundation upon a basis of right principle and prompt -performance, without which he will have little business upon that -arena to which I am about to introduce him, after a long but still a -necessary preface. - -SHOOTING. THE FIELD.--Unless where some positive mental or physical -prohibition exists, a certain degree of excellence and dexterity -in every art and science is open to such as seek with care and -perseverance. Thus, although, from natural causes, every man cannot -aspire to the honour of becoming a crack shot, there is scarcely any -that may not acquire the art of shooting tolerably well. The sooner -the essay is made, the better the chance of its success; and as my -pupil is supposed to be in this condition, I proceed, without further -introduction, to offer such practical rules and maxims as may best -serve to promote the end he should have in view--that of becoming -cautious in the management, and steady in the use of his gun. - -The first step, assuming the learner to be a complete novice, will be -to acquire the proper mode of putting his gun to his shoulder, and of -bringing the sight to bear upon a particular object,--the latter only -to be rightly accomplished with the breech and sight on a level. Having -attained this preliminary, let him take a flint gun, with a piece of -wood substituted for the flint, and practise at the object so situated, -always remembering to pull the trigger the moment the sight is on the -mark--a precaution he will find the vast advantage of as he comes to -apply it to flying shots. After a practice so conducted till the eye -ceases to flinch when the trigger is drawn, he may begin to load with -half charges, and continue to practise at his object, occasionally, -without his knowledge, small charges of shot being added, so that he -shall strike his mark without the nervous excitement of feeling that he -is making the attempt. - -The great point--that of steadiness combined with -self-confidence--being arrived at, he may now try his hand at small -birds; but even after he has become adroit at these, he has still -another ordeal to go through. This is the tremour at the springing of -game, whether a pack of grouse, a covey of partridges, or a solitary -cock-pheasant, which, indeed, often makes as startling a flight as -either. In this case, it will serve him greatly to return to the -system he began with, and learn to cover his game without the nervous -apprehension of a miss. While at this practice, he may begin to use -himself to cover with both eyes open, the advantage of which he will -soon discover when he comes to quick shooting. - -Being tolerably _au fait_ at these points of practice (for perfection -can only result from long experience, whence come skill and judgment), -it will be necessary that he bear in mind those rules for rightly -effecting his purpose when his game is moving. He must shoot before an -object that crosses his point of sight; high for a bird rising in its -flight, or skimming the surface; between the ears of hares or rabbits -running in a straight line from him,--being guided, of course, in every -case, by the distance between him and the mark at which he aims. For -example, if a bird range forty yards from him, calculating the ordinary -velocity of its speed of wing, he may safely aim six inches before it. -No fixed rules, however, can be laid down, where the casualties of -powder, a dull or lively-shooting gun, high winds, and fifty other et -ceteras, are opposed to a system. One principle he may always adopt -with success, and that is, to fix his eyes on the mark he has selected, -and fire _the instant_ the gun is brought to bear upon it. It is very -difficult to say at what distance a bird may be which can be called a -fair shot, because it rests with so many contingencies. Forty yards -are generally considered as point-blank range, but it will often be -found easier to bring down game at fifty than at thirty yards. The -wind, as in cross shots, and various operating causes--all the result -of temporary accident--must be taken into account. You will always -have a better chance to kill long cross shots than those approaching -or flying from you. It is very hard to do execution upon birds with -a stern-chaser, and in coming towards you they present a surface off -which shot is very apt to glance without penetrating. I have said -nothing about the hold of his gun most convenient for the learner to -accustom himself to, because, in whatever manner it may be put into his -hands at first, he is sure, ultimately, to adopt a style of his own, -arising from natural causes, or habits almost as forcible. The nearer -it is placed to the guard, the less risk is run should a barrel burst. -The grasp of the stock more forward affords the greatest facility in -bringing the gun to bear upon its object, and more firmness of position. - -While I am on the mechanical portion of the young shooter’s -acquirements, or rather things to be acquired, I do not think a better -opportunity can be chosen to introduce a few hints upon a more advanced -state of practice, albeit some may, at the time of perusing them, -be unfit to receive what may be termed finishing lessons. When you -are about taking a cross shot at a long range, fire well before it, -from one to three feet, according to the speed with which the bird is -flying, and let your gun be thrown above the object. The same rule -must direct you in firing at hares or rabbits, whether it be a cross -shot or one in a right line. It is a most mischievous practice, as far -as regards your day’s sport, to make much noise in the field, however -strong the provocation from the disobedience of your dogs, or any cause -whatever. Should your pointers prove incorrigible, I would rather -recommend you, when they have sprung a covey, to cause them to be -taken up, and then walk yourself as near as you can to the spot where -you saw it drop. Should the birds rise singly or by the brace, continue -to beat and shoot while you think one remains: it will be time enough -to look after the slain (that cannot abscond) when you make sure of the -living. This plan may also be successfully adopted when there is not -scent enough to prevent the staunchest dogs from running in upon their -game. In marking your covey down, remember they cannot fall so long as -they continue to skim: they cannot alight till they stop themselves, -and prepare for the pitch, by a flapping of the wings. - -I should not advise you to begin beating for partridges, even in -September, before nine o’clock, and then desist from it at noon. From -three till dusk is the golden division of the day, at that season, for -the partridge-shooter. If your ground happen to lie in the vicinity of -manors that have been shot over during the day, you will be certain to -meet the remnants of scattered coveys, of all chances the most sure to -fill your game-bag. With pheasants, however, when they are to be sought -in strong covers particularly, your system must be almost reversed. -As the day advances, these birds resort to the thickest and strongest -lying that the woodlands frequented by them afford. When beating, in -the early morning, after rain, you will generally find them in the -skirts of covers, or in the hedgerows adjacent. In such cases, always -contrive to place yourself between them and the strong old woods: to -these they are certain to fly,--instinct teaching them that there they -are most sheltered and secure. In _battue_-shooting, all you have to -attend to is the situation of the best opens, and such sides of the -covers intended to be beaten, as the direction of the wind, and the -ordinary resort of the game, point out as the most judicious stations; -but when about to engage in a single-handed day’s sport, you will -require a more skilful disposition, and closer attention to the manner -of your tactics. In this latter case, your best assistant will be a -steady old pointer: one that will range near you, work round every -piece of copse and underwood, and poke into every nook and crevice; -well broke he must be, so as to fall at shot, and crouch down on -bringing in his birds. - -In a treatise such as this, it would be impossible to give even -the briefest epitome of directions for the various classes of game -and wild-fowl shooting. Before, however, I close my address to the -young disciple of the trigger, I will offer him a few familiar -hints on a division of his craft neither the least in importance or -interest,--namely, his relation to his best ally and friend, the dog. I -am not going to suggest the species best suited to general shooting, as -so very much depends upon the country to be hunted, and the chance that -may direct selection; but whether pointer, setter, or spaniel, you will -find your account in making such as you intend for coadjutors in the -field your ordinary associates and companions. Try the experiment by -committing one puppy of a litter entirely to the breaker, and retaining -another (when the general rudiments of his education have been -acquired) constantly with yourself, and at every opportunity subjected -to gentle but firm discipline, and you will soon discover which is the -better plan. Adopt the same system with a perfectly-made hunter--a -master of his business; and you will soon find out the difference of -being served by one who, from habit, will be enabled to understand your -looks, and another who, at best, will have to puzzle out your wishes, -or require to have them announced at the hazard of flushing half the -game in the parish. - -With this parting word on the social economy of shooting, closes the -last of those notices of our FIELD SPORTS which the publisher thought -it convenient to appear in this volume, and the treatment of which he -confided to me. If his purpose has been fulfilled, my desire will be -accomplished,--the wish to please being our unity of design. The little -talent the writer possesses, at all events will not have failed from -lack of anxiety to accomplish his task: what is writ is writ,-- - - “Would it were worthier!” - - - - -INDEX. - - - Balance Step: its object to teach the Free Movement of the Limbs and - Steady the Body in Walking, 28; Exercises, 28, 29. - - Balancing, 56; Position and Action, 57; Turns in, 57; its Importance - in all Manly Exercises and Sports, 59. - - Belts, Utility of, and manner of Using, 7, 8. - - Bernardi’s System of Swimming, 92. - - - Carriages: their Number and Variety in London, 176; Brilliancy in - Hyde Park, 176. - - Carrying Weight, 60; Feats in, 61. - - Chase, Hints on the, 240; Excitements of the, 247, 248; Drawing a - Cover, 248. - - Chariot Race, Poetical Description of a, 172. - - Climbing, different kinds of, explained, 64-68. - - Coaches, Accidents to, 217. - - Coach Horses: their Cost, 178; Best Breeds, 179; Strength, 181; - Treatment, 181, 182; Hints for Purchasers, 182; Harness of, 185; - Management, in Harness, 187. - - Coachmen: their Qualifications and Duties, 193-195; Hints for Night, - 220. - - Comparative Strength of different Races of Men, 17. - - - Derby Day, Description of a, 233-235. - - Dog, Familiar Hints for Young Sportsmen on the, 264. - - Discus, Throwing the, 62. - - Dragging Wheels, 221. - - Driving, Historical Sketch of, 170-175; Mounting and Dismounting, - 198; the Seat, 199; Starting, 199; the Paces, 200; the Time, 201; - the Whip, 202; Thoroughfares, Passing, &c., in, 207; Ascending and - Descending, 208; Comparison of English and German Modes of Harnessing - and, 211, 212; Turnings, 213; Slips, 215; Accidents in, 215-217; - Obstructions in, 221. - - Drowned Persons, Treatment of apparently, 80. - - - Epsom Races, Notice of, 227. - - Extension Motions used in the Sword Exercise, 20. - - - Fox Hunting, the Qualifications required in, 243-245; the Huntsman - not to be unnecessarily interrupted, 245; Keep with the Pack, 246; - Rules for finding the Hounds if out of Sight, 247; the “Tally Ho!” - 248; Signal in Drawing a Cover, 248; Movements of the Fox may be - foreseen, 250; a Day with the Shropshire, 250. - - - Gig, the Safest Posture when in a, 217. - - Guards on Mail Coaches, 197. - - Gun: Cleaning, 255; Loading, 259; Management of the, in the Field, - 260. - - Gymnasia of the Greeks and Romans, 5. - - - Harnessing, on English and German Modes of, 211. - - Head, Sir Francis, on Harnessing Horses in England, 210-212. - - Horse, The, and Equipments, 122; Animations, Soothings, and - Corrections, 142; Treatment of, 165; Restiveness, 163; Relative - Places of, 189; Accidents, &c., to, 215. - - Hounds, Following, 241; “Quick Eye to Hounds” essential in the - Sportsman, 241. - - Hunting: how Proficiency may be acquired, 239, 240; Riding at Fences - in, 241; Brook Jumping in, 242; Drawing a Cover in, 248. - - - Indian Club Exercise, as practised in the Army, 22; New Portion, from - Indian Practice, 23-26. - - - Leaping: how performed, 42; Management of the Breath, 42; the High - Leap with a Run, 42; the High Leap without a Run, 43; the Long Leap, - 44; the Deep Leap, 46; General Instructions in Leaping, 43-48; Feats - in, 44, 45. - - Leaping with a Pole: the High Leap, 50; the Long Leap, 54; the Deep - Leap, 55. - - Locomotive Exercises, 2; the best Position of the Body in, 27. - - - Manly Exercises and Recreations: their Utility in perfecting and - maturing the Frame, 240. - - Mariner’s Compass described, 119. - - - Olympic Games, 224. - - - Partridge Shooting, 263. - - Percussion Caps, 258. - - Physical Exercises: their importance in regard to Health, 1-5; a - Medium to be observed, 5; Opinion of Aristotle and Plato on, 5; - General Directions, 6; Belts useful in, 7. - - Position of the Body in Standing, 18; and of the Feet in Standing, 19. - - Powder, Col. Hawker’s Recipe for Drying, 256; Flask, the, 259. - - - Racing in the Reign of Athelstan, 224; a Popular Pastime in Reign of - Richard I. and Henry VIII., 225; James I. the Founder of Legitimate - English, 226; the First Arabian introduced into England, 226; the - Breed of Horses improved by, 236. - - Race Course at Newmarket, 226. - - Race Horse: Question of Origin discussed, 228; derived from Arabian, - 229; Exploits of, 230-232. - - Riding, best Position of the Body in, 121; Horse and Equipments, 122; - Mounting and Dismounting, 126; the Seat, 129; the Balance, 131; the - Rein Hold, 132; the Correspondence, 134; the Action, 135; the Hand, - 137; the Guidance, or Aids, 138-142; the Walk, 144-147; the Trot, - 147-150; Road Riding, 150, 151; the Gallop, 152-156; the Canter, 153; - Leaping, 156; Critical Situations in, 159; at Fences in Hunting, 241. - - Roads, Hints for Improving, 176. - - Rowing: to leave the Landing Place, 101; the Pull, 101; the Tide or - Current, 103; to Turn, Meet, Pass, and Land, 104. - - Royal Yacht Squadron, 109; its Sailing Regulations, 110. - - Running, Position of the Body in, 37, 38; Action in, 38; Respiration - in, 39; Moderate, 39; Rapid, 40; Feats in, 41; Effects of, 41. - - Rural Sports patronized by the English, 232. - - - Sailing Clubs upon the Thames, 108. - - Sailing: General Directions, 111-115; Tacking, 116; Reefing, &c., - 117-119. - - Sea Rowing explained, 105. - - Shooting Appointments, 253, 254; Gun Cleaning, 255; Powder, 256; - Wadding, 258; Loading, 259. - - Shot, Directions for Choosing, 257; Size of, 257. - - Skate, Construction of the, 69-71. - - Skating, Instructions in, 72; Dress, 72; Dangers in, 80. - - Stage Coaches, Cost and Method of Working, 177, 178. - - Strength, Comparative, of different Races of Men, 17. - - Swimming: its Utility, 82, 83; Preparatory Instructions, 83; Action - of the Hands and Feet, 83, 84; Place and Time, 85; Aids in, 86; - Cramp, 87; Entering the Water, 88; Usual Mode of Front, 88-91; - Respiration in, 91; Upright, 92; Back, 95; Side, 97; Floating, 96; - Plunging, 97; Diving, 98; Thrusting, 99; Springing, 99; with One Arm, - 100; Feats in, 100. - - Sword Exercise, First Three Movements of, 20. - - - Training: its Importance in relation to Health, 9; Opinion of the - Ancients, 9; Mental Powers improved by, 10; Principles of, 10; - Practice of the Ancients, 10, 11; Modern Practice, 12-16; Time - required in, 16. - - Turf, Historical Notices of the, 223-232. - - - Vaulting explained, 48; Oblique, 48; Straight forward, 49. - - Vessel, Description of the various Parts of a: the Deck, Rigging, - Sails, &c., 119, 120. - - - Wadding for Guns, 258. - - Walking: its Utility as an Exercise, 29, 31; General Mechanism of, - 31; the Three different Times of-- Slow, 32; Moderate, 33; Quick, 33; - Feats in, 36; Military Steps, 34-36; Use of the Balance Step in, 28. - - Weight, Carrying, 60; Feats in, 61. - - Whip, Directions for Using the, in Coach Driving, 202. - - - Yacht Club, Northern, 111. - - - J. BILLING, - PRINTER AND STEREOTYPER, - WOKING, SURREY. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - Inconsistent and archaic spelling have been retained. The differences - in wording and structure between the Table of Contents and the - chapter and section headings in the text have not been standardised. - - Page 17, ... “offer the best answer to declamations ...: the closing - quote mark is lacking. - - Page 64, ... the inclination of the board being diminished with the - progress of the pupil ... possibly an error for ... being increased - with ... or similar (as described in the next paragraph). - - Page 64, 65, Plate XVIII: there are no reference letters in the - illustration. - - - Changes made: - - Footnotes and most illustrations have been moved out of text - paragraphs. - - Some minor inconsistencies and obvious typographical and punctuation - errors have been corrected silently. - - Ditto characters in some tables and lists have been changed to the - dittoed text. - - Page 52: ... as in Plate XVII. fig. 1 ... changed to ... as in Plate - XII. fig. 1 .... - - Page 58: (fig. 1, Plate XX.) changed to (fig. 1, Plate XV.) - - Page 60: Fig. 1, Plate XVII. changed to Fig. 1, Plate XVI. - - Page 82: Heading AQUATIC EXERCISES inserted. - - Page 106: coxwain changed to coxswain. - - Page 112 footnote [23]: shouds changed to shrouds. - - Page 132: manege changed to manège as elsewhere. - - Page 189: DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XLII changed to DESCRIPTION OF PLATE - XLIII. - - Page 208: (Plate XLIII. fig. 4.) changed to (Plate XLIV. fig. 4.) - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WALKER'S MANLY EXERCISES *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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