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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-25 00:29:45 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-25 00:29:45 -0800 |
| commit | add61abdac8538f4359d1fa0342ac7136feb5af9 (patch) | |
| tree | 937fd40f3683d477f1f36711af94ce51059a8620 /old/69080-h | |
| parent | e3881a367aa32756b89a3b9c73d76031995c2e6f (diff) | |
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vertical-align: bottom;} - .tnbot - {border: dashed thin; margin: 1em 10%; padding: .5em;} - .tnbot h2 - {font-size: 1em;} - .tnbot p - {text-indent: -1em; margin-left: 1em;} - .tnbox - {border: dashed thin; margin: 1em 20%; padding: 1em;} - .top - {vertical-align: top;} - ul.index - {list-style: none; margin: .75em 0;} - ul.index li - {text-align: justify; margin: 0 0 0 1em; text-indent: -1em;} - ul.index li.newletter - {margin-top: .75em;} - ul.nostyle - {list-style: none; margin: .75em 0;} - ul.nostyle li - {text-align: justify; margin: 0 0 0 1em; text-indent: -1em;} - .x-ebookmaker ul.nostyle, - .x-ebookmaker ul.nostyle li - {margin-left: 1em;} - - </style> - - </head> - -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Walker's manly exercises, by Donald Walker</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Walker's manly exercises</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>Containing rowing, sailing, riding, driving, racing, hunting, shooting, and other manly sports</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Donald Walker</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Editor: "Craven"</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: October 1, 2022 [eBook #69080]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Tim Lindell, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WALKER'S MANLY EXERCISES ***</div> - -<div class="tnbox"> - -<p class="noindent">Please see the <a href="#TN">Transcriber’s Notes</a> at the end of this text.</p> - -<p class="noindent blankbefore75">The cover image has been created for this e-text and is in the public domain.</p> - -</div><!--tnbox--> - -<div class="x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="container w30em"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover image" /> -</div> - -</div><!--scr only--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h1><span class="gesp2 fsize90">WALKER’S</span><br /> -<span class="gesp4 fsize125">MANLY EXERCISES</span><br /> -<span class="fsize50">AND</span><br /> -<span class="fsize125"><span class="gesp4">RURAL SPORTS</span>.</span><br /> -EDITED BY “CRAVEN.”</h1> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Plate00"> -<img src="images/illo004.jpg" alt="Frontispiece" /> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="container w25em" id="Plate0"> -<img src="images/illo005.jpg" alt="Vignette" /> -</div> - -<div class="illotext w15em"> - -<p class="center">MANLY<br /> -EXERCISES,<br /> -SAILING, ROWING,<br /> -DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING,<br /> -RACING, SEATING, SWIMMING,<br /> -VAULTING, CLIMBING,<br /> -RUNNING,<br /> -&c. &c.<br /> -<i>HENRY G. BOHN,<br /> -LONDON.</i></p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<p class="center blankbefore2 highline2 fsize175"><span class="gesp2">WALKER’S<br /> -MANLY EXERCISES</span>;</p> - -<p class="center highline6 fsize70">CONTAINING</p> - -<p class="center highline2"><span class="oldtype fsize110"><b>Rowing, Sailing, Riding, Driving, Racing, Hunting,<br /> -Shooting,</b></span></p> - -<p class="center highline4">AND OTHER MANLY SPORTS.</p> - -<p class="center highline6 fsize80">THE WHOLE CAREFULLY REVISED, OR WRITTEN,</p> - -<p class="center highline6 fsize125">BY “CRAVEN.”</p> - -<p class="center highline6 sstype"><b>NINTH EDITION.</b></p> - -<p class="center highline15 fsize110">LONDON:<br /> -H. G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.<br /> -MDCCCLV.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Pagev"></a>[v]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="gesp2">EDITOR’S PREFACE.</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The publishers of the present Edition of this popular little -volume had a double purpose in entering upon the undertaking,—namely, -to offer a carefully-revised copy of <span class="smcap">Walker’s -Manly Exercises</span>, and an outline of <span class="smcap">Rural Sports</span>, to which -they serve as the best elementary introduction. As the execution -of that design was committed to me, I can only allude -to the nature of the task, and hope that I have not quite failed -in the enterprise. This I <i>may</i> be permitted to say,—that if -the publishers’ desire to make the work a source of instructive -and rational amusement be realized, even to the tithe of its -extent and earnestness, the labour of his Editor will not have -been wholly without success.</p> - -<p class="right padr2 blankbefore2">CRAVEN.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Pagevii"></a>[vi-<br />vii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="gesp2">CONTENTS.</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<table class="toc"> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="partname">IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="right"><span class="smcap fsize80">Page</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">General Directions</span></td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page6">6</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Training</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page8">8</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Position</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page18">18</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Extension Motions</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page20">20</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Indian Club Exercises</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page22">22</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="partname">LOCOMOTIVE EXERCISES.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">The Balance Step</span></td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page28">28</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Walking</span></td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page29">29</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">General Mechanism of Walking</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page31">31</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Slow Walk or March</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page32">32</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Moderate and the Quick Pace</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page32">32</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Moderate Pace</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page33">33</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Quick Pace</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page33">33</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Slow Step</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page35">35</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Quick Step</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page35">35</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Double March</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page35">35</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Feats in Walking</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page36">36</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Running</span></td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page37">37</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Position in Running</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page38">38</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Action in Running</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page38">38</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Respiration</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page39">39</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Moderate Running</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page39">39</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Rapid Running</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page40">40</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Feats in Running</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page41">41</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Effects of Running</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page41">41</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Leaping</span><span class="pagenum"><a id="Pageviii"></a>[viii]</span></td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page42">42</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The High Leap</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page42">42</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Feats in High Leaping</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page42">42</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Long Leap</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page44">44</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Feats in Long Leaping</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page44">44</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Deep Leap</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page45">45</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Deep Leap backwards from a rest on the hands</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page46">46</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Vaulting</span></td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page48">48</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Oblique Vaulting</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page48">48</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Straight-forward Vaulting</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page49">49</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Leaping with a Pole</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page50">50</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The High Leap with a Pole</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page50">50</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Long Leap with a Pole</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page54">54</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Deep Leap with a Pole</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page55">55</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Balancing</span></td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page56">56</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Position and Action in Balancing</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page56">56</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Turns in Balancing</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page57">57</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Carrying Weight</span></td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page57">57</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Throwing the Discus</span></td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page60">60</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Climbing</span>, in all its divisions</td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page64">64</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Skating</span></td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page69">69</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Construction of the Skate</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page69">69</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Dress of the Skater</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page72">72</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Preliminary and General Directions</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page72">72</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Ordinary Run, or Inside Edge Forward</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page73">73</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Forward Roll, or Outside Edge</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page75">75</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Figure of Three, or Inside Edge Backward</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page76">76</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Outside Edge Backward</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page77">77</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Back Roll</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page78">78</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Dangers of Skating</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page80">80</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Treatment of Drowned Persons</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page80">80</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="partname">AQUATIC EXERCISES</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Swimming</span></td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page82">82</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Preparatory Instructions</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page83">83</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Place and time for Swimming</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page85">85</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Dress</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page86">86</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Aids</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page86">86</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Cramp</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page87">87</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Entering the Water</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page88">88</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Buoyancy in the Water</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page88">88</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Attitude and Action in the Water</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page91">91</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Respiration in Swimming</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page91">91</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Coming out of the Water<span class="pagenum"><a id="Pageix"></a>[ix]</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page92">92</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Upright Swimming</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page92">92</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Treading Water</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page95">95</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Back Swimming</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page95">95</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Floating</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page96">96</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Side Swimming</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page97">97</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Plunging</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page97">97</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Diving</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page98">98</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Thrusting</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page99">99</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Springing</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page99">99</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">One-arm Swimming</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page100">100</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Feats in Swimming</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page100">100</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Rowing</span>, in all its kinds</td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page101">101</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Sailing</span>, with notices of the Yacht Clubs, and General Directions</td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page106">106</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="partname">RIDING.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Horse and Equipments</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page122">122</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Mounting and Dismounting</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page125">125</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Seat</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page129">129</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Balance</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page131">131</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Rein Hold</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page132">132</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Correspondence</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page134">134</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Action</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page135">135</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Hand</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page136">136</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Aids</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page138">138</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Animations, Soothings, and Corrections</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page142">142</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Walk</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page144">144</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Trot</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page147">147</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Road Riding</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page150">150</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Gallop</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page152">152</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Leaping</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page156">156</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Critical Situations</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page159">159</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Treatment of the Horse</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page165">165</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Driving</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page170">170</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Road</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page175">175</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Carriages</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page176">176</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Coach Horses</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page178">178</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Harness</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page185">185</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Relative Prices of Horses</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page189">189</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Coachmen</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page193">193</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Mounting and Dismounting</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page198">198</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Seat</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page199">199</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Starting</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page199">199</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Paces</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page200">200</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Time<span class="pagenum"><a id="Pagex"></a>[x]</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page201">201</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Whip</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page202">202</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Thoroughfares, Passing, &c.</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page207">207</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Ascending and Descending Hills</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page208">208</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Turnings</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page213">213</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">The Ranks in Town</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page214">214</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Stops</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page215">215</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Accidents to Horses</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page215">215</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Accidents to Coaches</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page217">217</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="subject">Obstructions, Offences, and Injuries</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page221">221</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Racing</span></td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page223">223</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Hunting</span></td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page239">239</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Shooting</span></td> -<td class="pagno chap"><a href="#Page253">253</a></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Pagexi"></a>[xi]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="gesp2">LIST OF PLATES.</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<table class="loi"> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="descr"><a href="#Plate00">FRONTISPIECE.</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="descr"><span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate0">Vignette.</a></span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="descr blankbefore15"><span class="smcap">Plates.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateI">I.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Position—Extension Motions.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateII">II.</a> to <a href="#PlateVII">VII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Indian Club Exercises.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateVIII">VIII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Walking.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateIX">IX.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Running.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateX">X.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Leaping.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXI">XI.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Vaulting.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXII">XII.</a> & <a href="#PlateXIII">XIII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Pole Leaping.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXIV">XIV.</a> & <a href="#PlateXV">XV.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Balancing.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXVI">XVI.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Carrying Weight.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXVII">XVII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Throwing the Discus.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXVIII">XVIII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Climbing.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXIX">XIX.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Skating.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXX">XX.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Swimming—Attitude.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXI">XXI.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Swimming—Action of the Hands.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXII">XXII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Swimming—Action of the Feet.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXIII">XXIII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Swimming—Buoyancy in Water—Treading Water.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXIV">XXIV.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Swimming—Back Swimming.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXV">XXV.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Swimming—Side Swimming—Floating.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXVI">XXVI.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Swimming—Plunging.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXVII">XXVII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Swimming—Diving.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXVIII">XXVIII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Swimming—Thrusting.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXIX">XXIX.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Rowing—Fig. I. Beginning of the Pull.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Pagexii"></a>[xii]</span><br />Rowing—Fig. II. Middle of the Pull.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXX">XXX.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Rowing—Fig. I. End of the Pull.—Fig. II. Return of Sculls.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXXI">XXXI.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Fig. I. Mariner’s Compass.—Fig. II. Plan of a Vessel’s Deck.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXXII">XXXII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Fig. I. Parts of a Pleasure Boat at Anchor.<br />Fig. II. Boat before a Light Breeze.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXXIII">XXXIII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Fig. I. Boat with Breeze on Larboard Beam.<br />Fig. II. Boat close to the Wind on Starboard Tack.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXXIV">XXXIV.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Horse Equipments.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXXV">XXXV.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Fig. I. Parts of the Horse.—Fig. II. First View of Mounting.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXXVI">XXXVI.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Fig. I. Second View of Mounting.—Fig. II. The Seat.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXXVII">XXXVII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">The Rein Hold.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXXVIII">XXXVIII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Fig. I. The Walk.—Fig. II. The Stop.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXXXIX">XXXIX.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Fig. I. The Trot.—Fig. II. Road Riding.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXL">XL.</a></td> -<td class="descr">The Canter.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXLI">XLI.</a></td> -<td class="descr">The Rise in Leaping,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXLII">XLII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">The Fall in Leaping.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXLIII">XLIII.</a></td> -<td class="descr">Four Horse Harness.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="plateno"><a href="#PlateXLIV">XLIV.</a></td> -<td class="descr">The Rein Hold in Driving.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page1"></a>[1]</span></p> - -<div class="container w40em"> -<img src="images/illo017.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="gesp2">IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES.</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><span class="smcap">Education</span> may be divided into two parts, physical and -mental. Of the former, <span class="smcap">Exercises</span> or <span class="smcap">Gymnastics</span> are the -most extensive and the earliest portion.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Their extent</span> is learnt by an enumeration of them, viz., -Walking, Running, Leaping, Vaulting, Pole-leaping, Balancing, -Skating, Carrying, Climbing, and Swimming. We have added -Throwing the Discus; and, in a course of British Exercises, -we think Rowing, Sailing, Riding, and Driving, would be very -improperly omitted.</p> - -<p>The object of these Exercises is to strengthen the muscular -system, by subjecting it to a regular process of training, and to -teach the means of employing it most advantageously. The -expediency of their early acquisition is rendered evident by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page2"></a>[2]</span> -first tendency of youth being directed to them, by the rapid -progress made in them, and by the delight derived from them, -at a period when the body is incapable, with real or solid advantage, -of higher acquirements.</p> - -<p>Their general utility will be questioned only by those who -are not aware that the health and vigour of all the bodily organs -depend on the proportioned exercise of each. In active exertion, -the member exercised swells with the more frequent and -more copious flow of blood, and heat is developed in it with -greater abundance; and if we repeat the same motions many -times after intervals of repose, all the muscles exercised become -permanently developed; a perfection of action ensues in the -member exercised, which it did not previously possess, any deformity -by which it is affected is corrected, and strength and -activity are acquired. That man, therefore, gains the most -strength who engages in muscular exercises that require the -application of much power, but which are sufficiently separated -by intervals of repose.</p> - -<p>It must be remembered, however, that, in exercising particular -muscles only, the others become weak. The strength of -Marshal Saxe was sufficiently great to stop a chariot drawn at -speed by four horses, by merely seizing the wheel: he bent -pieces of silver with his fingers, made them into boats as he -would with paper, and presented them to the ladies. Count -Orloff, a Russian general, broke the shoe of a carriage horse in -the same manner; and there are innumerable examples of -similar feats of extraordinary strength.</p> - -<p>Active exercises, at the same time, confer beauty of form; -and they even contribute to impart an elegant air and graceful -manners. If the exercise of a limb be continued for some time, -the member swells, a painful sensation is experienced, which is -termed lassitude, and a difficulty of contraction, which is the -result of it. If the motion has been excessive, and the organic -elements in the member have been acted upon beyond all physiological -laws, inflammation would take place, and its functions -be performed with great difficulty, if at all.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page3"></a>[3]</span></p> - -<p>Such are the effects of exercise on the locomotive system, to -all the functions of animated beings, so long as they are exercised -with moderation, equality, and at due intervals, working -for their own preservation. Of course, the general effect of -active exercises is marked in proportion to the number of parts -that share in the motion, or are brought into energetic action. -In general exercise, the increase of organic action is not confined -solely to the parts which are the seat of muscular contraction, -but is repeated throughout all parts of the economy, -and influences all the functions.</p> - -<p>Thus, as to the vital or nutritive system, exercises taken when -digestion is not going on, excite the digestive faculty: taken -during its progress, they disorder that function. The arterial -and venous circulations become more rapid by active exercise, -which concludes by giving greater force to the tissue of the -heart. It is the same with respiration and calorification. The -same takes place with regard to nutrition, a function which exercise -increases, not only in the muscles in movement, as we -have just seen, but also in the bones, ligaments, vessels, and -nerves.</p> - -<p>By inducing cutaneous exhalation, it promotes the expulsion -of injurious agents, produces a fresh colour in persons who may -have become pale through a sedentary life, and, to a certain extent, -renders the human constitution, by means of habit, proof -against the action of surrounding objects. The local effects of -excessive action, or those which take place in the members -themselves, are, as before observed, inflammation of the muscles, -rheumatism, like that arising from cold, and inflammation of the -serous articular membranes. The general effects of excessive -exercise may, in the same manner as all physical and moral -stimulants, exhaust the vital faculties too quickly, communicate -too much rigidity to the fibres, render the vessels varicose, bring -on chronic rheumatism, destroy the freshness of the skin, blight -the flower of youth, and produce old age and death before the -time ordained by nature.</p> - -<p>Ancient writers inform us that it was a rare thing to meet<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page4"></a>[4]</span> -with athletes, who, having signalized themselves from their -earliest youth in gymnastic combats, were of so excellent a constitution -as to be able, when they had reached a more advanced -age, to acquire the same honours on contending for the prize -with grown men. Aristotle assures us, that amongst the conquerors -in the Olympic Games, not more than two or three at -the most could be found to whom nature had granted such an -advantage.</p> - -<p>In relation to the mental or thinking system, “every movement,” -says Cabanis, “becomes in its turn the principle or -occasion of new impressions, of which the frequent repetition -and the varied character must increase more and more the circle -of our judgments, or tend unceasingly to rectify them. It hence -follows that labour, giving to this word the most general signification, -cannot but have an influence infinitely useful on the -habits of the understanding, and consequently also on those of -the will.” This argument is evidently applicable to varied exercise. -On the contrary, “the great division of labour, so favourable -to the perfecting of the arts, contracts more and more the -understanding of workmen.” Exercises, moreover, inspire confidence -in difficult situations, and suggest resources in danger. -Their consequent influence upon the moral conduct of man is -such, that, by a courage which is well founded, because it springs -from a perfect knowledge of his own powers, he is often enabled -to render the most important services to others.</p> - -<p>Although the direct effect of exercise is not only to confer -power on the muscular and other organs, but to multiply external -impressions, and to occupy with them all the senses at -once; still minds thus disposed, in general occupy themselves -rather with objects of imagination and sentiment, than with -those which demand more complicated operation. The sense of -muscular power impresses determinations which, carrying man -perpetually out of himself, scarcely permit him to dwell upon -impressions transmitted to his brain. The only action of that -organ, during these exercises, seems to be limited to ordering -the movements.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page5"></a>[5]</span></p> - -<p>Hence, exercise, especially taken in the open air, amidst new -and varied objects of sight, is not favourable to reflection—to -labours which demand the assemblage and concentration of all -the powers of the mind. It is, on the contrary, in the absence -of external impressions, that we become more capable of seizing -many relations, and of following a long train of purely abstract -reasoning. As life spent chiefly in active muscular exercises -would leave in a state of repose those central organs that are -subservient to the moral qualities and intellectual faculties, I -agree with Seneca and Camper, in proscribing all such exercises, -or such degrees of exercise, as would exhaust the mind, -and render man incapable of aptitude in science, polite literature, -and art.</p> - -<p>The cultivation of bodily strength, in preference to every -thing else, would establish only the right of the strongest, as it -is found to exist in the origin of society. To cultivate the -faculties of the mind exclusively, would produce only the weakness -of sentiment or excess of passion. There is, for every individual, -a means of making all these dispositions act in harmony; -and the due blending of physical and moral education alone can -produce it. Let it be remembered that young persons will -much more easily be withdrawn from the application they ought -to pay to the study of the sciences, by insipid recreations and -trifling games, than by the fatiguing exercises necessary for their -developement and the preservation of their health, which, however, -habit soon renders easy and delightful. To what vices -do not a sedentary life and the practice of gaming give rise?—whilst -well-regulated exercises excite ambition to excel, and -energy in the performance of every duty.</p> - -<p>The philosophers of antiquity, such as Aristotle and Plato, -regarded gymnastic exercises as of vast importance, and considered -a state defective and badly organized where these exercises -were not instituted. Colleges, called Gymnasia, were therefore -established everywhere, and superintended by distinguished -masters. Accordingly, the illustrious men of the Grecian and -Roman republics, even those who shone in literature and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page6"></a>[6]</span> -fine arts, received the same physical education. The gymnastic -exercises which are here recommended are not intended to produce -athletes, but to strengthen the human constitution. One -exercise gives solidity, another address; and we may even say -that the various kinds of exercise are sometimes opposed to -each other. The strongest peasant is far from being the best -runner; and the most vigorous dancer would probably be deficient -in strength. There is, however, a mean to be found in -the disposition of every individual to preserve both skill and -strength, and this is what ought to be sought. For this purpose, -it will suffice to practise young persons a few hours every -day, sometimes at one exercise, and sometimes at another.</p> - -<h3>GENERAL DIRECTIONS.</h3> - -<p>It only remains for us to give a few directions as to the time, -place, and circumstances of exercise. The best time for the -elementary exercises is when the air is cool, as, even in summer, -it is early in the morning, or after the sun has declined; and -they should never immediately follow a meal. The best place -for these elementary exercises is a smooth grass-plat, or a firm -sandy sea-beach. Chasms, stones, and stakes, are always dangerous. -At the commencement, the coat and all unnecessary -clothes should be laid aside; and all hard or sharp things should -be taken from the pockets of the remaining dress. A very light -covering on the head, as a straw hat, is best; the shirt-collar -should be open, the breast being either exposed or thinly -covered; the waistband of the trousers should not be tight, and -the boots or shoes should have no iron about them.</p> - -<p>As sudden transitions are always bad, exercise should begin -gently, and should terminate in the same manner. The left -hand and arm being commonly weaker than the right, they -should be exercised till they become as strong. This custom is -advantageous, not only for all military and mechanical gymnastic -exercises, but also for all their operations. The being cooled -too quickly is injurious. Therefore, drinking when very hot, or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page7"></a>[7]</span> -lying down on the cold ground, should be carefully avoided. -No exertion should be carried to excess, as that only exhausts -and enfeebles the body. Therefore, whenever the gymnast feels -tired, or falls behind his usual mark, he should resume his -clothes, and walk home. The moment exercise is finished, the -clothes should always be put on, and the usual precautions -adopted to prevent taking cold.</p> - -<p>The necessary fittings-up of an exercising ground are a leaping -stand, a vaulting horse, a balancing bar, a climbing stand, -with ladders, poles, and ropes, which may be seen united as -simply and economically as possible, in a subsequent sketch—(<a href="#PlateXVIII">Plate -XVIII.</a> <span class="smcap">Climbing</span>.)</p> - -<p>In most exercises, a belt or cincture is of utility; and it seems, -in all ages, to have been naturally employed. The weakest -savage, who could not follow others in the course without panting, -would find, by placing his hand over his abdomen, and -supporting the liver and other organs which descend into that -cavity, that he was aided in running, and breathed more easily; -and thence he would make for himself a belt. United in societies, -men would still preserve their belt, though it might not -seem particularly advantageous, except to those whose active -mode of life approached a primitive state, such as travellers, -couriers, and porters.</p> - -<p>The Greeks put on their belts before they commenced -wrestling; and many physicians, both ancient and modern, -recommend the use of belts, as being to the whole of the body, -and to the parts over which they are placed, what the exterior -sheaths or aponeuroses are to the muscles—bands which embrace -and keep firm the parts over which they are placed. The -common belt has leathern straps, and buckles to fasten it, an -iron ring and a pocket. A double cincture for wrestling forms -a very strong girth, which is put on by pupils who are very -strong, when they wrestle. These belts may be made of different -sizes, for youths of different ages: of five or six inches -for tall youths and men, and of eight or ten inches for wrestlers. -Their length is in proportion to the size of the person who uses<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page8"></a>[8]</span> -them. These belts are very useful in strengthening the abdominal -region in running and leaping. Riders, also, should furnish -themselves with belts before getting on horseback, to prevent -too violent motion of the viscera of the abdomen, and the disorders -which may result from it. The use, indeed, of belts will -by degrees prove their utility, and they will probably be worn -even externally, without reference to physical exercises. They -deserve this the more, because they give an air of lightness and -elegance to the shape, and develope the chest.</p> - -<p>The most useful thing in existence is dangerous, if improperly -applied. In very young persons, the chest and abdomen have -been compressed by fastening the belt too tight, or making it -too wide; and disorders of digestion and respiration have consequently -been caused by pushing in the false ribs. This is an -imprudence that should be avoided. If the belt be too low, it -may press too much on the lower part of the belly; if too high, -it may disorder the chest. It must therefore be placed on the -loins, so as to pass over the navel; and, as said before, it must -not be too tight. Having given these ideas of the utility of -belts, and the manner of using them, it remains only to explain -the triple use of those adopted for exercises: 1st, they fulfil, by -their size and other circumstances, all the conditions which -render them useful; 2nd, a pocket serves to inclose the articles -that may be wanted, according to the class of exercises performing; -3rd, an iron ring is intended to suspend, by means of -hooks, any thing we wish to carry, so as to leave the hands at -liberty.</p> - -<h4>TRAINING.</h4> - -<p>This is important in relation to various exercises to be described. -The art of training for athletic exercises, or laborious -exertions, consists in purifying the body and strengthening its -powers, by certain processes, which are now to be described. -The advantages of it, however, are not confined to pedestrians,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page9"></a>[9]</span> -wrestlers, or pugilists; they extend to every one: for, were -training generally introduced, instead of medicine, for the prevention -and cure of diseases, its beneficial consequences would -assuredly prolong life, and promote its happiness. Every physiologist -knows that all the parts which compose the human -body—solids as well as liquids—are successively absorbed and -deposited. Hence ensues a perpetual renovation of them, regulated -by the nature of our food and general habits. The health -of all the parts, and the soundness of their structure, depend -on this perpetual absorption and renovation. Now, nothing so -effectually as exercise excites at once absorption and secretion. -It accordingly promotes all the vital functions without hurrying -them, renovates all the parts, and preserves them apt and fit -for their offices.</p> - -<p>It follows, then, that health, vigour, and activity, chiefly depend -upon exercise and regimen; or, in other words, upon the -observance of those rules which constitute the theory of training. -The effect has accordingly corresponded with the cause assigned -in this view of the subject, in every instance where it has been -adopted; and, although not commonly resorted to as the means -of restoring invalids to health, there is every reason to believe -that it would prove effectual in curing many obstinate diseases, -such as bilious complaints, obesity, gout, and rheumatism.</p> - -<p>The Ancients entertained this opinion. They were, says a -popular writer on medicine, by no means unacquainted with or -inattentive to these instruments of medicine, although modern -practitioners appear to have no idea of removing disease, or restoring -health, but by pouring drugs into the stomach. Heroditus -is said to have been the first who applied the exercises -and regimen of the Gymnasium to the removal of disease, or -the maintenance of health. Among the Romans, Asclepiades -carried this so far, that he is said, by Celsus, almost to have -banished the use of internal remedies from his practice. He was -the inventor of various modes of exercise and gestation, in Rome. -In his own person, he afforded an excellent example of the -wisdom of his rules, and the propriety of his regimen. Pliny<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page10"></a>[10]</span> -tells us that, in early life, he made a public profession, that he -would agree to forfeit all pretensions to the name of a physician, -should he ever suffer from sickness, or die but of old age; and, -what is extraordinary, he fulfilled his promise, for he lived upwards -of a century, and at last was killed by a fall down stairs.</p> - -<p>As to the locomotive system, modern experience sufficiently -proves that exercise is the most powerful strengthener of the -muscles, and of every part on which activity depends. In its -operation on the vital system, training always appears to benefit -the state of the lungs. Indeed, one of its most striking effects -is to improve the wind: that is, to enable a man to draw a larger -inspiration, and to hold his breath longer. As to the intellectual -system, Sir J. Sinclair observes, that, by training, the mental -faculties are also improved; the attention being more ready, -and the perception more acute, owing probably to the clearness -of the stomach, and better digestion.</p> - -<p>It must, therefore, be admitted, that the most beneficial consequences -to general health arise from training. The simplicity -of the rules for it is assuredly a great recommendation to a trial -of the experiment. The whole process may be resolved into -the following principles:—1st, the evacuating, which cleanses -the stomach and intestines; 2nd, the sweating, which takes off -the superfluities of fat and humours; 3rd, the daily course of -exercise, which improves the wind and strengthens the muscles; -and, lastly, the regimen, which nourishes and invigorates the -body. To those who are to engage in corporeal exercises beyond -their ordinary powers, it is indispensably necessary. Pedestrians, -therefore, who are matched either against others or -against time, and pugilists who engage to fight, must undergo -the training process before they contend. The issue of the -contest, if their powers be nearly equal, will, in a great measure, -depend upon their relative condition, as effected by training, at -the hour of trial.</p> - -<p>Training was known to the ancients, who paid much attention -to the means of augmenting corporeal vigour and activity. -Accordingly, among the Greeks and Romans, certain rules of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page11"></a>[11]</span> -exercise and regimen were prescribed to the candidates for -gymnastic celebrity. We are assured, that, among the Greeks, -previously to the solemn contests at the public games, the -strictest temperance, sobriety, and regularity in living, were indispensably -requisite. The candidates were, at the same time, -subjected to daily exercise in the Gymnasium, which continued -during ten months, and which, with the prescribed regimen, -constituted the preparatory training adopted by the athletæ of -Greece. Among the Romans, the exercises of the palæstra -degenerated from the rank of a liberal art, and became a profession, -which was embraced only by the lowest of mankind; -the exhibitions of the gladiators being bloody and ferocious -spectacles, which evinced the barbarous taste of the people. -The combatants, however, were regularly trained by proper -exercise, and a strict observance of regimen. Pure and salubrious -air was deemed a chief requisite. Accordingly, the principal -schools of their athletæ were established at Capua and Ravenna, -the most healthy places in Italy; and previous to entering on -this regimen, the men were subjected to the evacuating process, -by means of emetics, which they preferred to purgatives.</p> - -<p>In the more early stages of training, their diet consisted of -dried figs, new cheese, and boiled grain. Afterwards animal -food was introduced as a part of the athletic regimen, and pork -was preferred to any other. Galen, indeed, asserts, that pork -contains more real nutriment than flesh of any other kind, -which is used as food by man. This fact, he adds, is decidedly -proved by the example of the athletæ, who, if they live but for -one day on any other kind of food, find their vigour manifestly -impaired the next. The preference given to pork by the ancients, -however, does not correspond with the practice of modern -trainers, who entirely reject it; but in the manner of preparing -the food, they exactly agree—roasting or broiling being by both -preferred to boiling, and bread unfermented to that prepared by -leaven. A very small quantity of liquid was allowed to the -athletæ, and this was principally water. They exercised in the -open air, and became familiarized by habit to every change of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page12"></a>[12]</span> -the weather, the vicissitudes of which soon ceased to affect -them.</p> - -<p>To exercise their patience, and accustom them to bear pain -without flinching, they were occasionally flogged on the back -with the branches of a kind of rhododendron, till the blood -flowed. By diminishing the quantity of the circulating liquid, -this rough kind of cupping was also considered salutary! as obviating -the tendency to plethora or redundancy of blood, to -which they were peculiarly liable—a proof, if true, of the nourishing -qualities of their food.</p> - -<p>When the daily exercises of the athletæ were finished, they -were refreshed by immersion in a tepid bath, where the perspiration -and sordes—scurf, pustules, or filthy adhesions—were -carefully removed from the surface of the body by the use of -the strygil.<a id="FNanchor1" href="#Footnote1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The skin was then diligently rubbed dry, and -again anointed with oil. If thirsty, they were permitted to -drink a small quantity of warm water. They then took their -principal repast, after which they used no more exercise that -day. They occasionally also went into the cold bath in the -morning. They were permitted to sleep as many hours as they -chose; and great increase of vigour, as well as of bulk, was -supposed to be derived from long-continued and sound repose.<a id="FNanchor2" href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> -The sexual intercourse was strictly prohibited.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote1" href="#FNanchor1" class="label">[1]</a> -For this instrument, rough coarse cloths are adopted, but not with advantage.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote2" href="#FNanchor2" class="label">[2]</a> -Little sleep is now prescribed; but its quantity should depend upon circumstances -of fatigue, &c.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>The manner of training among the ancients bears some resemblance -to that practised by the moderns. Perhaps it is -because their mode of living and general habits were somewhat -different from those of the present age, that a difference of -treatment is now required to produce the same effects. The -great object of training for running or boxing matches, is to -increase the muscular strength, and to improve the free action -of the lungs, or wind, of the person subjected to the process. -Seeing that the human body is so capable of being altered and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page13"></a>[13]</span> -renovated, it is not surprising that the art of training should be -carried to a degree of perfection almost incredible; and that, by -certain processes, the muscular power, the breath (or wind), and -the courage of man, should be so greatly improved as to enable -him to perform the most severe or laborious undertakings.</p> - -<p>That such effects have been produced is unquestionable: they -are fully exemplified in the astonishing exploits of our most -celebrated pedestrians and pugilists, which are the infallible results -of such preparatory discipline. The skilful trainer attends -to the state of the bowels, the lungs, and the skin; and he uses -such means as will reduce the fat, and at the same time invigorate -the muscular fibre. The patient is purged by drastic medicines; -he is sweated by walking under a load of clothes, and by -lying between feather beds; and his limbs are roughly rubbed. -His diet is beef or mutton: his drink strong ale. He is gradually -inured to exercise, by repeated trials in walking and running. -By extenuating the fat, emptying the cellular substance, hardening -the muscular fibre, and improving the breath, a man of the -ordinary frame may be made to fight for one hour, with the utmost -exertion of strength and courage, or to go over one hundred -miles in twenty-four hours.</p> - -<p>The most effectual process for training appears to be that -practised by Captain Barclay, which has not only been sanctioned -by professional men, but has met with the unqualified approbation -of amateurs. We are here, therefore, almost entirely indebted -to it for details. According to this method, the pedestrian, -who may be supposed in tolerable condition, enters upon -his training with a regular course of physic, which consists of -three doses. Glauber’s salts are generally preferred; and from -one ounce and a half to two ounces are taken each time, with -an interval of four days between each dose. After having gone -through the course of physic, he commences his regular exercise, -which is gradually increased as he proceeds in the training.</p> - -<p>When the object in view is the accomplishment of a pedestrian -match, his regular exercise may be from twenty to twenty-four -miles a day. He must rise at five in the morning, run half<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page14"></a>[14]</span> -a mile at the top of his speed up-hill, and then walk six miles -at a moderate pace, coming in about seven to breakfast, which -should consist of beef-steaks or mutton-chops under-done, with -stale bread and old beer. After breakfast, he must again walk -six miles at a moderate pace, and at twelve lie down in bed, -without his clothes, for half an hour. On getting up, he must -walk four miles, and return by four to dinner, which should also -be beef-steaks or mutton-chops, with bread and beer, as at -breakfast. Immediately after dinner, he must resume his exercise, -by running half a mile at the top of his speed, and walking -six miles at a moderate pace. He takes no more exercise for -that day, but retires to bed about eight; and next morning he -proceeds in the same manner.</p> - -<p>Animal diet, it will be observed, is, according to this system, -alone prescribed, and beef and mutton are preferred. All fat -and greasy substances are prohibited, as they induce bile, and -consequently injure the stomach. The lean of meat contains -more nourishment than the fat; and, in every case, the most -substantial food is preferable to any other kind. Fresh meat is -the most wholesome and nourishing. Salt, spiceries, and all -kinds of seasonings, with the exception of vinegar, are prohibited. -The lean, then, of fat beef cooked in steaks, with very -little salt, is the best; and it should be rather under-done than -otherwise. Mutton, being reckoned easy of digestion, may be -occasionally given, to vary the diet and gratify the taste. The -legs of fowls are also esteemed.</p> - -<p>It is preferable to have the meat broiled, as much of its nutritive -quality is lost by roasting or boiling. It ought to be dressed -so as to remain tender and juicy; for it is by these means that -it will be easily digested, and afford most nourishment. Biscuit -and stale bread are the only preparations of vegetable matter -which are permitted to be given; and every thing inducing -flatulency must be carefully avoided. In general, the quantity -of aliment is not limited by the trainer, but left entirely to the -discretion of the pedestrian, whose appetite should regulate him -in this respect.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page15"></a>[15]</span></p> - -<p>With respect to liquors, they must be always taken cold; and -home-brewed beer, old, but not bottled, is the best. A little -red wine, however, may be given to those who are not fond of -malt liquor; but never more than half a pint after dinner. It is -an established rule to avoid liquids as much as possible; and no -more liquor of any kind is allowed to be taken than is requisite -to quench the thirst.</p> - -<p>After having gone on in this regular course for three or four -weeks, the pedestrian must take a four-mile sweat, which is produced -by running four miles in flannel, at the top of his speed. -Immediately on returning, a hot liquor is prescribed, in order to -promote the perspiration; and of this he must drink one English -pint. It is termed the sweating liquor, and is composed of one -ounce of carraway seed, half an ounce of coriander seed, one -ounce of root-liquorice, and half an ounce of sugar-candy, mixed -with two bottles of cyder, and boiled down to one-half. He is -then put to bed in his flannels, and, being covered with six or -eight pair of blankets, and a feather bed, must remain in this -state from twenty-five to thirty minutes, when he is taken out, -and rubbed perfectly dry. Being then well wrapt in his great -coat, he walks out gently for two miles, and returns to breakfast, -which, on such occasions, should consist of a roasted fowl. -He afterwards proceeds with his usual exercise.</p> - -<p>These sweats are continued weekly, till within a few days of -the performance of the match; or, in other words, he must -undergo three or four of these operations. If the stomach of -the pedestrian be foul, an emetic or two must be given about a -week before the conclusion of the training. He is now supposed -to be in the highest condition.</p> - -<p>Besides his usual or regular exercise, a person under training -ought to employ himself, in the intervals, in every kind of exertion -which tends to activity, such as golf, cricket, bowls, throwing -quoits, &c., so that, during the whole day, both body and -mind may be constantly occupied. Although the chief parts of -the system depend upon sweating, exercise, and feeding, yet the -object to be obtained by the pedestrian would be defeated, if<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page16"></a>[16]</span> -these were not adjusted each to the other, and to his constitution. -The trainer, before he proceeds to apply his theory, should -make himself acquainted with the constitution and habits of his -patient, that he maybe able to judge how far he can, with safety, -carry on the different parts of the process. The nature of the -patient’s disposition should also be known, that every cause of -irritation may be avoided; for, as it requires great patience and -perseverance to undergo training, every expedient to sooth and -encourage the mind should be adopted.</p> - -<p>The skilful trainer will, moreover, constantly study the progress -of his art, by observing the effect of its processes, separately -and in combination. If a man retain his health and spirits -during the process, improve in wind, and increase in strength, -it is certain that the object aimed at will be obtained; but, if -otherwise, it is to be apprehended that some defect exists, -through the unskilfulness or mismanagement of the trainer, -which ought instantly to be remedied by such alterations as the -circumstances of the case may demand. It is evident, therefore, -that in many instances the trainer must be guided by his -judgment, and that no fixed rules of management can, with -absolute certainty, be depended upon, for producing an invariable -and determinate result. In general, however, it may be -calculated, that the known rules are adequate to the purpose, if -the pedestrian strictly adhere to them, and the trainer bestow a -moderate degree of attention to his state and condition during -the progress of training.</p> - -<p>It is impossible to fix any precise period for the completion -of the training process, as it depends upon the previous condition -of the pedestrian; but from two to three months, in most -cases, will be sufficient, especially if he be in tolerable condition -at the commencement, and possessed of sufficient perseverance -and courage to submit cheerfully to the privations and hardships -to which he must unavoidably be subjected. The criterion by -which it may be known whether a man is in good condition—or, -what is the same thing, whether he has been properly trained—is -the state of the skin, which becomes smooth, elastic, and well-coloured,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page17"></a>[17]</span> -or transparent. The flesh is also firm; and the person -trained feels himself light, and full of spirits. In the progress -of the training, his condition may also be ascertained by the -effect of the sweats, which cease to reduce his weight; and by -the manner in which he performs one mile at the top of his -speed. It is as difficult to run a mile at the top of one’s speed -as to walk a hundred; and therefore, if he performs this short -distance well, it may be concluded that his condition is perfect, -or that he has derived all the advantages which can possibly result -from the training process.</p> - -<p>A few words may be here added on the comparative strength -of different races of men. In order to procure some exact results -on this point, Peron took with him on his voyage an instrument -called a dynamometer, so constructed as to indicate -on a dial-plate the relative force of individuals submitted to experiment. -He directed his attention to the strength of the arms -and of the loins, making trial with several individuals of each of -the races among whom he then was, viz., twelve natives of Van -Diemen’s Land, seventeen of New Holland, fifty-six of the Island -of Timor, seventeen Frenchmen belonging to the expedition, and -fourteen Englishmen in the colony of New South Wales. The -following numbers express the mean result in each case, but all -the details are given in a tabular form in the <span class="nowrap">original:—</span></p> - -<table class="standard"> - -<tr> -<th rowspan="2"> </th> -<th class="wide">Strength<br />of the Arms.</th> -<th>Strength<br />of the Loins.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th>Kilogrammes.</th> -<th>Myriagrammes.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">1. Van Diemen’s Land</td> -<td class="center">50.6</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">2. New Holland</td> -<td class="center">50.8</td> -<td class="center">10.2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">3. Timor</td> -<td class="center">58.7</td> -<td class="center">11.6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">4. French</td> -<td class="center">69.2</td> -<td class="center">15.2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">5. English</td> -<td class="center">71.4</td> -<td class="center">16.3</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The highest numbers in the first and second class were, respectively, -60 and 62; the lowest in the English trials 63, and -the highest 83, for the strength of the arms. In the power of -the loins, the highest among the New Hollanders was 13; the -lowest of the English 12.7, and the highest 21.3. “These results,” -observes Mr. Lawrence, “offer the best answer to declamations -on the degeneracy of civilized man. The attribute<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page18"></a>[18]</span> -of superior physical strength, so boldly assumed by the eulogists -of the savage state, has never been questioned or doubted. -Although we have been consoled for this supposed inferiority by -an enumeration of the many precious benefits derived from -civilization, it has always been felt as a somewhat degrading disadvantage. -Bodily strength is a concomitant of good health, -which is produced and supported by a regular supply of wholesome -and nutritious food, and by active occupation. The industrious -and well-fed middle classes of a civilized community -may, therefore, be reasonably expected to surpass, in this endowment, -the miserable savages, who are never well-fed, and -too frequently depressed by absolute want and all other privations.</p> - -<h4>POSITION.</h4> - -<p>Before entering into a detail of exercises, it is necessary to -attend to what is termed position.—A standing position is the -action by which we keep ourselves up. Indeed, this state, in -which the body appears in repose, is itself an exercise, for it -consists in a continued effort of many muscles; and the explanation -we shall give of it will much facilitate that of walking.</p> - -<p>Every one has observed that during sleep, or a fainting fit, -the head inclines forward and falls upon the breast. In this -case, it is in accordance with the laws of gravity; for the -head, resting upon the vertebræ which support it at a point -of its basis which is nearer the posterior than anterior part, -cannot remain in an upright position in standing, except by -an effort of the muscles at the back of the neck: it is the -cessation of this effort that causes it to fall forward. The -body also is unable to remain straight without fatigue. The -vertebral column being placed behind, all the viscera or parts -contained by the chest and belly are suspended in front of -it, and would force it to bend forward unless strong muscular -fibres held it back. A proof of this may be seen in pregnant<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page19"></a>[19]</span> -and dropsical women, who are compelled, in consequence of the -anterior part of the body being heavier than usual, to keep -the vertebral column more fixed, and even thrown backward. -The same observation may be made with regard to the pelvis, -basin, or lowest part of the trunk, which by its conformation -would bend upon the thighs, if not kept back by the great -mass of muscular fibres that form the hips. In front of the -thighs, again, are the muscles which, by keeping the kneepan -in position, are the means of preventing the leg from bending. -Lastly, the muscles forming the calves, by contracting, are the -means of preventing the leg from bending upon the foot.</p> - -<p>Such is the general mechanism of the standing position. It -is, therefore, as we observed, a concurrence of efforts: almost -all the extending muscles are in a state of contraction all the -time that this position is maintained, and the consequence is, -a fatigue which cannot be endured for any great length of time. -Hence we see persons in a standing position rest the weight of -their body, first on one foot, then on another, for the purpose -of procuring momentary ease to certain muscles. For this -reason, also, standing still is more fatiguing than walking, in -which the muscles are alternately contracted and extended.</p> - -<p>A question of importance on this subject is, what position of -the feet affords the greatest solidity in standing? We will not -enter into a detail of the numerous controversies by which some -have defended or repudiated the position with the toes turned -forward or outward: it will be sufficient to state the fact, that -the larger the base of support, the firmer and more solid will -the position be, and to adopt, as a <i>fundamental</i> one, the -military position, which has been found practically the best by -those who have nothing else to do but to walk. The equal -squareness of the shoulders and body to the front, is the first -great principle of position. The heels must be in a line, and -closed; the knees straight; the toes turned out, with the -feet forming an angle of sixty degrees; the arms hanging -close to the body; the elbows turned in, and close to the -sides; the hands open to the front, with the view of preserving<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page20"></a>[20]</span> -the elbow in the position above described; the little -fingers lightly touching the clothing of the limbs, with the -thumb close to the forefinger; the belly rather drawn in, and -the breast advanced, but without constraint; the body upright, -but inclining forward, so that the weight of it may principally -bear upon the fore part of the feet; the head erect, and the eyes -straight to the front—(as in <a href="#PlateI">Plate I.</a> fig. 1.)</p> - -<p>To these brief directions I must add, that, in standing, the -whole figure should be in such a position that the ear, shoulder, -haunch, knee, and ankle are all in a line; that it must be -stretched as much as possible, by raising the back of the head, -drawing in the chin, straightening the spine, rising on the hips, -and extending the legs; that the object of keeping the back -thus straight is to allow of standing longer without fatigue; that -it is important to expand the chest, and to throw the shoulders -back, with the shoulder-blades, or scapulæ, quite flat behind; -and that though, in military instructions, the body is thus inclined -forward in standing without arms, yet when these are -assumed, the body is immediately thrown about two inches -backward, into a nearly perpendicular position. This position, -therefore, will be modified in walking, and especially in ordinary -walking; but it is an excellent fundamental position, and it -cannot be too accurately acquired.</p> - -<p>This is the amount of the drill-sergeant’s instructions as to -position, though this last part is omitted in the Manual describing -the Field Exercise and Evolutions of the Army.</p> - -<h4>EXTENSION MOTIONS.</h4> - -<p>In order to supple the figure, open the chest, and give freedom -to the muscles, the first three movements of the extension -motions, as laid down for the sword exercise, are ordered to be -practised. It is indeed, observed, that too many methods cannot -be used to improve the carriage, and banish a rustic air; -but that the greatest care must be taken not to throw the -body backward instead of forward, as being contrary to every -true principle of movement. I accordingly here introduce these -extension motions, adding the fourth and fifth, and prefixing to -each the respective word of command, in order that they may -be the more distinctly and accurately executed.</p> - -<div class="plate w30em" id="PlateI"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate I</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page20">Page 20</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo037.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Extension Motions.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page21"></a>[21]</span></p> - -<p>Attention.—The body is to be erect, the heels close together, -and the hands hanging down on each side. First Extension -motion.—This serves as a caution, and the motions tend to expand -the chest, raise the head, throw back the shoulders, and -strengthen the muscles of the back.</p> - -<p>One—Bring the hands and arms to the front, the fingers -lightly touching at the points, and the nails downwards; then -raise them in a circular direction well above the head, the ends -of the fingers still touching, the thumbs pointing to the rear, -the elbows pressed back, and shoulders kept down. (<a href="#PlateI">Plate I.</a> -fig. 2.)</p> - -<p>Two—Separate and extend the arms and fingers, forcing -them obliquely back, till they come extended on a line with the -shoulders; and as they fall gradually from thence to the original -position of Attention, endeavour, as much as possible, to elevate -the neck and chest. These two motions should be frequently -practised, with the head turned as much as possible to -the right or left, and the body kept square to the front: this -tends very materially to supple the neck, &c.</p> - -<p>Three—Turn the palms of the hands to the front, pressing -back the thumbs with the arms extended, and raise them to the -rear, till they meet above the head; the fingers pointing upwards, -with the ends of the thumbs touching.</p> - -<p>Four—Keep the arms and knees straight, and bend over from -the hips till the hands touch the feet, the head being brought -down in the same direction. (<a href="#PlateI">Plate I.</a> fig. 3.)</p> - -<p>Five—With the arms flexible and easy from the shoulders, -raise the body gradually, so as to resume the position of Attention. -The whole should be done very gradually, so as to feel -the exertion of the muscles throughout. To these extension -motions, drill-sergeants, in their instructions, add the following:</p> - -<p>One—the forearms are bent upon the arms upward and toward -the body, having the elbows depressed, the shut hands<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page22"></a>[22]</span> -touching on the little-finger sides, and the knuckles upward, the -latter being raised as high as the chin, and at the distance of -about a foot before it. (<a href="#PlateI">Plate I.</a> fig. 4.)</p> - -<p>Two—While the arms are thrown forcibly backward, the fore-arms -are as much as possible bent upon the arms, and the -palmar sides of the wrists are turned forward and outward -(<a href="#PlateI">Plate I.</a> fig. 5.) The two motions are to be repeatedly and -rather quickly performed. A modification of the same movement -is performed as a separate extension motion, but may be -given in continuation, with the numbers following these, as -words of command.</p> - -<p>Three—The arms are extended at full length in front, on a -level with the shoulder, the palms of the hands in contact. -(<a href="#PlateI">Plate I.</a> fig. 6.)</p> - -<p>Four—Thus extended, and the palms retaining their vertical -position, the arms are thrown forcibly backward, so that the -backs of the hands may approach each other as nearly as possible. -These motions, also, are to be repeatedly and rather -quickly performed. Another extension motion, similarly added, -consists in swinging the right arm in a circle, in which, beginning -from the pendent position, the arm is carried upward in -front, by the side of the head, and downward behind, the object -being in the latter part of this course to throw it as directly -backward as possible. The same is then done with the left arm. -Lastly, both arms are thus exercised together. These motions -are performed quickly.</p> - -<h4>THE INDIAN CLUB EXERCISE.</h4> - -<h5>THE PORTION ADOPTED IN THE ARMY.</h5> - -<p>1st. A club is held by the handle, pendent on each side -(<a href="#PlateII">Plate II.</a> fig. 1);—that in the right hand is carried over the -head and left shoulder, until it hangs perpendicularly on the -right side of the spine (<a href="#PlateII">Plate II.</a> fig. 2); that in the left hand -is carried over the former, in exactly the opposite direction -(<a href="#PlateII">Plate II.</a> fig. 2), until it hangs on the opposite side; holding -both clubs still pendent, the hands are raised somewhat -higher than the head (<a href="#PlateII">Plate II.</a> fig. 3); with the clubs in the -same position, both arms are extended outward and backward -(<a href="#PlateII">Plate II.</a> fig. 6); they are lastly dropped into the first position. -All this is done slowly.</p> - -<div class="plate w35em" id="PlateII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate II</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page22">Page 22</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo041.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Indian Club Exercise.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateIII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate III</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page22">Page 22</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo043.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Indian Club Exercise.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="plate w30em" id="PlateIV"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate IV</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page22">Page 22</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo045.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Indian Club Exercise.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page23"></a>[23]</span></p> - -<p>2nd. Commencing from the same position, the ends of both -clubs are swung upward until they are held, vertically and side -by side, at arm’s length in front of the body, the hands being as -high as the shoulders (<a href="#PlateII">Plate II.</a> fig. 4); they are next carried -in the same position, at arm’s length, and on the same level, as -far backward as possible (<a href="#PlateII">Plate II.</a> fig. 5); each is then dropped -backward until it hangs vertically downward (<a href="#PlateII">Plate II.</a> fig. 6); -and this exercise ends as the first. Previous, however, to -dropping the clubs backward, it greatly improves this exercise, -by a turn of the wrist upward and backward, to carry the clubs -into a horizontal position behind the shoulders, so that, if long -enough, their ends would touch (<a href="#PlateIII">Plate III.</a> fig. 1); next, by a -turn of the wrist outward and downward, to carry them horizontally -outward (<a href="#PlateIII">Plate III.</a> fig. 2); then by a turn of the wrist -upward and forward, to carry them into a horizontal position -before the breast (<a href="#PlateIII">Plate III.</a> fig. 3); again to carry them horizontally -outward; and finally to drop them backward as already -explained; and thence to the first position. All this is also -done slowly.</p> - -<p>3rd. The clubs are to be swung by the sides, first separately, -and then together, exactly as the hands were in the last -extension motion.</p> - -<h5>THE NEW AND MORE BEAUTIFUL PORTION NOW ADDED -FROM THE INDIAN PRACTICE.</h5> - -<p>1st. A club is held forward and upright in each hand, the -fore-arm being placed horizontally, by the haunch on each side -(<a href="#PlateIV">Plate IV.</a> fig. 1); both are thrown in a -circle upward, forward,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page24"></a>[24]</span> -and, by a turn of the wrist, downward and backward, so as to -strike under the arms (<a href="#PlateIV">Plate IV.</a> fig. 2); by an opposite movement, -both are thrown back again in a similar circle, till they -swing over the shoulders (<a href="#PlateIV">Plate IV.</a> fig. 3); and this movement -is continued as long as agreeable.</p> - -<p>2nd. The clubs are held obliquely upward in each hand, -lying on the front of the arms (<a href="#PlateIV">Plate IV.</a> fig. 4); that in the -right hand is allowed to fall backward (<a href="#PlateIV">Plate IV.</a> fig. 5), and -swings downward, forward to the extent of the arm, and as high -as the head (<a href="#PlateIV">Plate IV.</a> fig. 6); the moment this club begins to -return from this point, in precisely the same direction, to the -front of the arm, that in the left hand is allowed to drop backward, -and to perform the advancing portion of this course in -the time that the other performs the returning portion, so that -each is at the same time swinging in an opposite direction.</p> - -<p>3rd. From either of the first positions now given, the clubs are, -by a turn of the body and extension of the arms, thrown upwards -and laterally (<a href="#PlateV">Plate V.</a> fig. 1);—make, at the extent -of the arms, and in front of the figure, a circle in which they -sweep downward by the feet and upward over the head (<a href="#PlateV">Plate -V.</a> fig. 2), and fall in a more limited curve towards the side -on which they began (<a href="#PlateV">Plate V.</a> fig. 3), in such a manner -that the outer one forming a circle around the shoulder and the -inner one round the head, (both passing swiftly through the -position in the last figure of the first exercise,) they return to -the first position;—this is repeated to the other side;—and so -on alternately.</p> - -<p>4th. Beginning from either first position, the body being -turned laterally,—for example, to the left, the club in the right -hand is thrown upward in that direction at the full extent of the -arm (<a href="#PlateVI">Plate VI.</a> fig. 1), and makes the large circle in front and -curve behind as in the last exercise (<a href="#PlateVI">Plate VI.</a> fig. 2), while the -club in the left hand makes at the same time a smaller circle in -front of the head and behind the shoulders (<a href="#PlateVI">Plate VI.</a> figs. 1, -2, and 3), until crossing each other before the head (rather on -the right side), their movements are exactly reversed, the club -in the right hand performing the small circle round the head, -while that in the left performs the large one,—and these continue -to be repeated to each side alternately.</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateV"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate V</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page24">Page 24</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo049.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Indian Club Exercise.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateVI"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate VI</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page24">Page 24</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo051.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Indian Club Exercise.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="plate w35em" id="PlateVII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate VII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page25">Page 25</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo054.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Indian Club Exercise.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page25"></a>[25]</span></p> - -<p>5th. The clubs being in either first position, the body is -turned to one side—the left for example, and the clubs being -thrown out in the same direction, make each, by a turn of the -wrist, a circle three times on the outer side of the outstretched -arms (<a href="#PlateVII">Plate VII.</a> fig. 1):—when completing the third circle, the -clubs are thrown higher to the same side, sweeping together in -the large circle in front, as in the second exercise, the body -similarly turning to the right; but, instead of forming the smaller -curve behind, both are thrown over the back (<a href="#PlateVII">Plate VII.</a> fig. 2);—from -this position the clubs are thrown in front, which is now -toward the opposite side, and the same movements are reversed;—and -so it proceeds alternately to each side.</p> - -<p>6th. In this exercise, the clubs are reversed, both being pendent -in front, but the ends of their handles being upward on the -thumb sides of the hands. (<a href="#PlateVII">Pl VII.</a> fig. 3.) The exercise consists -chiefly in describing with the ends of the clubs two circles -placed obliquely to each other over the head. For this purpose, -the club in the right hand is, in a sweep to that side, first elevated -behind the head, and thence passing to the left (<a href="#PlateVII">Plate VII.</a> -fig. 4), the front, the right (<a href="#PlateVII">Plate VII.</a> fig. 5) behind, (where its -continuation is indicated in fig. 5, and completed in fig. 6), -thus forms its circle;— meanwhile the club in the left hand, -commencing when that in the right was behind the head, has -passed on the back of its circle to the right, (<a href="#PlateVII">Plate VII.</a> fig. 5,) -while that in the right hand has passed on the front of its circle -to the same side (<a href="#PlateVII">Plate VII.</a> fig. 5, the parts performed in both -being marked by complete lines, and the parts to be done merely -indicated);—and they continue, that in the right hand by the -back, and that in the left hand by the front, toward the left -side (<a href="#PlateVII">Plate VII.</a> fig. 6), and so on at pleasure, circling over the -head.</p> - -<p>[Although but two-thirds of the body, viz., from the loins -upward, are called into operation in this exercise, its importance<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page26"></a>[26]</span> -must be estimated by the fact that they are precisely those -requiring constant artificial practice, being naturally most -exempted from exertion. As an adjunct to <span class="smcap">Training</span>, there -is nothing in the whole round of gymnastic performances that -will be found of more essential service than this exercise with -the Indian clubs. It demands but little muscular exertion, and -such as it does require calls chiefly upon that portion of the -system which it finds in a state of comparative repose.]</p> - -<div class="container w40em"> -<img src="images/illo056.jpg" alt="Kangaroos" /> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page27"></a>[27]</span></p> - -<div class="container w40em"> -<img src="images/illo057.jpg" alt="Pedestrian" /> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="gesp2">LOCOMOTIVE EXERCISES.</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>In Walking, the position is nearly the same as that already -described under the head <span class="smcap">Position</span>.</p> - -<p>The head should be upright, easy, and capable of free motion, -right, left, up, or down, without affecting the body. The body -must be kept erect and square to the front, having the breast -projected, and the stomach retracted, though not so as to injure -either freedom of respiration or ease of attitude. The shoulders -should be kept moderately and equally back and low; and the -arms should hang unconstrainedly by the sides. The balance -on the limbs must be perfect. The knees straight, and the -toes turned out as described, the weight of the body should -be thrown forward, as this facilitates progression. The military -position in walking does not essentially differ from this, except -in points that exclusively regard the soldier; as that the head<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page28"></a>[28]</span> -be kept well up, and straight to the front, and the eyes not -turned to the right or left; the arms and hands kept perfectly -steady by the sides, and on no account suffered to move or -vibrate: care, however, being taken that the hand does not -cling to the thigh, or partake in the least degree of the movement -of the limb.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>THE BALANCE STEP.</h3> - -<p>The object of this is to teach the free movement of the limbs, -preserving at the same time perfect squareness of the shoulders, -with the utmost steadiness of body; and no labour is spared -to attain this first and most essential object, which forms, indeed, -the very foundation of good walking. The instructor -must be careful that a habit be not contracted of drooping or -throwing back a shoulder at these motions, which are intended -practically to show the true principles of walking, and that -steadiness of body is compatible with perfect freedom in the -limbs.</p> - -<h4>1.—WITHOUT GAINING GROUND.</h4> - -<p>To insure precision, the military words of command are -prefixed.</p> - -<p>Caution—Balance step without gaining ground, commencing -with the left foot. The left foot is brought gently forward with -the toe at the proper angle to the left, the foot about three -inches from the ground, the left heel in line with the toe of the -right foot.</p> - -<p>Rear—When steady, the left foot is brought gently back -(without a jerk), the left knee a little bent, the left toe brought -close to the right heel. The left foot in this position will not -be so flat as to the front, as the toe will be a little depressed.</p> - -<p>Front—When steady, the word Front will be given as above, -and repeated to the Rear three or four times.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page29"></a>[29]</span></p> - -<p>Halt—To prevent fatigue, the word Halt will be given, when -the left foot, either advanced, or to the rear, will be brought to -the right. The instructor will afterwards cause the balance to be -made on the left foot, advancing and retiring the right in the -same manner.</p> - -<h4>2.—GAINING GROUND BY THE WORD “FORWARD.”</h4> - -<p>Front—On the word Front, the left foot is brought gently to -the front, without a jerk; the knee gradually straightened as -the foot is brought forward, the toe turned out a little to the -left, and remaining about three inches from the ground. This -posture is continued for a few seconds only in the first instance, -till practice gives steadiness in the position.</p> - -<p>Forward—On this word of command, the left foot is brought -to the ground, at about thirty inches from heel to heel, while -the right foot is raised at the same moment, and continues extended -to the rear. The body remains upright, but inclining -forward; the head erect, and neither turned to the right nor -left.</p> - -<p>Front—On the word Front, the right foot is brought forward, -and so on.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>WALKING.</h3> - -<p>Of all exercises, this is the most simple and easy. The -weight of the body rests on one foot, while the other is advanced; -it is then thrown upon the advanced foot, while the -other is brought forward; and so on in succession. In this -mode of progression, the slowness and equal distribution of -motion is such, that many muscles are employed in a greater or -less degree; each acts in unison with the rest; and the whole -remains compact and united. Hence, the time of its movements -may be quicker or slower, without deranging the union -of the parts, or the equilibrium of the whole. It is owing to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page30"></a>[30]</span> -these circumstances, that walking displays so much of the -character of the walker,—that it is light and gay in women and -children, steady and grave in men and elderly persons, irregular -in the nervous and irritable, measured in the affected and -formal, brisk in the sanguine, heavy in the phlegmatic, and -proud or humble, bold or timid, &c., in strict correspondence -with individual character.</p> - -<p>The utility of walking exceeds that of all other modes of progression. -While the able pedestrian is independent of stage -coaches and hired horses, he alone fully enjoys the scenes -through which he passes, and is free to dispose of his time as he -pleases. To counterbalance these advantages, greater fatigue -is doubtless attendant on walking: but this fatigue is really the -result of previous inactivity; for daily exercise, gradually increased, -by rendering walking more easy and agreeable, and -inducing its more frequent practice, diminishes fatigue in such -a degree, that very great distances may be accomplished with -pleasure, instead of painful exertion.</p> - -<p>Moderate walking exercises the most agreeable influence over -all the functions. In relation to health, walking accelerates -respiration and circulation, increases the temperature and -cutaneous exhalation, and excites appetite and healthful nutrition. -Hence, as an anonymous writer observes, the true -pedestrian, after a walk of twenty miles, comes in to breakfast -with freshness on his countenance, healthy blood coursing in -every vein, and vigour in every limb, while the indolent and inactive -man, having painfully crept over a mile or two, returns -to a dinner which he cannot digest. In all individuals, walking -is indispensably joined with the exercise of one or more of the -external senses. It receives from the cerebral faculties a -powerful influence, by which it is either accelerated or prolonged. -Walking upon soft even ground, at a moderate pace, is an exercise -that may be taken without inconvenience, and even with -advantage, after a meal. It is adapted for convalescents, who -are not yet allowed to take stronger exercise. A firm, yet easy -and graceful walk, is by no means common. There are few<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page31"></a>[31]</span> -men who walk well if they have not learnt to regulate their -motions by the lessons of a master, and this instruction is still -more necessary for ladies. Having, now, therefore, taken a -general view of the character and utility of walking, I subjoin -some more particular remarks on the</p> - -<h4>GENERAL MECHANISM OF WALKING.</h4> - -<p>For the purpose of walking, we first bear upon one leg the -weight of the body, which pressed equally on both. The other -leg is then raised, and the foot quits the ground by rising from -the heel to the point. For that purpose, the leg must be bent -upon the thigh, and the thigh upon the pelvis: the foot is then -carried straight forward, at a sufficient height to clear the ground -without grazing it. To render it possible, however, to move -this foot, the haunch, which rested with its weight upon the -thigh, must turn forward and out. As soon as, by this movement, -this foot has passed the other, it must be extended on the -leg, and the leg upon the thigh, and in this manner, by the -lengthening of the whole member, and without being drawn -back, it reaches the ground at a distance in advance of the other -foot, which is more considerable according to the length of the -step, and it is placed so softly on the ground as not to jerk or -shake the body in the slightest degree. As soon as the foot -which has been placed on the ground becomes firm, the weight -of the body is transported to the limb on that side, and the -other foot, by a similar mechanism, is brought forward in its -turn. In all walking, the most important circumstance is, that -the body incline forward, and that the movement of the leg -and thigh spring from the haunch, and be free and natural. -Viewed in this way, the feet have been well compared to the -spokes of a wheel: the weight of the body falling upon them -alternately.</p> - -<p>This exercise puts in action the extensors and flexors of the -thighs and legs, a great number of the muscles of the trunk, -and more or less those of the shoulder, according to the rapidity -of the pace, and the greater or less degree of projection communicated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page32"></a>[32]</span> -to the arm, which, in this exercise, acts as a balancer -of the body, the motion being exactly the reverse of that -of the corresponding leg. It draws the fluids more into the -inferior than superior members: it gives but little strength -to the latter. Walking may be performed in three different -times,—slow, moderate, or quick—which somewhat modify its -action.</p> - -<h4>THE SLOW WALK, OR MARCH.</h4> - -<p>In the march, the weight of the body is advanced from the -heel to the instep, and the toes are turned out. This being -done, one foot, the left for instance, is advanced, with the knee -straight, and the toe inclined to the ground, which, without -being drawn back, it touches before the heel, in such a manner, -however, that the sole, at the conclusion of the step, is nearly -parallel with the ground, which it next touches with its outer -edge; the right foot is then immediately raised from the inner -edge of the toe, and similarly advanced, inclined, and brought -to the ground; and so on in succession. (<a href="#PlateVIII">Plate VIII.</a> figs. 1 -and 2.) Thus, in the march, the toe externally first touches, -and internally last leaves the ground; and so marked is this -tendency, that, in the stage step, which is meant to be especially -dignified,—as the posterior foot acquires an awkward flexure -when the weight has been thrown on the anterior,—in order to -correct this, the former is for an instant extended, its toe even -turned backwards and outwards, and its tip internally alone -rested on the ground, previous to its being in its turn advanced. -Thus the toe’s first touching and last leaving the ground, is -peculiarly marked in this grandest form of the march. This -pace should be practised until it can be firmly and gracefully -performed.</p> - -<h4>THE MODERATE AND THE QUICK PACE.</h4> - -<p>These will be best understood by a reference to the pace -which we have just described; the principal difference between -them being as to the advance of the weight of the body, the -turning out of the toes, and the part of the foot which first -touches and last leaves the ground. We shall find that the -times of these two paces require a further advance of the weight, -and suffer successively less and less of turning out the toes, and -of this extended touching with the toe, and covering the ground -with the foot.</p> - -<div class="plate w25em" id="PlateVIII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate VIII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page32">Page 32</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo063.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Walking.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page33"></a>[33]</span></p> - -<h4>THE MODERATE PACE.</h4> - -<p>Here the weight of the body is advanced from the heel to the -ball of the foot; the toes are less turned out; and it is no longer -the toe, but the ball of the foot, which first touches and last -leaves the ground; its outer edge, or the ball of the little toe, -first breaking the descent of the foot, and its inner edge, or the -ball of the great toe, last projecting the weight—(<a href="#PlateVIII">Plate VIII.</a> -figs. 3 and 4). Thus, in this step, less of the foot may be said -actively to cover the ground; and this adoption of nearer and -stronger points of support and action is essential to the increased -quickness and exertion of the pace.</p> - -<p>The mechanism of this pace has not been sufficiently attended -to. People pass from the march to the quick pace they know -not how; and hence all the awkwardness and embarrassment of -their walk when their pace becomes moderate, and the misery -they endure when this pace has to be performed by them, unaccompanied, -up the middle of a long and well-lighted room, -where the eyes of a brilliant assembly are exclusively directed to -them. Let those who have felt this but attend to what we have -here said: the motion of the arms and of every other part depends -on it.</p> - -<h4>THE QUICK PACE.</h4> - -<p>Here, the weight of the body is advanced from the heel to -the toes; the toes are least turned out; and still nearer and -stronger points of support and action are chosen. The outer -edge of the heel first touches the ground, and the sole of the -foot projects the weight.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page34"></a>[34]</span></p> - -<p>These are essential to the increased quickness of this pace—(<a href="#PlateVIII">Plate -VIII.</a> figs. 5 and 6); and it is important to remark, as -to all these paces, that the weight is successively more thrown -forward, and the toes are successively less turned out. In the -grandest form of the march, the toes, as we have seen, are, in -the posterior foot, though but for a moment, even thrown backwards; -in the moderate pace, they have an intermediate direction; -and in the quick pace, they are thrown more directly forward, -as in the six figures of <a href="#PlateVIII">Plate VIII.</a></p> - -<p>It is this direction of the toes, and still more the nearer and -stronger points of support and action, namely, the heel and sole -of the foot, which are essential to the quick pace so universally -practised, but which, together with the great inclination of the -body, being ridiculously transferred to the moderate pace, make -unfortunate people look so awkward, as we shall now explain. -The time of the moderate pace is, as it were, filled up by the -more complicated process of the step—by the gradual and easy -breaking of the descent of the foot on its outer edge, or the ball -of the little toe, by the deliberate positing of the foot, by its -equally gradual and easy projection from its inner edge, or the -ball of the great toe. The quick pace, if its time be lengthened, -has no such filling up: the man stumps at once down on his -heel, and could rise instantly from his sole, but finds that, to -fill up his time, he must pause an instant; he feels he should do -something, and does not know what; his hands suffer the same -momentary paralysis as his feet; he gradually becomes confused -and embarrassed: deeply sensible of this, he at last exhibits it -externally; a smile or a titter arises, though people do not well -know at what, but, in short, the man has walked like a clown, -because the mechanism of his step has not filled up its time, or -answered its purpose.</p> - -<p>I trust that the mechanism and time of the three paces are -here simply, clearly, and impressively described. The following -is the more imperfect, but still useful, military description, with -its words of <span class="nowrap">command:—</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page35"></a>[35]</span></p> - -<h4>SLOW STEP.</h4> - -<p>March.—On the word March, the left foot is carried thirty -inches to the front, and, without being drawn back, is placed -softly on the ground, so as not to jerk or shake the body: -seventy-five of these steps to be taken in a minute. (The recruit -is ordered to be carefully trained, and thoroughly instructed in -this step, as an essential foundation for arriving at accuracy in -the paces of more celerity. This is the slowest step at which -troops are to move.)</p> - -<h4>QUICK STEP.</h4> - -<p>The cadence of the slow pace having become perfectly habitual, -a quick time is next taught, which is 108 steps in a minute, each -of thirty inches, making 270 feet in a minute.</p> - -<p>Quick March.—The command Quick March being given with -a pause between them, the word Quick is to be considered as a -caution, and the whole to remain perfectly steady. On the word -March, the whole move off, conforming to the directions already -given. (This pace is applied generally to all movements by large -as well as small bodies of troops; and therefore the recruit is -trained and thoroughly instructed in this essential part of his -duty.)</p> - -<h4>DOUBLE MARCH.</h4> - -<p>The directions for the march apply, in a great degree, to this -step, which is 150 steps in a minute, each of thirty-six inches, -making 450 feet in a minute.</p> - -<p>Double March.—On the word Double March, the whole step -off together with the left feet, keeping the head erect, and the -shoulders square to the front; the knees are a little bent; the -body is more advanced than in the other marches; the arms -hang with ease down the outside of the thighs. The person -marching is carefully habituated to the full pace of thirty-six -inches, otherwise he gets into the habit of a short trot, which -defeats the obvious advantages of this degree of march. In the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page36"></a>[36]</span> -army, great advantage attends the constant use of the plummet; -and the several lengths swinging the times of the different -marches in a minute, are as <span class="nowrap">follow:—</span></p> - -<table class="steps"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="4" > </th> -<th>In.</th> -<th>Hun.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">Slow time</td> -<td class="center"> 75</td> -<td class="center"> steps in the </td> -<td class="center padr2">minute</td> -<td class="right padr0">24,</td> -<td class="left padl0">96</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">Quick time</td> -<td class="center">108</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">12,</td> -<td class="left padl0">03</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text">Double march</td> -<td class="center">150</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">6,</td> -<td class="left padl0">26</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>A musket ball, suspended by a string which is not subject to -stretch, and on which are marked the different required lengths, -answers the above purpose, may be easily acquired, and is -directed to be frequently compared with an accurate standard in -the adjutant’s possession. The length of the plummet is to be -measured from the point of suspension to the centre of the ball. -In practising all these paces, the pupils should also be accustomed -to march upon a narrow plane, where there is room for -only one foot, upon rough uneven ground, and on soft ground -which yields to the foot.</p> - -<p>Walking exercises a greater influence over the economy when -it takes place on inclined planes than on a flat surface. In -ascending, the effort is made in a direction directly opposed to -the general tendency of heavy bodies: the body is strongly bent, -the upper part of the trunk in advance; the action of the posterior -and anterior muscles of the thigh is considerable; and circulation -and respiration are speedily accelerated by the violence -of the muscular contractions. In descending, on the contrary, -effort is requisite to keep up the body, which tends to obey the -laws of gravitation; and to moderate the tendency of gravity to -project forward in the centre, the body is thrown back, the sacro-spinal -mass, and the posterior muscles of the neck, are strongly -contracted, the knees bent, and the steps much shorter. Men -with long flat feet, and the heel bone little projecting, are bad -walkers.</p> - -<h4>FEATS IN WALKING.</h4> - -<p>The power of walking great distances without fatigue is an -important matter, in which the English have of late excelled. -A good walker will do six miles an hour, for one hour, on a good<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page37"></a>[37]</span> -road.<a id="FNanchor3" href="#Footnote3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> If in perfect training, he may even do twelve miles in -two hours. Eighteen miles in three hours is a much more -doubtful affair, though some are said to have achieved it.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote3" href="#FNanchor3" class="label">[3]</a> Seven miles in one hour are said to have been done by some.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>A Cork paper, of recent date, describes a match of ten miles -in 120 minutes, on the Mallow and Fermoy road, by Captain -John T. G. Campbell, of the 91st (Argyleshire) Regiment, accoutred -in heavy marching order of a private soldier, viz., with -knapsack and kit, great-coat and mess-tin, musket, bayonet, -and sixty rounds of ball cartridge: total, fifty pounds’ weight. -Heavy bets were pending on the issue. The captain started at -eight o’clock, <span class="smcapall">A.M.</span>, and performed this undertaking in the short -time of 107 minutes and a quarter, thus winning the match, and -having twelve minutes and three quarters to spare.</p> - -<p>At the rate of five miles an hour, pedestrians of the first class -will do forty miles in eight hours, and perhaps fifty in ten.<a id="FNanchor4" href="#Footnote4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> At -the rate of four miles an hour, a man may walk any length of -time. Robert Skipper walked 1000 miles in 1000 successive -half-hours, on the same ground Captain Barclay walked 1000 -miles in 1000 successive hours.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote4" href="#FNanchor4" class="label">[4]</a> A clever writer in Blackwood’s Magazine says, “There can be no doubt -that, out of the British army, on a war establishment, ten thousand men -might be chosen, by trial, who would compose a corps capable of marching -fifty miles a day, on actual service, for a whole week. The power of such a -corps is not to be calculated: it would far outgo cavalry.”</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>In the art of walking quickly, the circumstance perhaps most -important is, to keep the knees somewhat bent and springy.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>RUNNING.</h3> - -<p>“Running,” says one of our gymnasiarchs, “only differs from -walking by the rapidity of the movement.” This is quite incorrect. -Running is precisely intermediate to walking and leaping; -and, in order to pass into it from walking, the motion must -be changed. A series of leaps from each foot alternately must<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page38"></a>[38]</span> -be performed, in order to constitute it; the foot which is left -behind quits the ground before the foot in advance is firmly -fixed, so that the centre of gravity remains uncertain in passing -from one leg to the other, which forms a series of leaps, and -renders a fall a common occurrence.</p> - -<h4>POSITION IN RUNNING.</h4> - -<p>The upper part of the body is slightly inclined forward; the -head slightly thrown backward, to counteract the gravity forward: -the breast is freely projected; the shoulders are steady, -to give a fixed point to the auxiliary muscles of respiration: the -upper parts of the arms are kept near the sides; the elbows are -bent, and each forms an acute angle; the hands are shut, with -the nails turned inwards; and the whole arms move but slightly, -in order that the muscles of respiration on the chest may be as -little as possible disturbed, and follow only the impulse communicated -by other parts—(<a href="#PlateIX">Plate IX.</a> fig. 1). There exists, -in fact, during the whole time of running, a strong and permanent -contraction of the muscles of the shoulder and arm, which, -though very violent, is less serviceable to the extended movements, -than to keep the chest immoveable, toward which the -arms are brought close, the flexors and adductors of which are -especially contracted.</p> - -<h4>ACTION IN RUNNING.</h4> - -<p>At every step, the knees are stretched out; the legs kept as -straight as possible; the feet almost graze the ground; the -tread is neither with the mere balls of the toes, nor with the -whole sole of the foot; and the spring is made rapidly from one -foot to the other, so that they pass each other with great velocity—(<a href="#PlateIX">Plate -IX.</a> fig. 2).</p> - -<p>But the abdominal members are not the only ones in motion, -although it is in them that the greatest developement takes -place. Throughout the whole time of running, a strong and -permanent contraction of the muscles of the shoulder, arm, and -forearm takes place: this, though very violent, is less for the -purpose of aiding motion than of preserving the immobility of -the thorax, which is pressed upon the whole thoracic member, -whose flexors and adductors are strongly contracted. The degree -of velocity, however, must be proportioned to the length of -the steps. Too slow and long, as well as too quick and short, -steps, may be equally injurious.</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateIX"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate IX</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page38">Page 38</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo071.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Running.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page39"></a>[39]</span></p> - -<h4>RESPIRATION.</h4> - -<p>Speed, and still more duration in running, are in proportion -to the developement of the lungs, and consequently the volume -of oxygen and blood which they can combine in their parenchyma -at each respiratory movement. Thus, of two men, one having -the abdominal members developed, and the other possessing -good lungs, the former will run with the greatest speed for a -short distance, but if the distance be considerable, he will soon -be gained upon by the latter. A runner, after performing a certain -space, is seized with a difficulty of breathing, long before -the repetition of the contractions has produced fatigue in the -abdominal members. To excel, therefore, in running, requires, -like walking and dancing, a peculiar exercise. As the muscular -contractions depend, for their principle of excitement, on the -respiration, the chest should be firmly fixed, so as both to facilitate -this, and to serve as a point of support for the efforts of -the lower members. The best runners are those who have the -<i>best wind</i>, and keep the breast dilated for the longest time.</p> - -<p>During the whole time of running, long inspirations and slow -expirations are of the greatest importance; and young persons -cannot be too early accustomed to them. To facilitate respiration -towards the end of the race, the upper part of the body -may be leant a little forward. Running should cease as soon as -the breath becomes very short, and a strong perspiration takes -place.</p> - -<h4>MODERATE RUNNING.</h4> - -<p>This is performed gently and in equal time, and may be extended -to a considerable space. In practising this pace, it is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page40"></a>[40]</span> -necessary to fix the distance to be run; and this should always -be proportioned to the age and strength of the runners. This -exercise, more than all others, requires to be proceeded with in -a progressive manner. If, at the first trial, you run too fast or -too long a time, it may produce spitting of blood and headache, -or aneurisms of the heart and principal vessels, especially if the -weather be dry and cold.</p> - -<p>A moderately cool day may accordingly be chosen, a distance -of three hundred feet measured, and the runners placed in a line -at one end. They may then start, trot at the rate of about seven -feet in a second to the opposite end, turn, and continue until -they reach the spot whence they started. Frequent repetition -of this is sufficient at first. Afterwards, they may run over this -space, two, three, or four times without stopping; and the exercise -may then be limited to this. It may, on subsequent days, -be extended to five, six, and seven times the distance.</p> - -<p>Fatigue is then generally quite removed; and the run may -either be continued farther, or the runners, if neither heated nor -winded, may accelerate their pace. They may next attempt a -mile in ten minutes; and repeat this, till, being gradually less -and less heated, they can either extend the distance, or diminish -the time, in any measured proportion. At this pace, six miles -may afterwards be run in an hour.</p> - -<h4>RAPID RUNNING.</h4> - -<p>This is best applied to a short space in a little time. Three -hundred feet upon an open plain will not generally be found too -great. At each end of this, a cross line may be drawn, and the -runners may arrange themselves on one line, while the umpire -is placed at the other. On the latter giving the signal, the -running commences, and he who first passes him gains the race. -It is extremely useful always to run beyond the line at a gentler -pace, as it gradually lowers the actions of the respiratory and -circulating systems.</p> - -<p>Running is more easy on a level surface, but should be practised -on ground of every variety: upon long, square, and circular<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page41"></a>[41]</span> -plots of ground. The pupils should be accustomed to turn -promptly out of the direct line—a faculty not possessed by animals, -and exceedingly useful when pursued. They should also -run up hill, and particularly down, as it is dangerous unless frequently -practised.</p> - -<h4>FEATS IN RUNNING.</h4> - -<p>The practice of running may be carried to a great degree of -perfection.</p> - -<p>A quarter of a mile in a minute is good running; and a mile -in four minutes, at four starts, is excellent.</p> - -<p>The mile was perhaps never run in four minutes, but it has -been done in four minutes and a half.<a id="FNanchor5" href="#Footnote5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote5" href="#FNanchor5" class="label">[5]</a> Half a mile -was recently run in two minutes; but it was down a fall as -precipitous as a mountain’s side, and the performer was blind in the last -twenty yards.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span> Fifth Edition.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>A mile in five minutes is good running. Two miles in ten -minutes is oftener failed in than accomplished. Four miles in -twenty is said to puzzle the cleverest.</p> - -<p>Ten miles an hour is done by all the best runners. Fifteen -miles in an hour and a half has never perhaps been done.</p> - -<p>It is reported that West ran forty miles in five hours and a -half. This, it is said, was done by one individual in four hours -and three quarters, or less.</p> - -<p>As to great distances, Rainer failed in two attempts to accomplish -100 miles in eighteen hours. West is said to have accomplished -this.</p> - -<h4>EFFECTS OF RUNNING.</h4> - -<p>In running, the mass of our organs is agitated by violent and -constant shocks, which succeed with rapidity; but the abdominal -members are not the only ones in motion, although they are -those in which the developement is most considerable. Running -developes not only the abdominal members, but has a strong -influence upon the respiratory parts. This exercise is particularly -suited to young persons, especially those of a lymphatic -temperament. It should not, however, be practised after meals.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page42"></a>[42]</span></p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>LEAPING.</h3> - -<p>Leaping consists principally in the sudden straightening of -the articulations, performed by a strong and instantaneous contraction -of the extensors, by which the body is rapidly projected -from the ground.</p> - -<p>The leaping-stand consists of two moveable posts, above six -feet high, having, above the second foot from the ground, holes -bored through them, at the distance of an inch from each other; -two iron pins to be placed in the holes at any height; a cord, at -least ten feet long, passed over these pins, and kept straight by -two sand-bags at its ends; and weights upon the feet of the -posts, to prevent them from falling—(<a href="#PlateX">Plate X.</a> fig. 1). The -leap over the cord is made from the side of the stand towards -which the heads of the pegs are turned; so that, if the feet touch -the cord, it will easily and instantly fall.</p> - -<p>In all kinds of leaping, it is of great importance to draw in -and retain the breath at the moment of the greatest effort, as it -gives the chest more solidity to support the rest of the members, -impels the blood into the muscular parts, and increases their -strength. The hands, also, should be shut, and the arms pendent. -The extent of the leap in height, or horizontally, is proportioned -to the power employed, and the practice acquired. As it is performed -with facility only in proportion to the strength exerted, -and the elasticity and suppleness of the articulations and muscles -of the lower extremities, much exercise is necessary to attain -that degree of perfection which lessens all obstacles, and supplies -the means of clearing them without danger. Lightness and firmness -are the qualities necessary for leaping: every thing should -be done to acquire these two qualifications, for without them -leaping is neither graceful nor safe.</p> - -<h4>THE HIGH LEAP.</h4> - -<h5><i>Without a Run.</i></h5> - -<p>In this, the legs and feet are closed; the knees are bent till -the calves nearly touch the thighs; the upper part of the body, -kept straight, is inclined a little forward; and the arms thrown -in the direction of the leap, which increases the impulse, preserves -the balance, and may be useful in a fall. (<a href="#PlateX">Plate X.</a> -fig. 1.)</p> - -<div class="plate w35em" id="PlateX"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate X</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page42">Page 42</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo077a.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Leaping.</p> - -<img src="images/illo077b.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Leaping.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page43"></a>[43]</span></p> - -<p>The vertebral column, and consequently the whole of the -trunk, being thus bent forward, a strong contraction of the -muscles preserves this bending till the moment when the leap -takes place; then, by sudden contraction of the extensors, the -body stretches out like a bow when the string breaks, is thus -jerked forward, and remains suspended a longer or shorter time -in the air.</p> - -<p>In descending, the person should be rather inclined forward; -and the fall should take place on the fore part of the feet, -bending the knees and haunches, to deaden the shock and -descent; for, the direct descent in this leap, if not thus broken, -would send its shock from the heels to the spine and head, and -might occasion injury. To perpendicularity in this leap, should -be added lightness, so that scarcely any noise from the leap -should be heard.</p> - -<p>This leap, without a run, may be practised at the <span class="nowrap">height,—</span></p> - -<ul class="nostyle fsize90"> - -<li>1. Of the knees.</li> - -<li>2. Of the middle of the thighs.</li> - -<li>3. Of the hips.</li> - -<li>4. Of the lower ribs.</li> - -</ul> - -<h5><i>With a Run.</i></h5> - -<p>The run preceding the leap should never exceed ten paces, -the distance between the point of springing and the cord being -equal to half the cord’s height from the ground. The view of -the leaper should be directed first to the spot whence he is to -spring; and, the moment he has reached that, to the cord, -accustoming himself to spring from either foot, and from both -feet.</p> - -<p>The instant the spring is made, or (if it be made with one -foot) immediately after, the feet should be closed, and the knees -drawn forcibly towards the chin. Throughout, flexibility and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page44"></a>[44]</span> -skill, not violent exertion, should be displayed. This leap, with -a run, may be practised at the <span class="nowrap">height,—</span></p> - -<ul class="nostyle fsize90"> - -<li>1. Of the hips.</li> - -<li>2. Of the lower ribs.</li> - -<li>3. Of the pit of the stomach.</li> - -<li>4. Of the breast.</li> - -<li>5. Of the chin.</li> - -<li>6. Of the eyes.</li> - -<li>7. Of the crown of the head.</li> - -</ul> - -<h4><i>Feats in High Leaping.</i></h4> - -<p>A good high leaper will clear five feet; a first-rate one, five -and a half; and an extraordinary one, six feet. Ireland is mentioned -as having cleared an extended cord at the height of -fourteen feet. Another man, it is said, jumped to the height -of seventeen feet, which was three times the height of his own -body.<a id="FNanchor6" href="#Footnote6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote6" href="#FNanchor6" class="label">[6]</a> -The author means, with the aid of a spring-board.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span> Fifth Edition.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<h4>THE LONG LEAP.</h4> - -<h5><i>Without a Run.</i></h5> - -<p>This is generally performed upon straight firm ground, on -which there are marks, or parallel lines, at equal distances. -The first of these lines is the place to leap from. The leapers -succeed each other, and clear a greater number of lines according -to their strength and skill. Here the feet are closed; the -whole weight rests upon the balls of the toes; and the body is -inclined forward. Both arms are then swung forward,—backward,—then -drawn strongly forward,—and at the same instant -the limbs, having been bent, are extended with the utmost -possible force.</p> - -<p>In performing this leap, the hands and body must be bent -forward, especially at the end of the movement, when the -leaper alights. On level ground twelve feet is a good standing -leap; and fourteen is one of comparatively rare occurrence.</p> - -<h5><i>With a Run.</i></h5> - -<p>This leap is best executed with a run; and we have therefore<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page45"></a>[45]</span> -dwelt less upon the former. Here, also, the body must be -inclined forward.</p> - -<p>The run should be made over a piece of firm, and not slippery -ground, to the extent of ten, fifteen, or twenty paces; -should consist of small steps, increasing in quickness as they -approach the point of springing; and these should be so calculated -as to bring upon the point that foot with which the leaper -is accustomed to spring. The spring, as here implied, should -be performed with one foot, and the arms thrown forcibly towards -the place proposed to be reached. The height as well as -the length of the leap, must be calculated; for the leap is -shortened by not springing a proper height. (<a href="#PlateX">Plate X.</a> fig. 2.)</p> - -<p>In the descent, the feet are closed, the knees bent, the upper -part of the body inclined forward, and the toes first touch the -ground, at which moment, a light spring, and afterwards some -short steps, are made, in order to avoid any sudden check. -In a much extended leap, however, alighting on the toes is -impossible. A sort of horizontal swing is then achieved, by -which the leaper’s head is little higher than his feet, and his -whole figure is almost parallel with the ground; and, in this -case, to alight on the toes is impossible. Care must here be -taken not to throw the feet so much forward as to cause the -leaper to fall backward at the moment of descent. The ground -must be cleared, or the leap is imperfect and unfair.</p> - -<p>This leap may be practised <span class="nowrap">at,—</span></p> - -<ul class="nostyle fsize90"> - -<li>1. Double the length of the body.</li> - -<li>2. Twice and a half that length.</li> - -<li>3. Three times that length.</li> - -</ul> - -<h4><i>Feats in Long Leaping.</i></h4> - -<p>On level ground, twenty feet is a first-rate leap; twenty-one -is extraordinary; and twenty-two is very rarely accomplished.<a id="FNanchor7" href="#Footnote7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> -With a run and a leap, on a slightly inclined plane, twenty-three -feet have been done.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote7" href="#FNanchor7" class="label">[7]</a> -I have seen twenty-two feet covered forwards and backwards, by an Irish -tailor.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span> Fifth Edition.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page46"></a>[46]</span></p> - -<p>Of the various kinds of leaps, the first or simple leap, which -is produced principally by the extension of the abdominal members, -which impel the body either straight upwards, in the -vertical leap, or obliquely upwards and forwards, in the horizontal -or rather parabolic leap, requires, in addition to the -contraction of the abdominal members, especially if the leap be -executed with the feet close together, a violent action of the -muscles of the abdomen, upper parts of the back, anterior parts -of the loins, and of the thorax and shoulders.</p> - -<h4>THE DEEP LEAP.</h4> - -<p>This may be made either with or without the hands. In -either way, to avoid the shock, the body must be kept in a bent -position, and the fall be upon the balls of the toes. When the -hands are used, the leaper places them in front of the feet; and -during the descent, the weight of the body is checked by the -former, and passes in a diminished state to the latter; so that -the shock is obviated.</p> - -<p>A flight of steps serves the purpose of this exercise. The -leaper ascends a certain number; leaps from the side; gradually -increases the number; and, by practising progressively higher, -finds it easy to leap from heights which at first appalled him. -He afterwards combines the long and deep leaps. For this -purpose, a rivulet, which has one bank high and the opposite -one low, is very favourable. Children can easily take a leap of -nine feet in descending.</p> - -<h4>THE DEEP LEAP BACKWARDS, FROM A REST ON THE -HANDS.</h4> - -<p>This exercise is first performed from platforms of various -heights, and from walls of various elevations. The object is to -lessen the shock that the legs and body experience in reaching -the ground at a depth of more than six or seven feet, and to -diminish the distance if possible, at the same time that it -diminishes the violence and velocity of the fall. All this is -easily managed by observing the following rules.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page47"></a>[47]</span></p> - -<p>Suppose the pupil placed upon a platform of four or six feet -in height, he must first examine the place he is about to leap -to, so as to select the most favourable part, free from stones and -other obstacles. He will then approach the extremity of the -platform, with his back towards it, and bend his body, placing -his hands in the position shown in <a href="#PlateX">Plate X.</a> fig. 3. Having -taken up this position securely, he will lean his head a little -forward, raise his toes from the platform, and remain for an -instant supported by the arms. The body then begins to extend, -and the legs to lengthen downward and backwards; the -arms follow this movement, bend, and support the body by the -hands, which have a secure resting-place on the edge of the -platform, as in <a href="#PlateX">Plate X.</a> fig. 4. This descending movement is -executed as slowly as possible: the arms stretch out to their -utmost length, till the body is sustained by the last phalanx of -the fingers, or touches the ground with the feet. If it does not -reach the ground, the pupil drops gently down on the tips of his -toes, bends himself, and recovers his upright position.</p> - -<p>There is another mode of descending, when the last resting-place -for the hands is the top of a counterfort, or prop on a -wall without a counterfort. This consists (see <a href="#PlateX">Plate X.</a> fig. 3) -in seizing the last hold with the right hand for instance, and in -hanging firmly by that hand, whilst the left, being at liberty, is -lowered and pushes back the body from the projecting stones in -the walls, to prevent injury in the descent. The impulse thus -given is, however, very trifling, and solely to avoid hurt, without -increasing the violence of the fall, which ought to be facilitated -on reaching the ground by the rules already given. By these -means, the height of a wall is relatively diminished, for a man -who hangs suspended by his arms, has six feet less to drop than -he who has his feet where he might put his hands.</p> - -<p>The down leap, unless gradually practised, may produce -ruptures of the diaphragm. When, however, the elevation from -which the leap is taken is gradually increased, the eye becomes -accustomed to measure the most extensive distances fearlessly, -at the same time that by practice the abdominal members learn<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page48"></a>[48]</span> -to bend properly under the weight of the trunk, and thereby -preserve the organs contained in it from serious injuries. In -this kind of leap, the shocks will be diminished by retaining the -air in the chest, which may be done by closing the glottis.</p> - -<p>Persons who have long toes, powerful calves, and prominent -heels, are the best adapted for leaping.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>VAULTING.</h3> - -<p>In vaulting, by a spring of the feet, the body is raised, and by -leaning the hands upon a fixed object, it at the same time receives, -in oblique vaulting, a swing which facilitates the action. -As the inclination thus given to the body depends not merely -on the feet, but on the hands, we have the power to guide the -body in any direction.</p> - -<p>This exercise is conveniently practised on the vaulting bar, -which rests upon two or three posts. It may be performed with -or without running. The beginner may at first be allowed a -run of a few paces, ending in a preparatory spring; and he may -afterwards be allowed only a spring.</p> - -<h4>OBLIQUE VAULTING.</h4> - -<p>To mount, the vaulter must place himself in front of the bar; -make a preparatory spring with the feet close; fix at that moment -both hands upon the bar; heave himself up, and swing -the right leg over. The body, supported by the hands, may -then easily descend into the riding position. To dismount, the -vaulter, supported by the hands, must extend the feet, make a -little swing forward, and a greater one backward, so as to heave -both feet behind over the bar, and spring to the ground with -them close.</p> - -<p>To do this he must first clearly define to himself the place -where he intends to fall. Then, having placed both hands -upon the bar, he should first bend and then extend the joints, -so as to raise the body with all his strength, and throw his legs, -kept close, high over the bar. (<a href="#PlateXI">Plate XI.</a> fig. 1.) When the -right hand (if he vault to the right) quits the bar, the left remains, -the feet reach the ground on the opposite side, and he -falls on both feet, with the knees projected, and the hands -ready, if necessary, to break the fall.</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXI"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XI</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page48">Page 48</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo085.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Vaulting.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page49"></a>[49]</span></p> - -<p>In vaulting to the right, the left foot passes in the space -which was between both the hands, the right hand quits the bar, -and the left guides the body in the descent. In vaulting to the -left, the right foot passes in the space which was between both -hands, the left hand quits the bar, and the right guides the body -in its descent. As, however, it is difficult for beginners to vault -either way, this is not to be attempted until after sufficient -practice in the way which may be easiest. The vaulter may -then, with a preparatory spring, try the following <span class="nowrap">heights,—</span></p> - -<ul class="nostyle fsize90"> - -<li>1. That of the pit of the stomach.</li> - -<li>2. That of a middling-sized horse.</li> - -<li>3. His own height or more.</li> - -</ul> - -<h4>STRAIGHT-FORWARD VAULTING.</h4> - -<p>For this purpose, both hands must be placed at such distance -on the bar as to give room for the feet between them; the body -should be forcibly raised; the knees drawn up towards the -breast; and the feet brought between the hands, without moving -them from their place. (<a href="#PlateXI">Plate XI.</a> fig. 2.) This should be -practised until it can be done easily.</p> - -<p>This straight-forward vault may have three different terminations. -When the feet are in the space between the hands, the -vaulter may stand upright. He may pass his feet to the opposite -side, whilst he seats himself. He may continue the leap -over the seat, through the arms, letting both hands go at once -after the legs have passed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page50"></a>[50]</span></p> - -<h4>LEAPING WITH A POLE.</h4> - -<p>This is a union of leaping and vaulting, in which the vaulter, -instead of supporting himself upon a fixed object, carries with -him a pole, which he applies to whatever spot he chooses. In -supporting the body by a pole during the leap, a great deal also -depends upon balancing, as well as on the strength of the arms -and legs.</p> - -<h4>THE HIGH LEAP WITH A POLE.</h4> - -<p>The pole prescribed for this exercise is the planed stem of -a straight-grown fir, from seven to ten feet long, and about two -inches thick at the bottom. Such a pole naturally diminishes -towards the top; and it is better to plane off the lower end a -little. Care must be taken that it be sufficiently strong; such -as make a crackling noise during the leap should be immediately -thrown aside.</p> - -<p>The learner, supposed to be already expert in leaping and -vaulting, may at first place himself before a small ditch, with a -pole, which he holds in such a manner, that the right hand be -about the height of the head, and the left about that of the hips, -and in this case he must fix it in the ditch. (See <a href="#PlateXII">Plate XII.</a> -fig. 1.) He must then, by making a spring with his left foot, -endeavour to rest the weight of his body upon the pole, and, -thus supported, swing himself to the opposite bank. In this -swing, he passes his body by the right of the pole, making, at -the same time, a turn, so that, at the descent, his face is -directed to the place whence he leaped. The faults usually -committed by the beginner, consist in his trusting to the pole -the whole weight of the body; and in losing the necessary -purchase by keeping at too great a distance from it.</p> - -<p>This leap cannot be made with proper force and facility unless -the fixing of the pole in the ground and the spring are made -exactly at the same moment. To acquire this, the learner should -place himself at the distance of a moderate pace in front of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page51"></a>[51]</span> -ditch; raise the left foot and the pole together; plant both together, -the former in the spot whence he intends making the -spring, and the latter in the ditch; then instantly swing himself -round the pole, to the opposite bank. As soon as he can -easily take the proper position and balance, he may endeavour -to swing his legs higher; and in proportion as he becomes more -expert, he must place his hands higher up the pole, in order to -have a greater swing. He must afterwards make a previous -run of two, three, or four paces, gradually increasing in velocity; -and always taking care that the springing foot and the pole -come to the ground at the same moment. When this difficulty -is overcome, he may practise the exercise over the leaping-stand.</p> - -<p>In leaping over the cord, the learner must take the pole in both -hands; make a rather quick run; conclude this with the spring, -and planting the pole at the same moment; raise rapidly his -whole body, by means of this spring and a powerful support on -the pole, and swing over the cord; turning his body so that, -at the descent, his face is directed to the place whence he -sprung. This is a general description of the high leap; but it -is necessary to explain the parts into which it may be divided, -as <span class="nowrap">follows,—</span></p> - -<p>1. In the handling the pole (<a href="#PlateXII">Plate XII.</a> fig. 1), it is immaterial, -as to the lower hand, whether the thumb or the little -finger be uppermost: the upper hand must have the thumb -upward. The position of the upper hand is regulated by that -of the lower one: as this advances higher up, the former must -be proportionally raised. The lower hand then must be placed -at a height proportionate to that of the leap: thus, if the latter -be six feet, the lower hand must be at least from five and a half -to six feet from the lower end of the pole. The leaper is, after -a little practice, enabled to seize the pole in the proper way, -from a mere glance at the leap.</p> - -<p>2. The preparatory run of from twelve to fifteen paces is -accelerated as the leaper approaches the cord. Upon this run -principally depend the facility and the success of the leap. As<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page52"></a>[52]</span> -the spring can take place only with one foot, and as this must -arrive correctly at the springing place, it is necessary that the -order of the steps should be arranged so as to effect this object. -If the leaper should be obliged to correct himself by making a -few steps, either longer or shorter, just before making the spring, -the leap is rendered difficult.</p> - -<p>3. The fixing of the pole in the ground, and the spring, must -take place at the same instant, because by that means the upper -and lower members operate together, no power is lost, and the -swing is performed with the greatest facility. The place of the -pole, however, varies with the height of the leaps; in leaps of -about four feet, the distance of one foot from the cord is sufficient; -in higher leaps, it should be from one and a half to two -feet. The best plan is to have a small pit dug in front of the -cord (see <a href="#PlateXII">Plate XII.</a> figs. 2 and 3), and to remove the stand -from it, as the height of the leap increases; or the stand may -remain at a foot and a half from the pit, and the learner be -taught to make all the leaps from it. The spring is made with -one foot, at the distance of two, three, four, or five feet from -the plant of the pole. If the leaper keep the left hand lowest, -he must spring with the left foot, and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> - -<p>4. The swing upward is effected by the force of the spring, -the support of the lower, and the pull of the upper hand; but -principally by the propulsion of the run, which being suddenly -modified by the fixing of the pole, has its horizontal -direction changed into a slanting ascent, and carries the body of -the leaper over the cord. The leaper must carefully observe -that the spring of the foot, and the plant of the pole, be in the -direction of the preparatory run.</p> - -<p>5. The turning of the body during the swinging upward, is -necessary. When the leaper is going to spring, he has his face -turned towards the object of the leap, as in <a href="#PlateXII">Plate XII.</a> fig. 1; -but as his feet swing, his body turns round the pole. When his -feet have passed over the other side of the cord, the head is still -considerably on this side: the leaper then appears as in fig. 2. -Speedily, the middle of his body is on the other side of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page53"></a>[53]</span> -cord, and he begins the descent, as in fig. 3. It would be impossible -to descend in this position otherwise than with his face -directed to the place where the leap was commenced.</p> - -<p>6. The quitting of the pole during the leap is effected by -giving it a push with one hand, at the moment of greatest -height, and this causes it to fall on the inner side of the cord.</p> - -<p>7. The carrying of the pole over the cord is more difficult. -The leaper must then raise the pole a little from the ground at -the moment of beginning the descent, and instantly elevate the -lower part of it with the lowest hand, and depress the upper -part with the other; the consequence being, that, at the descent, -the lower end of the pole will point upward, and the upper end -downward. This should be practised first in low leaps.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig1"> -<img src="images/illo091.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>8. The descent depends entirely upon the manner in which -the leap is made: if the leap be perfect, the descent will be so. -The usual fault in descending is, that the leaper, having passed -the cord, falls to the ground almost perpendicularly instead of -obliquely. In the annexed <a href="#Fig1">figure</a>, <i>a</i> is the place whence the -spring is made, <i>c</i> the section of the cord, <i>b</i> the position of the -leaper over it, <i>d</i> his right, and <i>e</i> his wrong descent. The latter -is faulty because it throws him so much out of balance, that in -order not to fall backward, he must run backward to <i>d</i>. If, on -the contrary, he descends in proper balance to the ground, he -moves not an inch from the spot where his feet alight; and this -complete rest following the descent is the sign of a perfect leap. -The descent, as already explained, must take place upon the -balls of the toes, and with a sinking of the knees. The position<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page54"></a>[54]</span> -of the body is sufficiently explained by <a href="#PlateXII">Plate XII.</a> figs. 1, 2, -and 3; but many learn to swing the legs so well as to raise them, -during the highest part of the leap, considerably above the head. -Order of exercises in the high leap, to be very gradually <span class="nowrap">attempted:—</span></p> - -<ul class="nostyle fsize90"> - -<li>1. The height of the hips.</li> - -<li>2. That of the pit of the stomach.</li> - -<li>3. That of the chin.</li> - -<li>4. That of the crown of the head.</li> - -<li>5. That of the points of the fingers—that -is, as high as the latter can -reach.</li> - -</ul> - -<p>In performing these leaps, the pole is parted with. As many -more may form a repetition of the preceding, with this difference, -that the leaper carries the pole over with him. A similar number -may repeat the first, except that the leaper, between the -spring and descent, makes a complete turn round the pole, so -as again to bring his face in the direction of the leap. This enlarged -turn is rendered easier by leaping a little higher than the -cord requires.</p> - -<h4>THE LONG LEAP WITH A POLE.</h4> - -<p>This leap is the most useful, being applicable almost everywhere; -and particularly in a country intersected with small -rivers, ditches, &c. It should be first practised over a ditch -about three feet deep, eight feet broad at one end, and about -twenty-one feet at the other, and of any convenient length. In -this exercise, the pole should be rather stronger and longer than -in the preceding one—depending, however, on the length of the -leap, and the height of the bank it is made from. The usual -length is from ten to thirteen feet.</p> - -<p>The handling of the pole is the same as in the high leap. The -preparatory run is rapid, in proportion to the length of the leap. -The spring takes place as in the preceding exercise. The swing -is also the same, except that the curve of the leap is wider. The -turning of the body may likewise be similar, but it is convenient -to make only a quarter turn. In the descent, the hand presses -more upon the pole; and the feet are stretched out to reach the -opposite bank, as in <a href="#PlateXIII">Plate XIII.</a> fig. 1, in which the leaper is -descending. Another method of leaping a river, is to force the -body up so high by the pressure of the hands (of which one rests -upon the end of the pole, or very near it), as to swing over the -top of the pole, and allow it to pass between the legs when descending. -(<a href="#PlateXIII">Plate XIII.</a> fig. 2.)</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page54">Page 54</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo093.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Pole Leaping.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXIII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XIII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page55">Page 55</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo096.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Pole Leaping.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page55"></a>[55]</span></p> - -<p>Try the <span class="nowrap">following:—</span></p> - -<ul class="nostyle fsize90"> - -<li>1. The leap of two lengths of the -body.</li> - -<li>2. That of three lengths of the body.</li> - -<li>3. That of four lengths of the body.</li> - -<li>4. Persons of equal strength try to -outleap one another.</li> - -</ul> - -<p>The lengths of 18, 20, 22, and 24 feet are frequently done by -practised leapers.</p> - -<h4>THE DEEP LEAP WITH A POLE.</h4> - -<p>Here neither the preparatory run nor the spring occur: there -is nothing which requires the exertion of the lower members. -The use of the hands and arms, however, is peculiarly requisite, -as well as a little of the art of balancing. The leaper fixes the -pole, at a convenient distance from the place where he stands, -in a chasm, ditch, or river, having one bank high, and the opposite -one low. Seizing it with both hands in the usual way, he -slips along it lower and lower; the whole weight of his body, at -last, resting upon it. Thus, if the depth is considerable, as two -lengths of the body, he may slide so far down upon it, that his -head appears slanting downward. In this position, he makes a -slight push against the bank, or merely quits it, with his feet, -which he swings by the side of the pole to the opposite bank. -Here, also, the descent is performed upon the balls of the toes, -with bending of the knees. The principal advantage in this leap -lies in the art of supporting the body, without tottering; and -for this purpose, it is absolutely necessary that the feet should -be stretched out far from each other, in an angular form, otherwise -the balance might be lost. The best way of practising this -in an exercise ground, is by a flight of steps.</p> - -<p>To the exercise of the abdominal members, these leaps unite<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page56"></a>[56]</span> -a strong action of the muscles of the thorax, arms, and fore-arms, -and even of those of the palms of the hand. The body is -only half impelled by the abdominal members; but this impulse -is rendered complete by considerable effort on the part of the -thoracic members. The latter, in the vertical leap, being supported -by the narrow and moveable base afforded by the pole, -assist greatly in raising the body, and even keep it a moment -suspended for the legs to pass over (if the object to be cleared -is very high) before it allows the body to obey the force of -gravity which carries it down.</p> - -<p>This exercise communicates what is termed great lightness to -the body, and great suppleness—that is to say, great relative -strength of the abdominal members; and it also developes the -superior members. It is good for lymphatic temperaments and -young persons, but it should not be indulged in immediately -after meals. It may occasion accidents of the brain and spinal -marrow, unless all the articulations are bent on returning to the -ground.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>BALANCING.</h3> - -<p>Balancing is the art of preserving the stability of the body -upon a narrow or a moving surface. The balancing bar consists -of a round and tapering pole, supported horizontally, about three -feet from the ground, by upright posts, one at its thicker extremity, -and another about the middle, between the parts of -which it may be raised or lowered by means of an iron peg -passing through holes in their sides. The unsupported end of -the bar wavers, of course, when stepped upon—(<a href="#PlateXIV">Plate XIV.</a>)</p> - -<p>The upper surface of the bar being smooth in dry weather, -the soles of the shoes should be damped; the ground about the -bar should consist of sand, and the exercises be cautiously performed.</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXIV"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XIV</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page57">Page 57</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo100.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Balancing.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page57"></a>[57]</span></p> - -<h4>POSITION AND ACTION IN BALANCING.</h4> - -<p>In this exercise, the head should be held up, the body erect, -the shoulders back, the arms extended, the hands shut, and the -feet turned outwards. At first, the balancer may be assisted -along the bar; but he must gradually receive less and less aid, -till at last the assistant only remains by his side.</p> - -<p>The pole may be mounted either from the ground or from the -riding position on the beam. In the latter case, the balancer -may raise the right foot, place it flat on the beam, with the heel -near the upper part of the thigh, and rise on the point of the -foot, carrying the weight of the body before him. (<a href="#PlateXIV">Plate XIV.</a> -fig. 1.)</p> - -<p>In this case, the beam must not be touched with the hands; -the left leg must hang perpendicularly, with the toe towards the -ground, and the arms be stretched forward. After keeping the -balance for some minutes in this position, he must stretch the -left leg out before him, place his heel on the middle of the beam, -with the toe well turned outward, and transfer the weight of -the body from the point of the right foot to the left heel—(<a href="#PlateXIV">Plate -XIV.</a> fig. 2). These steps he must perform alternately, -till he reaches the end of the beam.</p> - -<h4>TURNS IN BALANCING.</h4> - -<p>When the balancer is able to walk firmly and in good position -along the bar, and to spring off whenever he may lose his -balance, he may attempt to turn round, first at the broad, then -at the narrow end, and to return. He may next try to go -backward.</p> - -<p>In accomplishing this, it is no longer the heel, but the tip of -the toes, which receives the weight; the leg which hangs being -stretched backward, with the hip, knee, and heel forming a right -angle, till the toes, by a transverse motion, are so placed on the -middle of the beam, that the balancer can safely transfer to them -the whole weight of the body.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page58"></a>[58]</span></p> - -<p>To acquire the art of passing an obstacle placed laterally, two -balancers may pass each other thus:—They must hold one another -fast by the arms, advance breast to breast, place each his -right foot close forward to that of his comrade, across the bar -(<a href="#PlateXIV">Plate XIV.</a> fig. 3), and turn completely round each other, by -each stepping with his left foot round the right one of the other, -as in <a href="#PlateXIV">Plate XIV.</a> fig. 4.</p> - -<p>To acquire the art of passing an obstacle placed inferiorly, a -large stone may be laid upon the bar, or a stick may be held -before the balancer, about the height of the knee. (<a href="#PlateXIV">Plate XIV.</a> -fig. 5.)</p> - -<p>To pass over men placed upon a beam, the pupil or pupils -who are astride in front lie down on the beam, which they grasp -firmly by passing their arms round it. The pupil <i>a</i> (fig. 1, <a href="#PlateXV">Plate -XV.</a>) having to pass to the point on the beam marked <i>b</i>, places -his hands on the waistband of his comrade <i>c</i>: he then leans -upon his arms, and raises his body to pass forward over his -comrade, opening his legs widely, so as not to touch him, till he -places himself astride at <i>c</i>. He then extends his hands and -arms for a second movement, places them at <i>b</i>, and leans the -body well forward, as shown in fig. 2, <a href="#PlateXV">Plate XV.</a> Being thus -placed, he makes the last movement, raises his body upon the -arms to pass over his comrade’s head without touching it, which -is the chief rule of this exercise, and places himself astride upon -the beam at <i>b</i>, moving his hands immediately, and extending -them to rest at <i>d</i>. This movement being finished, he continues -advancing astride, along the beam, over the others, if there be -any; raises himself to an upright position, and lies down in his -turn on the beam. This last attitude requires some care, because -the head must incline either to the right or left of the -beam, as shown in the plates, and the pupil must hold tight -to the beam with the arms and thighs, which requires both skill -and strength.</p> - -<p>The pupil may also pass as shown in fig. 3, <a href="#PlateXV">Plate XV.</a> This -method is very easy for the person passing, and indeed more so -than any other; but it is necessary that the pupil who is in the -position <i>b</i> should have learnt to raise himself up on the beam, -or know how to advance along it underneath, in a reversed -position.</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXV"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XV</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page58">Page 58</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo103.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Balancing.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page59"></a>[59]</span></p> - -<p>It is impossible for any one who has not seen the carnivals of -Venice, and other towns in Italy, to form an idea of all the -difficulties that have been surmounted in the art of equilibrium. -To acquire the art of carrying any body, the balancer may at -first walk along the bar with his hands folded across his breast, -instead of using them to balance himself; and he may afterwards -carry bodies of various magnitudes.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">To this notice of the rules by which the art of Balancing may -be best acquired, it will not be out of place to subjoin a slight -outline of its importance to all who desire to arrive at excellence -in any of the Manly Exercises. Motion—the source of them -all—if not absolutely dependent for existence upon equilibrium, -without it would be but the infancy of action—movement -tottering, uncertain, powerless. The first effort of locomotion—the -walk, without it, possesses neither force nor decision: in -the same ratio that a higher degree of muscular exertion is demanded, -increases the value and importance of the art which -teaches how best to apply the vital energies to its service. -What a wise economy is to the social, this art is to the physical -system: both serve to augment our resources, by instructing us -so to husband them that the term “necessity” be not known to -our vocabulary.</p> - -<p>While in every instance equilibrium adds greatly to physical -power, in many it stands altogether in its stead. To the most -casual observer of our usual sports it will be manifest that this -is the case in Skating;—the more attentive and competent will -have little difficulty in tracing its effects in Leaping, Vaulting, -Swimming, and through almost the whole catalogue. It is to -the later writers on horsemanship that we are indebted for the -knowledge of its vital service to the equestrian. The truth of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page60"></a>[60]</span> -their theory is proved by the fact that, where formerly scarce a -tithe of a hunting-field was found to ride to hounds, now -nine-tenths are ordinarily to be seen in good places.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> - -<div class="poetry"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse indent7">————Scouring along,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">In pleasing hurry and confusion toss’d,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Happy the man, who with unrivall’d speed</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Can pass his fellows.</div> -</div><!--stanza--> - -</div><!--poetry--> - -</div><!--poetry-container--> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>CARRYING WEIGHT.</h3> - -<p>The power of raising and carrying weight is of great importance -in a general view. Many advantages will be derived from -it; for besides strengthening the locomotive muscles, upon -which all our physical operations depend, it will fortify also all -the system and all the organs. All persons, moreover, may -find themselves under the necessity of raising and carrying a -wounded or fainting person, and may be glad to have cultivated -and acquired the power necessary to perform such an act.</p> - -<p>In accustoming young persons to carry burdens, they should -be taught to support what is on the back first with one hand -and then with the other: by these means the muscles are equally -exercised on each side, and acquire an equal developement. -These burdens, however, must not exceed their strength; and -they should be taught not to carry on one side in preference, -for fear of deforming the limbs. There are several modes of -supporting weights, and of trying the amount of power possessed -for this kind of exercise.</p> - -<p>Fig. 1, <a href="#PlateXVI">Plate XVI.</a> represents one method. It consists in -loading the shoulders with sacks full of articles whose weight -is previously known. The position of the arms and hands is such -that the pupil can support a great weight: but in this way he -can walk but very slowly; and it is therefore, so far, disadvantageous.</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXVI"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XVI</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page60">Page 60</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo107.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Carrying Weight.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page61"></a>[61]</span></p> - -<p>Fig. 2, in the same <a href="#PlateXVI">plate</a>, supports a weight by means of a -hod. This is filled with balls or stones, of which the weight is -known.</p> - -<p>The form of the weight is of consequence. A soldier now -carries with ease a knapsack full of articles, and additional -weight above it, because the flat shape that has been lately -adopted fits the body, and lies close to the back, as in <a href="#PlateXVI">fig. 3</a>, -and the centre of gravity is thus very little deranged. But if -the knapsack were of the old shape, very projecting and very -round, as in <a href="#PlateXVI">fig. 4</a>, the soldier would be forced to incline his -body forward, and would not be able to carry as great a weight, -nor march as long a time, in consequence of fatigue. It is for -this reason, among others, desirable to extend the knowledge of -the most simple rules of mechanics, because these rules are -serviceable in avoiding many dangers, and diminishing the -fatigue and the efforts that vacillation in the movements produces. -We may make use of a hook to bear boxes or bags in -addition, with the weights marked, and thus learn the carrier’s -strength.</p> - -<p>Milo, says history, first carried a calf immediately after its -birth, and continued to do so every day till it had reached its -full size. It was said by this means that he was able to carry -even the ox itself, and afterwards throw it on the ground and -kill it with his fist.</p> - -<p>Augustus the Second, King of Poland, carried a man upon -his hand.</p> - -<p>A man named Roussel, a labourer in the environs of Lisle, -who on a smaller scale (being but four feet ten inches in height), -was formed exactly like the Farnese Hercules, raised on his -shoulders a weight of eighteen hundred pounds. He cleared a -circle six feet in height with very little spring and one hundred-weight -in each hand. When seated on the ground, he rose up -without aid, carrying two men on his arms. Equally astonishing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page62"></a>[62]</span> -in the strength of his loins, he took up two hundred-weight -leaning backwards over a chair. “I have seen this remarkable -man,” says Friedlander: “the whole of his family are very -strong: his sister and brother are equally remarkable in this -point.” It is very striking to find in him the characteristic -traits with which antiquity depicted the ideal of bodily strength.</p> - -<p>In the Encyclopædia of Krumtz, vol. lxxii., we find instances -of some men similar to Roussel, who lived at the commencement -of the last century. A man named Eckenberg raised a -cannon of two thousand five hundred pounds weight; and two -strong men were unable to take from him a stick that he held -between his teeth.</p> - -<p>In number 446 of the Bibliotheque Britannique, is to be -found a report of some trials made by a Mr. Shulze, in his -manufactory, of the strength of men of different heights. -These trials show what influence an elevated stature has upon -the vertical height to which a man can raise any weight. A -short man is, in his turn, capable of employing more force in -another direction.</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>THROWING THE DISCUS.</h3> - -<p>Among the Greeks, throwing the discus did not form part of -the games till the eighteenth Olympiad. This exercise consisted -in throwing, as far as possible, a mass of wood or stone, but -more commonly of iron or copper, of a lenticular form. From -the testimony of ancient authors, there was no mark or butt -fixed, except the spot where the discus thrown by the strongest -of the discoboli alighted. Mercuriali has handed down to -us three engravings, in which the discus is not of the same shape. -The first engraving represents four discoboli in the act of throwing -with the right hand a discus which is as thick at the circumference -as at the centre, which has been bored. The second represents -the statue of a discobolus holding a discus apparently of -a spherical form, in the left hand. The third shows the arm of -an athlete with a flat discus. The discus in the last two engravings -now mentioned, covers the greater part of the front of -the forearm; and all that the ancients have written respecting -this instrument, tends to show that it was of enormous size and -weight. Homer tells us, that the athletes threw the discus -either up into the air merely as a prelude to accustom their arms -to it, or horizontally when they were striving for the prize.</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXVII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XVII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page63">Page 63</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo112.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Throwing the Discus.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page63"></a>[63]</span></p> - -<p>To perform this exercise properly, the thrower should not -only balance the discus well on the right arm, (supposing it to -be on that arm, as in <a href="#PlateXVII">Plate XVII.</a> fig. 1); but at the moment -it leaves the hand, he should throw the whole of the right side -forward, so that the impulse may be assisted by the weight of -the whole body.—(<a href="#PlateXVII">Plate XVII.</a> fig. 2.) This exercise very -much strengthens the body, and developes, in a particular manner, -the limb by which the discus is thrown. It may be usefully -employed in cases where it is desirable to remedy weakness in -either of the arms; and it is well calculated to bring up the -power of the left arm to that of the right. The modern quoit -differs from the ancient discus only in this, that the instrument -so called is much smaller than the discus, that its use is a mere -idle pastime, and that the object is always to throw it as close as -possible to a fixed mark, requiring more skill than strength.</p> - -<p>It is evident that the discus may be heaved from above the -shoulder as well as flung from below.—(See <a href="#PlateXVII">Plate XVII.</a> fig. 3.) -No exercises can excel these for the acquirement of power. -They ought to be much practised with both hands. A man of -moderate strength will throw a pound weight of lead a distance -of 140 feet, or thereabouts.</p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap"> - -<tr> -<td class="text"><span class="padr2">Silex 1½</span></td> -<td class="numbers">126</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="center top">feet.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text"><span class="padr2">Ditto ¼</span></td> -<td class="numbers">145</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text"><span class="padr2">Brick ½</span></td> -<td class="numbers">160</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page64"></a>[64]</span></p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>CLIMBING.</h3> - -<p>Climbing is the art of transporting the body in any direction, -by the aid, in general, both of the hands and feet. The climbing-stand -consists of two strong poles, about fifteen feet high, -and from fifteen to twenty-five feet distant, which are firmly -fixed in the ground, and support a beam strongly fastened to -them. One pole is two inches and a half in diameter; the -other, which serves as a mast, should be considerably thicker; -and both serve the purpose of climbing. To the beam are attached -other implements of climbing: viz. a ladder, an inclined -board, a mast, an inclined pole, a horizontal bar, a rope ladder, -an upright, an inclined, and a level rope.—(<a href="#PlateXVIII">Plate XVIII.</a>)</p> - -<h4>KINDS OF CLIMBING.</h4> - -<p>Climbing on fixed bodies should first be practised.</p> - -<h5><i>The Ladder.</i></h5> - -<p>Exercises on the ladder may be practised in the following -<span class="nowrap">ways:—</span></p> - -<ul class="nostyle fsize90"> - -<li>1. By ascending and descending as -usual.</li> - -<li>2. With one hand, carrying something -in the other.</li> - -<li>3. Without using the hands.</li> - -<li>4. Passing another on the front of -the ladder, or swinging to the back, -to let another pass.</li> - -</ul> - -<h5><i>The Inclined Board.</i></h5> - -<p>This should be rather rough, about two feet broad, and two -inches thick. To climb it, it is necessary to seize both sides -with the hands, and to place the feet flat in the middle, the inclination -of the board being diminished with the progress of -the pupil.</p> - -<p>At first, it may form with the ground an angle of about -thirty degrees; and the climber should not go more than half-way -up. This angle may gradually be augmented to a right -angle, or the direction of the board may be made perpendicular. -When the board is thus little or not at all inclined, the body -must be much curved inward, and the legs thrust up, so that the -higher one is nearly even with the hand. In descending, small -and quick steps are necessary.</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXVIII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XVIII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page64">Page 64</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo115.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Climbing.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page65"></a>[65]</span></p> - -<h5><i>The Upright Pole.</i></h5> - -<p>The upright pole should be about two inches and a half in -diameter, perfectly smooth and free from splinters.</p> - -<p>The position of the climber is shown in <a href="#PlateXVIII">Plate XVIII.</a> fig. 1, -where nothing touches the pole except the feet, legs, knees, and -hands. He grasps as high as possible with both hands, raises -himself by bending the body and drawing his legs up the pole, -holds fast by them, extends the body, again grasps higher up -with his hands, and continues the same use of the legs and -arms. The descent is performed by sliding down with the legs, -and scarcely touching with the hands, as in <a href="#PlateXVIII">Plate XVIII.</a> fig. 2.</p> - -<h5><i>The Mast.</i></h5> - -<p>This is more difficult, as it cannot be grasped with the hands; -and it consequently should not be practised until the climber is -expert in the previous exercises. The position of the legs is -the same as for the pole; but, instead of grasping the mast, the -climber lays hold of his left arm with his right hand, or the reverse, -and clings to the mast with the whole body, as in <a href="#PlateXVIII">Plate -XVIII.</a> fig. 3.</p> - -<h5><i>The Slant Pole.</i></h5> - -<p>This must be at least three inches thick; and as, in this exercise, -the hands bear more of the weight than in climbing the -upright pole, it should not be attempted until expertness in the -other is acquired.</p> - -<h5><i>The Horizontal, or Slightly Inclined Bar.</i></h5> - -<p>This may be about two inches wide at top, from ten to fifteen -feet long, and supported by two posts, respectively six and seven -feet high. The climber must grasp with both hands as high a -part of the bar as he can reach, and, with arms extended, support -his own weight as long as possible. He must next endeavour -to bend the elbows so much, that one shoulder remains<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page66"></a>[66]</span> -close under the bar, as seen in <a href="#PlateXVIII">Pl XVIII.</a> fig. 4. Or he may -place both hands on the same side, and draw himself up so far -as to see over it, keeping the legs and feet close and extended.</p> - -<p>He may then hang with his hands fixed on both sides, near -to each other, having the elbows much bent, the upper parts of -the arms close to the body, and one shoulder close under the -bar; may lower the head backwards, and may, at the same time, -raise the feet to touch each other over the bar.—(<a href="#PlateXVIII">Pl XVIII.</a> -fig. 5.) In the last position, he may move the hands one before -the other, forward or backward, and may either slide the feet -along the bar, or alternately change them like the hands, and -retain a similar hold.</p> - -<p>Hanging also by the hands alone, as in <a href="#PlateXVIII">Pl XVIII.</a> fig. 6, he -moves them either forward or backward, keeping the arms firm, -and the feet close and extended. Or he may place himself in -front of the bar, hanging by both hands, and move laterally. -Being likewise in front of the bar, with his hands resting upon -it, as in <a href="#PlateXVIII">Pl XVIII.</a> fig. 7, he may move along the bar either to -the right or left. In the position of <a href="#PlateXVIII">Pl XVIII.</a> fig. 5, the -climber may endeavour to sit upon the bar, for instance, on the -right side, by taking hold with the right knee-joint, grasping -firmly with the right hand, and bringing the left armpit over -the bar. The riding position is thus easily obtained. From the -riding position, he may, by supporting himself with one thigh, -turn towards the front of the bar, allowing the leg of the other -side to hang down; and he may then very easily move along the -bar sideways, by raising his body with his hands placed laterally -on the bar.</p> - -<h5><i>The Rope Ladder.</i></h5> - -<p>This should have several rundles to spread it out, and ought, -in all respects, to be so constructed, as not to twist and entangle. -The only difficulty here is that, as it hangs perpendicularly, -and is flexible, its steps are liable to be pushed forward, -and in that case, the body is thrown into an oblique position, -and the whole weight falls on the hands. To prevent this, the -climber must keep the body stretched out and upright.—(<a href="#PlateXVIII">Plate -XVIII.</a> fig. 8.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page67"></a>[67]</span></p> - -<h5><i>The Upright Rope.</i></h5> - -<p>In this exercise, the securing the rope may be effected in -various ways. In the first method, shown in <a href="#PlateXVIII">Pl XVIII.</a> -fig. 9, the hands and feet alone are employed. The feet are -crossed; the rope passes between them, and is held fast by -their pressure; the hands then grasp higher; the feet are -drawn up; they are again applied to the rope; and the -same process is repeated. In the second, which is the sailor’s -method, shown at <a href="#PlateXVIII">Pl XVIII.</a> fig. 10, the rope passes from the -hands, generally along the right thigh, just above the knee; -winds round the inside of the thigh, under the knee-joint, over -the outside of the leg, and across the instep, whence it hangs -loose; and the climber, by treading with the left foot upon that -part of the rope where it crosses the right one, is firmly supported. -This mode of climbing requires the right leg and foot -to be so managed that the rope keeps its proper winding whenever -it is quitted by the left foot. In descending, to prevent -injury, the hands must be lowered alternately.</p> - -<p>To rest upon the upright rope, shown in <a href="#PlateXVIII">Pl XVIII.</a> fig. 11, -the climber must swing the right foot round the rope, so as to -wind it three or four times round the leg; must turn it, by -means of the left foot, once or twice round the right one, of -which the toes are to be bent upwards; and must tread firmly -with the left foot upon the last winding. Or, to obtain a more -perfect rest he may lower his hands along the rope, as in Figure -11, hold with the right hand, stoop, grasp with the left the -part of the rope below the feet, raise it and himself again, and -wind it round his shoulders, &c., until he is firmly supported.</p> - -<h5><i>The Oblique Rope.</i></h5> - -<p>The climber must fix himself to the rope, as in <a href="#PlateXVIII">Pl XVIII.</a> -fig. 12, and advance the hands along it, as already directed. -The feet may move along the rope alternately; or one leg, -hanging over the rope, may slide along it; or, which is best,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page68"></a>[68]</span> -the sole of one foot may be laid upon the rope, and the other -leg across its instep, so that the friction is not felt.</p> - -<h5><i>The Level Rope.</i></h5> - -<p>This may have its ends fastened to posts of equal heights; -and the same exercises may be performed upon it.</p> - -<h5><i>Climbing Trees.</i></h5> - -<p>In attempting this exercise, the kind of the wood and strength -of the branches must be considered. Summer is the best time -for practising it, as withered branches are then most easily -discerned; and even then it is best to climb low trees, until -some experience is acquired. As the surface of branches is -smooth, or moist and slippery, the hands must never for a -moment be relaxed.</p> - -<div class="container w40em"> -<img src="images/illo120.jpg" alt="Horse vaulting" /> -</div> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<div class="container w40em"> -<img src="images/illo121.jpg" alt="Skaters" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page69"></a>[69]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">SKATING.</h3> - -<p>Skating is the art of balancing the body, while, by the impulse -of each foot alternately, it moves rapidly upon the ice.</p> - -<h4>CONSTRUCTION OF THE SKATE.</h4> - -<p>The wood of the skate should be slightly hollowed, so as to -adapt it to the ball of the foot; and, as the heel of the boot -must be thick enough to admit the peg, it may be well to lower -the wood of the skate corresponding to the heel, so as to permit -the foot to regain that degree of horizontal position which it -would otherwise lose by the height of the heel; for the more of -the foot that is in contact with the skate, the more firmly will -these be attached. As the tread of the skate should correspond, -as nearly as possible, with that of the foot, the wood should be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page70"></a>[70]</span> -of the same length as the boot or shoe; the irons of good steel, -and well secured in the wood.</p> - -<p>These should pass beyond the screw at the heel, nearly as far -as the wood itself; but the bow of the iron should not project -much beyond the tread.</p> - -<p>If the skate project much beyond the wood, the whole foot, -and more especially its hind part, must be raised considerably -from the ice when the front or bow of the skate is brought to -bear upon it; and, as the skater depends upon this part for the -power of his stroke, it is evident that that must be greatly diminished -by the general distance of the foot from the ice. In short, -if the skate be too long, the stroke will be feeble, and the back -of the leg painfully cramped: if it be too short, the footing will -be proportionally unsteady and tottering.</p> - -<p>As the position of the person in the act of skating is never -vertical, and is sometimes very much inclined, and as considerable -exertion of the muscles of the leg is requisite to keep the -ankle stiff, this ought to be relieved by the lowness of the skates. -Seeing, then, that the closer the foot is to the ice, the less is -the strain on the ankle, it is clear that the foot ought to be -brought as near to the ice as possible, without danger of bringing -the sole of the shoe in contact with it, while traversing on -the edge of the skate. The best height is about three-quarters -of an inch, and the iron about a quarter of an inch thick.</p> - -<p>The grooved or fluted skate, if ever useful, is of service only -to boys, or very light persons, whose weight is not sufficient to -catch the ice in a hard frost. It certainly should never be used -by a person who is heavier than a boy of thirteen or fourteen -years of age usually is, because the sharp edge too easily cuts -into the ice, and prevents figuring. Fluted skates, indeed, are -even dangerous: for the snow or ice cuttings are apt to collect -and consolidate in the grooves, till the skater is raised from the -edge of his skate, and thrown.</p> - -<p>In the general inclination of the foot in skating, no edge can -have greater power than that of rectangular shape: the tendency -of its action is downwards, cutting through rather than<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page71"></a>[71]</span> -sliding on the surface; and greater hold than this is unnecessary. -The irons of skates should be kept well and sharply ground. -This ought to be done across the stone, so as to give the bottom -of the skate so slight a concavity as to be imperceptible, which -insures an edge whose angle is not greater than right. Care -must be taken that one edge is not higher than the other; so -that, when the skate is placed upon an even surface, it may -stand quite perpendicularly. The wear of the iron not being -great with a beginner, one grinding will generally last him -through an ordinary winter’s skating on clean ice.</p> - -<p>The bottom of the iron should be a little curved; for, if perfectly -straight, it would be capable of describing only a straight -line, whereas the skater’s progress must be circular, because, in -order to bring the edge to bear, the body must be inclined, and -inclination can be preserved only in circular motion. This curve -of the iron should be part of a circle, whose radius is about two -feet. That shape enables the skater to turn his toe or heel outwards -or inwards with facility.</p> - -<p>A screw would have a firmer hold than a mere peg in the hole -of the boot; but, as it is less easily removed, skaters generally -prefer the peg. The skater should be careful not to bore a -larger hole in the heel than is sufficient to admit the peg. The -more simple the fastenings of the skate the better. The two -straps—namely, the cross strap over the toe, and the heel strap—cannot -be improved, unless perhaps by passing one strap through -the three bores, and so making it serve for both.</p> - -<div class="container"> -<img src="images/illo123.png" alt="Skates" /> -</div> - -<p>Before going on the ice, the young skater must learn to tie -on the skates, and may also learn to walk with them easily in a -room, balancing alternately on each foot.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page72"></a>[72]</span></p> - -<h4>DRESS OF THE SKATER.</h4> - -<p>A skater’s dress should be as close and unincumbered as -possible. Large skirts get entangled with his own limbs, or -those of the persons who pass near him; and all fulness of -dress is exposed to the wind. Loose trousers, frocks, and more -especially great-coats, must be avoided; and indeed, by wearing -additional under-clothing, they can always be dispensed with.</p> - -<p>As the exercise of skating produces perspiration, flannel next -the chest, shoulders, and loins, is necessary to avoid the evils -produced by sudden chills in cold weather. The best dress is -what is called a dress-coat, buttoned, tight pantaloons, and -laced boots (having the heel no higher than is necessary for the -peg), which hold the foot tightly and steadily in its place, as -well as give the best support to the ankle; for it is of no use to -draw the straps of the skate hard, if the boot or shoe be loose.</p> - -<h4>PRELIMINARY AND GENERAL DIRECTIONS.</h4> - -<p>Either very rough or very smooth ice should be avoided. The -person who for the first time attempts to skate, must not trust -to a stick. He may make a friend’s hand his support, if he -require one; but that should be soon relinquished, in order to -balance himself. He will probably scramble about for half an -hour or so, till he begins to find out where the edge of his -skate is.</p> - -<p>The beginner must be fearless, but not violent; nor even in -a hurry. He should not let his feet get far apart, and keep his -heels still nearer together. He must keep the ankle of the foot -on the ice quite firm; not attempting to gain the edge of the -skate by bending it, because the right mode of getting to either -edge is by the inclination of the whole body in the direction -required; and this inclination should be made fearlessly and -decisively.</p> - -<p>The leg which is on the ice should be kept perfectly straight; -for, though the knee must be somewhat bent at the time of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page73"></a>[73]</span> -striking, it must be straightened as quickly as possible without -any jerk. The leg which is off the ice should also be kept -straight, though not stiff, having an easy but slight play, the -toe pointing downwards, and the heel within from six to twelve -inches of the other.</p> - -<p>The learner must not look down at the ice, nor at his feet, to -see how they perform. He may at first incline his body a little -forward, for safety, but hold his head up, and see where he -goes, his person erect, and his face rather elevated than otherwise.</p> - -<p>When once off, he must bring both feet up together, and -strike again, as soon as he finds himself steady enough, rarely -allowing both feet to be on the ice together. The position of -the arms should be easy and varied; one being always more -raised than the other, this elevation being alternate, and the -change corresponding with that of the legs; that is, the right -arm being raised as the right leg is put down, and <i>vice versâ</i>, -so that the arm and leg of the same side may not be raised together.</p> - -<p>The face must be always turned in the direction of the line -intended to be described. Hence, in backward skating, the -head will be inclined much over the shoulder; in forward -skating, but slightly. All sudden and violent action must be -avoided. Stopping may be caused by slightly bending the -knees, drawing the feet together, inclining the body forward, -and pressing on the heels. It may also be caused by turning -short to the right or left, the foot on the side to which we turn -being rather more advanced, and supporting part of the weight.</p> - -<h4>THE ORDINARY RUN, OR INSIDE EDGE FORWARD.</h4> - -<p>The first attempt of the beginner is to walk, and this walk -shortly becomes a sliding gait, done entirely on the inside edge -of the skate.</p> - -<p>The first impulse is to be gained by pressing the inside edge -of one skate against the ice, and advancing with the opposite -foot. To effect this, the beginner must bring the feet nearly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page74"></a>[74]</span> -together, turn the left somewhat out, place the right a little in -advance and at right angles with it, lean forward with the right -shoulder, and at the same time move the right foot onwards, -and press sharply, or strike the ice with the inside edge of the -left skate,—care being taken instantly to throw the weight on -the right foot. (<a href="#PlateXIX">Plate XIX.</a> fig. 1.) While thus in motion, -the skater must bring up the left foot nearly to a level with -the other, and may for the present proceed a short way on both -feet.</p> - -<p>He must next place the left foot in advance in its turn, bring -the left shoulder forward, inclining to that side, strike from the -inside edge of the right skate, and proceed as before.</p> - -<p>Finally, this motion has only to be repeated on each foot -alternately, gradually keeping the foot from which he struck -longer off the ice, till he has gained sufficient command of -himself to keep it off altogether, and is able to strike directly -from one to the other, without at any time having them both on -the ice together. Having practised this till he has gained some -degree of firmness and power, and a command of his balance, -he may proceed to</p> - -<h4>THE FORWARD ROLL, OR OUTSIDE EDGE.</h4> - -<p>This is commonly reckoned the first step to figure skating, as, -when it is once effected, the rest follows with ease. The impulse -is gained in the same manner as for the ordinary run; -but, to get on the outside edge of the right foot, the moment -that foot is in motion, the skater must advance the left -shoulder, throw the right arm back, look over the right -shoulder, and incline the whole person boldly and decisively on -that side, keeping the left foot suspended behind. (<a href="#PlateXIX">Plate XIX.</a> -fig. 2.)</p> - -<p>As he proceeds, he must bring the left foot past the inside of -the right, with a slight jerk, which produces an opposing balance -of the body; the right foot must quickly press, first on the -outside of the heel, then on the inside, or its toe; the left foot -must be placed down in front, before it is removed more than<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page75"></a>[75]</span> -about eight or ten inches from the other foot; and, by striking -outside to the left, giving at the same moment a strong push -with the inside of the right toe, the skater passes from right to -left, inclining to the left side, in the same manner as he did to -the right. He then continues to change from left to right, and -from right to left, in the same manner. At first he should not -remain long upon one leg, nor scruple occasionally to put the -other down to assist; and throughout he must keep himself -erect, leaning most on the heel.</p> - -<p>The Dutch travelling roll is done on the outside edge forward, -in the manner just represented, except that there is -described a small segment of a very large circle, thus:</p> - -<div class="container"> -<img src="images/illo127a.png" alt="Dutch travelling roll" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">diverging from the straight line no more than is requisite to -keep the skate on its edge.</p> - -<p>The cross roll or figure 8 is also done on the outside edge -forward. This is only the completion of the circle on the outside -edge; and it is performed by crossing the legs, and striking -from the outside instead of the inside edge. In order to do -this, as the skater draws to the close of the stroke on his right -leg, he must throw the left quite across it, which will cause him -to press hard on the outside of the right skate, from which he -must immediately strike, at the same time throwing back the -left arm, and looking over the left shoulder, to bring him well -upon the outside of that skate. By completing the circle in -this manner on each leg, the 8 is formed:</p> - -<div class="container w05em"> -<img src="images/illo127b.png" alt="Figure 8" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">each circle being small, complete, and well-formed, before the -foot is changed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page76"></a>[76]</span></p> - -<p>The Mercury figure is merely the outside and inside forward -succeeding each other on the same leg alternately, by which a -serpentine line is described, thus:</p> - -<div class="container w40em"> -<img src="images/illo128a.png" alt="Mercury figure" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">This is skated with the force and rapidity gained by a run. -When the run is complete, and the skater on the outside edge, -his person becomes quiescent, in the attitude of Mercury, having -the right arm advanced and much raised, the face turned -over the right shoulder, and the left foot off the ice, a short -distance behind the other, turned out and pointed.</p> - -<h4>FIGURE OF THREE, OR INSIDE EDGE BACKWARDS.</h4> - -<p>This figure is formed by turning from the outside edge forward -to the inside edge backward on the same foot. The head -of the 3 is formed like the half circle, on the heel of the outside -edge; but when the half circle is complete, the skater -leans suddenly forward, and rests on the same toe inside, and a -backward motion, making the tail of the 3, is the consequence. -The figure described by the right leg should be nearly in the -form of No. 1; and on the left leg should be reversed, and -resemble No. 2.</p> - -<div class="container w15em"> -<img src="images/illo128b.png" alt="Figure of three" /> -</div> - -<p>At first, the skater should not throw himself quite so hard as -hitherto on the outside forward, in order that he may be able -the more easily to change to the inside back. He may also be -for some time contented with much less than a semicircle before -he turns. Having done this, and brought the left leg -nearly up to the other, he must not pass it on in advance, as -he would to complete a circle, but throw it gently off sidewise, -at the same moment turning the face from the right to the left -shoulder, and giving the whole person a slight inclination to the -left side. These motions throw the skater upon the inside of -his skate; but as the first impulse should still retain most of its -force, he continues to move on the inside back, in a direction -so little different, that his first impulse loses little by the change. -(<a href="#PlateXIX">Plate XIX.</a> fig. 1.)</p> - -<div class="plate w30em" id="PlateXIX"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XIX</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page77">Page 77</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo130.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Skating.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page77"></a>[77]</span></p> - -<p>If unable to change the edge by this method, the skater may -assist himself by slightly and gently swinging the arm and leg -outward, so as to incline the person to a rotatory motion. This -swing, however, must be corrected as soon as the object is -attained; and it must generally be observed that the change -from edge to edge is to be effected merely by the inclination of -the body, not by swinging.</p> - -<p>When the skater is able to join the ends of the 3, so as to -form one side of a circle, then, by striking off in the same manner, -and completing another 3, with the left leg, the combination -of the two 3’s will form an 8. In the first attempts, the 3 -should not be made above two feet long, which he will acquire -the power of doing almost imperceptibly. He may then -gradually extend the size as he advances in the art.</p> - -<p>Though, in this section, backward skating is spoken of, the -term refers to the skate only, which in such case moves heel -foremost, but the person of the skater moves sidewise, the face -being always turned in the direction in which he is proceeding.</p> - -<h4>OUTSIDE EDGE BACKWARDS.</h4> - -<p>Here the skater, having completed the 3, and being carried -on by the first impulse, still continues his progress in the same -direction, but on the other foot, putting it down on its outside -edge, and continuing to go backwards slowly.</p> - -<p>To accomplish this, the skater, after making the 3, and -placing the outside edge of his left foot on the ice, should at -once turn his face over the right shoulder, raise his right foot -from the ice, and throw back his right arm and shoulder. (<a href="#PlateXIX">Plate -XIX.</a> fig. 2.) If, for awhile, he is unable readily to raise that foot<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page78"></a>[78]</span> -which has made the 3, and leave himself on the outside of the other -skate, he may keep both down for some distance, putting himself, -however, in attitude of being on the outside only of one skate, -and gradually lifting the other off the ice as he acquires ability.</p> - -<p>When finishing any figure, this use of both feet backward -has great convenience and beauty.</p> - -<p>Before venturing on the outside backward, the skater ought -to take care that the ice is clear of stones, reeds, &c., and also -be certain of the good quality of his irons. When going with -great force backward, the course may be deflected, so as to stop -by degrees; and, when moving slowly, the suspended foot may -be put down in a cross direction to the path.</p> - -<p>Such are the four movements of which alone the skate is -capable: namely, the inside edge forward; the outside forward; -the inside back; and the outside back; in which has -been seen how the impulse for the first two is gained, and how -the third flows from the second, and the fourth from the third. -By the combination of these elements of skating, and the variations -with which they succeed each other, are formed all the -evolutions in this art.</p> - -<p>The Double Three is that combination in which the skates -are brought from the inside back of the first three, to the -outside forward of the second. Here the skater, after having -completed one 3, and being on the inside back, must bring the -whole of the left side forward, particularly the leg, till it is -thrown almost across the right, on which he is skating. This -action brings him once more to the outside forward, from which -he again turns to the inside back. While he is still in motion -on the second inside back of the right leg, he must strike on -the left, and repeat the same on that.</p> - -<p>It is at first enough to do two 3’s perfectly and smoothly. Their -number from one impulse may be increased as the skater gains -steadiness and skill; the art of accomplishing this being to -touch as lightly as possible on each side of the skate successively, -so that the first impulse may be preserved and made the most of.</p> - -<p>The Back Roll is a means of moving from one foot to another.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page79"></a>[79]</span></p> - -<p>Suppose the skater to have put himself on the outside edge -back of the left leg, with considerable impulse, by means of -the 3 performed on the right,—not bearing hard on the edge, for -the object is to change it, and take up the motion on the right -foot,—this is effected by throwing the left arm and shoulder -back, and turning the face to look over them; when, having -brought the inside of his left skate to bear on the ice, he must -immediately strike from it to the outside back of the other, by -pressing it into the ice as forcibly as he can at the toe. Having -thus been brought to the backward roll on the right foot, he -repeats the same with it.</p> - -<p>The Back Cross Roll is done by changing the balance of the -body, to move from one foot to the other, in the same manner -as for the back roll. The stroke is from the outside instead of -the inside edge of the skate; the edge on which he is skating -not being changed, but the right foot, which is off the ice, being -crossed at the back of the left, and put down, and the stroke -taken at the same moment, from the outside edge of the left -skate, at the toe. As in the back roll of both forms, the strokes -are but feeble, the skater may, from time to time, renew his -impulse as he finds occasion, by commencing anew with the 3.</p> - -<p>The large outside backward roll is attained by a run, when -the skater, having gained all the impulse he can, strikes on the -outside forward of the right leg, turns the 3, and immediately -put down the left on the outside back. He then, without further -effort, flies rapidly over the ice; the left arm being raised, -the head turned over the right shoulder, and the right foot -turned out and pointed.</p> - -<p>It must be evident, that the elements described may be combined -and varied infinitely. Hence waltz and quadrille skating, -&c., which may be described as combinations of 3’s, outside -backwards, &c. These are left to the judgment of the skater, -and his skill in the art.</p> - -<p>In the North it is common to travel in skates on the gulfs -and rivers; and, with a favourable wind, they go faster than -vessels. It is a kind of flight, for they only touch the ground<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page80"></a>[80]</span> -in a very slight thin line. As to feats in skating, we are told, -that the Frieslander, who is generally a skilful skater, often -goes for a long time at the rate of fifteen miles an hour. In -1801, two young women, going thirty miles in two hours, won -the prize in a skating race at Groningen. In 1821, a Lincolnshire -man, for a wager of 100 guineas, skated one mile within -two seconds of three minutes.</p> - -<h4>DANGERS IN SKATING.</h4> - -<p>If the chest be irritable, it is neither salutary nor easy to -skate against the wind. In countries where these exercises are -general, inflammations of the chest are very common in winter. -Skating sometimes exposes to much danger. If the skater find -that he cannot get away from rotten ice, he must crawl over it -on his hands and knees, in order to reduce his weight on the -supporting points. If he fall on it at length, he must roll away -from it towards ice more firm. If he fall into a hole, he must -extend his arms horizontally over the edges of the unbroken -ice, and only tread water, till a ladder or a plank is pushed -towards him, or a rope is thrown for his hold.</p> - -<div class="fsize90"> - -<h4>TREATMENT RECOMMENDED IN THE CASE OF DROWNED PERSONS.</h4> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cautions.</span>—1. Lose no time. 2. Avoid all rough usage. 3. Never hold the -body up by the feet. 4. Nor roll the body on casks. 5. Nor rub the body -with salt or spirits. 6. Nor inject tobacco-smoke or infusion of tobacco.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Restorative means if apparently drowned.</span>—Send quickly for -medical assistance; but do not delay the following means.</p> - -<p>I. Convey the body carefully, with the head and shoulders supported in a -raised position, to the nearest house.</p> - -<p>II. Strip the body, and rub it dry; then wrap it in hot blankets, and place -it in a warm bed in a warm chamber.</p> - -<p>III. Wipe and cleanse the mouth and nostrils.</p> - -<p>IV. In order to restore the natural warmth of the body:</p> - -<p>1. Move a heated covered warming-pan over the back and spine.</p> - -<p>2. Put bladders or bottles of hot water, or heated bricks, to the pit of the -stomach, the arm-pits, between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page81"></a>[81]</span></p> - -<p>3. Foment the body with hot flannels; but, if possible,</p> - -<p>4. Immerse the body in a warm bath, as hot as the hand can bear without -pain, as this is preferable to the other means for restoring warmth.</p> - -<p>5. Rub the body briskly with the hand; do not, however, suspend the use -of the other means at the same time.</p> - -<p>V. In order to restore breathing, introduce the pipe of a common bellows -(where the apparatus of the Society is not at hand) into one nostril, carefully -closing the other and the mouth: at the same time draw downwards and -push gently backwards the upper part of the windpipe, to allow a more free -admission of air: blow the bellows gently in order to inflate the lungs, till the -breast be a little raised: the mouth and nostrils should then be set free, and -a moderate pressure should be made with the hand upon the chest. Repeat -this process till life appears.</p> - -<p>VI. Electricity should be employed early by a medical assistant.</p> - -<p>VII. Inject into the stomach, by means of an elastic tube and syringe, half -a pint of warm brandy and water, or wine and water.</p> - -<p>VIII. Apply sal-volatile or hartshorn to the nostrils.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">If apparently dead from intense cold.</span>—Rub the body with snow, -ice, or cold water. Restore warmth by slow degrees; and after some time, -if necessary, employ the means recommended for the drowned. In these -accidents, it is highly dangerous to apply heat too early.</p> - -</div><!--small font--> - -<div class="container w40em"> -<img src="images/illo135.jpg" alt="Skating scene" /> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page82"></a>[82]</span></p> - -<div class="container w45em"> -<img src="images/illo136.jpg" alt="Swimming scene" /> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="gesp2">AQUATIC EXERCISES</span></h2> - -<h3 class="nobreak">SWIMMING.</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Swimming, considered with regard to the movements that -it requires, is useful in promoting great muscular strength; -but the good effects are not solely the result of the exercise -that the muscles receive, but partly of the medium in which -the body is moved. Both the considerable increase of general -force, and the tranquillizing of the nervous system produced -by swimming, arise chiefly from this, that the movements, in -consequence of the cold and dense medium in which they take -place, occasion no loss.<a id="FNanchor8" href="#Footnote8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> It is easy to conceive of what utility -swimming must be, where the very high state of the atmospheric -temperature requires inactivity in consequence of the -excessive loss caused by the slightest movement. It then -becomes an exceedingly valuable resource, the only one, indeed, -by which muscular weakness can be remedied, and the -energy of the vital functions maintained. We must therefore -regard swimming as one of the most beneficial exercises that -can be taken in summer.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote8" href="#FNanchor8" class="label">[8]</a> -The expression “loss” here, is used as the result produced by increased -evaporation from the pores, consequent upon violent bodily exertion.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXX"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XX</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page83">Page 83</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo138.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Swimming—Attitude.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page83"></a>[83]</span></p> - -<p>The ancients, particularly the Athenians, regarded swimming -as indispensable; and when they wished to designate a man -who was fit for nothing, they used to say, “he cannot even -swim,” or “he can neither read nor swim.” At many seaports, -the art of swimming is almost indispensable; and the sailors’ -children are as familiar with the water as with the air. Copenhagen -is perhaps the only place where sailors are trained by -rules of art; and there, this exercise is more general and in -greater perfection than elsewhere. It may here be observed, -that it is not fear alone that prevents a man swimming. Swimming -is an art that must be learnt; and fear is only an obstacle -to the learning.</p> - -<h4>PREPARATORY INSTRUCTIONS AS TO ATTITUDE AND ACTION -IN SWIMMING.</h4> - -<p>As it is on the movements of the limbs, and a certain attitude -of the body, that the power of swimming depends, its first -principles may evidently be acquired out of the water.</p> - -<h5><i>Attitude.</i></h5> - -<p>The head must be drawn back, and the chin elevated, the -breast projected, and the back hollowed and kept steady. (<a href="#PlateXX">Plate -XX.</a> figs. 1 and 2.) The head can scarcely be thrown too -much back, or the back too much hollowed. Those who do -otherwise, swim with their feet near the surface of the water, -instead of having them two or three feet deep.</p> - -<h5><i>Action of the Hands.</i></h5> - -<p>In the proper position of the hands, the fingers must be kept -close, with the thumbs by the edge of the fore-fingers; and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page84"></a>[84]</span> -hands made concave on the inside, though not so much as to -diminish their size and power in swimming. The hands, thus -formed, should be placed just before the breast, the wrist -touching it, and the fingers pointing forward. (<a href="#PlateXXI">Plate XXI.</a> -fig. 1.)</p> - -<p>The first elevation is formed by raising the ends of the -fingers three or four inches higher than the rest of the hands. -The second, by raising the outer edge of the hand two or three -inches higher than the inner edge.</p> - -<p>The formation of the hands, their first position, and their -two modes of elevation, being clearly understood, the forward -stroke is next made, by projecting them in that direction -to their utmost extent, employing therein their first elevation, -in order to produce buoyancy, but taking care the fingers -do not break the surface of the water. (<a href="#PlateXXI">Plate XXI.</a> fig. 2.) -In the outward stroke of the hands, the second elevation -must be employed; and, in it, they must sweep downward and -outward as low as, but at a distance from, the hips, both laterally -and anteriorly. (<a href="#PlateXXI">Plate XXI.</a> figs. 3 and 4.)</p> - -<p>The retraction of the hands is effected by bringing the arms -closer to the sides, bending the elbow joints upwards and the -wrists downwards, so that the hands hang down, while the -arms are raising them to the first position, the action of the -hands being gentle and easy. In the three movements just -described, one arm may be exercised at a time, until each is -accustomed to the action.</p> - -<h5><i>Action of the Feet.</i></h5> - -<p>In drawing up the legs, the knees must be inclined inward, -and the soles of the feet outward. (<a href="#PlateXXII">Plate XXII.</a> fig. 1.) The -throwing out the feet should be to the extent of the legs, -as widely from each other as possible. (<a href="#PlateXXII">Plate XXII.</a> fig. 2.) -The bringing down the legs must be done briskly, until -they come close together. In drawing up the legs, there is -a loss of power; in throwing out the legs, there is a gain -equal to that loss; and in bringing down the legs, there is an -evident gain.</p> - -<div class="plate w30em" id="PlateXXI"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXI</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page84">Page 84</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo141.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Swimming—Action of the Hands.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="plate w35em" id="PlateXXII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page85">Page 85</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo144.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Swimming—Action of the Feet.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page85"></a>[85]</span></p> - -<p>The arms and legs should act alternately; the arms descending -while the legs are rising—(<a href="#PlateXXII">Plate XXII.</a> fig. 3); and, oppositely, -the arms rising while the legs are descending. (<a href="#PlateXXII">Plate -XXII.</a> fig. 4.) Thus the action of both is unceasingly interchanged; -and, until great facility in this interchange is effected, -no one can swim smoothly, or keep the body in one continued -progressive motion. In practising the action of the -legs, one hand may rest on the top of a chair, while the -opposite leg is exercised. When both the arms and the legs -are separately accustomed to the action, the arm and leg of -the same side may be exercised together.</p> - -<h4>PLACE AND TIME OF SWIMMING.</h4> - -<h5><i>Place.</i></h5> - -<p>Of all places for swimming, the sea is the best; running -waters next; and ponds the worst. In these a particular -spot should be chosen, where there is not much stream, and -which is known to be safe.</p> - -<p>The swimmer should make sure that the bottom is not out -of his depth; and, on this subject, he cannot be too cautious -when he has no one with him who knows the place. If -capable of diving, he should ascertain if the water be sufficiently -deep for that purpose, otherwise, he may injure himself -against the bottom. The bottom should be of gravel, or -smooth stones, and free from holes, so that he may be in -no danger of sinking in the mud or wounding the feet. Of -weeds he must beware; for if his feet get entangled among -them, no aid, even if near, may be able to extricate him.</p> - -<h5><i>Time.</i></h5> - -<p>The best season of the year for swimming is during the -months of May, June, July, and August. Morning before -breakfast—that is to say, from seven till eight o’clock—is the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page86"></a>[86]</span> -time. In the evening, the hair is not perfectly dried, and coryza -is sometimes the consequence. Bathing during rain is bad, for -it chills the water, and, by wetting the clothes, endangers catching -cold. In practising swimming during those hours of the -day when the heat of the sun is felt most sensibly, if the hair -be thick, it should be kept constantly wet; if the head be bald, -it must be covered with a handkerchief, and frequently wetted.</p> - -<p>It is advisable not to enter the water before digestion is -finished. The danger in this case arises less from the violent -movements which generally disorder digestion, than from the -impression produced by the medium in which these movements -are executed. It is not less so when very hot, or quite cold. -It is wrong to enter the water in a perspiration, however trifling -it may be. After violent exercises, it is better to wash and employ -friction than to bathe. Persons of plethoric temperament, -who are subject to periodical evacuations, such as hemorrhoids, -or even to cutaneous eruptions, will do well to abstain from -swimming during the appearance of these affections.</p> - -<h5><i>Dress.</i></h5> - -<p>Every swimmer should use short drawers, and might, in particular -places, use canvass slippers. It is even of great importance -to be able to swim in jacket and trousers.</p> - -<h5><i>Aids.</i></h5> - -<p>The aid of the hand is much preferable to corks or bladders, -because it can be withdrawn gradually and insensibly. With -this view, a grown-up person may take the learner in his arms, -carry him into the water breast high, place him nearly flat upon -it, support him by one hand under the breast, and direct him as -to attitude and action. If the support of the hand be very gradually -withdrawn, the swimmer will, in the course of the first -ten days, find it quite unnecessary. When the aid of the hand -cannot be obtained, inflated membranes or corks may be employed. -The only argument for their use is, that attitude and -action may be perfected while the body is thus supported; and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page87"></a>[87]</span> -that, with some contrivance, they also may gradually be laid -aside, though by no means so easily as the hand.</p> - -<p>The best mode of employing corks is to choose a piece about -a foot long, and six or seven inches broad; to fasten a band -across the middle of it; to place it on the back, so that the -upper end may come between the shoulder-blades, where the -edge may be rounded; and to tie the band over the breast. -Over this, several other pieces of cork, each smaller than the -preceding, may be fixed, so that, as the swimmer improves, he -may leave them off one by one. Even with all these aids, the -young swimmer should never venture out of his depth, if he -cannot swim without them.</p> - -<h5><i>Cramp.</i></h5> - -<p>As to cramp, those chiefly are liable to it who plunge into the -water when they are heated, who remain in it till they are benumbed -with cold, or who exhaust themselves by violent exercise. -Persons subject to this affection must be careful with -regard to the selection of the place where they bathe, if they -are not sufficiently skilful in swimming to vary their attitudes, -and dispense instantly with the use of the limb attacked by -cramp. Even when this does occur, the skilful swimmer knows -how to reach the shore by the aid of the limbs which are unaffected, -while the uninstructed one is liable to be drowned.</p> - -<p>If attacked in this way in the leg, the swimmer must strike -out the limb with all his strength, thrusting the heel downward -and drawing the toes upward, notwithstanding the momentary -pain it may occasion; or he may immediately turn flat on his -back, and jerk out the affected limb in the air, taking care not -to elevate it so high as greatly to disturb the balance of the -body. If this does not succeed, he must paddle ashore with his -hands, or keep himself afloat by their aid, until assistance reach -him. Should he even be unable to float on his back, he must -put himself in the upright position, and keep his head above the -surface by merely striking the water downward with his hands -at the hips, without any assistance from the legs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page88"></a>[88]</span></p> - -<h4>PROCEDURE WHEN IN THE WATER, AND USUAL MODE OF -FRONT SWIMMING.</h4> - -<h5><i>Entering the Water.</i></h5> - -<p>Instructors should never force young swimmers reluctantly to -leap into the water. It would be advisable for delicate persons, -especially when they intend to plunge in, to put a little cotton -steeped in oil, and afterwards pressed, in their ears, before -entering the water. This precaution will prevent irritation of -the organ of hearing. In entering, the head should be wetted -first, either by plunging in head foremost, or by pouring water -on it, in order to prevent the pressure of the water driving up -the blood into it too quickly, and increasing congestion. The -swimmer should next advance, by a clear shelving shore or -bank, where he has ascertained the depth by plumbing or otherwise, -till the water reaches his breast; should turn towards the -place of entrance; and, having inflated his breast, lay it upon -the water, suffering that to rise to his chin, the lips being closed.</p> - -<h5><i>Buoyancy in the Water.</i></h5> - -<p>The head alone is specifically heavier than salt water. Even -the legs and arms are specifically lighter; and the trunk is still -more so. Thus the body cannot sink in salt water, even if the -lungs were filled, except owing to the excessive specific gravity -of the head.</p> - -<p>Not only the head, but the legs and arms, are specifically -heavier than fresh water; but still the hollowness of the trunk -renders the body altogether too light to sink wholly under water, -so that some part remains above until the lungs become filled. -In general, when the human body is immersed, one-eleventh of -its weight remains above the surface in fresh water, and one-tenth -in salt water.</p> - -<p>In salt water, therefore, a person throwing himself on his -back, and extending his arms, may easily lie so as to keep his -mouth and nostrils free for breathing; and, by a small motion -of the hand, may prevent turning, if he perceive any tendency<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page89"></a>[89]</span> -to it. In fresh water, a man cannot long continue in that situation, -except by the action of his hands; and if no such action -be employed, the legs and lower part of the body will gradually -sink into an upright position, the hollow of the breast keeping -the head uppermost. If, however, in this position, the head be -kept upright above the shoulders, as in standing on the ground, -the immersion, owing to the weight of the part of the head out -of the water, will reach above the mouth and nostrils, perhaps a -little above the eyes. On the contrary, in the same position, if -the head be leaned back, so that the face is turned upwards, the -back part of the head has its weight supported by the water, and -the face will rise an inch higher at every inspiration, and will -sink as much at every expiration, but never so low that the water -can come over the mouth.</p> - -<p>For all these reasons, though the impetus given by the fall of -the body into water occasions its sinking to a depth proportioned -to the force of the descent, its natural buoyancy soon impels it -again to the surface, where, after a few oscillations up and down, -it settles with the head free.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately, ignorant people stretch the arms out to grasp -at anything or nothing, and thereby keep the head under; for -the arms and head, together exceeding in weight one-tenth of -the body, cannot remain above the surface at the same time. -The buoyancy of the trunk, then and then only, occasions the -head and shoulders to sink, the ridge of the bent back becoming -the portion exposed; and, in this attitude, water is swallowed, -by which the specific gravity is increased, and the body settles -to the bottom. It is, therefore, most important to the safety of -the inexperienced to be firmly convinced that the body naturally -floats.</p> - -<p>To satisfy the beginner of the truth of this, Dr. Franklin advises -him to choose a place where clear water deepens gradually, -to walk into it till it is up to his breast, to turn his face to the -shore, and to throw an egg into the water between him and it—so -deep that he cannot fetch it up but by diving. To encourage -him to take it up, he must reflect that his progress will be from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page90"></a>[90]</span> -deep to shallow water, and that at any time he may, by bringing -his legs under him, and standing on the bottom, raise his head -far above the water. He must then plunge under it, having his -eyes open, before as well as after going under; throw himself -towards the egg, and endeavour, by the action of his hands and -feet against the water, to get forward till within reach of it. In -this attempt, he will find that the water brings him up against -his inclination, that it is not so easy to sink as he imagined, and -that he cannot, but by force, get down to the egg. Thus he feels -the power of water to support him, and learns to confide in that -power; while his endeavours to overcome it, and reach the egg, -teach him the manner of acting on the water with his feet and -hands, as he afterwards must in swimming, in order to support -his head higher above the water, or to go forward through it.</p> - -<p>If, then, any person, however unacquainted with swimming, -will hold himself perfectly still and upright, as if standing with -his head somewhat thrown back so as to rest on the surface, his -face will remain above the water, and he will enjoy full freedom -of breathing. To do this most effectually, the head must be so -far thrown back that the chin is higher than the forehead, the -breast inflated, the back quite hollow, and the hands and arms -kept under water. If these directions be carefully observed, the -face will float above the water, and the body will settle in a diagonal -direction. (<a href="#PlateXXIII">Plate XXIII.</a> fig. 1.)</p> - -<p>In this case, the only difficulty is to preserve the balance of -the body. This is secured, as described by Bernardi, by extending -the arms laterally under the surface of the water, with the -legs separated, the one to the front and the other behind: thus -presenting resistance to any tendency of the body to incline to -either side, forward or backward. This posture may be preserved -any length of time. (<a href="#PlateXXIII">Plate XXIII.</a> fig. 2.)</p> - -<p>The Abbé Paul Moccia, who lived in Naples in 1760, perceived, -at the age of fifty, that he could never entirely cover -himself in the water. He weighed three hundred pounds (Italian -weight), but being very fat, he lost at least thirty pounds in the -water. Robertson had just made his experiments on the specific -weight of man; and everybody was then occupied with the Abbé, -who could walk in the water with nearly half his body out of it.</p> - -<div class="plate w45em" id="PlateXXIII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXIII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page90">Page 90</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo151a.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Swimming—Buoyancy in Water.</p> - -<img src="images/illo151b.png" alt="" class="illo151b" /> - -<p class="caption">Swimming—Treading Water.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page91"></a>[91]</span></p> - -<h5><i>Attitude and Action in the Water.</i></h5> - -<p>The swimmer having, by all the preceding means, acquired -confidence, may now practise the instructions already given on -attitude and action in swimming: or he may first proceed with -the system of Bernardi, which immediately follows. As the -former have already been given in ample detail, there is nothing -new here to be added respecting them, except that, while the -attitude is correct, the limbs must be exercised calmly, and free -from all hurry and trepidation, the breath being held, and the -breast kept inflated, while a few strokes are made. In swimming -in the usual way, there is, first, extension, flexion, abduction -and adduction of the members; secondly, almost constant -dilation of the chest, to diminish the mobility of the point of -attachment of the muscles which are inserted in the elastic sides -of this cavity, and to render the body specifically lighter; thirdly, -constant action of the muscles of the back part of the neck, to -raise the head, which is relatively very heavy, and to allow the -air free entrance to the lungs.</p> - -<h5><i>Respiration in Swimming.</i></h5> - -<p>If the breath is drawn at the moment when the swimmer -strikes out with the legs, instead of when the body is elevated -by the hands descending towards the hips, the head partially -sinks, the face is driven against the water, and the mouth becomes -filled. If, on the contrary, the breath is drawn when the -body is elevated by the hands descending towards the hips, when -the progress of the body forward consequently ceases, when the -face is no longer driven against the water, but is elevated above -the surface,—then, not only cannot the water enter, but if the -mouth were at other times even with, or partly under the surface, -no water could enter it, as the air, at such times, driven -outward between the lips, would effectually prevent it. The -breath should accordingly be expired while the body, at the -next stroke, is sent forward by the action of the legs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page92"></a>[92]</span></p> - -<h5><i>Coming out of the Water.</i></h5> - -<p>Too much fatigue in the water weakens the strength and presence -of mind necessary to avoid accidents. A person who is -fatigued, and remains there without motion, soon becomes weak -and chilly. As soon as he feels fatigued, chill, or numbed, he -should quit the water, and dry and dress himself as quickly as -possible. Friction, previous to dressing, drives the blood over -every part of the body, creates an agreeable glow, and -strengthens the joints and muscles.</p> - -<h4>UPRIGHT SWIMMING.</h4> - -<h5><i>Bernardi’s System.</i></h5> - -<p>The principal reasons given by Bernardi for recommending the -upright position in swimming are—its conformity to the accustomed -movement of the limbs; the freedom it gives to the -hands and arms, by which any impediment may be removed, or -any offered aid readily laid hold of; vision all around; a much -greater facility of breathing; and lastly, that much less of the -body is exposed to the risk of being laid hold of by persons -struggling in the water.</p> - -<p>The less we alter our method of advancing in the water from -what is habitual to us on shore, the more easy do we find a -continued exercise of it. The most important consequence of -this is, that, though a person swimming in an upright posture -advances more slowly, he is able to continue his course much -longer; and certainly nothing can be more beneficial to a swimmer -than whatever tends to husband his strength, and to enable -him to remain long in the water with safety.</p> - -<p>Bernardi’s primary object is to enable the pupil to float in -an upright posture, and to feel confidence in the buoyancy -of his body. He accordingly supports the pupil under the -shoulders until he floats tranquilly with the head and part of -the neck above the surface, the arms being stretched out horizontally -under water. From time to time, the supporting arm -is removed, but again restored, so as never to suffer the head<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page93"></a>[93]</span> -to sink, which would disturb the growing confidence, and give -rise to efforts destructive of the success of the lesson. In this -early stage, the unsteadiness of the body is the chief difficulty -to be overcome.</p> - -<p>The head is the great regulator of our movements in water. -Its smallest inclination to either side instantly operates on the -whole body; and, if not corrected, throws it into a horizontal -posture. The pupil must, therefore, restore any disturbance of -equilibrium by a cautious movement of the head alone in an -opposite direction. This first lesson being familiarized by practice, -he is taught the use of the legs and arms for balancing the -body in the water. One leg being stretched forward, the other -backward, and the arms laterally, he soon finds himself steadily -sustained, and independent of further aid in floating.</p> - -<p>When these first steps have been gained, the sweeping semicircular -motion of the arms is shown. This is practised slowly, -without motion forwards, until attained with precision. After -this, a slight inclination of the body from the upright position -occasions its advancing. The motion of striking with the legs -is added in the same measured manner; so that the pupil is not -perplexed by the acquisition of more than one thing at a time. -In this method, the motions of both arms and legs differ from -those we have so carefully described, only in so far as they are -modified by a more upright position. It is optional, therefore, with -the reader, to practise either method. The general principles of -both are now before him.</p> - -<p>The upright position a little inclined backwards, (which, like -every other change of posture, must be done deliberately, by -the corresponding movement of the head,) reversing in this case -the motion of the arms, and striking the flat part of the foot -down and a little forward, gives the motion backward, which is -performed with greater ease than when the body is laid horizontally -on the back. According to this system, Bernardi says, -a swimmer ought at every stroke to urge himself forward a distance -equal to the length of his body. A good swimmer ought -to make about three miles an hour. A good day’s journey may<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page94"></a>[94]</span> -thus be achieved, if the strength be used with due discretion, -and the swimmer be familiar with the various means by which -it may be recruited.</p> - -<p>Of Bernardi’s successful practice, he says, “Having been appointed -to instruct the youths of the Royal Naval Academy of -Naples in the art of swimming, a trial of the proficiency of the -pupils took place, under the inspection of a number of people -assembled on the shore for that purpose, on the tenth day of -their instruction. A twelve-oared boat attended the progress of -the pupils, from motives of precaution. They swam so far out -in the bay, that at length the heads of the young men could -with difficulty be discerned with the naked eye; and the Major -General of Marine, Forteguerri, for whose inspection the exhibition -was intended, expressed serious apprehensions for their -safety. Upon their return to the shore, the young men, however, -assured him that they felt so little exhausted as to be -willing immediately to repeat the exertion.” An official report -on the subject has also been drawn up by commission (appointed -by the Neapolitan government), after devoting a month to the -investigation of Bernardi’s plan; and it states as follows:</p> - -<p>“1st. It has been established by the experience of more than -a hundred persons of different bodily constitutions, that the -human body is lighter than water, and consequently will float -by nature; but that the art of swimming must be acquired, to -render that privilege useful.</p> - -<p>“2dly. That Bernardi’s system is new, in so far as it is -founded on the principle of husbanding the strength, and rendering -the power of recruiting it easy. The speed, according -to the new method, is no doubt diminished; but security is -much more important than speed; and the new plan is not -exclusive of the old, when occasions require great effort.</p> - -<p>“3dly. That the new method is sooner learnt than the old, -to the extent of advancing a pupil in one day as far as a month’s -instruction on the old plan.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page95"></a>[95]</span></p> - -<h5><i>Treading Water.</i></h5> - -<p>This differs little from the system just described. As in it, -the position is upright; but progression is obtained by the action -of the legs alone. There is little power in this method of swimming: -but it may be very useful in rescuing drowning persons.</p> - -<p>The arms should be folded across, below the breast, or compressed -against the hips, and the legs employed as in front -swimming, except as to time and extent. They should perform -their action in half the usual time, or two strokes should be -taken in the time of one; because, acting perpendicularly, each -stroke would otherwise raise the swimmer too much, and he -would sink too low between the strokes, were they not quickly -to follow each other. They should also work in about two-thirds -of the usual space, preserving the upper or stronger, and -omitting the lower or weaker, part of the stroke.</p> - -<p>There is, however, another mode of treading water, in which -the thighs are separated, and the legs slightly bent, or curved -together, as in a half-sitting posture. Here the legs are used -alternately, so that, while one remains more contracted, the -other, less so, describes a circle. By this method, the swimmer -does not seem to hop in the water, but remains nearly at the -same height. <a href="#PlateXXIII">Pl XXIII.</a> f. 3 represents both these methods, -and shows their peculiar adaptation to relieve drowning persons.</p> - -<h4>BACK SWIMMING.</h4> - -<p>In swimming on the back, the action of the thoracic member -is weaker, because the swimmer can support himself on the -water without their assistance. The muscular contractions take -place principally in the muscles of the abdominal members, and in -those of the anterior part of the neck. Though little calculated -for progression, it is the easiest of all methods, because, much -of the head being immersed, little effort is required for support. -For this purpose, the swimmer must lie down gently upon the -water; the body extended; the head kept in a line with it, so -that the back and much of the upper part of the head may be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page96"></a>[96]</span> -immersed; the head and breast must remain perfectly unagitated -by the action of the legs; the hand laid on the thighs (<a href="#PlateXXIV">Plate -XXIV.</a> fig. 1), and the legs employed as in front swimming, -care being taken that the knees do not rise out of the water.—(<a href="#PlateXXIV">Plate -XXIV.</a> fig. 2.) The arms may, however, be used in -various ways in swimming on the back.</p> - -<p>In the method called winging, the arms are extended till in a -line with each other; they must then be struck down to the -thighs, with the palms turned in that direction, and the thumbs -inclining downward to increase the buoyancy, (<a href="#PlateXXIV">Plate XXIV.</a> -fig. 3); the palms must then be moved edgewise, and the arms -elevated as before (<a href="#PlateXXIV">Plate XXIV.</a> fig. 4); and so on, repeating -the same actions. The legs should throughout make one -stroke as the arms are struck down, and another as they are -elevated. The other mode, called finning, differs from this only -in the stroke of the arms being shorter, and made in the same -time as that of the legs.</p> - -<p>In back swimming, the body should be extended after each -stroke, and long pauses made between these. The act of passing -from front to back, or back to front swimming, must always be -performed immediately after throwing out the feet. To turn -from the breast to the back, the legs must be raised forward, and -the head thrown backward, until the body is in a right position. -To turn from the back to the breast, the legs must be dropped, -and the body thrown forward on the breast.</p> - -<h4>FLOATING.</h4> - -<p>Floating is properly a transition from swimming on the back. -To effect it, it is necessary, while the legs are gently exercising, -to extend the arms as far as possible beyond the head, equidistant -from, and parallel with its sides, but never rising above -the surface; to immerse the head rather deeply, and elevate -the chin more than the forehead; to inflate the chest while -taking this position, and so to keep it as much as possible; and -to cease the action of the legs, and put the feet together. (<a href="#PlateXXV">Plate -XXV.</a> fig. 1.) The swimmer will thus be able to float, rising -a little with every inspiration, and falling with every expiration. -Should the feet descend, the loins may be hollowed.</p> - -<div class="plate w40em" id="PlateXXIV"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXIV</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page96">Page 96</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo159.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Swimming—Back Swimming.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXXV"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXV</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page97">Page 97</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo162.png" alt="" /> - -<div class="split5050"> - -<div class="left5050"> -<p class="caption">Side Swimming.</p> -</div> - -<div class="right5050"> -<p class="caption">Floating.</p> -</div> - -<p class="thinline allclear"> </p> - -</div><!--split--> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page97"></a>[97]</span></p> - -<h4>SIDE SWIMMING.</h4> - -<p>For this purpose, the body may be turned either upon the -right or left side: the feet must perform their usual motions: -the arms also require peculiar guidance. In lowering the -left, and elevating the right side, the swimmer must strike -forward with the left hand, and sidewise with the right; the -back of the latter being front instead of upward, and the thumb -side of the hand downward to serve as an oar. In turning on -the right side, the swimmer must strike out with the right hand, -and use the left as an oar. In both cases, the lower arm -stretches itself out quickly, at the same time that the feet are -striking; and the upper arm strikes at the same time that the -feet are impelling, the hand of the latter arm beginning its -stroke on a level with the head. While this hand is again -brought forward, and the feet are contracted, the lower hand is -drawn back towards the breast, rather to sustain than to impel, -(<a href="#PlateXXV">Plate XXV.</a> fig. 2.) As side swimming presents to the water -a smaller surface than front swimming, it is preferable when -rapidity is necessary. But, though generally adopted when it -is required to pass over a short distance with rapidity, it is -much more fatiguing than the preceding methods.</p> - -<h4>PLUNGING.</h4> - -<p>In the leap to plunge, the legs must be kept together, the -arms close, and the plunge made either with the feet or the -head foremost. With the feet foremost they must be kept -together, and the body inclined backwards. With the head -foremost, the methods vary.</p> - -<p>In the deep plunge, which is used where it is known that -there is depth of water, the swimmer has his arms outstretched, -his knees bent, and his body leant forwards (<a href="#PlateXXVI">Plate XXVI.</a> -fig. 1,) till the head descends nearly to the feet, when the spine<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page98"></a>[98]</span> -and knees are extended. This plunge may be made without -the slightest noise. When the swimmer rises to the surface, -he must not open his mouth before previously repelling the -water.</p> - -<p>In the flat plunge, which is used in shallow water, or where -the depth is unknown, and which can be made only from a -small height, the swimmer must fling himself forwards, in order -to extend the line of the plunge as much as possible under -the surface of the water; and, as soon as he touches it, he -must keep his head up, his back hollow, and his hands stretched -forward, flat and inclined upward. He will thus dart forwards -a considerable way close under the surface, so that his head -will reach it before the impulse ceases to operate. (<a href="#PlateXXVI">Plate -XXVI.</a> fig. 2.)</p> - -<h4>DIVING.</h4> - -<p>The swimmer may prepare for diving by taking a slow and -full inspiration, letting himself sink gently into the water, -and expelling the breath by degrees, when the heart begins -to beat strongly. In order to descend in diving, the head -must be bent forward upon the breast; the back made round; -and the legs thrown out with greater vigour than usual; but -the arms and hands, instead of being struck forward as in -swimming, must move rather backward, or come out lower, -and pass more behind. (<a href="#PlateXXVII">Plate XXVII.</a> fig. 1.) The eyes -should, meanwhile, be kept open, as, if the water be clear, it -enables the diver to ascertain its depth, and see whatever lies at -the bottom; and, when he has obtained a perpendicular position, -he should extend his hands like feelers.</p> - -<p>To move forward, the head must be raised, and the back -straightened a little. Still, in swimming between top and bottom, -the head must be kept a little downward, and the feet be -thrown out a little higher than when swimming on the surface -(<a href="#PlateXXVII">Plate XXVII.</a> fig. 2); and if the swimmer thinks that he approaches -too near the surface, he must press the palms upwards. -To ascend, the chin must be held up, the back made concave, -the hands struck out high, and brought briskly down. (<a href="#PlateXXVII">Plate -XXVII.</a> fig. 3.)</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXXVI"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXVI</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page98">Page 98</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo165.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Plunging</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXXVII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXVII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page98">Page 98</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo167.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Swimming—Diving.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXXVIII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXVIII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page99">Page 99</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo170.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Swimming—Thrusting.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page99"></a>[99]</span></p> - -<h4>THRUSTING.</h4> - -<p>This is a transition from front swimming, in which the attitude -and motions of the feet are still the same, but those of the -hands very different. One arm, the right for instance, is lifted -entirely out of the water, thrust forward as much as possible, -and, when at the utmost stretch, let fall, with the hand hollowed, -into the water, which it grasps or pulls towards the swimmer in -its return transversely towards the opposite arm-pit. While the -right arm is thus stretched forth, the left, with the hand expanded, -describes a small circle to sustain the body (<a href="#PlateXXVIII">Plate -XXVIII.</a> fig. 1); and, while the right arm pulls towards the -swimmer, the left, in a widely-described circle, is carried rapidly -under the breast, towards the hip. (<a href="#PlateXXVIII">Plate XXVIII.</a> fig. 2.)</p> - -<p>When the left arm has completed these movements, it, in its -turn, is lifted from the water, stretched forward, and pulled -back,—the right arm describing first the smaller, then the larger -circle. The feet make their movements during the describing -of the larger circle. The thrust requires much practice; but, -when well acquired, it not only relieves the swimmer, but enables -him to make great advance in the water, and is applicable -to cases where rapidity is required for a short distance.</p> - -<h4>SPRINGING.</h4> - -<p>Some swimmers, at every stroke, raise not only their neck and -shoulders, but breast and body, out of the water. This, when -habitual, exhausts without any useful purpose. As an occasional -effort, however, it maybe useful in seizing objects above; -and it may then best be performed by the swimmer drawing his -feet as close as possible under his body, stretching his hands -forward, and, with both feet and hands, striking the water -strongly, so as to throw himself out of it as high as the hips.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page100"></a>[100]</span></p> - -<h4>ONE-ARM SWIMMING.</h4> - -<p>Here the swimmer must be more erect than usual, hold his -head more backward, and use the legs and arm more quickly -and powerfully. The arm, at its full extent, must be struck out -rather across the body, and brought down before, and the breast -kept inflated. This mode of swimming is best adapted for -assisting persons who are drowning, and should be frequently -practised—the learner carrying first under, then over the water, -a weight of a few pounds.</p> - -<p>In assisting drowning persons, however, great care should be -taken to avoid being caught hold of by them. They should be -approached from behind, and driven before, or drawn after the -swimmer to the shore, by the intervention, if possible, of anything -that may be at hand, and if nothing be at hand, by means -of their hair; and they should, if possible, be got on their backs. -Should they attempt to seize the swimmer, he must cast them -loose immediately; and, if seized, drop them to the bottom, -when they will endeavour to rise to the surface.</p> - -<p>Two swimmers treading water may assist a drowning person -by seizing him, one under each arm, and carrying him along -with his head above water, and his body and limbs stretched -out and motionless.</p> - -<h4>FEATS IN SWIMMING.</h4> - -<p>Men have been known to swim in their clothes a distance of -4000 feet.</p> - -<p>Others have performed 2200 feet in twenty-nine minutes.</p> - -<p>Some learn to dive and bring out of the water burdens as -heavy as a man.</p> - -<p>[This art, however, has made little if any progress from the -earliest records that we possess of it. Leander’s feat of passing -from Abydos to Sestos was the crack performance of antiquity; -and it was the ultra achievement of Lord Byron, probably one -of the best swimmers of our day.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span> Fifth Edition.]</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page101"></a>[101]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">ROWING.</h3> - -<h4>RIVER ROWING,<a id="FNanchor9" href="#Footnote9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> WITH TWO SCULLS.</h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote9" href="#FNanchor9" class="label">[9]</a> -This should have the preference here, because the art is best learned on -the smooth water, and in the lighter boats, of rivers.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<h5>THE BOAT.</h5> - -<p>It may be laid down as a general rule, that, in calm weather, -a light and sharp boat is preferable; and, in rough weather, a -heavier and broader one. The learner, however, should not at -first begin in too light a boat, nor should he practise in rough -weather, until he gets acquainted with its management.</p> - -<h5>TO LEAVE THE LANDING-PLACE.</h5> - -<p>To leave the shore, the rower should, with the boat-hook, -shove the boat off, head upon tide, or opposite to the current. -To leave stairs, the rower must either shove the boat off with -the boat-hook, or place the blade of the scull forward, and perform -what the London watermen call belaying the boat’s head -out from the shore, accordingly as there is deep or shallow -water.</p> - -<p>This being done, the rower sits down to his sculls. These -he puts in the rullocks, and turns the concave front, or filling of -the scull, towards the stern of the boat.</p> - -<h5>THE SEAT.</h5> - -<p>The rower must sit a-midships on the thwart or seat of the -boat, else she will heel to the side on which he is sitting, and -much of his labour will be lost. He should sit with ease to -himself, having his feet on the middle of the stretcher, and his -legs not quite extended; but his knees, as he rows, should be -brought down, and his legs stretched.</p> - -<h5>THE PULL.</h5> - -<p>The rower should make long strokes in a heavy boat, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page102"></a>[102]</span> -shorter and quicker strokes in a light boat. At the beginning -of the pull, he must, in general, bend his body till his head is -over his knees, and extend his arms as far aft as convenient, -that the blades of the sculls may be thrown correspondingly forward. -<a href="#PlateXXIX">Plate XXIX.</a> f. 1. With regard to the back in particular, -some think that, if a short distance is to be rowed, it should be -bent; and that, if a long distance, it is less fatiguing to keep it -straight. When the arms are extended as far aft, and the blades -of the sculls as far forward as convenient—which must never be -so far as to jam in the rullocks—(<a href="#PlateXXIX">Plate XXIX.</a> f. 1) the rower -must dip the sculls into the water, and pull towards him, by at -once bending the arms and the body.</p> - -<p>When in the middle of the pull, if the sculls are not short -enough, or even if the head and body are slightly turned, one of -the hands will go higher than the other; and, as the right is -generally the stronger, it may go above, and the left below. It -is often found difficult to keep one hand clear of the other in -pulling a pair of sculls. This is so much the case, indeed, that -the inexperienced frequently suffer more from the knocking -and rubbing of the backs and sides of the hands against each -other, than from the friction of the handles of the oars in the -palms of the hands. This may be easily obviated by attending -to the following <span class="nowrap">advice:—</span></p> - -<p>Having seated yourself in the centre of the thwart, with your -feet close together against the centre of the stretcher, ship your -sculls, but, before pulling a stroke, move your body three or -four inches to the right hand, and still retain your feet in the -centre: thus you will be sitting rather obliquely; this will throw -your right shoulder more forward, and consequently the right -hand; and thus the hands will work perfectly clear of each other. -This rule, however, must be modified by the circumstances of -river-rowing. A waterman writes us as follows:—“As to carrying -one hand above the other, my way is, that if, for instance, -I go from Greenwich to Blackwall against tide, I keep down on -the Greenwich side, in general look toward the shore, and having -my face over the left shoulder, my right hand is then above. -If I go from Greenwich to London, my face is turned over the -right shoulder, and the left hand is then uppermost.”</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXXIX"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXIX</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page102">Page 102</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo175a.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Beginning of the Pull.</p> - -<img src="images/illo175b.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Middle of the Pull.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXXX"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXX</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page103">Page 103</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo178a.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">End of the Pull.</p> - -<img src="images/illo178b.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Return of the Sculls.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page103"></a>[103]</span></p> - -<p>(The usual position in the middle of the pull is shown in -<a href="#PlateXXIX">Plate XXIX.</a> fig. 2.)</p> - -<p>The end of the pull must not take place till the elbows have -approached the tops of the hips, the hands are brought towards -the chest, and the body is thrown well back. There would be -a loss of power, however, if the hands were brought too near -the chest; and the body should not be thrown further back than -it may easily and quickly recover its first position for the next -stroke.—(<a href="#PlateXXX">Plate XXX.</a>) As the water is being delivered from -the sculls, the elbows sink, the wrists are bent up, and the backs -of the hands are turned towards the fore-arms, in order to -feather the sculls.—(<a href="#PlateXXX">Plate XXX.</a> fig. 1.)</p> - -<p>In the return of the sculls, the hands must remain turned up -until the sculls are put into the water.—(<a href="#PlateXXX">Plate XXX.</a> f. 2.) In the -middle of the return, if the sculls are not short, or if the head -and body be turned, one of the hands also goes higher than the -other.</p> - -<p>As to the degree of the immersion of the sculls.—In the middle -of the pull, the blades must be covered by the water. The -learner in general dips them very deep; but that ought to be -avoided, especially in calm weather. In the whole of the return, -the tips should, in calm weather, be two or three inches above -the water; and, in rough weather, they should be higher, in -order to clear it, as represented in the preceding Plates. The -head ought throughout to be very moveable—first to one side, -then to the other, but generally turned towards the shore when -against the tide. The same movements have only to be repeated, -throughout the course.</p> - -<h5>THE TIDE OR CURRENT.</h5> - -<p>In river-rowing, when the tide or current is with the rower, -a learner should in general take the middle of the stream. In -rowing with the tide, however, watermen generally cut off the -points, in order to keep a straight course. When the tide or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page104"></a>[104]</span> -current is against the rower, he should take the sides, preferring -that side on which, owing to the course of the river, the current -is least. As there is an eddy under the points, watermen generally, -when rounding them, shoot the water to the next point, -and so on.</p> - -<h5>TO TURN.</h5> - -<p>Back water with one scull, by putting the one on the side -you wish to turn to into the water, with its concave front or -filling towards you, and pushing against it; and at the same -time pull strongly with the other scull, until the boat’s head is -turned round.</p> - -<h5>MEETING OR PASSING.</h5> - -<p>In meeting, the boat which comes with the tide must get out -of the way. In this case, both boats, if close, lay the blades of -their sculls flat on the water, lift them out of the rullocks, and -let them drift alongside. Each replaces them when the other -has passed. In passing a boat, the rower who passes must take -the outside, unless there is ample room within, and must also -keep clear of the other’s sculls or oars. If one boat is crossing -the water, and another coming with the tide, the one coming -with tide must keep astern of the other, and have a good look-out -ahead.</p> - -<h5>TO LAND.</h5> - -<p>Give the boat its proper direction, and keep its head inclining -towards the tide, and its stern will turn up or down, as the tide -runs; unship the sculls by the manœuvre directed above; but, -instead of letting them drift alongside, lay them in the boat, the -blades forward and the looms aft; seize the headfast; jump -ashore; and take two half-hitches round the post or ring.</p> - -<h4>SEA-ROWING, OR ROWING IN A GALLEY ON THE RIVER.</h4> - -<p>In launching a boat from the sea-beach, when it is rough, -and there is a heavy surf, the two bowmen must get into the -boat with their oars run out; and the other rowers follow the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page105"></a>[105]</span> -boat quickly in her descent; but they should not jump in till -she is quite afloat, lest their weight might fix her on the beach, -and she might ship a sea.</p> - -<p>It may happen, that immediately on the boat floating, a sea -shall take the bow (before the rowers are sufficiently prepared -with their oars to keep her head out), and place her broadside -to the waves. In this situation, the boat is in danger of being -swamped, and the lives of those on board are in peril. When -thus situated, it is best for two of the rowers to go near the bow -of the boat, and immediately force each his boat-hook or oar -on the ground, on the shore side of the boat, as the most -effectual, safe, and expeditious method of bringing her head -again to the sea. Should there be more than a usual swell, both -the rowers and the sitter, or steersman, cannot be too particular -in keeping, throughout, the head of the boat to the swell, as -lying broadside to a heavy sea is extremely dangerous.</p> - -<p>In rowing, each man has in general a single oar, and sits on -the opposite side of the galley from the rullock through which -his oar passes. The oar must consequently cross the boat, and -be held on its opposite side, so as to clear the back of the man -before.</p> - -<p>It should be neither held nor pulled obliquely to the side by -twisting the body, as is practised by many, because the muscles -in that case act disadvantageously, and are sooner fatigued. The -stroke must be longer in sea than in river rowing. The oar -must be thrown out with a heave, caused by the simultaneous -extension of the body and the arms. It is still more essential -to feather in sea than in river rowing.</p> - -<p>The oar must be drawn back with great power, caused by the -simultaneous contraction of the body and arms; time with -the other rowers being accurately kept, and distinctly marked.</p> - -<p>When the oars are delivered from the water, the time, until -they go into it again, may be counted, one, two, three,—when -they pass through the water. This time is kept by the strokesman, -or sternmost man of the rowers.</p> - -<p>In landing, the word is, “in bow,” when the bowman or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page106"></a>[106]</span> -foremost man gets the boat-hook ready to clear away for the -shore, or the stairs. The next word is from the coxswain, -“rowed off all,” or “well rowed;” when all the oars are laid -in, with the blades forward, and the boat is made fast.</p> - -<p>In landing on the sea-beach, when there is a surf, the rowers -may watch for a smooth, and then give good way ashore, when -the bowman should instantly jump out with the headfast or -penter, and pull her up, to avoid shipping a sea. The distances -run in this way are very great. We have known four men, in -a short galley, row thirty miles in four hours, namely, from -Dover to eight miles below Calais, or abreast of Gravelines, on -the opposite coast. In such a row, a London waterman would -have no skin left on his hands; and a member of the Funny -Club would, we suppose, have no hands left on his arms!</p> - -<hr class="sec" /> - -<h3>SAILING.</h3> - -<h4>BOATS, ETC.</h4> - -<p>Cutters, owing to their excellent sailing qualities, are much -employed as packets<a id="FNanchor10" href="#Footnote10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>, revenue cruisers, smugglers, privateers, -and in all cases requiring despatch. The boats commonly employed -in parties of pleasure, &c., are also cutters.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote10" href="#FNanchor10" class="label">[10]</a> -In the packet line, since the general adoption of steam, cutters are seldom -if ever met with.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span> Fifth Edition.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>On the size of these vessels, however, it is necessary to remark, -that a cutter under one hundred tons is sufficiently -handy; but, when the size is equal to that of the larger yachts, -a strong crew is necessary, as the spars are very heavy, and a -number of men requisite to set or shorten sail. As a single-masted -vessel, in the event of springing a spar, becomes helpless, -even large cutters are used only in short voyages, or on the -coast; for, in case of accident, they can always manage to reach -some harbour or anchorage to repair any damage they may<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page107"></a>[107]</span> -sustain. The peculiar qualities of beating well to windward, -and working on short tacks, adapt cutters peculiarly for Channel -cruising.</p> - -<p>Although, some years back, large cutters were confined principally -to the navy and revenue, the Royal Yacht Squadron, in -theirs, have exceeded these not only in size, but in beauty and -sailing qualities. Some of the finest and fastest cutters in the -world are the property of this national club; and two of them, -the Alarm (Mr. Weld’s), and the Arundel<a id="FNanchor11" href="#Footnote11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>, (the Duke of Norfolk’s), -measure 193 and 188 tons. The inconvenient size, however, -of a cutter’s boom and mainsail has caused the very general introduction -of a ketch rig, which, by the addition of a mizen, permits -the boom to be dispensed with, and reduces the mainsail -considerably. This rig, indeed, when the mizen stands well, is -elegant; and, if a vessel is short-handed, it is very handy. As -cutter-rigged vessels, instead of a regular mainsail, with its -boom and gaff, have sometimes a mere spritsail, it is necessary -we should observe, that the inferior convenience and safety of -these preclude our noticing them here. It is also necessary -that we should explain why, in the sequel, we do not even refer -to lugger-rigged vessels.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote11" href="#FNanchor11" class="label">[11]</a> -The tonnage of the Arundel is not given here according to the Royal -Yacht Squadron list: there it is stated to be 210 tons.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span> Fifth Edition.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Luggers are more difficult to work or manœuvre; they require -a greater number of men; their spars are so heavy that -they require all hands to move them: their decks are inevitably -lumbered with spars, &c.; their canvass gets rotted from exposure; -and their expense is much greater than that of cutters. -They generally have two sets of lugs—large ones, which require -dipping every time they tack, and small working lugs, which do -not require dipping, the tack coming to the foot of the mast. -The latter are generally used, except in making long reaches -across the Channel, &c. A lugger, moreover, is seldom fit to -be altered to any thing but a schooner, not having breadth -enough for one mast, which, after all, is the best for beauty and -speed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page108"></a>[108]</span></p> - -<p>Sailing men, indeed, are now so perfectly aware of the inferior -speed of luggers, that we never see a lugger or schooner enter -against a cutter at all near its tonnage. At sea, luggers would -have a better chance; though even there many would prefer -cutters, except in foul weather and a long reach. In short, -these vessels suit only a few noblemen and gentlemen who have -enough of patriotic ambition to desire to look like smugglers, -enough of delicacy to disregard the being thought dirty lubbers -by their own men—some of whom are not dirty from mere taste -or choice, and enough of penetration not to discover, that on -their landing with filthy clothes and tarry hands, every old -sailor grins or laughs at their imagining, that it was they, and -not the man at the helm, who had kept the canvass from cracking, -or the sticks from going over the side. Our descriptions -apply, therefore, to cutters alone; and the <a href="#PlateXXXI">Plates</a> at the end of -this article illustrate the various parts therein referred to.</p> - -<p>Upon the Thames, the sailing clubs comprise the Royal -Sailing Society, the Royal Thames Yacht Club, the Loyal -Victoria Yacht Club, the Clarence, British, Royal Yacht, and -several minor associations. Several cups and prizes are -annually given during the season; and the spirited contests -between the beautiful small craft which form these fancy fleets, -are highly interesting. The sailing matches on the river are of -two sorts—one above, and the other below the bridges. The -smaller yachts, of from six to twenty-six tons, are commonly -entered for the former, and a larger class for the latter, which -take place between Greenwich and Gravesend. These national -amusements appear to be rapidly gaining the first place among -fashionable recreations, and now occupy the season, from the -period when hunting ends, till shooting begins.</p> - -<p>The Royal Yacht Squadron has nearly six hundred persons -on its lists, of which above one hundred are members, and -about four hundred and fifty honorary members. The number -of yachts is one hundred and nine<a id="FNanchor12" href="#Footnote12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>; -of which eighty-seven are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page109"></a>[109]</span> -cutters, ten schooners, three brigs, four yawls, two ships, two -ketches, and one lugger. The greater part of these vessels -hail from Cowes or Southampton. The shipping belonging -to the club amounts to 7250 tons. Now, a vessel of one -hundred tons seldom perhaps stands the owner in less than -from five to six thousand pounds, varying from that to ten, -according to the profusion of ornamental parts, the internal -fittings, and other contingencies. At this rate, the shipping -of the club would have cost more than three millions and -a half of money: but it is impossible to speak decisively on -this point, as the first cost of the yachts varies much, and the -numerous styles of rig are attended with expenses so widely -different. At a moderate computation, each vessel belonging -to the club carries ten men on an average: this gives the total -number employed 1090. During the summer months, then, -while regattas are celebrated, it may be said that the Royal -Yacht Squadron alone employs more than 1100 men. These, with -some few exceptions, are discharged on the approach of winter, -and the yachts are laid up for the season, retaining the master -and one man in pay. The crews thus discharged obtain employment -in merchant-vessels, or otherwise, during the winter; -and in the middle of spring, are generally re-shipped in the -yachts in which they have previously served. On these conditions, -active and industrious men of good character are generally -sure of employment in the club; and many members -justly pride themselves on the high discipline, manly bearing, -and crack appearance of their crews. The situation of master, -in particular, is one of much responsibility, and is on all accounts -respectably filled. In some of the largest craft, junior -officers of the navy are found to accept this office. The sailing -regulations of the Royal Yacht Squadron are as follow;</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote12" href="#FNanchor12" class="label">[12]</a> -As the number is constantly fluctuating, we had better take the average at -a hundred, which will be found quite as high a one as we should be justified -in suggesting.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>First—Members entering their yachts must send the names -of them to the secretary one week previous to the day of sailing, -and pay two guineas entrance at the same time.</p> - -<p>Second—All vessels starting or entering must be the <i>bonâ fide</i> -property of members, as well as their spars, sails, boats, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page110"></a>[110]</span></p> - -<p>Third—Each member is allowed to enter one vessel only for -all prizes given by the club.</p> - -<p>Fourth—Cutters may carry four sails only, viz., mainsail, -foresail, jib, and gaff top-sail; yawls, luggers, schooners, and -all other vessels, in like proportion. No booming out allowed.</p> - -<p>Fifth—No trimming with ballast, or shifting of ballast allowed; -and all vessels to keep their platforms down, and bulkheads -standing.</p> - -<p>Sixth—Vessels on the larboard tack must invariably give way -to those on the starboard tack; and in all cases where a doubt -of the possibility of the vessel on the larboard tack weathering -the one on the starboard tack shall exist, the vessel on the -larboard tack shall give way; or, if the other vessel keep her -course, and run into her, the owner of the vessel on the larboard -tack shall be compelled to pay all damages, and forfeit -his claim to the prize.</p> - -<p>Seventh—Vessels running on shore shall be allowed to use -their own anchors and boats actually on board to get them off, -afterwards weighing anchor and hoisting the boat in; but, upon -receiving assistance from any other vessel or vessels, boats, or -anchors, shall forfeit all claim to the prize.</p> - -<p>Eighth—That nothing but the hand-line be used for sounding.</p> - -<p>Ninth—Any deviation from these rules shall subject the -aggressor to forfeit all claim to the prize.</p> - -<p>Tenth—If any objection be made with regard to the sailing -of any other vessel in the race, such objection must be made to -the stewards, within one hour after the vessel making the objection -arrive at the starting-post.</p> - -<p>Eleventh—No vessel shall be allowed to take in ballast, or -take out, for twenty-four hours previous to starting; and no -ballast shall be thrown overboard.</p> - -<p>Twelfth—Vessels shall start from moorings laid down at a -cable-length distance, with their sails set; and every vessel not -exceeding one hundred tons shall carry a boat not less than -ten feet long; and vessels exceeding one hundred tons, a boat -not less than fourteen feet long.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page111"></a>[111]</span></p> - -<p>Thirteenth—There shall be a member, or honorary member, -on board each vessel.</p> - -<p>Fourteenth—The time of starting may be altered by the -stewards; and all disputes that may arise are to be decided by -them, or such persons as they shall appoint.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>The Northern Yacht Club is a highly interesting society, -although its plan is not so extensive as that of the Royal Club. -It contains about three hundred and fifty members. The documents -for 1830 comprise ninety-two in the Scottish, and ninety -in the Irish division, with fifty-two honorary members, in addition -to ninety-three members of the Cork Yacht Club, who -are also entered on the honorary lists. It had, in 1830, sixty -yachts, not equal in proportion to the tonnage of the Cowes -Club, as smaller vessels are admitted. Many R. Y. S. men are -found in the Northern Club. There are many fine vessels in -this club. Cutters, as usual, excel in number.</p> - -<p>At the lowest computation, the number of vessels at present -employed for pleasure in this country cannot be less than from -three to four hundred, ranging in bulk from ten to three hundred -and fifty tons. These are variously distributed along our -shores, carrying their opulence into every port and harbour. -But there is another advantage arising from yacht clubs—namely, -that national spirit, which, to a maritime people, is -above all in worth. The yacht clubs keep alive this feeling in -an eminent degree.</p> - -<h4>COURSES, ETC.</h4> - -<p>Even in describing the elementary nautical operations which -such boats require, it is necessary to lay down a position for the -<span class="smcapall">HARBOUR</span>, direction for the -<span class="smcapall">WIND</span>, and trip for the <span class="smcapall">VESSEL</span>.</p> - -<p>Let us suppose, then, that the mouth of the harbour lies -towards the south; that the wind blows from the north, with -a little inclination to east, and that we wish first to sail due -south to get out of the harbour, next direct our course eastward,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page112"></a>[112]</span> -then return westward till we get abreast the mouth of the -harbour, and lastly, northward, to enter the harbour and come -to our moorings.</p> - -<p>These courses will, with variations in the force of the wind, -illustrate every common and useful manœuvre.</p> - -<h4>GETTING UNDER WAY.</h4> - -<p>Ship<a id="FNanchor13" href="#Footnote13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> -the tiller.<a id="FNanchor14" href="#Footnote14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote13" href="#FNanchor13" class="label">[13]</a> Fix in its proper place.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote14" href="#FNanchor14" class="label">[14]</a> -The piece of wood or beam put into the head of the rudder to move it.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Set the mainsail<a id="FNanchor15" href="#Footnote15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>; -hoist the throat<a id="FNanchor16" href="#Footnote16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> nearly close up; and -half hoist the peak.<a id="FNanchor17" href="#Footnote17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote15" href="#FNanchor15" class="label">[15]</a> Unfurl it by casting the stops or gaskets off.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote16" href="#FNanchor16" class="label">[16]</a> The foremost end of the gaff, or that end next the mast.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote17" href="#FNanchor17" class="label">[17]</a> The outermost end of the gaff, or that farthest from the mast.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Bend<a id="FNanchor18" href="#Footnote18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> and haul the jib out to the bowsprit end.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote18" href="#FNanchor18" class="label">[18]</a> Hook it to the traveller, or ring on the bowsprit.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Bowse the bobstay<a id="FNanchor19" href="#Footnote19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> -and bowsprit shrouds<a id="FNanchor20" href="#Footnote20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> well taut.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote19" href="#FNanchor19" class="label">[19]</a> -A rope or chain from the end of the bowsprit to half-way down the stem.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote20" href="#FNanchor20" class="label">[20]</a> Ropes from the bowsprit end on each side to the bows.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Hoist the jib, and bowse it well up.</p> - -<p>Get the topmast stay<a id="FNanchor21" href="#Footnote21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>, backstays<a id="FNanchor22" href="#Footnote22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>, and rigging<a id="FNanchor23" href="#Footnote23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> well -taut.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote21" href="#FNanchor21" class="label">[21]</a> -A rope from the topmast head to the outer end of the bowsprit, where it -passes through a sheave or small block, comes in by the stem head, and is -belayed or made fast (done generally by winding several times backwards and -forwards in the manner of a figure 8), to its cleat or pin.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote22" href="#FNanchor22" class="label">[22]</a> -Ropes from the after-part of the head of the topmast to the after-part of -the channels on each side.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote23" href="#FNanchor23" class="label">[23]</a> -Or shrouds—ropes from each side the top-mast head, through the cross-tree -arms, to the fore part of the channels, between the first and second lower -shroud. They are set up or hauled taut, as are the backstays, by means of a -small tackle, one block of which is hooked to the thimble spliced into the -lower end of the shroud or backstay, and the other to an eye-bolt in the -channels.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Hoist the foresail ready to cast<a id="FNanchor24" href="#Footnote24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> her when the moorings -are let go.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote24" href="#FNanchor24" class="label">[24]</a> To turn her head in the most advantageous direction.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Send a hand to the helm.<a id="FNanchor25" href="#Footnote25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote25" href="#FNanchor25" class="label">[25]</a> -This term includes both the tiller and the wheel; but, as the yawing -motion of a small light vessel is correspondingly light and feeble, though -much quicker than that of a large vessel, she is best without a wheel, which -is meant to gain power at the expense of time.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page113"></a>[113]</span></p> - -<p>Overhaul the main-sheet<a id="FNanchor26" href="#Footnote26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>, -and the lee<a id="FNanchor27" href="#Footnote27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> runner and -tackle<a id="FNanchor28" href="#Footnote28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>; -lower the throat, and hoist the peak of the mainsail taut<a id="FNanchor29" href="#Footnote29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> up.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote26" href="#FNanchor26" class="label">[26]</a> -A rope or tackle for regulating the horizontal position of the main boom.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote27" href="#FNanchor27" class="label">[27]</a> The leeward or lee-side is the opposite to windward.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote28" href="#FNanchor28" class="label">[28]</a> -A compound tackle, used in cutter-rigged vessels, instead of a backstay to -the lower mast, on account of its easy removal allowing the main boom to go -forward, in going large.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote29" href="#FNanchor29" class="label">[29]</a> The nautical way of pronouncing and writing <i>tight</i>.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Hoist the gaff topsail<a id="FNanchor30" href="#Footnote30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>, -keeping the tack<a id="FNanchor31" href="#Footnote31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> to -windward<a id="FNanchor32" href="#Footnote32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> of -the peak halyards<a id="FNanchor33" href="#Footnote33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>, and hauling the slack of the sheet out -before you hoist the sail taut up.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote30" href="#FNanchor30" class="label">[30]</a> -The sail above the mainsail. The sheet hauls out to a small block on the -outer end of the gaff.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote31" href="#FNanchor31" class="label">[31]</a> -Tack is the lowermost corner opposite to the sheet, in all fore-and-aft sails -and studding sails.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote32" href="#FNanchor32" class="label">[32]</a> -The windward or weather side, is that side on which the wind blows.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote33" href="#FNanchor33" class="label">[33]</a> -The rope by which the peak of the gaff or boom, to which the head of the -mainsail is fastened, is hoisted. Halyards always signifies a rope by which a -sail is hoisted.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Set the tack, and heave the sheet well taut.</p> - -<h4>BEFORE THE WIND.<a id="FNanchor34" href="#Footnote34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a><br /> -<span class="fsize90 pseudoh5"><i>With the Main Boom over to -Starboard.</i></span><a id="FNanchor35" href="#Footnote35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote34" href="#FNanchor34" class="label">[34]</a> -That is, going the same way the wind blows. Her course is then sixteen -points from the wind. (See <a href="#PlateXXXI">Compass</a>.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote35" href="#FNanchor35" class="label">[35]</a> -Starboard is the right, and larboard the left hand side, when looking -toward the head of the vessel.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>In managing the helm, be careful not to jibe the mainsail.</p> - -<p>When a vessel is going large<a id="FNanchor36" href="#Footnote36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>, the helmsman should always -place himself on the weather side of the tiller, or the side opposite -to that which the main boom is over, as his view of the vessel’s -head will then be unobstructed by the sails. The boat now -running before the wind, haul the tack of mainsail up. If the -wind come dead aft, you may flatten aft the jib and foresail -sheets<a id="FNanchor37" href="#Footnote37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>, -or haul the foresail down to prevent chafing. If<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page114"></a>[114]</span> -the wind come at all round on the starboard quarter<a id="FNanchor38" href="#Footnote38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>, slack -off the boom guy<a id="FNanchor39" href="#Footnote39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a>; haul in the main-sheet till you get the -boom a-midships<a id="FNanchor40" href="#Footnote40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>, -or nearly so; port<a id="FNanchor41" href="#Footnote41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> the helm, and jibe the -mainsail; slack off the main-sheet again, and hook the guy on -the larboard side; haul taut the starboard runner and tackle, -and overhaul the larboard one; the same with the topping-lift<a id="FNanchor42" href="#Footnote42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>; -hoist the head sails<a id="FNanchor43" href="#Footnote43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a>, and shift the sheets over.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote36" href="#FNanchor36" class="label">[36]</a> Or free, not close-hauled. Generally understood as having the wind -abaft the beam, or that her course is then eight points from the wind.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote37" href="#FNanchor37" class="label">[37]</a> Ropes -fast to the aftermost lower corner of the jib and foresail, to hold -them down. The jib has two ropes or sheets fast to its corner, one of which -comes on each side the forestay, for the convenience of tacking, &c. The -foresail has only one sheet, which is fast to the traveller, or ring on the horse -or bar of iron, which crosses from one gunwale to the other, just before the -mast.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote38" href="#FNanchor38" class="label">[38]</a> The point on either side where the side and stern meet.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote39" href="#FNanchor39" class="label">[39]</a> A -small tackle, one end of which is hooked to the main boom, and the -other forward, to keep the boom from swinging.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote40" href="#FNanchor40" class="label">[40]</a> Midway between the sides of the vessel.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote41" href="#FNanchor41" class="label">[41]</a> Instead of -larboard, when speaking of the helm, port is the proper term, -in contrariety to starboard, used for the sake of distinctness in directing the -helmsman.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote42" href="#FNanchor42" class="label">[42]</a> Stout -ropes which lead, one from each side the main boom, near its outer -end, through a block on its respective side the mast, just under the cross-trees, -whence it descends about half-way, and is connected to the deck or -gunwale by a tackle.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote43" href="#FNanchor43" class="label">[43]</a> Jib and foresail.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>N.B. If you are obliged to jibe as above, you must, in the -following directions for bringing the wind on your beam, read -larboard for starboard, and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> - -<h4>BRINGING THE VESSEL WITH THE WIND ON THE LARBOARD -BEAM.<a id="FNanchor44" href="#Footnote44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote44" href="#FNanchor44" class="label">[44]</a> That is, -athwart or across the waist of the vessel, called a-beam, because -it is in the same direction that her beams lay, or at right angles with her -keel. Her head is then eight points from the wind.—The wind is said to be -abaft the beam, or before the beam, according as the vessel’s head is more or -less than eight points from the wind.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Supposing that you have not jibed, starboard the helm -a little, and let the vessel spring her luff<a id="FNanchor45" href="#Footnote45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> with her head -to the northward. Slack the boom guy, and haul in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page115"></a>[115]</span> -main-sheet. Haul aft<a id="FNanchor46" href="#Footnote46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> -the jib-sheet, and bowline<a id="FNanchor47" href="#Footnote47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> the foresail.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote45" href="#FNanchor45" class="label">[45]</a> Sail nearer to the wind.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote46" href="#FNanchor46" class="label">[46]</a> That is, toward the hinder part or stern.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote47" href="#FNanchor47" class="label">[47]</a> A rope made fast to -the foremost shroud, and passed through a thimble in -the after-leach of the foresail, then round the shroud again, and round the sheet.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>If she come up fast, port the helm<a id="FNanchor48" href="#Footnote48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> a little, and meet her, -then right<a id="FNanchor49" href="#Footnote49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> it when she lays her proper course.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote48" href="#FNanchor48" class="label">[48]</a> Always put the helm the contrary way to that which you want the -vessel’s head to turn.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote49" href="#FNanchor49" class="label">[49]</a> That is, bring it a-midships; the same with <i>steady</i>.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Hook and haul taut the lee runner and tackle. You will now -find it necessary to carry the helm a little a-port or a-weather.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>If, instead of directing our course eastward, we had preferred -doing so westward, we must have jibed previous to bringing -the wind on the beam, and then the preceding operations would -necessarily have been, to a corresponding extent, reversed.</p> - -<h4>CLOSE-HAULING THE VESSEL.<a id="FNanchor50" href="#Footnote50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote50" href="#FNanchor50" class="label">[50]</a> To haul the sheets aboard, or more a-midships, by which means the -vessel’s head will come closer to the point the wind blows from.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>To haul the vessel to the wind, ease the helm down<a id="FNanchor51" href="#Footnote51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> a little. -Haul in the main-sheet upon the proper mark. Bowse the foresheet, -and haul the jib-sheet well aft. Bowse the runner and -tackle well taut.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote51" href="#FNanchor51" class="label">[51]</a> To leeward.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>The vessel is now on the wind, plies to windward, or is -close-hauled.<a id="FNanchor52" href="#Footnote52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote52" href="#FNanchor52" class="label">[52]</a> These -terms all imply one thing, viz., that the vessel is sailing as near as -possible to the point whence the wind blows. No square-rigged vessel will -sail within less than six, and no fore-and-aft rigged vessel within less than -five, points of the wind, to have any head-way.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Being now apt to gripe, or come up into the wind with a -sudden jerk, now and again, she wall carry her helm more or -less a-weather. The helmsman must watch the weather-leach -of the mainsail, to prevent the vessel getting her head in the -wind.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page116"></a>[116]</span></p> - -<h4>TACKING.<a id="FNanchor53" href="#Footnote53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></h4> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote53" href="#FNanchor53" class="label">[53]</a> -To turn a vessel from one side to the other with her head toward the -wind. When a vessel is obliged to tack several times successively to get to -windward, she is said to be beating to windward; when to get up or down a -harbour, channel, &c., beating up or down, &c.; when trying to get off a lee -shore, clawing off.</p> - -<p>A vessel’s tacks are always to windward and forward; and her sheets, to -leeward and aft; whence the terms larboard or starboard tack, meaning that -she has her tacks aboard on the larboard or starboard side.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Having got abreast or opposite the mouth of the harbour, -haul the fore bowline. “Ready about.”<a id="FNanchor54" href="#Footnote54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> Put your helm up, -or to windward a little, and let the vessel go rather off the wind, -to get good way on her; then gently down or to leeward with -it, which is announced by the helmsman calling “Helm’s a-lee.” -Let fly the jib-sheet: this takes off the balance of wind from -her head, and acts in concert with the helm in sweeping her -stern to leeward, or rather in allowing her head to come quicker -up into the wind.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote54" href="#FNanchor54" class="label">[54]</a> -A command that all hands are to be attentive, and at their stations for -tacking.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>The man who attends the jib-sheet must carefully gather in -the slack<a id="FNanchor55" href="#Footnote55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> of the one opposite to that which he let go. When -the jib comes over the larboard side of the stay<a id="FNanchor56" href="#Footnote56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>, haul the larboard -jib-sheet well aft. When the mainsail is filled, let draw -the foresail.<a id="FNanchor57" href="#Footnote57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> Right the helm, and shift over the tack of the -mainsail.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote55" href="#FNanchor55" class="label">[55]</a> Or loose rope.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote56" href="#FNanchor56" class="label">[56]</a> The -fore-stay, or large rope from the lower mast head to the stem head, -to prevent the mast from springing when the vessel is sending deep, or fallen -into the hollow between two waves, after pitching.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote57" href="#FNanchor57" class="label">[57]</a> That -is, let go the bowline which holds the sail to this, now weather -shroud. It was held there till now, that the wind might act upon it with -greater power to turn the vessel, from the time her head was about half-way -round. The expression is derived from its being necessary, in larger vessels -of a similar rig, to ease the rope gradually as the sail draws it. From the -time the jib-sheet is let fly, till the foresail is let draw, the vessel is said to be -<i>in stays</i>.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>One hand should attend the main-sheet, to gather in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page117"></a>[117]</span> -slack till the boom is a-midships, and then ease it off as the -sail fills, and the vessel lays over to port. When the vessel is -in stays, and it is doubtful whether she will come round, or, in -order to make her come round when she gathers stern-way, -shift the helm to the opposite side. She is now about upon -the starboard tack.</p> - -<h4>REEFING, TAKING IN SAIL, ETC.</h4> - -<p>Haul the fore-sheet up to windward; bowline it there, and -heave her to. Keep the tiller shipped, and lash it a-lee. In gaff -topsail; lower the halyards; and haul down. Send a hand aloft -to unbend the sheet from the sail, and make it fast to the main -halyard bolt; and unlash the gaff topsail, and send it down. -Lower the main halyards and peak to the second reef cringle, -and reef the mainsail.</p> - -<p>Hook the reef tackle<a id="FNanchor58" href="#Footnote58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> -to the first earing<a id="FNanchor59" href="#Footnote59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>; haul upon it till -the cringle<a id="FNanchor60" href="#Footnote60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> is close down upon the boom; and belay the tackle. -Pass a small gasket<a id="FNanchor61" href="#Footnote61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> through the tack and the first reef cringle, -and lash the two firmly together, taking care to gather in snug -the luff of the sail, so that the leach rope belonging to it forms a -sort of snake near the mast. Haul up the tack, and bowse upon -the weather peak line, keeping the other part fast a-midships of -the boom. This will hold the belly of the sail partly to windward, -and make it easier to tie the reef-points. Observe to -keep the foot-rope outside and under the sail.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote58" href="#FNanchor58" class="label">[58]</a> -A small tackle formed of two hook blocks, one of which is hooked to the -under part of the boom about one third from the mast, and the other farther -aft. The fall is belayed to a cleat under the boom.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote59" href="#FNanchor59" class="label">[59]</a> -A stout rope, one end of which is made fast to the boom at the same -distance from the mast as the reef cringle to which it belongs. It ascends, -passes through the cringle, descends and passes through a sheave on the side -of the boom, then in board, and is stopped to the boom by means of its lanyard, -or small line spliced into its end for the purpose. This lanyard is also to -make it fast when the sail is reefed, and you wish to remove the tackle.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote60" href="#FNanchor60" class="label">[60]</a> -A short loop of rope with a thimble or small ring of iron inside it, spliced -to the leach of the sail.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote61" href="#FNanchor61" class="label">[61]</a> A rope made by plaiting rope-yarns.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Let one man jump upon the boom to tie the outer points so<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page118"></a>[118]</span> -far that the rest can be tied on board. Let go the tack and -peak line, always keeping the ends of this fast under the boom. -Hoist the sail taut up; and set taut the tack tackle. Shift the -jib to No. 2. Overhaul the jib purchase; let go the outhaul; -haul the jib down; unhook the tack; unbend the sheets; and -send the sail down below.</p> - -<p>You have now got one reef in the mainsail. If it come on -to blow harder, and you want a second reef, lower the sail, and -haul on the peak line as before; nipper the first reef-earing so -as to hold it a short time; let go the reef tackle, and unhook it -from the earing, which make fast with its lanyard round the -boom.</p> - -<p>You have now got the tackle to use for the second reef. Proceed -as for the first reef. Shift the jib to No. 3, and proceed -as before. If third, the same, after rigging the bowsprit. Take -the fid<a id="FNanchor62" href="#Footnote62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> or bolt out of the heel of the bowsprit, and rig the -bowsprit in about one fid hole. Haul taut the topmast stay and -bowsprit rigging. Bend and set the small jib in the same way -as any other.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote62" href="#FNanchor62" class="label">[62]</a> -A bar of wood or iron, which passes horizontally through a hole in each -bitt and the heel of the bowsprit, to secure it in its place, much in the same -way that a carriage pole is secured.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>You may want to stow the mainsail, set the trysail, and make -her otherwise snug in proportion. Sway away upon the top -rope; lift the mast a little to let the man unfid it; and lower -topmast down in the slings. Lower the fore halyards, and reef -the foresail. Gather the luff of the sail up; make the foremost -reef-earing cringle fast to the tack; shift the sheet from -the clue of the sail to the after reef cringle; and tie the points. -If the weather is very heavy, haul down the stay-sail, and tend -the vessel with a tackle upon the weather jib-sheet.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>When it comes fine weather again, make sail in precisely the -reverse order to that in which you shorten it. Continue to -tack in the wind’s eye till you are to windward of the harbour.</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXXXI"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXXI</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page119">Page 119</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo196.jpg" alt="" /> - -<div class="split7723"> - -<div class="left7723"> -<p class="caption">The Mariner’s Compass.</p> -</div> - -<div class="right7723"> -<p class="caption">Plan of the Deck.</p> -</div> - -<p class="thinline allclear"> </p> - -</div><!--split--> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page119"></a>[119]</span></p> - -<h4>PASSING OTHER VESSELS.</h4> - -<p>All vessels sailing before the wind keep out of the way of -those upon the wind. In the river Thames, vessels which sail -with the larboard tack aboard, keep away for those with the -starboard tack aboard.</p> - -<h4>BRINGING THE VESSEL INTO HARBOUR.</h4> - -<p>Lower and haul down the gaff topsail. Let go the jib tack -or outhaul<a id="FNanchor63" href="#Footnote63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>; lower the jib; and pull on the down-hauler, to -bring the traveller in. Haul the tack of the mainsail up; and -lower the peak. Down foresail.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote63" href="#FNanchor63" class="label">[63]</a> -A rope made fast to the traveller, to haul it out to the bowsprit end.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Let a small boat run away the wrap to the quay. Lower, and -stow the mainsail. Unbend the jib, and stow it below if dry -and not immediately wanted, and hook the halyards to the -traveller, close in by the stem. If otherwise, hoist upon the -halyards, and let it hang to dry if it require it, or stop it up -and down the foremost shroud. Haul the vessel to the moorings, -and moor properly, putting fenders over to keep her from -the quay.</p> - -<h4>DESCRIPTION OF <a href="#PlateXXXI">PLATE XXXI.</a></h4> - -<h5><i>Fig. 1.</i></h5> - -<p>The mariner’s compass.</p> - -<h5><i>Fig. 2.</i></h5> - -<p>Plan of the deck, with the bowsprit rigged out, &c.</p> - -<ul class="nostyle fsize90"> - -<li> 1. Bowsprit.</li> - -<li> 2. 2. Bowsprit shrouds.</li> - -<li> 3. Stem head.</li> - -<li> 4. Bowsprit bitts.</li> - -<li> 5. Fore hatchway.</li> - -<li> 6. Windlass and bitts.</li> - -<li> 7. Fore-sheet horse.</li> - -<li> 8. Place of the mast.</li> - -<li> 9. 9. Channels.</li> - -<li>10. Main hatchway.</li> - -<li>11. Companion and binnacle.</li> - -<li>12. Tiller.</li> - -<li>13. Cabin skylight.</li> - -<li>14. Rudder-head and case.</li> - -<li>15. Taffrail.</li> - -</ul> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page120"></a>[120]</span></p> - -<h4><a href="#PlateXXXII">PLATE XXXII.</a> fig. 1.</h4> - -<p>Pleasure boat, cutter-rigged, lying at anchor; foresail and -mainsail bent and stowed.</p> - -<ul class="nostyle fsize90"> - -<li> 1. Vane and spindle.</li> - -<li> 2. Truck.</li> - -<li> 3. Topmast.</li> - -<li> 4. Cap.</li> - -<li> 5. Trussel trees.</li> - -<li> 6. Lower mast.</li> - -<li> 7. 7. Cross trees.</li> - -<li> 8. Bowsprit.</li> - -<li> 9. Gaff, with mainsail furled.</li> - -<li>10. Main boom.</li> - -<li>11. Tiller.</li> - -<li>12. Rudder.</li> - -<li>13. Stem.</li> - -<li>14. 14. Topmast shrouds.</li> - -<li>15. Topmast backstay.</li> - -<li>16. Topmast stay.</li> - -<li>17. Runner and tackle.</li> - -<li>18. Traveller.</li> - -<li>19. Channel.</li> - -<li>20. Forestay with the foresail furled to it.</li> - -<li>21. Bobstay.</li> - -<li>22. Topping-lifts.</li> - -<li>23. Topping-lift blocks.</li> - -<li>24. Main-sheet.</li> - -<li>25. 25. Peak halyards.</li> - -<li>26. Jib halyards.</li> - -<li>27. Cable.</li> - -<li>28. Fore-sheet.</li> - -</ul> - -<h4><a href="#PlateXXXII">PLATE XXXII.</a> fig. 2.</h4> - -<p>The vessel going down the harbour with all sails set, steering -south, before a light breeze.</p> - -<ul class="nostyle fsize90"> - -<li> 1. Gaff topsail.</li> - -<li> 2. Foresail.</li> - -<li> 3. Mainsail.</li> - -<li> 4. Tack tricing line.</li> - -<li> 5. Peak line, or signal halyards.</li> - -<li> 6. 7. 8. The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd reefs.</li> - -<li> 9. 9. 9. Reef-earings.</li> - -<li>10. 10. 10. Cringles.</li> - -<li>11. Balance reef.</li> - -<li>12. Anchor stock.</li> - -<li>13. Windlass.</li> - -<li>14. Foresheet horse.</li> - -<li>15. Main hatch.</li> - -<li>16. Companion and binnacle.</li> - -</ul> - -<h4><a href="#PlateXXXIII">PLATE XXXIII.</a> fig. 1.</h4> - -<p>The vessel outside the harbour, steering east, with a smart -breeze on the larboard beam.</p> - -<ul class="nostyle fsize90"> - -<li>1. Jib.</li> - -<li>2. Foresail.</li> - -<li>3. Anchor.</li> - -<li>4. Eyebolt of the bowsprit shrouds.</li> - -</ul> - -<h4><a href="#PlateXXXIII">PLATE XXXIII.</a> fig. 2.</h4> - -<p>The vessel trying for the harbour in a heavy gale, close to the -wind as she can lay, on the starboard tack, under a reefed mainsail -and foresail, bowsprit reefed, and topmast lowered.</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXXXII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXXII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page120">Page 120</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="bt br bl"> - -<img src="images/illo199a.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Parts in Pleasure Boat at Anchor.</p> - -</div><!--borders--> - -<div class="br bb bl"> - -<img src="images/illo199b.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Boat before a light breeze.</p> - -</div><!--borders--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="plate w40em" id="PlateXXXIII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXXIII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page120">Page 120</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo201a.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Boat with a breeze on the larboard beam.</p> - -<img src="images/illo201b.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Boat close to the wind on the Starboard tack.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page121"></a>[121]</span></p> - -<div class="container w45em"> -<img src="images/illo203.jpg" alt="Horse riding" /> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="gesp2">RIDING.</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The general art of riding, sometimes called manège riding, to -distinguish it from its modifications in road-riding, hunting, -racing, &c., teaches us to place every part of the body so that it -can act upon the horse in every emergency, shows the effect of -all the aids or modes of guiding him, and enables us to render -him obedient to the slightest touch. By never suffering the -ascendancy to be transferred to the horse, by in general preventing -him from making all his speed, and by exhausting him -the sooner the more he exerts himself without permission, it -bestows upon the rider perfect security.</p> - -<p>An intimate knowledge of this method is necessary even to -our abandoning it when convenient, to our adopting the styles, -afterwards to be described, for more extended and rapid paces, -or for long continued riding, to our suffering the horse to take -more or less of ascendancy, and to our, when necessary, easily -recovering that superiority of the hand, of which those who are -ignorant of this fundamental method are less capable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page122"></a>[122]</span></p> - -<p>The recent practice has been to carry the foot rather more -forward than is represented in our Plates, approaching in this -respect, to the ancient position, as seen in the Elgin marbles, &c.</p> - -<p>A Parisian bit, which is attached to the mouth of the horse, -without a headstall, has been lately used. It is, however, applicable -only to <i>horses</i>, on account of its being retained in the -mouth by means of the side tusks, which <i>mares</i> do not possess. -It is composed of a semicircular bar of iron, which goes under -the chin, to which its concavity applies; while a short bar, firmly -attached to one of its ends, passes nearly half-way through the -mouth. Through the other end of the semicircle is a hole, into -which, when the bit is on, must be screwed a bolt, similar to the -one just described. These two bolts, it is easily understood, -pass behind the tusks, and nearly meet in the centre of the -mouth.<a id="FNanchor64" href="#Footnote64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote64" href="#FNanchor64" class="label">[64]</a> -<span class="smcap">The Saddle</span> (<i><a href="#PlateXXXIV">Fig. 1</a></i>).—<i>a</i>, -pommel; <i>b</i>, cantle; <i>c</i>, panel; <i>d</i>, flaps; <i>e</i>, stirrup -leather; <i>f</i>, girths.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bridles</span> (<i><a href="#PlateXXXIV">Fig. 2</a></i>)—<i>a</i>, -<i>b</i>, headstall with the cheekstraps; <i>c</i>, do. of the curb; -<i>d</i>, do. of the bridoon or snaffle passing through it over the poll; <i>e</i>, nosetrap -(seldom found in any but military bridles), <i>f</i>, throatlash. <i><a href="#PlateXXXIV">Fig. 3</a>.</i> A twisted -snaffle-bit. <i>Fig. 4.</i> A plain snaffle-bit. <i><a href="#PlateXXXIV">Fig. 5</a>.</i> A Weymouth curb, with -chain and chainstrap (<i>a</i>) attached. <i><a href="#PlateXXXIV">Fig. 6</a>.</i> A common curb-bit, with the -upset in the mouthpiece.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<h3>THE HORSE AND EQUIPMENTS.</h3> - -<p><a href="#PlateXXXIV">Plates XXXIV.</a>, <a href="#PlateXXXV">XXXV.</a> f. 1 give better ideas of the horse and -his equipments than the longest and most detailed description. -The reader will therefore examine them in succession. We have -here only to add those circumstances as to the equipment of the -horse, which could not be communicated by that otherwise -briefer and more impressive method.</p> - -<p>The shoes of a horse have much to do with his, and consequently -with his rider’s, comfort. It is therefore important to -know that he is properly shod. To effect this, the shoe should -be fitted to the foot, and not the foot to the shoe.</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXXXIV"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXXIV</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page122">Page 122</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo205.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Horse Equipments.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXXXV"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXXV</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page122">Page 122</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo207a.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">The Parts of the Horse.</p> - -<div class="container w30em"> - -<img src="images/illo207b.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">First View of Mounting.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page123"></a>[123]</span></p> - -<p>Neither heel nor frog should be pared more than merely to -take off what is ragged; for no reproduction takes place here, -as in the case of the hoof. Farriers ruin nearly all horses by -doing otherwise. Indeed, they are not to be trusted with this -operation, which, after shoeing, any gentleman may perform -with his pocket-knife. The sole of the foot must not be hollowed -out, but only the outer wall pared flat or even with the -sole, and most at the toe. Nor, above all things, ought the -farrier’s finishing rasp all round the edge of the horn immediately -above the shoe to be permitted. Neither ought nails to -be driven far backward towards the heel, where the horn is softer -and more sensible, especially at the inner quarter. When a -horse has a high heel, the foot, except the frog, may be pared -flat, but not hollowed out or opened. When a horse has a low -heel, the foot should be pared only at the toes.</p> - -<p>It is common to allow the fore part or toe of the hoof to grow -long, thereby throwing the horse much on his heels. This position -is unnatural, because, were the horse in a state of nature, -without shoes, the toe, from constant contact with the ground, -would be worn down to its proper level with the heel. This -growth, then, of the fore part of the hoof, by throwing him on -his heels, renders them tender, and causes lameness: while the -foot, not being flat on the ground, also strains the ligaments of -the fetlock joint. These evils may be obviated by doing as -nature directs—by cutting away the toe to the proper level with -the heel, so as to allow the foot to bear flat upon the ground. -When a horse has a short pastern, he should have a short shoe, -because a long one would compel him to bring his heel more -backward than the unpliableness of his pastern would easily -admit.</p> - -<p>The saddle should be proportioned to the size of the horse. -Before, the bearings should be clear of the plate bone; behind, -they should not extend further than within four inches of the -hips; and their pressure should be equal on every part intended -to be touched. The closer the saddle then comes the better, if -neither the weight of the rider nor settling of the panel can -possibly injure the withers or chine. Before mounting, the -rider should examine whether the saddle, girths, straps, bits, -bridle, &c., are all good and well fixed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page124"></a>[124]</span></p> - -<p>When the saddle is on the horse, the lowest part of the seat -should rather be behind its centre, as it is there that the weight -of the body should fall, and by that means the thighs can keep -their proper position. The best test of the adaptation of the -seat is, when the rider, without stirrups or effort, easily falls into -his proper place in the saddle.</p> - -<p>Stirrups should not be used until the pupil is capable of riding -without them. Their proper length is when the upper edge of -the horizontal bar reaches a finger’s breadth below the inner -ankle-bone. When the feet are in the stirrups, the heels should -be about two inches lower than the toes. No more than the -natural weight of the limbs should be thrown upon them. It is -by an accurate position, and an easy play of the ankle and instep, -that the stirrup is retained, so as to slip neither forward -nor backward, even if the toe be raised for a moment.</p> - -<p>The position on horseback with stirrups differs from that -without them only in this, that the thigh being, by the stirrup, -relieved from the weight of the leg and foot, the knee is slightly -bent, and rather before the lines which these form in the position -without stirrups. In hussar riding, hunting, &c., the breadth -of four fingers should intervene between the fork and the saddle -when the rider stands up.</p> - -<p>Spurs should never be used but by an accomplished rider. -When it is necessary to employ them, they should be applied a -few inches behind the girth, as low as possible, and with the -lightest touch capable of producing the effect.</p> - -<p>As to the bridle, in order to give the greatest possible ease to -the snaffle, a large and polished bit is necessary. Most bits are -too small and long, bend back over the bars of the horse’s jaw, -work like pincers, and cut his mouth.</p> - -<p>To give the greatest degree of severity, the bit, while hot, is -twisted into a spiral form, so as to present to the jaw a rough -and sharp surface, capable of pressing the bars or lips with -greater or less severity. The degrees of punishment which this -bit is capable of inflicting are generally sufficient for all the purposes -of correction. It is therefore best to ride with a snaffle,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page125"></a>[125]</span> -and to use a curb only occasionally when absolutely necessary. -In all cases, the rider should observe that the horse is furnished -with a bit proper for him. If too light, it may have the effect -already described. If too heavy, it may incline him to carry the -head low, or to rest upon the hand, which jockeys call “making -use of a fifth leg.” The simplest and most useful of the <i>curb</i> -kind is the Weymouth bit, which consists of a strong plain -mouth-piece of uniform thickness, without any upset, but merely -a curve forwards, to give ease to the tongue.</p> - -<p>The centre of the reins should be accurately marked; and, -when both reins are held in one hand, and the near rein has to -pass under the little finger, and over the fore-finger, on the outside -of the off-rein, the latter should be held about half an inch -shorter, and the centre should be brought proportionally towards -the left. In adjusting the bridle on the horse’s head, the headstall, -parallel to and above the cheekbone, must have its length -so regulated as to permit the mouth-piece of the curb to rest on -the bars, an inch above the lower tushes in horses, and about -two inches above the corner teeth in mares, which have no -tushes. The nose-band, lying under the snaffle headstall, must -be buckled so loosely that a finger can pass freely under it and -over the horse’s nose. The bit of the snaffle must be higher, -but not so much so as to wrinkle the corner of the mouth. The -throat-lash must be buckled rather loose. The mane is usually -cut close under the headstall; the finger clears any part of the -foretop interfering with it; and the remainder, when combed -smooth, is put either over or under the front.</p> - -<p>If the rider uses a curb, he should make it a rule to hook on -the chain himself; for the quietest horse may bring his rider -into danger, if the curb hurt him. The curb-chain must pass -under the snaffle. The rider should, therefore, put his right -hand under the snaffle reins to take hold of the curb-chain, and -introducing two fingers of his left within the cheek of the bit, -and aiding these with his thumb, take hold of the curb hook. The -end links of the curb-chain being in his right hand, he should -turn the chain to the right and under, or as he would a screw, till<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page126"></a>[126]</span> -every link lies flat and smooth, and then, without losing a half -turn, put that link on the hook which appears to be neither -tight nor slack. The finger should pass between the horse’s -jaw and curb, which in this case hangs down upon his under -lip. It is necessary also to see how it operates. If the branch -has liberty to move forty-five degrees, or to a right angle, it is -the degree which is in general best. If, however, one link of -the chain confine it to thirty-five degrees, and if one link lower -give it fifty-five degrees, then the manner of the horse’s carrying -his head must determine which is most proper: if the horse -naturally carry his nose high, the branch may have fifty-five, if -he bring his nose in, he should have thirty-five degrees. If -there be a chain-strap, it must be placed so high on the branch, -that when passed through the ring in the curb-chain, it may be -buckled tight enough to prevent the horse lodging the branch -on his teeth.</p> - -<p>When a horse’s head is steady, when he is light in hand, can -obey its motions with ease, and stop readily, the bit is properly -adjusted. On the contrary, if he open his mouth as if gagged, -writhe his jaws, draw his tongue above the mouth-piece, or -thrust it out sidewise; if he fear the impression of the bit, have -no appuy, toss his head up and down, carry it low, and endeavour -to force the hand, or refuse to go forward, or run backward, -the bit is not properly adjusted.</p> - -<h3>MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING.</h3> - -<p>In mounting, the rider,—presenting himself rather before the -horse’s shoulder, with his left breast towards that shoulder, -and with his whip or switch in his left hand,—takes, with the -right hand, the snaffle reins in the centre;—introduces the little -finger of the left hand between them from before, the back of -that hand being towards the horse’s head;—places the left -hand below the right on the neck of the horse, about twelve -inches from the saddle;—draws with the right hand the reins -through the left, and shortens them, till the left has a light and -equal feeling of both reins on the horse’s mouth;—throws, with -the right hand, the reins to the off side;—takes, with the same -hand, a lock of the mane, brings it through the left hand, and -turns it round the left thumb:—and closes the left hand firmly -on the mane and reins.</p> - -<div class="plate w30em" id="PlateXXXVI"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXXVI</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page127">Page 127</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo218a.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Second View of Mounting.</p> - -<img src="images/illo218b.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">The Seat.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page127"></a>[127]</span></p> - -<p>The right hand, after quitting the mane, lays hold of the left -stirrup, the fingers being behind, and the thumb in front of it;—the -left foot is raised and put into the stirrup as far as the -ball of it, <a href="#PlateXXXV">Pl XXXV</a> f 2 the right foot is then moved until the -rider’s face is turned to the side of the horse, and looking across -the saddle; while the right hand is placed on the cantle, the -left knee against the saddle on the surcingle, with the left heel -drawn back, to avoid touching the horse’s side with the toe;—by -a spring of the right foot from the instep, not by any pull -with the right hand, the rider raises himself in the stirrup, the -knees firm against the saddle, the heels together, but drawn -back a little, and the body erect, and partially supported by the -right hand <a href="#PlateXXXVI">Pl XXXVI</a> f 1 the right hand moves from the cantle to -the pommel, and supports the body;—the right leg at the same -time passes clearly over the horse’s quarters to the off side;—the -right knee closes on the saddle; the body comes gently into -it;—the left hand quits the mane, and the right the pommel.</p> - -<p>The left, or bridle hand, with the wrist rounded outwards, -is placed opposite the centre of the body, and at three -inches’ distance from it;—the right hand is dropped by the side -of the thigh;—the stirrup is taken instantly with the right foot, -without the help of hand or eye;—the clothes are adjusted;—and -the whip is exchanged from the left hand to the right, -being held with the lash upwards, but inclining a little towards -the left ear of the horse, and never leaving the right hand, -except while mounting or dismounting,—(<a href="#PlateXXXVI">Plate XXXVI.</a> f. 2.)</p> - -<p>The horse is to be accustomed to stand till the rider request -him to move. The habit of unsteadiness is acquired from -grooms, who, on going out to water and exercise, throw themselves -over a horse from some elevation, and give a kick to the -animal even before being fairly upon it. If a groom attend at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page128"></a>[128]</span> -mounting, he ought not to be suffered to touch the reins, but -only that part of the bridle which comes down the cheek.</p> - -<p>In dismounting, the whip is to be returned into the left -hand;—the right hand takes hold of the rein above the left;—the -right foot quits the stirrup;—the left hand slides forward -on the rein, to about twelve inches from the saddle, feeling -the horse’s mouth very lightly;—the right hand, dropping the -reins to the off side, takes a lock of the mane, brings it through -the left, and twists it round the left thumb;—the fingers of the -left hand close on it;—the right hand is placed on the pommel; -the body being kept erect. The body is supported with the -right hand and left foot;—the right leg is, without touching -the horse’s hind-quarters or the saddle, brought gently to the -near side, with the heels close, care being take not to bend the -right knee, lest the spur should touch the horse;—the right -hand passes at the same time to the cantle, to preserve the -balance, as in the act of mounting;—the body is gently lowered -until the right toe touches the ground;—resting on the right -foot, the left stirrup is quitted, and the left foot placed in line -with the horse’s hoofs;—the hands remaining as in the former -motion. Both hands then quit their holds of the mane and -cantle;—and the right hand lays hold of the snaffle rein near -the ring of the bit.</p> - -<p>In mounting without stirrups,—after taking up the reins, -instead of seizing the mane, the rider lays hold of the pommel -and cantle, and, by a spring of both legs from the insteps, -raises the body to the centre of the saddle. By a second spring -of both arms, the right leg is carried over the horse, and the -rider enters his proper seat by closing the knees on the saddle, -and sliding gently into it.</p> - -<p>In dismounting without stirrups, on either side of the horse, -the rider throws the weight of the body on the hands placed on -the pommel, and, by a spring, raises the body out of the saddle -before the leg is brought over the horse.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page129"></a>[129]</span></p> - -<h3>THE SEAT.</h3> - -<p>The seat must be understood in an extended sense as the -disposition of the various parts of the body, in conformity with -the action of the horse; and its effect is the rider’s being firm -in the saddle, when he might be otherwise thrown forward over -the horse’s head, or backward over his tail.</p> - -<p>The fundamental seat is that intermediate one of which all -others are modifications, and in which the rider sits when the -horse is going straight forward, without any bend in his position. -In describing this, it is first necessary to consider the -rider’s relation to the horse.—He must sit on that part of the -animal’s body which, as he springs in his paces, is the centre of -motion: from which, of course, any weight would be most -difficultly shaken. The place of this seat is that part of the -saddle into which the rider’s body would naturally slide were he -to ride without stirrups. This seat is to be preserved only by -a proper balance of his body, and its adaptation to even the -most violent counteractions of the horse. Turf jockeys necessarily -sit further back, that they may employ the pulls.</p> - -<p>It is necessary to consider the horseman in various parts, and -to explain their different functions: 1st, the lower part, as being -here the principal one, namely, the thighs, with the legs as -dependent on them; 2dly, the upper part, namely, the body, -with the arms dependent on it. The thighs, from the fork to -the knees, are commonly called the immovable parts, and upon -them the whole attitude depends. They must not wriggle or -roll, so as either to disturb the horse, or render the seat loose; -but they may be relaxed when the horse hesitates to advance. -The legs occasionally strengthen the hold of the thighs by a grasp -with the calves; and they likewise aid, support, and chastise the -horse. The body, from the fork upwards, must always be in a -situation to take the corresponding motion, and preserve the -balance. The position of the arms is dependent on that of the -body, but they also exercise new functions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page130"></a>[130]</span></p> - -<p>As a good seat is the basis of all excellence in riding, we shall -consider these parts in detail.</p> - -<p>In relation to the thighs, the rider, sitting in the middle of -the saddle, must rest chiefly upon their division, vulgarly called -the fork, and very slightly upon the hips. The thighs, turned -inward, must rest flat upon the sides of the saddle, without -grasping; for the rider’s weight gives sufficient hold, and the -pressure of the thighs on the saddle would only lift him above -it. The knees must be stretched down and kept back, so as to -place the thighs several degrees short of a perpendicular; but -no gripe must be made with them, unless there be danger of -losing all other hold. If the thighs are upon their inner or flat -side in the saddle, both the legs and the feet will be turned as -they ought to be. Thus turned, they must be on a line parallel -to that of the rider’s body, and hang near the horse’s sides, but -must not touch; yet they may give an additional hold to the -seat, when necessary, and the calves must act in support of the -aids of the hands. The heels are to be sunk, and the toes to -be raised, and as near the horse as the heels, which prevents the -heel touching the horse.</p> - -<p>As to the body.—The head must be firm, yet free. The -shoulders thrown back, and kept square, so that no pull of -the bridle may bring them forward. The chest must be advanced, -and the small of the back bent a little forward.</p> - -<p>The upper parts of the arms must hang perpendicularly from -the shoulders, the lower parts at right angles with the upper, so -as to form a horizontal line from the elbow to the little finger. -The elbows must be lightly closed to the hips, and, without -stiffness, kept steady, or they destroy the hand. The wrist must -be rounded a little outwards. The hands should be about three -inches from the body, and from the pommel of the saddle, and -from four to six inches apart; the thumbs and knuckles pointing -towards each other, and the finger nails towards the body.<a id="FNanchor65" href="#Footnote65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote65" href="#FNanchor65" class="label">[65]</a> -When in motion round the manège, or the circle, the inward hand, or -that towards which we turn, is to be a little lower than the outward one.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>When the rider is in the proper position on horseback without<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page131"></a>[131]</span> -stirrups, his nose, breast, knee, and instep are nearly in a -line; and, with stirrups, his nose, breast, knee, and toe, are in -a line.—(<a href="#PlateXXXVI">Pl XXXVI.</a>) The man and the horse throughout are to -be of a piece. When the horse is at liberty, or disunited, as -it is termed, the rider sits at his ease; and, as he collects and -unites his horse, so he collects and unites himself. There must, -however, be no stiffness of manner, more than in sitting on -a chair; for it is ease and elegance which distinguish the -gentleman.</p> - -<h3>THE BALANCE.</h3> - -<p>The balance in riding preserves the body from that inclination -to one side or the other which even the ordinary paces of the -horse, in the trot or gallop, would otherwise occasion. It accompanies -and corresponds with every motion of the animal, -without any employment of strength, and consequently, the -rider sits so firmly that nothing can move his seat. His skill -consists essentially in balancing himself on the horse in such a -manner as not to fetter the animal’s movements. To illustrate -this, if the horse work straight and upright on his legs, the -body must be in the same upright direction: as the horse moves -into a trot, the body must be inclined a little more back; in the -gallop, also in leaping, or in any violent movements, the body -must chiefly be kept back; and, when the horse bends and -leans, as he does when on a circle, or trotting briskly round a -corner, the body must lean similarly, or the balance will be -lost. Throughout the whole, the figure must be pliant to every -action of the horse; for the balance can be maintained only by -as many different positions as he is capable of working in.</p> - -<p>To help his balance, the rider must never take the slightest -assistance from the reins. Whatever the position of the body, -the hand must be fixed, and the reins of such a length as to -feel and support the horse, but never to hold on. To acquire -the balance, the practice on circles, or the longe, is useful; -working equally to both hands, and not using stirrups till the -pupil has acquired the balance without them. Experience<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page132"></a>[132]</span> -proves that the body, if in the manège seat and fundamental -position, almost involuntarily takes the corresponding motion, -whether the horse stumbles, rears, springs forward, or kicks.</p> - -<h3>THE REIN-HOLD.</h3> - -<p>There are various methods of holding the reins, according -to the style of riding, the design of the rider, and the propensities -of horses.</p> - -<p>In holding the snaffle-reins separately, one rein passes into -each hand, between the third and fourth fingers, and out of it -over the fore-finger, where it is held down by the thumb.—(<a href="#PlateXXXVII">Pl -XXXVII</a> f. 1.) When afterwards further advanced, the -reins are held in the left hand, as at first taken up; the left -rein passing under the little finger, and the right under the -third finger, both lying smooth through the hand, the superfluous -rein hanging over the first joint of the fore-finger, and -the thumb being placed upon it.<a id="FNanchor66" href="#Footnote66" class="fnanchor">[66] -</a>—(<a href="#PlateXXXVII">Plate XXXVII.</a> fig. 2.)</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote66" href="#FNanchor66" class="label">[66]</a> -Sometimes, however, the right rein is made to enter the hand from above -over the fore-finger, and crosses the left rein in the palm, where the fingers -close upon them, a loop or bow being formed of the residue between the -hand and body, whence it hangs down.—(<a href="#PlateXXXVII">Plate XXXVII.</a> fig. 3.)</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Riders should not throw their right shoulders back, as they -are apt to do, when they first take the reins in one hand. The -right arm should hang by the side, with the hand by the side of -the thigh; or, if holding the whip, it may be kept a little lower -than the left, in order not to obstruct the operation of the -bridle.</p> - -<p>We have already said, that we think it best to ride with the -snaffle alone, and use the curb only occasionally. In this case, -the curb reins may have a slide upon them, and may hang on -the pommel of the saddle, or the horse’s neck. When the rider, -however, holds the curb as well as the snaffle, having both, as -is most usual, in the left hand,—while the curb reins are placed -as above described of the snaffle reins, the snaffle reins are placed -within them; that is, the left snaffle rein enters under the -second, and the right under the first finger, and both pass up -through the hand, and out of it, over the fore-finger, precisely -as do the curb reins, except that they lie at first above, then -within, and lastly, under them.—(<a href="#PlateXXXVII">Plate XXXVII.</a> fig. 4.)</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXXXVII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXXVII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page133">Page 133</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo222.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">The Rein-hold.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page133"></a>[133]</span></p> - -<p>Shifting the reins should be done expertly, without stopping -the horse, altering the pace, breaking the time, or looking to -the hands. When the snaffle reins are held in one hand, the -method of shifting from the left hand is as follows:—Turn the -thumbs towards each other; carry the right hand over the left; -in place of the little finger of the left hand, put the fore-finger -of the right hand downwards between the reins; lay the reins -smoothly down through the right hand, and place the thumb -upon the left rein between the first and second joint of the -fore-finger.—(<a href="#PlateXXXVII">Pl XXXVII.</a> f. 5.) To shift them again into the -left hand, it is only necessary to carry the left hand over the -right; to put the little finger of the left hand downwards between -the right and left reins; to place them smoothly upward -through the hand, and to let the ends hang over the fore-finger, -as at first.—(<a href="#PlateXXXVII">Plate XXXVII.</a> fig. 6.)</p> - -<p>When both curb and snaffle reins are held in the usual -method, we shift them into the right hand in a similar manner, -by turning the thumbs toward each other; carrying the right -hand over the left; putting the fore-finger of the right hand -into the place of the little finger of the left; the second finger -of the right into the place of the third finger of the left; and -the third finger of the right into the place of the second finger -of the left; and laying the reins smoothly down through the -right hand.— (<a href="#PlateXXXVII">Pl XXXVII.</a> f. 7) When we shift the reins -again to the left hand, we put the fingers of the left hand into -the places we took them from, and turn the reins smoothly -upward through the hand, and over the fore-finger.—(<a href="#PlateXXXVII">Plate -XXXVII.</a> fig. 8.)</p> - -<p>Separating the reins is sometimes necessary. When a horse -refuses obedience to one hand, we use two. It is seldom, however, -necessary to take more than one rein in the right hand; -and this is the right rein of the snaffle only. For this purpose, -the rider turns the back of his right hand upwards, puts the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page134"></a>[134]</span> -first three fingers over the snaffle rein, receives it between his -little and third fingers, lets the superfluous end hang over the -fore-finger, with the thumb upwards, as he does the bridle hand. -(<a href="#PlateXXXVII">Plate XXXVII.</a> fig. 9.)</p> - -<p>Adjusting the reins is shortening or lengthening them, wholly -or partially, as occasion may require. To adjust the whole, we -take the superfluous reins that hang over the fore-finger of the -left hand into the right, so that with that hand we support the -horse, and feel every step he takes; and we then open the -fingers of the left hand so as to slip it up and down the reins -smoothly and freely, and thereby adjust them to our pleasure.</p> - -<p>To shorten the curb rein, and lengthen the snaffle, we take in -the right hand the centre of the curb rein, that hangs over the -fore-finger, slip the whole of the reins too long, pass the left -hand down them, and feel with the fingers whether both the -curb reins are of equal length, before we grasp with the left -hand, or quit with the right. Similarly, we shorten the snaffle, -and lengthen the curb, by taking in the right hand the centre of -the snaffle that hangs over the fore-finger, and proceeding in the -same way.</p> - -<p>When any single rein wants shortening, we apply the right -hand to that part which hangs over the fore-finger, and draw it -tighter. When the reins are separate, or occupy both hands, -and want adjusting, we bring the hands together to assist each -other; remembering that the inner hand, or that which supports -the attitude the horse works in, is not to depart from its situation, -so as to occasion any disorder, but that the outer hand is -to be brought to the inner, for the purpose of adjusting them.</p> - -<h3>THE CORRESPONDENCE.</h3> - -<p>To have a correct notion of the manner in which the hand -operates on the horse’s mouth, it must be understood that the -reins, being held as described, are collected to such definite -length, that bracing the muscles of the hand would rein the -horse back, and easing them permit him freely to advance; the -hand, for preserving a medium effect on the mouth, being only<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page135"></a>[135]</span> -half shut, and the knuckles near the wrist nearly open. The -hand, then, being connected to the reins, the reins to the bit, -the bit operating in the curb on the bars, and in the snaffle on -the lips, the rider cannot move the hand, and scarcely even a -finger, without the horse’s mouth being more or less affected. -This is called the <span class="smcapall">CORRESPONDENCE</span>.</p> - -<p>If, moreover, the hand be held steady, as the horse advances -in the trot, the fingers will feel, by the contraction of the reins, -a slight tug, occasioned by the cadence of every step; and this -tug, by means of the correspondence, is reciprocally felt in the -horse’s mouth. This is called the <span class="smcapall">APPUY</span>.</p> - -<p>While this relation is preserved between the hand and mouth, -the horse is in perfect obedience to the rider, and the hand -directs him, in any position or action, with such ease, that the -horse seems to work by the will of the rider rather than by the -power of his hand. This is called the <span class="smcapall">SUPPORT</span>.</p> - -<p>Now, the correspondence or effective communication between -the hand and mouth,—the appuy, or strength of the operation -in the mouth,—the support, or aid, the hand gives in the position -or action,—are always maintained in the manège and all -united paces. Without these, a horse is under no immediate -control, as in the extended gallop, or at full speed, where it may -require a hundred yards to pull before we can stop him.</p> - -<h3>THE ACTION.</h3> - -<p>The degree of correspondence, appuy, and support, depends, -in horses otherwise similar, on the relative situation of the hand. -The act of raising the rider’s hand increases his power; and -this, raising the horse’s head, diminishes his power. The depressing -of the rider’s hand, on the contrary, diminishes his -power; and this, depressing the horse’s head, increases his power. -On these depend the unitedness or disunitedness in the action of -the horse.</p> - -<p>A writer on this subject (Beranger, we believe) gives the following -useful illustration:—“If a garter were placed across the -pupil’s forehead, and a person behind him held the two ends in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page136"></a>[136]</span> -a horizontal direction, the pupil, if he stood quite upright, could -not pull at the person’s hand, nor endure the person’s hand to -pull at him, without falling or running backwards.” This is the -situation of a horse when united.</p> - -<p>Accordingly, when the pupil felt the hand severe, or expected -it to pull, he would guard against it by bending the body, projecting -the head, and planting one foot behind. This is the -situation of a horse when disunited, or defending himself against -the heaviness of the hand. Hence the perpetual pull of a timid -rider, or a heavy insensible hand, cannot keep a horse united, -because the horse cannot then bear its severity. Thus heavy -hands make hard-mouthed horses; and hence it is in this condition -that we generally find horses, for the best broke become -so, if ridden a few times by an ignorant horseman. In such -cases, the horse makes the rider support the weight both of his -head and neck, or goes on his shoulders, and is apt to stumble.</p> - -<p>If, then, the appuy be heavy, from the head being carried too -low, and the horse not sufficiently united, the rider must raise -the hand, and let the fingers, by moving, rather invite than -compel the head, or more properly the neck, to rise, for the -object is to bring in the head by raising the neck, the legs at -the same time pressing the haunches under. By these means, -the horse will be united, and the appuy will be lightened. Should -the hand, however, be too confining to the horse when united, -he may become so balanced on his haunches that he can neither -disunite himself nor advance one step; and, should the rider -then press him without yielding or dropping the hand, he would -compel him to rear.</p> - -<p>Such are the two extremes, where the horse is disunited, and -where he is too much united. The intermediate effect of the -hand and heel must be acquired by practice.</p> - -<h3>THE HAND.</h3> - -<p>To a masterly hand, firmness, gentleness, and lightness, are -very properly described as being essentially necessary.</p> - -<p>Firmness of the hand does not, however, do more than correspond<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page137"></a>[137]</span> -exactly with the feeling in the horse’s mouth, unless -the horse attempts to get the ascendancy, to abandon that delicate -correspondence producing the appuy, and keeping him -under the strictest obedience, and to make a dull or insensible -pull on the hand. To frustrate these attempts, the hand is kept -firm, and the fingers braced; and, should the horse plant his -head low to endure this, the fingers are moved, the reins shaken, -&c., to raise the head and divert him from his purpose; or, if -this be unavailing, the hand is yielded that the reins may become -slack, and a snatch is given in an upward direction, which will -not only make him raise his head, but will deter him from putting -it down again.</p> - -<p>Gentleness of the hand relaxes a little of its firmness, and -mitigates the feeling between the hand and the horse’s mouth, -without passing, however, from one extreme to another. Lightness -of the hand lessens still more the feeling between the rider’s -hand and the horse’s mouth, and consists in a slight alternate -feeling and easing of the bridle, regulated by the motion of the -horse; for, if the appuy were always in the same degree, it -would heat the mouth, dull the feeling, and render the horse’s -bars callous. The rider must also distinguish whether the horse -washes to disengage himself from restriction, or wants a momentary -liberty to cough, to move if cramped, to dislodge a -fly, &c.</p> - -<p>The curb, if used, requires always a light hand to manage it; -and the horse should never be put to do any thing in a curb at -which he is not perfectly ready. The curb is adapted for acting -in a direct line only: the snaffle should be used in all other -cases. Still, as to all these qualities, the transitions must be -gradual. Were the rider, passing over that degree of restraint -which is derived from the easy or gentle hand, to go at once -from a firm to a slack one, he would deprive his horse of the -support he trusted to, and precipitate him on his shoulders. On -the contrary, were he to pass from the slack to the tight rein all -at once, he would give a violent shock to the horse’s mouth.</p> - -<p>All the operations of the hand, then, should be firm, gentle,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page138"></a>[138]</span> -and light; and in these, the fingers and wrist alone must act. -Certain liberties called descents of the hand, are also taken with -well-bred horses. These are made three different ways:—by -advancing the arm a little, but not the shoulder, still keeping -the usual length of rein, or by dropping the knuckles directly -and at once upon the horse’s neck;—by taking the reins in -the right hand, about four fingers’ breadth above the left, and -letting them slide through the left, dropping the right hand at -the same time upon the horse’s neck;—and by taking the end -of the reins in the right hand, quitting them entirely with the -left, and letting the end of them fall upon the horse’s neck. -These graceful freedoms must never be used but with great -caution, when the horse is quite together, and in hand; and -the rider, by throwing back his body, must counterbalance the -weight of the horse upon his haunches.</p> - -<p>There are still minuter rules belonging to this head; for instance, -both snaffle reins being in one hand, and that in the -first position,—if we open the first and second fingers, we -slacken the right rein;—if we open the little finger, we slacken -the left rein;—if we shut the hand entirely, and immediately -open it again, we lessen the tension of both reins. By these -methods, we may relieve and freshen the two bars in which the -feeling and appuy resides. So also in the second descent of the -hand. While the right hand holds the reins, we may slide the -left hand up and down these in that degree of appuy which belongs -to the easy and slack hand: during which the horse will endeavour -to preserve that mutual sensation between the mouth and -the hand, which makes him submit with pleasure to constraint. -By this play of the rein and movement of the bit to avoid -pressure in one continued way, the horse’s head is kept high, -and his neck and crest are raised.</p> - -<h3>THE GUIDANCE OR AIDS.</h3> - -<p>The modes of guiding the horse are called aids, because they -not only direct, but assist him to execute. They also check<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page139"></a>[139]</span> -him in acting contrarily. These aids are certain positions of -the hand, body, legs, and sometimes of the switch or whip. The -hand is so far the principal of these, that the others are sometimes -called accompaniments, as only giving power and efficacy -to the hand.</p> - -<h3><i>Aids of the Hand.</i></h3> - -<p>A horse can move four different ways—forward, to the right, -to the left, and backward; but he cannot perform these motions -unless the hand of the rider makes four corresponding motions. -There are accordingly five different positions for the hand, including -the general one from which the other four proceed.</p> - -<h4><i>The five Positions when one Rein is held in each Hand.</i></h4> - -<p>In the first position, the reins pass up between the third and -fourth fingers of each hand, their ends are thrown over the -fore-fingers, the thumbs are closed on them, and the fingers are -shut:—the hands being held as already described in treating -of the seat. The second position consists of a slight relaxation -of the preceding, and permits the horse to advance. The third -position shortens the right rein rather upward, and turns the -horse to the right. The fourth position shortens the left rein -rather upward, and turns the horse to the left; and the fifth -position shortens both reins, and stops or reins the horse -backwards.</p> - -<h4><i>The five Positions when the Reins are held in one Hand.</i></h4> - -<p>The aids of the hand, as forming these positions, when the -reins are held in one hand, may be very simply given by a -little extending, or bending the wrist, to make the horse advance, -or go backward,—and by slightly carrying the hand to the -right or to the left, and in both cases rather upward, to make -the horse turn in these directions.</p> - -<h4><i>The Twistings of the Bridle Hand.</i></h4> - -<p>Several modifications of the rules already given occur. We -do not, however, approve of these positions, as they, in a great<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page140"></a>[140]</span> -measure, reverse and destroy the natural aids of the hand, by -leaving the right rein slack in the turn to the right, and the -left rein slack in the turn to the left. Indeed, they could not -possibly be obeyed by the horse, were it not that, on this point, -he seems to have more understanding than his rider, and draws -his conclusions as to the latter’s intentions, not from the inconsistent -action of his hand, but from the more natural accompanying -aids of his body and legs. Fortunately, however, these -twistings of the bridle hand, though always taught, are, we -believe, rarely practised.</p> - -<p>We give these positions here, only in compliance with custom.</p> - -<p>In the first position the under surface of the fore-arm and -hand forms a horizontal line from the elbow to the joint of the -little finger; the elbow is lightly closed to the hips; the wrist -is rounded; the knuckles are kept directly above the neck of -the horse, the hand being at three inches from the body, and as -much from the pommel of the saddle; the nails are turned -towards the body, the little finger being nearer to it than the -others; the reins, in entering the hand, are separated by the -little finger; and the thumb is placed flat upon them as they -pass out over the fore-finger.</p> - -<p>In the second position the hand is yielded to the horse by -turning the nails downward, so as to carry the thumb nearer -the body, and the little finger further from it, yet somewhat -obliquely, for the thumb passes nearly into the place where the -knuckles were in the first position, the nails being now directly -above the horse’s neck. This permits the horse to advance.</p> - -<p>In the third position the hand, leaving the first, is turned -upside down, so that the thumb is carried out to the left, and -the little finger brought into the right. This carries the operation -of the reins nearly three inches more to the right, by which -the left reins press the neck, the right reins are slack, and the -horse is turned to the right.</p> - -<p>In the fourth position the hand, leaving the first, the back is -turned upward, so that the little finger is carried out to the left, -and the thumb brought in to the right. This carries the operation<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page141"></a>[141]</span> -of the reins to the left, by which the right reins press the -neck, the left reins are slack, and the horse is turned to the left.</p> - -<p>In the fifth position, quitting the first, the wrist is rounded, -the nails turned upwards, and the knuckles towards the horse’s -neck. This stops him, or compels him to go backward.</p> - -<p>These aids, however, when the reins are held in one hand, -are not so effective as those where the reins are separate.</p> - -<h4><i>Aids of the Body.</i></h4> - -<p>To aid the second position of the hand, and cause the horse -to advance, the body may be thrown a little forward, but not -so as to press heavily on his fore-parts. To aid the third and -fourth positions of the hand, a mere turn of the body is sufficient.—Thus, -in entering an angle, it is only necessary to turn the -body imperceptibly toward the corner, just as if the rider intended -to go into it himself; his body then turning to the right or -left, his hand must necessarily turn likewise, and the leg of the -side on which he turns will infallibly press against the horse, -and aid him. In coming out of a corner, it is only necessary to -turn the body again, the hand will follow it, and the other leg, -approaching the horse, will put his croupe into the corner, in -such a manner that it will follow the shoulders, and be upon the -same line.—The same motion of the body is likewise necessary -to turn entirely to the right or left. To aid the fifth position -of the hand, and make the horse go backward, the body must -be thrown gently back, and the hand will go with it.</p> - -<h4><i>Aids of the Legs.</i></h4> - -<p>To aid the second position of the hand, and make the horse -advance, the legs must be closed. Even when a horse stands -still, the legs held near him will keep him on the watch, and -with the slightest upward motion of the bridle, he will raise his -head and show his forehead to advantage. To aid the third -position of the hand, and turn to the right, the right leg must -determine the croupe to the left, and facilitate the action of the -shoulder, which the hand had turned to the right. To aid the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page142"></a>[142]</span> -fourth position of the hand, and turn to the left, the left leg -must determine the croupe to the right. In making a change -to the right, the left leg confines the croupe, so that it must -follow the shoulders. In changing again to the left, the right -leg acts similarly. To aid the fifth position of the hand, and -stop the horse, while he is held in, the legs must be gently -brought to the sides.</p> - -<p>The aids of the legs have their degrees progressively increasing, -thus:—the leg being brought nearer the side is the -lightest; placing the leg further back, with the toe turned out, -is the next; a touch with the calf of the leg, is the third; a -stroke with it, having the toe kept up firmly, that the muscles -of the leg may be hard, is the fourth; and the strongest is the -scratch, which, when the legs are laid on hard without effect, is -given by dropping the toe, when, if the spur be properly placed, -the rowel will scratch the horse’s side, and this is succeeded by -giving the spur sharply. Aids with the whip are also used to -give greater effect to the heel. These are gentle taps on the -hind quarters, and sometimes on the shoulders. When given -on the near side, the hand is either applied behind the back, -with the whip held by the fingers like a pen, the lash being -downwards, or across the bridle-hand before, the whip being -held with the lash upwards.</p> - -<h3>ANIMATIONS, SOOTHINGS, AND CORRECTIONS.</h3> - -<p>Animations proceed from the hand, the leg, the whip, or the -tongue; those of the hand and of the legs have been described -among the aids. Animations of the whip are mild taps to -quicken the horse, or, if the lash is upwards, switching it in the -air. Those of the leg and whip threaten punishment; and -accordingly, with sluggish horses, both may be necessary. The -animation of the tongue is produced by placing the tongue flat -against the roof of the mouth, and suddenly displacing the -posterior part of it by drawing the air laterally between -it and the palate. This noise is animating to the horse;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page143"></a>[143]</span> -but, if too much continued, or too frequent, its effect is -destroyed.</p> - -<p>Soothings are the reverse of animations, and are used to -dispel the fears of horses, and to give them confidence. The -voice soothes by soft and mild tones; the hand, by gentle -patting, or stroking: the body and legs, by relinquishing all -unnecessary firmness, and sitting easy. A horseman should -have perfect command of his temper, as well as invincible -patience and perseverance, to make the horse comprehend and -perform. He must demand but little the first time; he will -be more readily obeyed the next; and he may increase his -demands as the horse improves in habit and temper.</p> - -<p>Corrections are given either with the spurs or switch, or by -keeping the horse in a greater degree of subjection. In these -a good horseman endeavours rather to work upon the mind -than the body of the horse. The corrections which render a -horse most obedient, and yet dishearten him least, are not -severe, but rather oppose him by restraint, and make him do -directly the contrary. If, for example, he do not go off readily, -or if he be sluggish, make him go sidewise, sometimes to one -hand, sometimes the other, then drive him forward.—If he go -forward too fast, moderate the aids, and make him go backward -more or less according to his conduct.—If he be disorderly -and turbulent, walk him straight forward, with head in and -croupe out.</p> - -<p>When correction is given with the whip, it should be with -strength; the lash being upwards, the arm lifted high, and the -whip applied behind the girths round the belly: or it may be -given forward, over the shoulders, between the fore-legs. -Should the horse kick at the application of the whip to his -flank or quarter, the rider must instantly apply it smartly, and -must repeat it more sharply, should he kick at that. By this, -he may be made sensible of his fault.</p> - -<p>To give a horse both spurs properly, the rider must change -the posture of his legs, and, bending his knee, strike him with -them at once, quickly and firmly. Some horses disregard the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page144"></a>[144]</span> -whip, but fly at the spurs; others disregard the spurs, and are -terrified at the whip; the rider consequently will apply that -which is most likely to produce the desired effect. When, -however, the whip or spurs are applied two or three times -sharply to restive horses without effect, the rider must desist, -and try other methods.</p> - -<h3>THE WALK.</h3> - -<p>The rider should not suffer his horse to move till his clothes -are adjusted, and whip shifted, when, collecting his reins, and -taking one in his right hand, he must close his legs, to induce -the horse to move slowly forward in the walk. If he wish to -increase the pace, the pressure of the knees must be increased. -When the horse moves, the legs must resume their former position,—the -hands remain perfectly steady,—and the body yield -to the movement.</p> - -<p>As to character, the walk is the pace performed with the least -exertion; only one leg at a time being off the ground, and -three on. In this pace, accordingly, four distinct beats are -marked, as each foot comes to the ground in the following -order:—first the off fore foot, next the near hind foot, then -the near fore foot, and lastly, the off hind foot.<a id="FNanchor67" href="#Footnote67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote67" href="#FNanchor67" class="label">[67]</a> -The amble may perhaps be considered as a natural pace, as most foals, -following their dams, amble more or less to keep up with them. The difference -between the walk and the amble is, that two legs of a side are raised in -the latter at the same instant.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>The perfection of the walk consists in its being an animated -quick step, measuring exact distances, and marking a regular -time, by putting the feet flat to the ground. Its excellence -depends on that uniting of the horse which supports his head -and raises his feet, without shortening or retarding the step; -and that animation which quickens the step and sharpens the -beats without altering the time or the action.</p> - -<p>In performance, if the rider do not support the horse sufficiently, -his head will be low, and his walk slovenly: if he -support him too much, he will shorten his step so that he cannot -walk freely. If the rider do not animate him, he will not exert -himself: if he animate him too much, he will trot. If the -horse trot when the rider designs him to walk, he will find -either his hand or the degree of animation communicated by -the whip, tongue, legs, or bracing of the body, too high, and -this he must instantly modify, as well as check the horse. -(<a href="#PlateXXXVIII">Plate XXXVIII.</a> fig 1.)</p> - -<div class="plate w30em" id="PlateXXXVIII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>PLATE XXXVIII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page145">Page 145</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo236a.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">The Walk.</p> - -<img src="images/illo236b.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">The Stop.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page145"></a>[145]</span></p> - -<h4><i>Turns in the Walk.</i></h4> - -<p>Turns in general should be made slowly; and all the aids -should combine in producing them.</p> - -<p>In performance, the hand to which we turn, or inner hand, is -to be a little below the outer one, and the inner rein held with -double the force of the outer one, which is to be exerted by the -little finger pulling gently upwards and towards the body, -while the outer hand retains a steady hold of the outer rein. -At the same time, the legs, by a slight pressure with the calves, -must support the horse, keep him up to the bridle, make him -bring his haunches under him, and obey the leading rein. The -pressure of the inward leg alone would make him throw his -haunches too much outwards. All this is to be done in proportion -to the effect meant to be produced; and great precision -and delicacy are required in the execution.</p> - -<p>Wheels may also be briefly noticed here. A horse may wheel -or turn on his own ground, on three pivots,—on his centre, on -his fore feet, and on his hind feet. In all these, the hand -directs all before the horseman, and the heel all behind him. In -wheeling on centres, the hand and heel operate together—the -hand leading the shoulder round—the leg directing the croupe, -by which means, in going about, the fore feet describe one half-circle, -and the hind feet another. Here the aids of the hand, -body, and legs, must exactly correspond; and the degree of -appuy must be merely such as will carry its aid into effect; for, -if the appuy is too weak, the horse will advance over his ground, -and if too strong, he will retire from it.</p> - -<p>On terminating the wheel or quarter circle, the about or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page146"></a>[146]</span> -half-circle, or the about and about, or whole circle, the hand, -the body, and leg, must instantly resume their proper position. -The wheel on the fore, and that on the hind feet, are still more -rarely of use in common practice.</p> - -<h4><i>Stops in the Walk.</i></h4> - -<p>Horses and horsemen generally stop by a gradual cessation of -action, in a time and distance which depend on circumstances. -As to character, however, the stop, when properly performed, -is an instant cessation of advance, without any previous indication.</p> - -<p>When the stop is properly performed, it shows the great -superiority of the rider’s hand over the horse. It confirms him -in obedience, unites him, supples the haunches, and bends the -houghs. Much mischief, however, may occur from a too frequent -or injudicious practice of it. The perfection of the stop -consists in the action ceasing at the finish of a cadence, without -breaking the previous time; and in the horse being so balanced -on his haunches, and so animated, that, with liberty given, he -can advance with the same rapidity as before.</p> - -<p>In performance, the time to be seized is when the first part of -the cadence is coming to the ground; so that its finish completes -the stop. If this is not done, the cadence will be broken, -and the stop rendered irregular. At such a moment, the stop -is performed by the rider bracing his arms to his body, holding -both reins equally and firmly, drawing the fingers towards the -body, closing for an instant both legs, to press the horse up to -the bridle, and throwing the body back, with precisely such -strength of all the muscles as is proportioned to the effect; all -this being done at the same instant, and making but one motion. -If the rider do not close his legs, the horse may not bring his -haunches under, the stop will be on the shoulders, and its effect -will be destroyed.</p> - -<p>If, in stopping, a horse toss up his nose, or force the hand, the -bridle hand must be kept low and firm, no liberty must be -given, his neck must be pressed with the right hand till he has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page147"></a>[147]</span> -brought down his nose, and immediately all his bridle may be -given him. (<a href="#PlateXXXVIII">Plate XXXVIII.</a> fig. 2.) If the horse has -not readily obeyed, he should be made to go backwards, as a -proper punishment for the fault.</p> - -<h4><i>Going Backward in the Walk.</i></h4> - -<p>The action of the horse when he goes backward is to bend -his haunches, to have always one of his hinder legs under his -belly, on which to rest and balance himself, and to push his -croupe backward. In performance, the horse’s head must be -steady and right, his body gathered up under him, he must be -upon his haunches, and his feet be even. To aid him in this, -there should be an equal and steady feeling of both reins; the -hand must be held centrically, and kept from rising, with the -knuckles a little down, inviting the horse to back; the body -bent a little forward, with the belly drawn in; and the legs -gently pressing the sides of the horse, in order to keep him up -to the bridle, and to prevent him from swerving.</p> - -<p>The instant he yields to the hand, the body and hand yield to -the horse, that he may recover his balance; and he may then -be pressed to back again. If either the deviation of the hand -from its centrical situation, or any other cause, make the croupe -go off the line in an opposite direction, the heel must support -and direct him. Thus, should the croupe traverse to the right, -the right leg must direct; and, to assist, the hand must be -carried a little to the right; but this must be done with delicacy, -lest the croupe be thrown too much to the left. Here the hand -and the heel change their functions; the hand compels the -action, and the heel directs it.</p> - -<h3>THE TROT.</h3> - -<p>As to the character of the trot, when we urge the horse to -proceed faster than he can by moving one leg after the other -in the walk, we oblige him to take up two at a time in the trot. -Here the off fore-foot and the near hind-foot give one beat; -and the near fore-foot and the off hind-foot give another; so<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page148"></a>[148]</span> -that there are two legs crosswise off the ground, and two legs -on; the beats being sharp and quick, in proportion to the degree -of animation and extension.</p> - -<p>The perfection of the trot consists in its suppleness, giving -the horse a free use of his limbs; in its union, distributing his -labour more equally, his fore legs having more to sustain than -the hind, especially when he is disunited, or on the shoulders; -and in its action, which should be true and equal, the liberty -of the fore-quarters not exceeding the hind, nor the hind the -fore—the knee being up, the haunches bent, springy, and pliant, -the step measuring exact distances, and marking a regular time. -In the trot, there is a leading foot, either right or left, by which -the corresponding side is a little more advanced than the other. -This leading with either foot is valuable, as, in horses that have -not been thus suppled, if chance or fatigue makes them change -their leg for that which they are not accustomed to, the action -is stiff, confined, and irregular.</p> - -<h4><i>Kinds of Trot.</i></h4> - -<p>There are three kinds of trot—the extended, the supple, and -the even.</p> - -<p>In the extended trot, the horse steps out without retaining -himself, being quite straight, and going directly forwards.</p> - -<p>In the supple trot, at every motion he bends and plays the -joints of his shoulders, knees, and feet.</p> - -<p>In the even trot, he makes all his limbs and joints move so -equally and exactly, that his limbs never cover more ground one -than the other, nor at one time more than at another.</p> - -<p>These three kinds of trot depend upon each other. We cannot -pass a horse to the supple trot without having first worked -him to the extended trot; and we can never arrive at the even -and equal trot without having practised the supple. To pass -from the extended to the supple trot, the horse must be gently -and by degrees held in. When, by exercise, he has attained -sufficient suppleness to manage his limbs readily, he must -insensibly be held in more and more, till he is led to the equal -trot.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page149"></a>[149]</span></p> - -<h4><i>The Trot in particular.</i></h4> - -<p>In performance the rider must apply, for an instant, -both legs to his horse’s sides; and at the same time raise the -fore hand by drawing the lower finger on each side rather -upwards and towards the body, avoiding all jerks or sudden -motions.</p> - -<p>During the trot he must sit close to the saddle, preserving -his seat by the balance of his body, and not by the pressure of -the knees; he must neither rise nor stand in the stirrups; his -body must incline a little backwards; the whole figure must -partake of and accompany the movements of the horse; and -he must keep the hands up in their proper situation, steady and -pliant, preserving a due correspondence, and just appuy. If -the action be too rapid, it must be checked by strengthening -the hand. If the action be too slow, it may be quickened by -easing the fingers, and giving more animation.</p> - -<p>To give more animation, and encourage the horse to put his -foot out freely, the rider must support his fore hand up, and -his haunches under, by a touch of the fingers, the excitement -of the tongue, the switch of the whip, or the application of the -legs, varied so as not to lose their effect. If the action be not -sufficiently united, that also must be corrected.</p> - -<p>To unite the horse, the reins must be collected, and the -head raised. By bringing his haunches under him, he may -be pressed up to the bridle by the aid of the legs; care being -taken that this is not done hastily or violently. He must -not, however, be confined in the hand, in expectation of -raising him, and fixing his head in a proper place, as by this -means his bars and mouth would soon grow callous.</p> - -<p>The most certain sign of a horse’s trotting well is, that -when, in his trot, the rider presses him a little, he offers to -gallop. If the horse gallop when he ought not, the waist -should be pushed forwards toward the pommel of the saddle, -and a bend or hollow at the same time be made in the loins.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page150"></a>[150]</span></p> - -<h4><i>Turns, Stops, &c. in the Trot.</i></h4> - -<p>As to turns, seeing that the operations directed to be performed -at the walk are to be practised in the trot, nothing -further need be said of them. As stops are required to coincide -with cadences, it must be observed, that the first part of the -cadence in the trot is performed by the two feet that lead; and -that the conclusion of the cadence is performed by the two feet -that follow, and this should complete the stop. The rider should -occasionally alter the measure of the action, by strengthening -the hand, and at the same time keeping up a sufficient degree -of animation to prevent the horse from stopping. He may then -give him liberty, and proceed with the same spirit as before. -He may make a stop; and may even rein him back two or -three steps; in both cases keeping him so united and animated -that the instant the hand gives him liberty he advances as -rapidly as before. (<a href="#PlateXXXIX">Plate XXXIX.</a> fig 1.)</p> - -<h3>ROAD RIDING.</h3> - -<p>Road riding is here introduced, because the trot is its most -appropriate pace.</p> - -<p>The difference between manège and road riding, consists -chiefly in a shorter seat and a shorter stirrup being used in the -latter. A certain freedom and ease are also admissible. These, -however, must not exceed propriety, lead to neglect of the -horse, or risk security. The hand should keep its situation and -property, though the body be turned to any extreme for the -purpose of viewing or conversing; and the body must not, by -any freedom it takes, throw itself out of balance, or take -liberties when it cannot be done with safety.</p> - -<p>When the trot is extended to an unpleasant roughness, the -jolting may be eased by rising upward and slightly forward in -the stirrups. The faster the horse trots, the easier it is to rise; -for it is the action of the horse, and not any effort of the rider, -that must raise him. The foot he leads with determines that -which the rider must rise to; and, if the horse change his foot, -he must change with him. He must accordingly rise and fall -with the leading foot, rising when the leading foot is in the air, -and falling when it comes to the ground. The rise and fall of -the body are to be smooth, and as regular as the beats of the -feet.</p> - -<div class="plate w35em" id="PlateXXXIX"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XXXIX</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page150">Page 150</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo243a.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">The Trot.</p> - -<img src="images/illo243b.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Road Riding.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page151"></a>[151]</span></p> - -<p>Though this is called rising in the stirrups, no great stress or -dependence is to be put on them. Such improper use of the -stirrups causes many persons to be thrown, by the horse shying -or suddenly turning round. The rising of the body must not -be accompanied by any motion of the arms, or lifting of the -shoulders. The hand is to be held steady as well as low, to -prevent galloping (which the forwardness of the haunches -would render inevitable if the hand were either eased or lifted), -and the reins should be of that precise length which preserves -as much correspondence as possible between the hand and -mouth. The steadiness of the hand is also necessary for the -support of the horse.</p> - -<p>The slight inclination of the body permitted in road riding -must not occasion any roundness in the back, which is invariably -to be hollow, not only for appearance sake but for safety. The -action of the body likewise must not cause the legs to move or -press the horse, which might cause him to gallop. In trotting, -the rider must pay the greatest attention to correct every propensity -to lift, hitch, overrate, or gallop; and, whenever he -feels these propensities, he must check them with the greatest -nicety, in order not to retard the horse’s speed. (<a href="#PlateXXXIX">Pl XXXIX.</a> f. 2 -illustrates the Seat, &c., in Road Riding.<a id="FNanchor68" href="#Footnote68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a>)</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote68" href="#FNanchor68" class="label">[68]</a> In -road riding, the rule of taking the right hand of all you pass is well -known; but there are some exceptions, which are thus noticed by Mr. -Bunbury, in his ironical <span class="nowrap">style:—</span></p> - -<p>“In riding the road, should a man on horseback be in your way leading -another horse, always dash by the led one; you might otherwise set the man’s -horse capering, and perhaps throw him off; and you can get but a kick or -two by observing my instructions.—In passing a waggon, or any tremendous -equipage, should it run pretty near a bank, and there be but a ditch, and an -open country on the other side, if you are on business, and in a hurry, dash -up the bank without hesitation; for, should you take the other side, and the -horse shy at the carriage, you may be carried many hundred yards out of your -road; whereas, by a little effort of courage, you need only graze the wheel, -fly up the bank, and by slipping or tumbling down into the road again, go -little or nothing out of your way.”</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page152"></a>[152]</span></p> - -<h3>THE GALLOP.</h3> - -<p>As to the character of the gallop, when we press a horse in -the trot beyond his capacity, or animate him with the legs while -we raise or retain him with the hand, we compel him to lift his -two fore-feet after each other, which commences the gallop. -The near fore-foot is first raised from the ground; then the off -fore-foot, which, however, passes the other, and they come to -the ground in the same order, the near fore-foot making one -beat, and the off fore-foot another, that being the most advanced -or leading foot. The hind feet follow in the same manner; the -near hind-foot marking a third beat, and the off hind-foot -passing forward, and marking a fourth beat. Thus, when this -pace is united and true, the feet mark a regular, sharp, and -quick time of one, two, three, four. The perfection of the gallop -consists in the suppleness of the limbs, the union of the -horse, the justness of the action, and the regularity of the -time.</p> - -<p>The gallop is of three kinds—that of the racer, that of the -hunter, and that of the pleasure horse, commonly called the -canter. The last of these is by far the most difficult, as it requires -skill to fore-shorten and throw the horse on his haunches. -In the gallop, as in the trot, there is a leading foot. On a -straight line, it is immaterial with which fore-leg the horse -leads, provided the hind-leg of the same side follows it. But to -lead always with the same leg is injurious. In galloping to the -right, the horse must lead with the inward or off fore-leg, followed -by the off hind-leg. This action is termed true or united.—(<a href="#PlateXL">Plate -XL.</a> <a id="FNanchor69" href="#Footnote69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> shows this in the canter.) In galloping to -the left, he must lead with the inward or near fore-leg, followed -by the near hind-leg. This also is termed true or united.<a id="FNanchor70" href="#Footnote70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote69" href="#FNanchor69" class="label">[69]</a> -In galloping to the right, if the horse lead with the off fore-leg and near -hind-leg, or if he lead with the near fore-leg and off hind-leg, he is said to be -disunited. If, in galloping to the right, he lead with both near legs, he is -said to be false.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote70" href="#FNanchor70" class="label">[70]</a> -In galloping to the left, if the horse lead with the near fore-leg and off -hind-leg, or if he lead with the off fore-leg and near hind-leg, he is said to be -disunited. If, in galloping to the left, he lead with both off legs, he is said -to be false.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<div class="plate w55em" id="PlateXL"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XL</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page152">Page 152</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo247.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">The Canter.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page153"></a>[153]</span></p> - -<h4><i>The Canter in particular.</i></h4> - -<p>To put the horse to the canter from rest at any spot, or from -any pace, he must be pressed with the legs, or animated with -the tongue, and at the same time, by a motion of the fingers, and -a little raising of the hand, be invited to raise the fore-legs. If -he do not obey this, the animation must be increased, and the -hand kept more firm, to prevent his trotting; and this will constrain -him to raise his fore-legs together. It is also necessary -to direct the foot he is to lead with. That of course is the inner, -which he will readily take by putting the croupe in, by means -of the opposite thigh, thereby enabling him to advance the -inner side.</p> - -<p>As the position of the horse renders necessary a corresponding -position of the horseman, it will readily be seen that whichever -side the horse leads with, the rider’s thigh on that side -must be rather more turned in towards the saddle, and the hip -on that side brought more forward, and consequently that the -other thigh must be a little turned outward, and the hip brought -backward; and all this more or less in proportion to the position -of the horse. This turn of the hip effects a turn of the body. -The hands are carried with it, and at the same time kept up, rather -above than below the elbow, and quite steady, that the cadence -of every step, and the support given by the hand, may be -felt. The rider’s head is of course to be directed to the horse’s -nose, his eye glancing on the ground the horse’s fore-feet go over.</p> - -<p>If the horse strike off with the wrong leg, false or disunited, -the rider, at the first corner, must endeavour, by an additional -feeling of the inward rein, and application of the outward leg, -to make him change, and lead with the proper one. When he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page154"></a>[154]</span> -leads with the proper leg, the hand must resume its usual position, -the rider bending him a little inwards by shortening the -inward rein; the fingers slackened, if necessary, to let him -advance; but the hand kept up, and every cadence felt of the -fore-feet coming to the ground.</p> - -<p>There is far more skill displayed in keeping up an animated -action in the canter, at the rate of three miles an hour, than in -the gallop, at that of twelve or fifteen. If the animation fail, -or the action be not supported by the hand, the horse will -break into a trot, particularly as the gallop is shortened or -united. If the action is felt to be declining, it must be corrected -instantly, by an animating touch of the fingers, the leg, -or the tongue. The hand first discovers this declension, and is -the first to correct it.</p> - -<p>When the rider can put his horse off to either hand with the -proper leg, and support the action, he must particularly attend -to its truth and union, and try to raise it to the highest animation, -riding sometimes rapidly, sometimes slowly, yet always -united.</p> - -<p>When the gallop is disunited and extended to speed, even -though the horse is supple and just on his legs, it loses its harmony -and regularity of time. The fore-legs then measure less -space from each other, and so do the hind-legs, which makes -the beats quicker in each, and leaves a space between the beats -of the fore-legs and the beats of the hind. In these gallops, it -would be highly imprudent to circle or turn, but on a very large -scale.</p> - -<h4><i>Turns, Changes, Stops, &c. in the Gallop.</i></h4> - -<p>In turning the horse to the right and left, at a canter, his -fore-hand must be raised with the leading rein, and the haunches -pressed forward and under him: at the same time, the outward -rein must assist to steady him, and a pressure of the calf of -the outward leg keep the haunches from falling too much out. -If he is turned suddenly with the inward rein only, without -lifting the fore-hand, or applying the outward leg, he must turn<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page155"></a>[155]</span> -on his shoulders, lose power to halt on his haunches, and being -twisted round unprepared, will change to the outer leg.</p> - -<p>In changing, the operation must be performed smoothly and -evenly at the same instant; so that, at the finish of the cadence, -the body, hands, thighs, and legs of the rider are reversed, for -the horse to commence his next cadence with the contrary -leg.</p> - -<p>In stopping in the gallop, the rider must seize the time when -the horse’s fore-feet are coming to the ground, which is the -beginning of the cadence: and he must take care that the hind -feet, coming up to their exact distance, and finishing the cadence, -complete the stop: leaving the horse so balanced that he can -readily set off again with the same rapidity as before. Besides -seizing the exact time, a due degree of power must thus be -exerted, conformably to the readiness, obedience, union, or -rapidity of the action; for, should the power be deficient, the -stop would not be properly effected; and if it be excessive, the -horse will be overbalanced on his haunches, and compelled consequently -to move his feet after the cadence is finished. Till -horses are ready and obedient to the stop, it should not be -attempted in violent and rapid gallops; nor even then if they -are weak, or the rider heavy.—In these cases, the double arret -is used.</p> - -<p>The double arret is the stop completed in two cadences of the -gallop, which is far less distressing both to man and horse. -The body being gently thrown back, will not make the action -instantaneously cease; but the obedience of the horse makes -the effort which checks half his career in the first cadence; and, -the body still being kept back, he completes it in the second. -However, till practised and made obedient to the stop, he will -not easily perform the double arret; for, in the first instance, -he must be taught to stop by compulsion; and it is only when -practice has brought him to obedience, that he readily stops at -the easy throwing back of the body.</p> - -<p>The half stop is a pause in the gallop, or the action suspended -for half a second, and then resumed again. Here the body is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page156"></a>[156]</span> -thrown back less determinately, lest we should so overbalance -the horse that he cannot readily set off again after the finish of -the cadence, which no sooner occurs than the body is brought -forward, to permit the action to go on. Thus the half stop is -only a pause in the gallop, and it is mostly used to effect a -change from the right leg to the left, or the opposite. The -cadence of the stop should be no shorter than the readiness and -obedience of the horse will admit; the half stop not quite so -short; and the two arrets still more moderate.</p> - -<h3>LEAPING.</h3> - -<p>The moveable bar for leaping should be ten feet in length, -which will admit of two horses leaping abreast; at first from -one to two feet high; and never very high.</p> - -<p>As to the seat, it should be again observed that stirrups are -no security in any situation on horseback; and those who cannot -forbear pressing a weight on them, had better have none -when learning to leap. An accurate balance must prevent all disturbance -of the seat; for the slightest, whether the rider is thrown -up from the saddle, or his body falls forward, or he gets out -of balance, is as disgraceful as falling to the ground. He should -sit so close as to carry a shilling under each thigh just above -the knee, one in each stirrup under the toe, and one under his -breech.</p> - -<p>When any action of the horse tends to lift the rider from the -saddle, stirrups cannot keep him down. Bearing on the stirrup, -indeed, must lift the rider from the saddle, and would even -loosen any hold he might take with the thighs or legs. Nothing -but the weight of the body can press to the saddle. When the -action is violent, however, the pressure of the thighs may be -employed to hold it down; and, when the hold of the thighs is -not sufficient, the legs may take a deeper, and stronger hold. -Leaps are taken standing or flying; the first being most difficult -to sit, though always practised first, because the slow and steady -leaping of a properly managed horse gives the rider time and -recollection, and the riding-master an opportunity to direct, and -to prevent accidents.</p> - -<div class="plate w50em" id="PlateXLI"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XLI</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page157">Page 157</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo254.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">The Rise in Leaping</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="plate w50em" id="PlateXLII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XLII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page157">Page 157</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo256.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">The Fall in Leaping</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page157"></a>[157]</span></p> - -<h4><i>Standing Leap.</i></h4> - -<p>In the standing leap, the horse first shortens, and then extends -himself. Readiness in the hand of the rider is therefore -requisite to give the appropriate aids. These, if well timed, -assist the horse: if otherwise, they check or embarrass him, and -endanger both the animal and his rider. (<a href="#PlateXLI">Plates XLI.</a> <a href="#PlateXLII">XLII.</a> -illustrate the Leap.)</p> - -<p>The rider must therefore, by a ready and fearless yielding of -the bridle, leave the horse at liberty to extend himself, preserving -his own equilibrium only by leaning forward, as the horse rises, -and backward as he alights. When he is brought to the bar, -the body is to be upright. The legs are to be applied to his -sides with such firmness as to keep the rider down to the saddle, -and in such a manner—viz., perpendicularly from the knee—that -the action of the body shall not loosen or disturb them. -The toes must be pulled up, to make the muscles firm, and to -prevent the spur from approaching too near the horse; and, if -necessary, they may be turned out a little to strengthen the -hold. The hand must be kept in the centre, and quite low; -and the reins not too short, but just by the pressure of the -fingers to feel the horse’s mouth. When at the bar, the pressure -of the legs and fingers will invite the horse to rise; and, as -he rises, the body comes forward and preserves its perpendicular. -The back must then be kept in, and the head firm.</p> - -<p>As the horse springs from his hind legs, and proceeds in the -leap, the rider must slip his buttock under him, and let his body -go freely back, keeping his hands down, legs close, and body -back, till the horse’s hind legs have come to the ground. The -propriety of applying the legs to hold firm in the saddle is obvious. -The hand being kept low is essential; and the bad consequences -of raising it are numerous, as confining the horse, -preventing the body going back, throwing the rider forward, &c.</p> - -<p>The body coming forward to preserve its perpendicular as the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page158"></a>[158]</span> -horse rises before, prevents the weight of the rider from hanging -on his mouth, and checking his leap, if not pulling him over -backwards. The back being hollow when the spring forward is -made, the body will of itself fall backward, if the hand be not -raised to prevent it; and the head being firm may prevent a -wrench of the neck, or a bite of the tongue. Slipping the breech -under gives the body more liberty to lean back, and prevents -the shock of the horse’s feet meeting the ground, from throwing -it forward.</p> - -<p>While the seat is thus maintained, the hand must not be neglected. -In riding up to a leap, the rider should yield the bridle -to the horse, guiding him straight to the bar at an animated pace; -halt him with a light hand, and upon his haunches; when he -rises, only feel the reins to prevent their becoming slack; when -he springs forward, yield the hand without reserve; and, when -his hind feet come to the ground, again firmly collect him, resume -his usual position, and move on at the former pace. If the -horse be too much collected previous to his leap, he will bound, -or buck over, as it is called. If not sufficiently collected or animated, -he will probably not clear the leap. The degree in which -a horse should be collected and animated depends on the temperament -of the animal, and must be left to the judgment of -the rider.</p> - -<h4><i>Flying Leap.</i></h4> - -<p>The flying leap is distinguished from the standing leap by its -being made from any pace without a previous halt; and although -the action is quicker, it is much easier. The pace, however, at -which the rider goes at a flying leap, should always be moderate, -in order that the horse may not rise too soon or too late.</p> - -<p>A horse who rises too far from the bar seldom clears his leap, -and risks straining by the effort to cover it; one who rises too -near is likely to strike his knees against it, and throw his rider, -or hurt himself. If a horse be indolent, and require animation, -it is better to rouse his apathy by the spur just before his head -is turned towards the leap, than while he is running at it. If he -leap willingly, let him take his own pace to it, and he will spring<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page159"></a>[159]</span> -from his proper distance, and give himself due velocity. Twelve -yards from the leap, the rider may turn his horse to it in a trot; -he will strike into a gallop; and, by a stroke or two before he -springs, increase his velocity, if he perceive that the height he -has to cover requires that exertion.</p> - -<p>The seat in the flying leap is exactly the same as in the standing -one; but, as the horse keeps a more horizontal position, it -is easier. The rider, however, must not bring his body forward -at the raising of the fore legs, because the spring from the hind -legs immediately follows, and the body not only might not get -back in time, but, if the horse did not come fair, or refused to -take his leap, and checked himself, the body, if forward, might -cause the rider to tumble over his head. He should therefore -keep his body upright; take hold with his legs; keep his hand -down; and, as the horse springs forward, his body is sure to -take the corresponding action of leaning back, particularly if he, -at the instant, slip his breech under him, and bring his waist -forward with an exertion proportioned to the spring the horse -makes. He must also take care not to bring his body upright, -nor slacken the hold with his legs, till after the hind feet have -come to the ground.</p> - -<p>In this leap, the horse requires but little support or assistance -from the hand till he is coming to the ground, when the hand -aids in bringing the body upright, and in supporting the horse. -The assisting and lifting a horse over leaps may be done only -by experienced riders, and even by them only when he leaps -freely and determinedly. Whips should not be used when the -rider first practises leaping.</p> - -<h3>CRITICAL SITUATIONS.</h3> - -<p>When a horse is addicted to stumbling, rearing, kicking and -bolting, plunging, shying and restiveness, the seat is maintained -as in leaps; and the arms are held firm to the body, the hands -kept up, and the reins separate, rather short than otherwise. -By these means, the horse’s head being raised, he can with less -ease either rear or kick, because, for such purposes, he must<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page160"></a>[160]</span> -have his head at liberty. It is fortunate that horses which rear -high seldom kick, and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> - -<p>On these occasions, the first operation of the rider is to separate -the reins, &c. The body must be kept upright, but flexible, -to repel every effort the horse may make; the balance must be -preserved by the muscles of the thighs; the legs are to be kept -near the horse, but not to grasp till absolutely necessary. When -he lifts his fore legs, the breech must be thrust out behind, by -which the rider is prepared if he rears. As the fore feet come -to the ground, the breech must be slipped under, which prepares -for his kicking or springing forward; the legs being then in a -situation to grasp, and the hands to keep a firm hold. In all -displays of vice, the rider should first see that the saddle or -girths do not pinch the horse, that the bit does not hurt his lips -by being too high in his mouth, &c.</p> - -<h4><i>Stumbling.</i></h4> - -<p>By the rider pressing his legs to the horse’s flanks, and keeping -up his head, he may be made to go light on his fore legs; -and the same should be done if he actually stumble, so as to -afford him instant assistance. Hence it is evident that the bridle -should be of such length in the hand, that, in case of stumbling, -the rider may be thus able to raise the horse’s head by the -strength of his arms and the weight of his body thrown backward. -If the rein be too long, it is evident that, in effecting -this manœuvre, the rider is in danger of falling backward as the -horse rises. By thus pressing the legs to the horse’s sides, he -may be made to keep his haunches under him in going down -hill, or may be helped on the side of a bank.</p> - -<h4><i>Rearing.</i></h4> - -<p>The principal danger in rearing is the hazard of the horse’s -falling backwards. When, therefore, he rises straight up, the -rider must throw his body forward, giving him all the bridle. -The weight of the body will oblige him to come down; and the -moment that his fore feet are <i>near</i> the ground, and <i>before</i> he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page161"></a>[161]</span> -touches it, both the spurs must be given him as firmly and as -quickly as possible.</p> - -<p>Another mode of subduing him is, whenever the rider is aware -of the horse’s disposition to rear, to have the reins separated; -and the instant he perceives him going to rise, to slack one hand -and bend him with the other, keeping the hand low. This compels -him to move a hind leg, and being thrown off his balance, -he necessarily comes down with his fore feet. He should then -be twisted round two or three times, to convince him of the -rider’s superiority, which confuses, baffles, and deters him from -rearing to any dangerous height. To break horses of this dangerous -vice, it has been sometimes expedient to leap from them, -and pull them backwards. This so frightens them that they are -wary of giving the opportunity again. It is, however, an expedient -to be attempted only at a particular crisis, and by persons -perfectly collected, active, and agile.<a id="FNanchor71" href="#Footnote71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote71" href="#FNanchor71" class="label">[71]</a> On this subject, -an anonymous writer, in answer to a query, says, “I would -advise you by no means to try the experiment in question, either as operator -yourself, or on your own horse. At all events, pray make trial first of the following -prescription, which will in most cases be found an excellent preventive, -if not a total cure, of the propensity complained of, and which has the advantage -over the method respecting which you inquire, of being much easier and -safer in its application, and, I may perhaps add, surer in its effects, and less -expensive on the whole.</p> - -<p>“Get a strong thick curb bit, with a good deep port reversed—that is, the -curve of the mouth-piece must project towards the outside of the horse’s -mouth, and not inwardly towards his throat, as in the common port bit. The -thickness and exact curve of the bit should be calculated according to the -size, strength, and hardness of mouth of the animal for which it is intended. -For a very hard-mouthed horse, the bit should be made with a very deep port, -and as thin as possible, consistently with the strength requisite.</p> - -<p>“In nine cases out of ten, 1 have found that confirmed rearers are tender-mouthed, -and the habit has been probably induced by their being bitted and -handled too severely. A martingale will be found a useful addition to the bit -I have described. Its full efficacy can only be sufficiently appreciated by its -being used several times, till the horse has become in some degree accustomed -to it.”</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<h4><i>Kicking.</i></h4> - -<p>Horses apt to kick, either when they go forward or stand still, -must be kept much together, or held in closely. When this is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page162"></a>[162]</span> -attempted, the hands, though fixed, must not pull at the horse, -if he does not attempt to force the hand, and get his head, but -leave him at liberty to go forward. If, however, he attempt to -get his head down, which would enable him to kick with such -violence as to throw himself, he may have the head confined up. -This disarms him, and he makes a bolt from all-fours.</p> - -<p>When a horse kicks, the rider must throw the body backward. -It is an effective punishment to twist him round a few times for -this fault. If this is done towards his weak or unprepared side -(for every horse has a favourite side), astonishment and confusion -will deter him from farther contention. In case of bolting, the -rider must not exert one continued pull, but make repeated pulls -until the horse obeys. Horses accustomed to be allowed to bear -on the bit would not understand the steady pull as a signal to -desist; and some would so throw up their heads as to deprive -the rider of all power without dropping his hand, when the horse -would drop his head. In that case, a second pull would find his -mouth, and thus speedily his progress might be stopped.</p> - -<h4><i>Plunging.</i></h4> - -<p>In plunging, a horse gets his head down, cringes his tail between -his quarters, sets his back up, swells his body to burst his -girths, and, in this position, kicks and plunges till his breath -can be held no longer—that is, till he makes six or eight plunges. -To sit these is to cure them; and to do this, the rider must take -a firm hold with his legs, and be mindful that the horse, in -getting his head down, does not pull him forward. There is no -danger of his rearing; and therefore the rider has only to keep -his body back, and hold firmly with his hands, to prevent him -throwing himself down.</p> - -<h4><i>Shying.</i></h4> - -<p>When a horse, either by shying or restiveness, springs to one -side, or turns short round, the rider’s security depends on strict -conformity to the rules already laid down, as to not bearing on -the stirrups; keeping the legs near to the horse, to be ready on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page163"></a>[163]</span> -these sudden and unexpected occasions to lay hold; and yielding -the body to go with him.</p> - -<p>When a horse is about to fly to one side, he may be stopped -by his rider’s leg being pressed on the side he would fly to, and -by keeping his head high and straight forward, so as to prevent -his looking towards the object he starts at, unless indeed it be -something you desire to accustom him to the sight of, and then, -whether you keep his face to it throughout, or avert it at first, -and turn it gently towards it at last, great steadiness is necessary. -When he curvets irregularly, and twists himself to and -fro, his head should be turned to one side, or both alternately, -without permitting him to move out of the track; and the rider’s -leg should be pressed against the opposite side. In this case, -he cannot spring on one side, because the pressure of the leg -prevents him, nor will he spring to the other, because his head -is turned that way, and a horse never starts to the side to which -he looks.</p> - -<p>Moreover, he will not fly back from anything, but go forward, -if both legs be pressed against his sides. Thus he may be made -to pass a carriage or other object in a narrow road; and here -perseverance is especially necessary when the object is just -reached, or partly passed, for if in the habit of going back and -turning round when frightened, he will certainly do so when, if, -by the hands slackening and legs failing to press, he discovers -that you are irresolute; and this he would probably do at the -most dangerous moment, when there was scarcely room for -him to turn, and the wheels might take him in the rear. To -touch his curb rein at such a moment would add to the confusion -and danger.</p> - -<h4><i>Restiveness.</i></h4> - -<p>The horse generally commences his attack by stopping, turning -short round, mostly to the right hand, as taking the rider -to the greatest disadvantage. He expects the rider will oppose -the opposite hand, designedly attacks the weakest, and is so -prepared against its efforts that it is vain to attempt them. It<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page164"></a>[164]</span> -must be the rider’s rule never to contend with the horse on that -point on which he is prepared to resist.</p> - -<p>Instead, therefore, of attempting to prevent the horse with -his left hand, the rider must attack him with his right, turn him -completely round, so that his head is again presented the right -way, and then apply the whip. If he turns round again, the -rider must still attack his unguarded side, turn him two or three -times, and let the heel and spur, if necessary, assist the hand, -before he can arm or defend himself against it.</p> - -<p>If he still refuse to go the right way, the rider must take care -that he go no other, and immediately change his attack, turning -him about and reining him backward, which the horse is easily -compelled to do when he sets himself against going forward. In -these contests, the rider must be collected, and have an eye to -the surrounding objects; for restive horses try their utmost to -place their riders in awkward situations, by sidling to other -horses, carriages, the foot-pavement, the houses, &c.</p> - -<p>In this case, the rider, instead of pulling him from the wall, -must bend his head to it, by which his side next the wall is rendered -concave, and his utmost endeavours to do injury are prevented. -The instant, therefore, that the rider perceives his horse -sidling to any object, he must turn his head to that object, and -back him from it.</p> - -<p>There are some horses who fix themselves like stocks, setting -all endeavours to move them at defiance. There, happily, their -defence can in no way endanger the rider. It must, however, -be converted to punishment. Let them stand, make no attempt -to move them, and in a short space—frequently less than a -minute—they will move of themselves.</p> - -<p>When these various defences, however, are not powerfully set -up, the general rule is to push the horse forward; and, for this -purpose, at first to make use of the switch, as it alarms him -least, for the spurs surprise a horse, abate his courage, and are -likely to make him restive. Indeed, the application of the whip -or spurs, except to shift the croupe, or give efficacy to the hands, -is of little use; and to repeat either, to make a restive horse go<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page165"></a>[165]</span> -forward, is certainly wrong. When passion possesses the rider, -it prevents that concord and unity taking place which ever should -subsist between the rider and his horse. He should always be -disposed to amity, and never suffer the most obstinate resistance -of the horse to put him out of temper. If the contest does not -demand his utmost exertion of strength, he should be able to -hum a tune, or converse with the same composure and indifference -as though his horse were all obedience. By these means, -the instant a horse finds himself foiled, he desists, having no -provocation to contend farther, and is abashed at his own weakness. -It is the absence of passion which, added to cool observation, -makes the English the best riders and drivers in the -world.</p> - -<h3>TREATMENT OF THE HORSE.</h3> - -<p>Stables are generally too dark and too hot. They should be -kept quite cool, though without any draughts.</p> - -<p>“A way,” says De Beranger, in Helps and Hints, “of making -the most of your horses, is to rise early in the summer, in order -to do half your day’s work before the heat of the day; for lying -by the whole of the rest of the day, not only affords a traveller -time and opportunity for examining what is worthy of being -seen, but enables him to start with horses quite fresh, and to -finish the remaining stage after sunset: not only will your horses -go through their task with less labour in the cool of the evening, -but you will find them travel more freely towards a resting-place, -which darkness leads them to expect.”</p> - -<p>A horse ought not to be ridden a stage while in physic, nor on -the day of its coming off. If he be pushed at first setting out -on a journey, or be compelled to make long stages, or be deprived -of his customary baits, he gets jaded, and every additional -mile adds to his uneasiness. Moreover, at setting out in the -morning, a well-kept horse is necessarily full of food, and consequently, -until his great gut be properly emptied, brisk action -occasions uneasiness or pain, which causes restlessness.</p> - -<p>“When I travel on horseback,” says the same writer, “I make<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page166"></a>[166]</span> -it a rule to walk every seventh mile, be the roads ever so level: -it affords a wonderful relief both to man and horse, and, instead -of producing a loss of time, helps you on. When you dismount -for such ends, always slacken your girths, slightly lift up the -saddle to let a little air under it, and teach your horse (what he -soon will learn) to walk briskly by your side, and keep the step -with you, taking care to hold either of the reins lightly in your -hand, and without shifting it over the horse’s head. Your steed -will soon give you demonstrations of his gratitude, for he will -be full of affectionate playfulness as he jogs along at your side, -only to be rivalled by his willingness to let you mount after you -have tightened the girths again. I need hardly tell you not to -put your arm or wrist through a rein whilst walking or running -by the side of a horse, for it is replete with danger. A good run -with one hand on the horse’s withers is pleasant, and greatly -removes the stiffness of the joints so frequently occasioned by -much riding; but the reins should be held between the fingers -only, and rather loosely.”</p> - -<p>Hence, it follows that, although expedition be indispensable, -the horse ought not to be put on his best pace at first, but considerably -within it. Even this pace should be for a short space -only; the reins should be loosened; the mouth played with; -and if he do not evacuate, the pace may be repeated once more,—unless, -indeed, he sweat much with the first, which is a sign -of weakness, or that his dung is hard, and he requires purging.</p> - -<p>While on the journey, the rider should be less attentive to -his horse’s nice carriage of himself, than to his own encouragement -of him, and keeping him in good humour. Though generally -he should raise his horse’s head, yet when he flags in -consequence of a long day or hard work, he may indulge -him with bearing a little more upon the bit than he would in -taking a mere airing exercise, or afternoon’s canter in the Park. -Keeping company with some other horseman facilitates a stage, -by the emulation it excites; so that a dull animal, which one -can scarcely get seven miles an hour from, will do nine or ten -without fatigue when in company.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page167"></a>[167]</span></p> - -<p>In road-riding, a picker is indispensable both in winter and -summer. In winter, it is necessary to relieve the sole when -snow accumulates there. When, however, the traveller knows -that snow is on the ground, he may avoid the trouble of dismounting, -by previously ordering his horse’s soles to be payed -over with tar, or with tallow having no salt in it. At all times, -when the roads have received fresh dressings, a picker is indispensable, -because a loose stone is very liable to lodge in the -hollow of the foot, and is dangerously driven backwards between -the frog and the shoe, at every step the horse takes.</p> - -<p>Pace and length of stage must be adapted to the heat of the -weather in summer, and to the depth of the roads in winter; -both seasons having the effect of knocking up the horse. In -either case, a cordial promptly administered recovers him for -the prosecution of his journey. The cordial readiest provided, -and which should be kept at hand by the provident traveller, is -in the form of a ball, and composed of aniseeds, ginger, carraway, -of each, powdered, half an ounce, and mixed up with treacle -and meal to the proper consistence. But good ale or porter, -from one pint to a quart, made warm, operates sooner, and, -upon emergency, is nearly as readily obtained as the ball.</p> - -<p>Walking a horse the last mile, especially of a long stage, is -a practice highly beneficial. As, upon setting out, we should -not go off at the quickest pace, so upon coming in, we should -not dash into our quarters with the perspiration streaming from -each pore, in the mild season, nor covered over with dirt, in -consequence of the pace, in wet weather. Even in winter, the -perspiration flies from a strong horse, if in condition, upon -coming in more sheltered places, and the practices he is then -subjected to are commonly of such a nature as to cause disease -in one way or another, in embryo, if not immediately.</p> - -<p>The rider is greatly to be blamed who stands quietly by, or -hides himself in the parlour, while his horse is brought in hot, -stripped of every thing, and led about to cool, in the draught of a -gateway, or has the dirt washed off by plunging him in a horse-trough -or pond, or his legs brushed in cold water in the open<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page168"></a>[168]</span> -yard, while pailfulls, at the same time, are thrown over them; -the consequence of all which is cough or colic, bad eyes, swelled -legs, or inflammation of some vital part, which deprives the -animal of life.</p> - -<p>The horse should have a large and comfortable stall, and -without any door behind him, a draught from which, by blowing -up his coat, might expose him to cold. On coming in, after -being coaxed to stale, he should undergo (in winter-time in -doors) a wisping all over with straw, beginning at the head, -and proceeding to the neck and fore-quarters. His eyes, -nostrils, &c., should also be cleansed with a sponge, and his -ears rubbed. He should, at the same time, have before him -a lock of sweet hay, in his rack, or a prickle, or the hand; and -the rider should see whether he eats or not, whether he enjoys -the wisping, and whether he chiefly evince a desire to lie -down or a craving for food.</p> - -<p>The girths having been already loosened, but the saddle still -remaining on his back, his head should be turned to the -rack, and his hind-quarters, legs, and belly, sheath and fork, -wisped, and his feet picked clean and washed. After this, the -saddle should be removed by sliding it back over the croupe; -and the dressing be extended to the withers, back, and so completely -all over the carcass, until it is dry. The saddle should -be hung out, with the inside toward the sun; and when the -pannels have been duly aired and dried, they should be slightly -beaten and well brushed.</p> - -<p>If the horse refuse the first proffer of hay, the rider may conclude -that he has been pushed too much, as to time or length. -If he still refuse his food, though the dressing be finished, he -may be assured that his stomach is disordered, and he must be -cordialled. In winter, a warm mash of malt is most eligible; -but, if not at hand, a bran mash with an admixture of oatmeal, -and a quart of good ale, may be given. In summer, a cordial -ball will restore the tone of his stomach, without increasing the -heat of his body so much as a mash would. If he is not aged, -nor inured to cordialling, a small pail of stout water-gruel,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page169"></a>[169]</span> -almost cold, excels all other cordials, and supersedes the necessity -of watering; he will take his supper an hour or so afterwards, -with a relish.</p> - -<p>The traveller ought to look to every particular himself.—In -the next place, let him see that his horse gets his allowance of -corn, that it be good, and that it contain no indications of having -been in a manger before; for, in that case, he must wait by -him until all the food is devoured. Dry food is alone proper to -travel upon, and oats are the best; much hay being apt to -engender flatulencies. When, however, a very long stage is to -be taken, or it is cold, dreary, wet, or windy, a handful of -crushed beans sustains him admirably, staying by him, and imparting -vigour for a long time. The horse should not be denied -water often; though too much at one time should not be -given, nor, without its being chilled, any immediately after -being fed.</p> - -<p>His feet and shoes should be looked to, to ascertain if -aught require repair, in order that it may be furnished as -soon as he has recovered from his fatigue.—His limbs, moreover, -should be examined all over, for cracks, pricked foot, &c., -and the body, for saddle-galls, &c. Now, as ever, his dunging -should be looked to. Even if in full condition, having been -well and regularly fed, and as regularly worked, he will contract -a tendency to constipation; the least ill consequence of which -is defective pace, or short step, arising from more laboured -action. As the inconvenience may be suffered to last, he sweats -immoderately at the least extra exertion, his eyes lose their -wonted brightness, his mouth becomes hot, and his manner is -languid. All these evils may be prevented by timely physicking, -whenever the dung is seen to fall upon the ground without the -pellets breaking. Even a little green food, or a day’s mashing -with bran, thin oatmeal gruel, and the like, will soften the dung -considerably. It must be remembered that these things are -to be undertaken on blank days, when the traveller is certain -the horse will not be ridden a stage. The following allowance<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page170"></a>[170]</span> -per week is generally enough to keep a horse in good <span class="nowrap">condition:—</span></p> - -<table class="allowance"> - -<tr> -<th> </th> -<th colspan="3"><i>Oats.</i></th> -<th colspan="3"><i>Beans.</i></th> -<th colspan="3"><i>Hay.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text"><span class="padr3">For a horse of from 14½ to 16 hands</span></td> -<td class="int">1</td> -<td class="frac">¾</td> -<td class="unit"><span class="padr2">bushel;</span></td> -<td class="int">2</td> -<td class="frac"> </td> -<td class="unit"><span class="padr2">quarterns;</span></td> -<td class="int">1</td> -<td class="frac">¼</td> -<td class="unit">truss.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="text"><span class="padr3">For a horse under 14½ hands</span></td> -<td class="int">1</td> -<td class="frac">½</td> -<td class="unit"><span class="padr2">bushel;</span></td> -<td class="int">1</td> -<td class="frac">½</td> -<td class="unit"><span class="padr2">quartern;</span></td> -<td class="int">1</td> -<td class="frac"> </td> -<td class="unit">truss.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<h3>DRIVING.</h3> - -<p>Among the ancients, for more than one thousand years, the -greatest honour that could be bestowed upon a man was a -sprig of the wild olive tree entwined round his brow, for having -gained a victory in the chariot-race at the Olympic games of -Greece. This sprig of olive, moreover, was accompanied by -other marks of distinction: the wearer of it was not only -honoured with statues and inscriptions during his life-time, but -the immortal Pindar, or some other great poet, was called upon -to hand his name down to posterity in an ode. The Olympic -games were revived, as a religious ceremony, by Iphitus, an -Elean, about nine hundred years before Christ. They were -celebrated near Olympia, in the territory of Elis. Horse and -chariot races were considered their noblest sports. No one was -there prevented from driving his own chariot; and kings were -often seen contending against kings.</p> - -<p>The Greeks were the most enlightened of the ancients, and -their taste in the arts has never been even rivalled. What they -did, therefore, on this occasion, could not be considered as in -bad taste; and, when we remember that the celebration of -these pastimes outlived the laws, customs, and liberty of their -country, we need not say more in their vindication. The -honours of victory were not even confined to the brave and -skilful man who won the race: even the horses were crowned<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page171"></a>[171]</span> -amidst the applauses of the spectators; and in one race, where -forty chariots were broken, the victorious one was preserved -in the temple of Apollo. Such being the havoc among the competitors, -it is not wonderful that Ovid should say, that the -honour of contending for the Olympic prize was almost equal to -the winning of it.</p> - -<p>Sophocles modestly speaks of ten starting at the same time -in the race; but Pindar, availing himself, perhaps, of poetic -licence, makes the number forty. Four horses driven abreast -was the usual number. The length<a id="FNanchor72" href="#Footnote72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> of the course on which -they ran did not exceed an English mile, and as they had to -make twenty-two turnings round the two pillars—generally, -we may suppose, at full speed—it is not difficult to imagine -what dreadful accidents must have happened.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote72" href="#FNanchor72" class="label">[72]</a> -The Circus Maximus at Rome, in which the Romans exhibited their -chariot-races, was an oval building of one thousand eight hundred feet in -length, and four hundred in breadth.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Nothing indeed but the form of chariot used could have ensured -safety to any one. From the representations on ancient -coins, it appears to have been very low, and only on two wheels, -somewhat resembling our curricle. It had of course no springs; -and, as there was no seat for the charioteer, much of his -skill consisted in preserving his balance, and keeping upon -his legs.</p> - -<p>According to Pausanias, the following was the method of -starting:—The chariots entered the course according to order, -previously settled by lot, and drew up in a line. They started -at a signal given, and to him who passed the pillar at the top of -the course twelve times, and that at the bottom ten times, in -the neatest manner, without touching it, or overturning his -chariot, was the reward given.—As, however, it was the aim of -every one who started to make for this pillar, as to a centre, we -can easily imagine the confusion there must have been in forty, -twenty, or even ten chariots, all rushing to one given point, -amidst the clanging of trumpets, &c.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page172"></a>[172]</span></p> - -<p>The following translation of a description of a chariot-race, -from the Electra of Sophocles, is worthy of a place.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> - -<div class="poetry electra"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse indent00">“When on the sacred day, in order next</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Came on the contest of the rapid car,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">As o’er the Phocian plain the orient sun</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Shot his impurpled beams, the Pythic course</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Orestes enter’d, circled with a troop</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Of charioteers, his bold antagonists.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">One from Achaia came; from Sparta one;</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Two from the Lybian shores, well practised each</div> -<div class="verse indent0">To rule the whirling car: with these the fifth,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Orestes, vaunting his Thessalian mares:</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Ætolia sent a sixth, with youthful steeds</div> -<div class="verse indent0">In native gold arrayed: the next in rank</div> -<div class="verse indent0">From fair Magnesia sprang: of Thrace the eighth</div> -<div class="verse indent0">His snow-white coursers from Thesprotia drove:</div> -<div class="verse indent0">From heaven-built Athens the ninth hero came:</div> -<div class="verse indent0">A huge Bœotian the tenth chariot filled.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">These, when the judges of the games by lot</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Had fix’d their order, and arranged their cars,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">All, at the trumpet’s signal, all at once</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Burst from the barrier; all together cheer’d</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Their fiery steeds, and shook the floating reins.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Soon with the din of rattling cars was filled</div> -<div class="verse indent0">The sounding hippodrome, and clouds of dust</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Ascending, tainted the fresh breath of morn.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Now mix’d and press’d together, on they drove,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Nor spared the smarting lash; impatient each</div> -<div class="verse indent0">To clear his chariot, and outstrip the throng</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Of dashing axles, and short-blowing steeds,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">They panted on each other’s necks, and threw</div> -<div class="verse indent0">On each contiguous yoke the milky foam.</div> -</div><!--stanza--> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse indent2">“But to the pillar as he nearer drew,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Orestes, reining-in the nearmost steed,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">While in a larger scope, with loosen’d reins,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">And lash’d up to their speed, the others flew,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Turn’d swift around the goal his grazing wheel.</div> -</div><!--stanza--> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse indent2">“As yet erect, upon their whirling orbs</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Roll’d every chariot, till the hard-mouth’d steeds</div> -<div class="verse indent0">That drew the Thracian car, unmaster’d, broke</div> -<div class="verse indent0">With violence away, and turning short,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">(When o’er the hippodrome with winged speed</div> -<div class="verse indent0">They had completed now the seventh career),</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Dash’d their wild foreheads ’gainst the Lybian car.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">From this one luckless chance a train of -ills</div><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page173"></a>[173]</span> -<div class="verse indent0">Succeeding, rudely on each other fell</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Horses and charioteers, and soon was fill’d</div> -<div class="verse indent0">With wrecks of shatter’d cars the Phocian plain.</div> -</div><!--stanza--> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse indent2">“This seen, the Athenian, with consummate art,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">His course obliquely veer’d, and, steering wide</div> -<div class="verse indent0">With steady rein, the wild commotion pass’d</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Of tumbling chariots and tumultuous steeds.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Next, and, though last, yet full of confidence</div> -<div class="verse indent0">And hopes of victory, Orestes came;</div> -<div class="verse indent0">But when he saw of his antagonists</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Him only now remaining, to his mares</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Anxious he raised his stimulating voice.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">And now with equal fronts abreast they drove,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Now with alternate momentary pride</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Beyond each other push’d their stretching steeds.</div> -</div><!--stanza--> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse indent2">“Erect Orestes, and erect his car,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Through all the number’d courses now had stood;</div> -<div class="verse indent0">But luckless in the last, as round the goal</div> -<div class="verse indent0">The wheeling courser turn’d, the hither rein</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Imprudent he relax’d, and on the stone</div> -<div class="verse indent0">The shatter’d axle dashing, from the wheels</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Fell headlong; hamper’d in the tangling reins</div> -<div class="verse indent0">The frighted mares flew diverse o’er the course.</div> -</div><!--stanza--> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse indent2">“The throng’d assembly, when they saw the chief</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Hurl’d from his chariot, with compassion moved,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">His youth deplored; deplored him, glorious late</div> -<div class="verse indent0">For mighty deeds, now doom’d to mighty woes;</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Now dragg’d along the dust, his feet in air:</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Till, hasting to his aid, and scarce at length</div> -<div class="verse indent0">The frantic mares restraining, from the reins</div> -<div class="verse indent0">The charioteers released him, and convey’d,</div> -<div class="verse indent0">With wounds and gore disfigured, to his friends.</div> -<div class="verse indent0">The just Amphictyons on the Athenian steeds</div> -<div class="verse indent0">The Delphic laurel solemnly conferr’d.”</div> -</div><!--stanza--> - -</div><!--poetry--> - -</div><!--poetry-container--> - -<p>In a political view, these games were productive of local -advantages; for, being sacred to Jupiter, they protected the -inhabitants of Elis against all the calamities of war. In an -economical point of view, they were of general use; for, as -Greece was generally short of horses, nothing was so likely to -encourage the breeding of them as the emulation thus raised -among the different states. The circulation of money also was -not a trifling consideration; for the olive crown was obtained -at great expense. By these games being celebrated at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page174"></a>[174]</span> -beginning of every fifth year, the Greeks settled their chronology -and dates; and as they lasted a thousand years, a great -part of the traditional history of Greece rests upon their base. -That the honour of the prize was above all price, the following -anecdote shows:—A Spartan having gained the victory at the -Olympic games with much difficulty, was asked what he should -profit by it? “I shall have the honour,” said he, “of being -posted before my king in battle.” As a further proof of the -value and the moral effect of these contentions for honour, it is -stated that, when a conqueror returned to his native city, he -made his entry through a breach in the wall—by which was -implied that cities inhabited by such men had no need of walls.</p> - -<p>A senator of Rome, indeed, says Gibbon, “or even a citizen, -conscious of his dignity, would have blushed to expose his -person or his horses in a Roman circus. There, the reins were -abandoned to servile hands; and, if the profits of a favourite -charioteer sometimes exceeded those of an advocate, they were -considered as the effect of popular extravagance, and the high -wages of a disgraceful profession.” The Romans, with more -pride, were far less intellectual than the Greeks; but it must -still be borne in mind, that, inconsistently enough, the interest -taken in the charioteers of Rome shook the very foundation -of the government.</p> - -<p>In modern times, notwithstanding the sneers directed against -gentlemen-coachmen and driving-clubs, it is to them chiefly -that this country is indebted for the present excellent state of -the roads, and for safe and expeditious travelling. The taste -for driving produced, between men of property and those -connected with the road, an intercourse which has been productive -of the best results. Road-makers, and those who -have the care of roads, if they have not acted under the -immediate direction of these amateur drivers, have been greatly -benefited by their advice—doubly valuable, as proceeding -from knowledge of what a road ought to be. The intercourse -also that has lately been carried on between proprietors of -inns and of coaches, and gentlemen fond of driving, has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page175"></a>[175]</span> -greatly tended to direct the attention of the former to the -accommodation and comfort of travellers. The improvement -in carriages—stage-coaches more especially—would never have -arrived at its present height, but for the attention and suggestions -of such persons.</p> - -<p>Moreover, the notice taken by gentlemen of coachmen, -who are at once skilful and who conduct themselves well, has -worked the reformation which has been of late years witnessed -in that useful part of society.</p> - -<p>Gentleman-driving, however, has received a check, very few -four-in-hands being visible. The B. D. C., or Benson Driving -Club, which now holds its rendezvous at the Black Dog, Bedfont, -is the only survivor of those numerous driving associations -whose processions used, some twenty years ago, to be -among the most imposing, as well as peculiar spectacles in and -about the metropolis.<a id="FNanchor73" href="#Footnote73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote73" href="#FNanchor73" class="label">[73]</a> -The reader will bear in mind that this is many years after date. The -R.D.C., which is now in the “Crescent,” promises an ascendant of no mean -effulgence.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span> Fifth Edition.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<h3>THE ROADS.</h3> - -<p>The excellence of our present mail-coach work reflects the -highest credit on the state of our roads. The hills on great -roads are now cut triangularly, so that drivers ascend nearly all -of them in a trot. Coachmen have found out that they are -gainers here, as, in the trot, every horse does his share, whereas, -very few teams are all at work together when walking.</p> - -<p>As, however, dreadful accidents have occurred to coaches when -descending hills, a very simple expedient has been suggested, -by which these accidents may be avoided. It is merely a strip -of gravel, or broken stone, about one yard wide, and four -or five inches deep, left on the near side of the hill, and -never suffered to bind or diminish. This would afford that -additional friction (technically called a bite) to the two near-side -wheels, so that the necessity of a drag-chain (never to be -trusted) would be done away with, and even in case of a hame-strap<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page176"></a>[176]</span> -or pole-chain giving way, one wheel-horse would be able -to hold back a coach, however heavily laden. No inconvenience -to the road, it is observed, could arise from this precaution, as -carriages ascending the hills would never be required to touch -the loose gravel, it not being on their side of the road. This -has been objected to, because some of the loose stones might -find their way into the middle of the road. But, admitting -this might be the case, a trifling attention on the part of the -surveyor would obviate the objection. A man might be employed -every second or third day to rake these stones back again. -At the same time, it is obvious that the neat appearance of a -road is not to be put in the scale against the limbs and lives of -the people.—Some more permanent contrivance than loose -stones even might be found.</p> - -<h3>CARRIAGES.</h3> - -<p>Of carriages, those with two wheels are the cheapest, lightest, -and most expeditious; but, however sure-footed the horse, and -however skilful the driver, they are comparatively dangerous -vehicles.</p> - -<p>As to gentlemen’s carriages, in this country, it has justly been -observed, that the view at Hyde Park Corner, on any fine afternoon, -in the height of the London season, is enough to confound -any foreigner, from whatever part of the world he may come. He -may there see what no other country can show him. Let him -only sit on the rail, near the statue, and in the space of two -hours he will see a thousand well-appointed equipages pass before -him to the Mall, in all the pomp of aristocratic pride, in which -the horses themselves appear to partake. The stream of equipages -of all kinds, barouches, chariots, cabriolets, &c., and -almost all got up “regardless of expense,” flows on unbroken -until it is half-past seven, and people at last begin to think of -what they still call dinner. Seneca tells us that such a blaze -of splendour was once to be seen on the Appian Way. It might -be so—it is now to be seen nowhere but in London.</p> - -<p>As to stage-coaches, their form seems to have arrived at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page177"></a>[177]</span> -perfection. It combines prodigious strength with almost incredible -lightness; many of them not weighing more than about -18 cwt., and being kept so much nearer the ground than formerly, -they are of course considerably safer. Nothing, indeed, -can be more favourable to safety than the build of modern -coaches. The boots being let down between the springs, keep -the load, and consequently the centre of gravity, low; the -wheels of many of them are secured by patent boxes; and in -every part of them the best materials are used. The cost of -coaches of this description is from £130 to £150; but they are -generally hired from the maker at 2½<i>d.</i> to 3<i>d.</i> per mile.</p> - -<p>It is said to be the intention of Government<a id="FNanchor74" href="#Footnote74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> to substitute -light carriages with two horses for the present mail-coaches -drawn by four. On this, a writer in the <i>Quarterly Review</i> observes, -that when the mail-coach of the present day starts from -London for Edinburgh, a man may safely bet a hundred to one -that she arrives to her time; but let a light two-horse vehicle -set out on the same errand, and the betting would strangely -alter. It is quite a mistaken notion that a carriage is less -liable to accidents for being light. On the contrary, she is more -liable to them than one that is laden in proportion to her sustaining -powders. In the latter case, she runs steadily along, -and is but little disturbed by any obstacle or jerk she may -meet on the road: in the former, she is constantly on -“the jump,” as coachmen call it, and her iron parts are very -liable to snap.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote74" href="#FNanchor74" class="label">[74]</a> -The era of rail-roads has however now arrived, and there remains no need -for such an experiment.—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span> Fifth Edition.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>It may in this place be observed, that no stage-coach should -be permitted to travel the road with wheels secured only by the -common linchpin. It is in consequence of this that innumerable -accidents have happened to coaches from wheels coming -off; and in these improving and fast times, such chances should -not be allowed to exist. It may not be uninteresting to the -uninitiated to learn from the same clever and experienced writer -how a coach is worked. Suppose a number of persons to enter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page178"></a>[178]</span> -into a contract to horse a coach eighty miles, each proprietor -having twenty miles; in which case he is said to cover both -sides of the ground, or to and fro. At the expiration of twenty-eight -days a settlement takes place, and if the gross earnings of -the coach be £10 per mile, there will be £800 to divide between -the four proprietors, after the following charges have been deducted, -viz., tolls, duty to government, mileage (or hire of the -coach to the coach-makers), two coachmen’s wages, porters’ -wages, rent or charge of booking-offices at each end, and washing -the coaches. These charges may amount to £150, which -leaves £650 to keep eighty horses, and to pay the horse-keepers -for a period of twenty-eight days, or nearly £160 to each proprietor -for the expenses of his twenty horses, being £2 per week -per horse. Thus it appears that a fast coach properly appointed -cannot pay, unless its gross receipts amount to £10 per double -mile; and that even then the proprietor’s profits depend on the -luck he has with his stock.</p> - -<h3>COACH-HORSES.</h3> - -<p>A great change has lately taken place as to the English -coach-horse; and this is the foundation of many other accompanying -changes. Fifty years ago, the putting a thorough-bred -horse into harness would have been deemed preposterous. In -the carriages of gentlemen, the long-tailed black, or Cleveland -bay—each one remove from the cart-horse—was the prevailing -sort; and six miles an hour was the extent of the pace. Now, -however, this clumsy-barrelled, cloddy-shouldered, round-legged -animal, something between a coach and a dray horse, as fat as -an ox, and, with all his prancing at first starting, not capable of -more than six miles an hour, and rendered useless by a day’s -hard work, is no more seen; and, instead of him, we find a -horse as tall, deep-chested, rising in the withers, slanting in -the shoulders, flat in the legs, with more strength, and with -treble the speed.</p> - -<p>The animal formerly in use cost from 30<i>l.</i> to 50<i>l.</i>— Two hundred -guineas is now an every-day price for a cabriolet horse; and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page179"></a>[179]</span> -150 guineas for a coach-horse, for a private gentleman’s work. -A pair of handsome coach-horses, fit for London, and well -broken and bitted, cannot be purchased under 200 guineas; -and even job-masters often give much more for them to let out -to their customers. The origin of this superior kind of coach-horse -is still, however, the Cleveland bay, confined principally -to Yorkshire and Durham, with perhaps Lincolnshire on one -side, and Northumberland on the other, but difficult to be met -with pure in either county. Cleveland indeed, and the Vale of -Pickering, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, are the best breeding -counties in England for coach-horses, hunters, and hackneys.</p> - -<p>When the Cleveland mare is crossed by a three-fourth or -thorough-bred horse of sufficient substance and height, the produce -is the coach-horse most in repute, with his arched crest -and high action. From the same mare and the thorough-bred -of sufficient height, but not of so much substance, we obtain -the four-in-hand, and superior curricle horse. From less -height and more substance, we derive the hunter, and better -sort of hackney. From the half-bred, we have the machiner, -the poster, and the common carriage-horse.</p> - -<p>The best coach-horse is a tall, strong, over-sized hunter. The -hackney has many of the qualities of the hunter on a small scale. -There is some deception, however, even as to the best of these -improved coach-horses. They prance nobly through the streets, -and they are capable of more work than the old clumsy, sluggish -breed, but still they have not the endurance that is desirable; -and a pair of poor post-horses, at the end of the second day, -would beat them hollow.</p> - -<p>In this carriage-horse, the bending of the upper joints, and -the consequent high lifting of the feet, are deemed an excellence, -because they add to the grandeur of his appearance; but this is -necessarily accompanied by much wear and tear of the legs and -feet, the effect of which is very soon apparent. The most desirable -points in the coach-horse are—substance well placed, a -deep and well-proportioned body, bone under the knee, and -sound, open, tough feet.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page180"></a>[180]</span></p> - -<p>One part of the old system, however, remains—namely, that -although little horses, well bred, are the fashion, large horses -are still employed in heavy work. It must indeed be so. Horses -draw by their weight, and not by the force of their muscles, -although these, by carrying forward the centre of gravity, assist -the application of that weight. It is the weight of the animal -which produces the draught, and the power of the muscles serves -to direct it. The hind feet form the fulcrum of the lever by -which this weight acts against a load, and the power exerted is -in proportion to the length of the lever, if the weight remains -the same. Large animals, therefore, draw more than small ones, -though they may have less muscular power, and are unable to -carry weight so well. Nothing can better show that horses draw -by their weight than the frequent occurrence that a horse is unable -to draw a cart out of a slough until a sack of corn is thrown -on his back, when he has little difficulty in doing it. Thus it is, -that what are technically called lobbing-goers take more weight -with them than horses of better action.</p> - -<p>As the application of the weight or force proceeds from the -fulcrum formed by the hind feet, good hind legs and well-spread -gaskins are essential points in a coach-horse. We even sometimes -see that a waggon-horse, when brought to pull, will not -touch the ground at all with his fore feet. Another reason why -little horses are unfit for heavy work is, that they will seldom -walk and draw at the same time; for if they walk, they catch at -their collars, and do but little. They never take anything like -an even share of draught.</p> - -<p>By calculations as to the mean strength of animals, it appears -that a horse drawing horizontally, and at the rate of two miles -and a half in an hour, can work for eight hours in succession -against a resistance of 200 pounds. If that pace be quadrupled, -he finds an eighth part of the time sufficient. Thus we can -pretty nearly measure a horse’s power in harness. Whether -we are carrying supposed improvement too far, and sacrificing -strength and endurance to speed, is a question not difficult to -be resolved.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page181"></a>[181]</span></p> - -<p>A horse at a pull is enabled, by the power and direction of -his muscles, to throw a certain weight against the collar. If he -walk four miles in the hour, part of the muscular energy is expended -in the act of walking; and consequently, the power of -drawing must be proportionally diminished. If he trot eight -miles in the hour, more of that energy is expended in the trot, -and less remains for the draught; but the draught continues the -same, and, to enable him to accomplish his work, he must exert -his energies in a degree so severe and cruel, that it must speedily -wear him out. Hence, there is no truth so easily proved, or so -painfully felt by the postmaster, as that it is the pace that kills. -Moreover, many a horse used on our public roads is unable to -employ all his natural power, or to throw his weight into the -collar, in consequence of being tender-footed, or lame. Being -bought, however, at little price, he is worked on the brutal principle -that he may be “whipped sound!”—and so he is apparently. -At first he sadly halts; but, urged by the torture of the -lash, he acquires a peculiar mode of going. The faulty limb -keeps pace with the others, but no stress or labour is thrown -upon it; and he gradually contrives to make the sound limbs -perform among them all the duties of the unsound one. Thus -he is barbarously “whipped sound,” and cruelty is for the time -undeservedly rewarded. After all, however, what is done? Three -legs are made to do that which was almost too much for four. -Of course, they are most injuriously strained, and quickly worn -out; the general power of the animal is rapidly exhausted; and, -at no remote time, death releases him from his merciless persecutors.</p> - -<p>Happily, art is doing what humanity refuses. Railroads are -rendering draught comparatively easy. An instance has been -described of the power of a horse when assisted by art, as exhibited -near Croydon. The Surrey iron railway being completed, -a wager was laid that a common horse could draw thirty-six tons -for six miles along the road, drawing his weight from a dead pull, -and turning it round the occasional windings of the road. A -numerous party assembled near Merstham to see this. Twelve<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page182"></a>[182]</span> -waggons loaded with stones, each waggon weighing above three -tons, were chained together, and a horse taken promiscuously -from a timber cart, was yoked to the train. He started from a -house near Merstham, and drew the chain of waggons with apparent -ease almost to the turnpike at Croydon, a distance of six -miles, in one hour and forty-one minutes, which is nearly at the -rate of four miles an hour. In the course of the journey he -stopped four times, to show that it was not by any advantage of -descent that his power was facilitated; and, after each stoppage, -he again drew off the chain of waggons with great ease. A person -who had wagered on the power of the horse then desired that -four more loaded waggons should be added to the cavalcade, -and with these the same horse set off again with undiminished -pace. Still further to show the effect of the railway in facilitating -motion, the attending workmen, to the number of fifty, -were directed to mount on the waggons, and the horse proceeded -without the least distress. Indeed, there appeared to be scarcely -any limit to the power of his draught. After this trial, the -waggons were taken to the weighing-machine, and it appeared -that the whole weight was as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="trainweight"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2"> </th> -<th class="wide">tons.</th> -<th class="wide">cwt.</th> -<th class="wide">qrs.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="number">12</td> -<td class="descr">waggons first linked together</td> -<td class="weight">38</td> -<td class="weight">4</td> -<td class="weight">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="number"> 4</td> -<td class="descr">ditto, afterwards attached</td> -<td class="weight">13</td> -<td class="weight">2</td> -<td class="weight">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="number"> </td> -<td class="descr">Supposed weight of fifty labourers</td> -<td class="weight bb"> 4</td> -<td class="weight bb">0</td> -<td class="weight bb">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="weight bb">55</td> -<td class="weight bb">6</td> -<td class="weight bb">2</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>It is fortunate for breeders of horses that a perfect form is not -necessary to a good coach-horse. Some of those, indeed, which -the London dealers sell at high prices for gentlemen’s work, are -such brutes, when out of harness, that no man would ride them -for their worth. The strong and lengthy shoulder, with well-bent -hind legs, are not absolutely necessary; and a good head -and tail, with a little high action, are all that is essential.</p> - -<p>The following are useful hints for purchasers of coach-horses:</p> - -<p>No gentleman should purchase a horse without a good trial of -his mouth and temper. To be perfect in the first respect, he -should be what is called on the road “a cheek horse,”—that is,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page183"></a>[183]</span> -should require very little curb, should always be at play with his -bit. and yet not afraid of it, and should have each side of his -mouth alike. To a gentleman’s leader, a good mouth is most -essential, and then, the higher his courage, the safer he is to -drive. With stage-coach horses, mouth is not of so much consequence, -because they are always running home, and there is -no turning and twisting, as in gentlemen’s work, which is often -in a crowd. A whistle, or a click with the tongue, should make -a gentleman’s leader spring to his collar in an instant: one that -requires the whip should be discharged.</p> - -<p>With wheel horses which are steady, and hold well, a coachman -may almost set his leaders at defiance; but if they are -otherwise, danger is at hand. It is not a bad plan to purchase -wheelers out of coaches, after they have been about six months -in regular work. For from sixty to eighty guineas, the best of -any man’s stock may be picked; and a sound, well-broke coach-horse -is not dear at that price. The coach-horses of gentlemen -should be high in flesh, as it enhances their appearance, and is -no obstacle to pace. A sound five-year-old horse, with good legs -and feet, and driven only in harness, will last, on an average, -from six to ten years in gentlemen’s work, and will afterwards -be very useful for other purposes.</p> - -<p>The average price of horses for fast stages is about 23<i>l.</i> Fancy -teams, and those working out of London, may be rated considerably -higher; but, taking a hundred miles of ground, well horsed, -this is about the mark. The average period of each horse’s service -does not exceed four years in a fast coach—perhaps scarcely -so much. In a slow one, it may extend to seven. In both cases, -horses are supposed to be put to the work at five or six years old. -The price named as the average may appear a low one; but -blemished horses find their way into coaches, as do those of bad -temper, &c. As no labour, while it lasts, is harder than that of -coach-horses in fast work, it is wrong to purchase those which -are infirm, as many proprietors do. Generally speaking, such -horses are out of their work half their time, and are certain to -die in their owner’s debt. As the roads now are, blind horses<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page184"></a>[184]</span> -are less objectionable than infirm ones. A blind horse that goes -up to his bit is both pleasanter and safer to drive than one with -good eyes that hangs away from his work. Blind horses, however, -work best in the night.</p> - -<p>A horse cannot be called a coach-horse unless he has good legs -and feet. As a wheel-horse, he is never to be depended upon -down hill, if he has not sound limbs. He cannot resist weight, -if he be weak in his joints. To bad legs and feet are owing -numerous accidents to coaches, many of which the public hear -nothing of. If horses, on the contrary, have good legs and feet, -they will last, even in the fastest work, many years, provided -they are shod with care, and well looked after. Proprietors of -coaches have at length found out that it is their interest to be -humane and liberal to their horses, because the hay and corn -market is not so expensive as the horse market. They have, -therefore, one horse in four always at rest; in other words, each -horse lies still on the fourth day. Generally considered, perhaps, -no animal toiling solely for the profit of man, leads so -comfortable a life as the English coach-horse: he is sumptuously -fed, kindly treated, and if he does suffer a little in his work, he -has mostly twenty-three hours in the twenty-four of perfect ease; -he is now almost a stranger to the lash, nor do we ever see him -with a broken skin. No horse lives so high as a coach-horse. -Hunters, in the hunting season, do not eat the quantity of corn -that coach-horses do; for the former are feverish after their -work, which is not the case with the latter, as they become -accustomed to this almost daily excitement. In the language of -the road, the coach-horse’s stomach is the measure of his corn—he -is fed <i>ad libitum</i><a id="FNanchor75" href="#Footnote75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a>. -The effect of this is that he soon gathers -flesh, even in this severe work,—for there is none more severe -while it lasts; and good flesh is no obstacle to speed, but the -contrary.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote75" href="#FNanchor75" class="label">[75]</a> -Some coachmasters give their horses all manger-meat; but this is wrong, -as it often produces indigestion and disease. A certain portion of long hay is -necessary.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>It is not found, however, that (barring contagious diseases)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page185"></a>[185]</span> -where their owners are good judges of condition, coach-horses -are much subject to disease. After a hot summer, coach-horses -are most liable to derangement; and the month of October is -the worst in the year for them, in consequence of it being their -moulting season. Coach-horses, indeed, are certain to sweat -three days out of four, which keeps their blood pure, and renders -almost unnecessary medicine, of which, in general, they -have but a small portion—perhaps less than they should have. -It is a mistake, however, that fleshy horses cannot go fast in -harness; they are more powerful in draught than thin ones; and, -having only themselves to carry, flesh does not injure their legs, -as in riding. In a fast coach, then, a horse ought not to work -more than four days without rest, as he becomes leg-weary, and -wears out the sooner; and he becomes also too highly excited. -A horse a mile, reckoning only one side of the ground, is about -the proportion. Thus we may suppose that ten horses work -the coach up and down a ten-mile stage, which gives eight at -work, and two at rest. Every horse, then, rests the fourth day. -In slow, heavy work, however, coach-horses will do their ground -every day, barring accidents or illness.</p> - -<p>In slow work, the average duration of coaching stock may be -from six to seven years, provided they are at first fresh, and firm -on their legs. In fast work, their time may be from three to -four years, or scarcely perhaps so much. Coach proprietors on -a large scale should have a break for their young horses, -previous to going into regular work. The practice of putting a -young horse unaccustomed to harness into a coach laden with -passengers is most reprehensible; and when injury is sustained -by it, it should be visited by the severest penalties the law can -inflict.</p> - -<h3>HARNESS.</h3> - -<p>In the manufacture of harness we have arrived at a degree of -perfection, to which the invention of the patent shining leather -has mainly contributed. A handsome horse well harnessed is a -noble sight; yet in no country, except England, is the art of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page186"></a>[186]</span> -putting a horse into harness at all understood. If, however, -our road horses were put to their coaches in the loose awkward -fashion of the continental people, we could not travel at the -rate we do. It is the command given over the coach-horse that -enables us to do it.</p> - -<p>In regard to mails, it should be observed that the proprietors -who horse them are not sufficiently attentive to the state of the -harness on the ground worked by night; whereas it should in -reality be the best. If anything break by daylight, it is instantly -observed; but it is not so in the night, as lamp-light is -uncertain and treacherous. In speaking of particulars, it may -be observed, that bearing-reins are a relief to the arm of the -driver, but by no means to the horses. Indeed, they materially -lessen the power of horses in drawing, become insufferable to -them in a long journey, and fatigue them much sooner than -they would otherwise be. Not only do these reins by no means -serve to keep horses up; but they prevent their rising after -having fallen.</p> - -<p>When a wheel-horse has the habit of throwing up his head, -which greatly annoys the mouth of the leader before him, a -nose-martingale should be used. This, however, is rarely sufficient. -Indeed, it is a bad custom to run the leader’s reins -through terrets over the heads of the wheelers; for then every -movement which the wheelers make with their heads, acts -powerfully on the mouths of the leaders, whether they be good -or bad. If the former, it is sometimes attended with danger: -thus, a wheeler throws up his head, suddenly and powerfully -shortens the rein of the leader, who is checked, and as the -wheeler goes on, he brings the bar with force against the hocks -of the leader, which instantly flies forward, and mischief ensues.</p> - -<p>This, perhaps, does not last long; but one evil only takes -the place of another: leaders soon learn to be, from custom, -equally heedless of this check and of their driver’s hand: and -their mouths become steeled by the constant tossing of the -wheeler’s heads. It is thus that we sometimes hear of leaders -choosing their own road in spite of the best efforts of good<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page187"></a>[187]</span> -coachmen; and so it will always be till terrets are totally -abolished. This may easily be done by conducting the leader’s -rein through the rosette in which the wheeler’s outside bearing-rein, -of which we have just disapproved, at present passes, and -thus supersede the terret.</p> - -<p>Terrets, however, are supposed to look well, and to have the -advantage of keeping the head steady. To obviate their disadvantages, -therefore, in some measure, rollers are placed in the -bottom of each terret, over which the rein passes. This, in -some degree, obviates the evil, as the rein no longer holds in the -terret, but slides easily, giving the wheeler’s head more freedom. -In all kinds of work, a tool-box is a necessary appendage to the -coach. It should contain a strong screw-wrench, wheel and -spring clips, a spring shackle or two, with bolts and nuts, and -two chains—one for a trace, and the other shorter, with a ring -at one end and hook at the other, in case of a tug giving way. -In his pocket the coachman should have a short strap with a -buckle at each end, as in case of almost any part of the reins, -or indeed most parts of the harness breaking, it comes into use -in a moment.</p> - -<p>The following are interesting extracts on this subject, from -an article in a late number of the <i>Quarterly Review</i>; and the -work quoted and referred to in the article is intitled Bubbles -from the Brunnens of Nassau. “With regard to the management -of horses in harness, perhaps the most striking feature to -English eyes is, that the Germans intrust these sensible animals -with the free use of their eyes. ‘As soon as, getting tired, or, -as we are often apt to term it, lazy, they see the postilion -threaten them with his whip, they know perfectly well the -limits of his patience, and that after eight, ten, or twelve threats, -there will come a blow. As they travel along, one eye is always -shrewdly watching the driver; the moment he begins his slow -operation of lighting his pipe, they immediately slacken their -pace, knowing as well as Archimedes could have proved, that he -cannot strike fire and them at the same time: every movement -in the carriage they remark; and to any accurate observer<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page188"></a>[188]</span> -who meets a German vehicle, it must often be perfectly -evident that the poor horses know and feel, even better -than himself, that they are drawing a coachman, three bulky -baronesses, their man and their maid, and that to do this on a -hot summer’s day is no joke.’</p> - -<p>“Now, what is our method? ‘In order to break-in the -animal to draught, we put a collar round his neck, a crupper -under his tail, a pad on his back, a strap round his belly, with -traces at his sides; and, lest he should see that, though these -things tickle and pinch, they have not power to do more, the -poor intelligent creature is blinded with blinkers, and in this -fearful state of ignorance, with a groom or two at his head, -and another at his side, he is, without his knowledge, fixed -to the pole and splinter-bar of a carriage. If he kick, even -at a fly, he suddenly receives a heavy punishment which he -does not comprehend; something has struck him, and has hurt -him severely; but, as fear magnifies all danger, so, for aught -we know or care, he may fancy that the splinter-bar which has -cut him is some hostile animal, and expects, when the pole -bumps against his legs, to be again assailed in that direction. -Admitting that in time he gets accustomed to these phenomena—becoming, -what we term, steady in harness, still, to the last -hour of his existence, he does not clearly understand what it is -that is hampering him, or what is that rattling noise which -is always at his heels;—the sudden sting of the whip is a -pain with which he gets but too well acquainted, yet the <i>unde -derivatur</i> of the sensation he cannot explain—he neither knows -when it is coming, nor what it comes from. If any trifling -accident or even irregularity occurs—if any little harmless strap -which ought to rest upon his back happens to fall to his side, -the unfortunate animal, deprived of his eyesight, the natural -lanterns of the mind, is instantly alarmed; and, though from -constant heavy draught he may literally, without metaphor, be -on his last legs, yet if his blinkers should happen to fall off, the -sight of his own dozing master, of his own pretty mistress, and -of his own fine yellow chariot in motion, would scare him so -dreadfully, that off he would probably start, and the more they -all pursued him the faster would he fly!’”</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXLIII"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>PLATE XLIII</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page189">Page 189</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo290.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">Four Horse Harness.</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--plate--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page189"></a>[189]</span></p> - -<p>DESCRIPTION OF PLATE <span class="smcapall">XLIII</span>.</p> - -<ul class="nostyle"> - -<li> 1. Face-strap.</li> - -<li> 2. Terret for the leader’s rein.</li> - -<li> 3. Leader’s rein.</li> - -<li> 4. Head-piece.</li> - -<li> 5. Hame-strap.</li> - -<li> 6. Bearing-rein hook.</li> - -<li> 7. Winker.</li> - -<li> 8. Cheek-strap.</li> - -<li> 9. Nose-strap.</li> - -<li>10. Rosette.</li> - -<li>11. Throat-lash.</li> - -<li>12. Bearing-rein roller.</li> - -<li>13. Front piece, or fore-top.</li> - -<li>14. Bearing-rein.</li> - -<li>15. Hames.</li> - -<li>16. Hame-tug.</li> - -<li>17. Collar.</li> - -<li>18. Hame-terret.</li> - -<li>19. Wheeler’s rein.</li> - -<li>20. Crupper.</li> - -<li>21. Pad.</li> - -<li>22. Terret for wheeler’s rein.</li> - -<li>23. Belly-band.</li> - -<li>24. Trace-bearer.</li> - -<li>25. Trace-buckle.</li> - -<li>26. Trace.</li> - -<li>27. False belly-band.</li> - -<li>28. Bit.</li> - -<li>29. Swivel-hook.</li> - -<li>30. Pole-hook.</li> - -<li>31. Pole-chain.</li> - -<li>32. Pole.</li> - -<li>33. Shackle or swing-bars.</li> - -<li>34. Tug.</li> - -<li>35. Splinter-bar.</li> - -</ul> - -<h3>RELATIVE PLACES OF HORSES.</h3> - -<p>In placing horses in a team, we speak of near and off horses. -The term of “near” is probably a borrowed one. In a waggon, -the near horse is the one which is nearest the driver, who -always walks with the horses to his right hand; and the other, -running abreast of him, is called the off or far horse, because -he is the farthest from the driver. This term indeed does not -refer to coaching so well as to waggoning, as the coachman -does not walk by the side of his horses; but many of the terms -of coachmanship are drawn from the same source, and the expression -“near” horse seems to be among the number.</p> - -<p>The word “near” having been thus made use of in its original -acceptation, has, in some counties, gradually superseded -the word left, in contradistinction to right; as we hear occasionally -of the “near side of the road,” the “near wheel of -a carriage,” the “near leg of a horse;” in short, it is substituted -for the word left. Or the term may have arisen intermediately<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page190"></a>[190]</span> -from this: that on the first introduction of carriages into this -country there was no driving on the box, but on the saddle, and -that hence the term “near” was used to distinguish the saddle-horse, -and the term “off,” of course, the other horse. These -terms were afterwards applied to the road, where, in meeting -carriages, according to the adage, “If you go to the left, -you are sure to go right;—if you go to the right you are -wrong.”</p> - -<p>Wheel-horses have the hardest place, as they are at work up -hill and down. Nevertheless, if favour be shown, it must be to -the leaders, because a tired wheeler may be dragged home; but, -in the road phrase, if a leader cuts it, you are planted. It is a -rule always to put the freest leader on the near side, as he is -better in hand than on the other. If a leader be weak, and -cannot take his bar, the wheeler that follows him must be tied -up, and this will place him by the side of his partner. Leaders -should be fast trotters for fast coaches; for, if they gallop, the -bars are never at rest, and consequently much of the draught is -lost in the angles described. To a coach-horse in fast work, -wind is almost as essential as to a hunter. Many high-blowers, -however, keep their time very well, with a little attention on -the part of the driver. If he see them distressed, he ought to -keep them off their collar, and let them only carry their harness -for a hundred yards or so, when they will recover, if their condition -be good. They work best as night-horses; and, if driven -in the heat of the sun, they ought to be out of the throat-lash. -Indeed, a leader should never be throat-lashed in very hot -weather, if he can be driven without it. Many horses pull, and -are unpleasant in it, but go temperately out of it.</p> - -<p>In coach-horses, temper is much to be regarded. Some contend -that a horse should never know his place,—should go -either wheeler or leader, and on either side. If, however, a -horse working constantly in a coach prefer any place, he should -have it, and he will generally pay for the indulgence. Some -horses, indeed, care not where they are put—working equally -well or ill in all places. As to the mode of putting young<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page191"></a>[191]</span> -horses in harness, the best way is to put one, for the first time, -with only one other, which ought to be steady, good-collared, -and quick. A great deal of room should be given his head, -and he should be driven at the cheek of an easy bit, with his -pole-piece rather slack. There is great want of judgment in -throat-lashing a young horse—either wheeler or leader.</p> - -<p>Many horses go perfectly quiet as leaders, that would never -go as wheelers, because they will not bear being confined by -the pole-piece. All ought to have their sides frequently changed, -particularly young ones. As to horses’ mouths, some will not -bear a curb-chain at all, while the bars and chins of others are -so hard, that it is difficult to make an impression upon them; -the latter being most prevalent.</p> - -<p>It is difficult, however, to handle a coach-horse, particularly -a leader, whose mouth is very tender. A snaffle is not safe, as, -in case of his dropping or bolting, it has not sufficient power to -catch him up quickly, at such a distance from the driver’s hand. -Fora gig-horse, it may occasionally answer. The usual plan -then is to “cheek him,” as it is technically called, that is, to -put his coupling-rein to the cheek instead of the bottom of the -bit. Should this be severe for him, and he swing his head too -much towards his partner, his draught-rein should be put down -to the bit, which will bring him straight. He should have -liberty in his bearing-rein, and his curb-chain should not be -tight. A check-rein to a nose-martingale is often of service in -this case, as it keeps his head steady, and makes him face his -work. Such horses in general work more pleasantly out of the -throat-lash.</p> - -<p>Horses with very hard mouths require the bit with double -port, the Chiffney bit, or the plan of putting the curb-chain -over the tongue instead of under the chin, which in some prevents -what is termed a dead mouth. Letting out the head of -the bridle in the middle of a stage, has also considerable effect, -as causing the bit and curb-chain to take hold in a fresh place. -A check-rein likewise is sometimes put to the middle link -of the curb-chain, to retain the bit in the middle of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page192"></a>[192]</span> -mouth, and to keep it alive, as it is termed. In hard pullers, -moreover, putting the bearing-rein to the <i>top</i>, and the coupling-rein -to the lowest loop in the bit, creates a counter-action, not -only making the bit more severe, but keeping the mouth in -play. A hard puller is generally safest, and more in place before -the bars than at wheel; for, with a good pair of wheel-horses, -leaders are soon checked, and he pulls less with a free -than with a slack partner.</p> - -<p>A coach-horse, if obedient to the hand, cannot well carry his -head too high, while a horse that goes with his head down has a -mean appearance in harness. The horse, however, that carries -his head higher than his partner, should have his coupling-rein -uppermost. A coach-horse should not be broken in a fast -coach, as in fast work there is no time to try his temper, and -to humour him. By being put at first into quick work, many -horses get into a habit of cantering, and never trot well afterwards.</p> - -<p>A kicking wheel-horse should be put on the near side, where -he is less liable to be touched by any thing that might annoy him; -for, on the off side, throwing the reins on his back, or touching -his tail when getting any thing out of the boot, may set him off, -and cause mischief.—A kicking leader should have a ring on the -reins, for many accidents arise by a leader’s getting a rein under -his tail, owing to the want of this. With first-rate coachmen, -however, this precaution is the less essential, that they generally -have their horses better in hand. With horses very fresh in -condition it sometimes happens, especially in a turn, that a -wheeler kicks over his trace, and an accident is sometimes the -consequence. A light hip-strap prevents this, by taking the -trace up with him when he rises. In London, this is particularly -useful; for, when horses are turning short, or in a crowd, they -frequently have their traces slack, and therefore more easily -kicked over. The hip-strap looks slow, but it is safe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page193"></a>[193]</span></p> - -<h3>COACHMEN.</h3> - -<p>Of late years, a superior class of men form our coachmen; and -for this we are mainly indebted, first, to the driving clubs, and -the notice taken of coachmen by men of fortune; and, secondly, -to the boxes being placed on springs. The latter renders it a -common practice for passengers to pay an extra shilling for the -box-place, whereas formerly a man would have given something -to be any where else. We are told that good coachmen are becoming, -in proportion to their number, more scarce every year, -because, owing to the fine state of the roads, the condition of -the cattle, and the improved method of road-work, coach-horses -are so above their work, that the assistance of the driver -is seldom required. When in town, says a writer in the <i>Sporting -Magazine</i>, “I sometimes take a peep at the mails coming -up to the Gloucester Coffee-house; and such a set of spoons -are, I should hope, difficult to be found: they are all legs and -wings; not one of them has his horses in hand; and they sit -on their boxes—as if they were sitting on something else.”</p> - -<p>Certain it is that coach-work in perfection is not to be seen -a hundred miles from the metropolis—seldom so far. The -build of coaches, the manufacture of harness, and the stamp and -condition of horses are greatly inferior in the northern counties; -and as to the coachmen, few that at all deserve the appellation. -There are few things in which knowledge of an art without -execution is of less value than in driving four-in-hand; for, -although a coachman may have knowledge, it is possible that, -from natural awkwardness, he may be unable to put it into -practical effect with a neat and appropriate movement of his -arms and hands; and seldom is a certain propriety and neatness -more required than in handling the reins and whip. To -make a man a good driver, there is one requisite, and that is, -what are called on the roads “hands”—a nice faculty of touch. -No man with a hard, heavy hand can ever make a good horseman -or driver. Neither will a nervous man ever be safe on a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page194"></a>[194]</span> -coach-box, for presence of mind and strong nerve are there very -often called into action.</p> - -<p>The air and manner of a coachman have been cleverly described -by some periodical writers. Let us, say they, suppose -the horses put to their coach, all ready for a start—the reins -thrown across the off wheel-horse’s loins, with the ends hanging -upon the middle terret of his pad, and the whip thrown across -the backs of the wheelers.—The coachman makes his appearance. -If he be a coachman, a judge will immediately perceive -it; for, as a certain philosopher observes, “every situation in -life serves for formation of character,” and none more so than -a coachman’s. I was going to say—only let a judge see him -come out of his office, pulling on his glove; but this I will say—let -one see him walk round his horses, alter a coupling-rein, -take up his whip and reins, and mount his box, and he will at -once pronounce him a neat, or an awkward one.—The moment -he has got his seat and made his start, you are struck with the -perfect mastership of his art—the hand just over his left thigh, -the arm without constraint, steady, and with a holding command, -that keeps his horses like clockwork, yet, to a superficial -observer, with reins quite loose. So firm and compact -is he, that you seldom observe any shifting, except perhaps to -take a shorter purchase for a run down hill, which he accomplishes -with confidence and skill untinctured with imprudence.</p> - -<p>In a coachman, temper is also one of the essentials to a -good workman.—We are told of a great artist, that, having four -“rum ones” to deal with, and being unable to make them work -to please him, he threw the reins on the footboard, and exclaimed, -“Now, d—n your eyes, divide it among you, for I will -be troubled with you no longer.” The impertinences of passengers -sometimes increase this irritability. In steam-vessels, -they adopt the plan of writing in large letters on the wheel -which directs the helm, “Do not talk to the helmsman.” It -would be as well in some coaches to have the same rule adopted—“Do -not babble to the coachman.”</p> - -<p>It is not possible to obtain a better idea of a good coachman<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page195"></a>[195]</span> -than from the following account of one who is said to be the -first coachman in England for bad horses. “Having all his -life had moderate horses—some strong and heavy, some light -and blood-like, old hunters, old posters,—most of the teams -going and returning,—their work at the utmost stretch, always -overpowering,—having also had always, besides difference in -character, weak horses to nurse,—this ordeal has worn him -down to a pattern of patience. With these, and great weight -upon severe ground, he is steady, easy, very economical in -thong and cord, very light-handed and sometimes playful.—I -observed him closely, and discovered from his remarks, as well -as from what I saw, that his great secret of keeping his nags in -any thing like condition, and preserving them when apparently -worn out, is by putting them properly together, by constantly -shifting their situations, and by the use of check-reins with remarkable -judgment—by which means he brings their powers -as near to equality as possible, besides preventing the evil of -boring. Indeed, his horses all go light and airy; and though -at times his hold of necessity becomes powerful, yet, generally -speaking, he takes his load without a severe strain upon his -arms.—I own it is this particular knack which always wins me. -Both in driving and riding, give me the man who can accomplish -his object with a light hand.”</p> - -<p>The duty of a coachman is apt to injure the eyes—particularly -in cold blowing weather. He must keep his eye forward; and -it is found that the sight cannot be fixed upon any thing beyond -the head of the wheel-horses (not so far as this, in short -men,) without raising the eyelids, and consequently exposing -the eyes to the weather. Six parts of cold spring water, to one -of brandy, is a good lotion when the eyes suffer from this -cause.—Coachmen should also preserve their feet and bodies -from cold. In very cold weather, the chin should be protected -by a shawl, and the knees by thick cloth knee-caps. In very -severe weather, the breast should be protected; for which purpose -hare-skins are now manufactured, and are getting into use -on the road.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page196"></a>[196]</span></p> - -<p>A coachman ought not to drive more than seventy miles a -day; and, if this is done at two starts, so much the better. -The wearing of the frame, under daily excitement, must tend to -produce premature old age, and to shorten life; and this excitement -must be very considerable when a man drives a fast coach -eighty or a hundred miles a day without a stop—particularly if -his coach be strongly opposed. Coachmen who wish to keep -themselves light, take walking exercise in their hours of rest -from road-work.</p> - -<p>As to amateur coachmen, it has been observed, that if a diet -were formed, before whom gentlemen-coachmen were to be -examined previous to their being considered safe, it would not -be amiss if they were put to the test of having the harness of -four horses taken to pieces, strap from strap, and then requested -to put it together again in the presence of the judges. There -would be no hesitation in pronouncing him safe who succeeded -in this, as his experience on the road must have been considerable. -How these amateurs are trusted with the reins, coachmen -are now obliged to be careful, owing to the speed of coaches, -and the improved breed and condition of coach-horses. Hence, -we see fewer amateurs at work than formerly. It would indeed -be highly culpable in a coachman to trust the lives of passengers -and his master’s property to any one whom he did not -know to be safe, or even without reflecting that a man may be a -very safe coachman with horses he knows, and a very unsafe -one on some roads with horses to which he is a stranger.</p> - -<p>To gentlemen who wish to drive, and are really capable of -doing so, the following is recommended as not a very bad way -of doing business:—“When travelling with a coachman I do -not know,” says an amateur, “I always adopt the following -plan—that is, if I wish to work. In the first place, I never got -upon a coach-box yet with any thing like half-pay about me; -such as a black handkerchief around my neck, or in blue pantaloons; -neither do I think I ever shall. I always take care to -have a good deal of drag about me:—a neat pair of boots, and -knee-caps, if cold weather: a good drab surtout—if not a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page197"></a>[197]</span> -poodle; a benjamin or two about the coach, and a little of the -spot about the neck. For the first mile, I always observe a -strict silence, unless broken by coachee; but at this time he -generally runs mute. He is perhaps but just awake, or is considering -about his way-bill—reckoning his passengers, thinking -what he has to do on the road, and, if a workman, looking over -his team to see if all is right. Leave him alone for a short time, -and when his mind is at ease, he will look you over as you sit -beside him. He will begin with your boots, proceeding upwards -to the crown of your hat, and if he like you, and you -make a remark or two that please him, and show you to be a -judge of the art, the first time he stops he will say—‘Now, sir, -have you got your driving gloves on; would you like to take -’em?’—I am here alluding to country work, and not to the -roads near London.”</p> - -<p>Coachmen’s expenses on the road being heavy, should be -taken into consideration by passengers. They have their horse-keepers -to pay every week, or they will not do their best for -them; and the wear and tear of their clothes is a heavy tax on -their pockets. They are satisfied, however, with one shilling -under, and two shillings for anything over, thirty miles; and -they are well entitled to that sum—more especially when we -recollect that they are liable to have empty coaches. No man, -certainly, should give them less than a shilling, and if he often -travel the same road, his money is not ill bestowed. In respectable -coaches, no great difference is now made between the -fees given by in and outside passengers, as it often happens that -the latter are best able to pay.</p> - -<p>Guards on mail coaches are necessary appendages to the -establishment; and, that they may be equal to their duty, they -go only moderate distances—as from sixty to eighty miles, -when they are relieved by others. Those on the long stages, -however, are imposed upon by their masters; and, by being -made to do more than they are equal to—many of them two -nights up for one in bed, are half their time asleep. Some go -from London to Exeter, Shrewsbury, and other places equally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page198"></a>[198]</span> -distant, without stopping more than three quarters of an hour -on the road, which, in bad weather, is hard enough. Indeed, it -is wonderful how with their means they always contrive to live.</p> - -<p>Guards are by no means useless appendages to stage coaches; -for no coach, running a long distance and in the night, should -be without one; but such guards should be provided with fire-arms -in good repair. Setting aside the idea of highway robbery, -it is impossible that, in the night, a coachman can see -to the luggage on his coach,—nor indeed, can the guard, if he -be asleep, and asleep he must be a great part of his time, if -worked in the way above stated. He should not go more than -one hundred miles, and he should be paid by the proprietors. -But if the public should not be left to pay an armed guard, it -is monstrous that they should pay an unarmed one. As to -mail-guards, government allows them only a mere pittance of -a few shillings a week, leaving the public to pay them; -whereas the public have nothing to do with them, and it is the -most impudent imposition that these servants of government -should be paid by persons travelling. That they carry fire-arms -is true; but it is to protect the letter-bags—property -which government is paid to protect—that they would use -these arms, and not on account of passengers. Strictly speaking, -they have nothing to do with the passengers, nor their luggage; -their sole duty being to protect the mail. As, therefore, -government is paid for carrying the mails, government, and -not the public, should pay the persons who actually do protect -them.</p> - -<h3>MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING.</h3> - -<p>Before getting upon the box, a coachman should walk round -his horses’ heads, to see that his curb-chains and coupling reins -are right, and, above all, that the tongues of his billet-buckles -are secure in their holes. Many accidents have arisen from -the want of this precaution. No man is a safe coachman -who does not see to these things. Of mounting and dismounting, -there is nothing particular to be said; except that, in the former,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page199"></a>[199]</span> -the reins are to be taken in the right hand, and transferred to -the left as soon as the seat is reached.</p> - -<h3>THE SEAT.</h3> - -<p>The driver should sit in the middle of the box, quite straight -towards his horses, rather upright or backward, than forward, -with his knees nearly straight, and with his feet together, toward -the edge of the footboard. With the exception of a pliant -motion of his loins, on any jolting of the coach, his body -should be quite at rest, and particularly so when he hits a -horse. Independently of appearance, a firm seat on a box -is very necessary for safety to a coachman and his passengers, -for a trifle will otherwise displace him.</p> - -<h3>STARTING.</h3> - -<p>Before starting, four horses should stand clear, or at their -proper length from each other. They should have some notice—a -click, or a whistle given them to move. If the whip is -used, the wheelers should be touched, as generally the ablest -horses.</p> - -<p>It is with coach-horses as with mankind—that where the -physical strength is in the governed, they must be humoured a -little. When starting, the coachman must not pull at their -heads, but feel their mouths lightly, or they may bolt, throw -themselves down, or break through their harness. If they are -old, and the stage commences with a descent, they should be -allowed to go a couple of hundred yards before they are put to -their usual pace. A young horse should be started very quietly, -making the old horse take collar first. This is especially necessary -if the young one is inclined to be hot, as it will prevent -his plunging.</p> - -<p>A young horse should first be started in a wide space, so that -he may get off without a check. If he be alarmed, and inclined -to bounce, he should not be held hard, and still less stopped; -for, if so, he may not like, particularly if high mettled, to start -again. The old horse will prevent his running far. If a young<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page200"></a>[200]</span> -horse be shy of his collar, he should not at first be pressed to -it; as he may thereby take a dislike to it, and become a jibber.</p> - -<p>A young horse, when first put to a coach, should be turned to -the pole very carefully, to prevent its touching his hind quarter, -which might make him kick. When he has been driven long -enough to be steady, he should be taken up in his bearing-rein, -put down lower on his bit, and driven in a wide circle, or figure -eight—keeping the inner horse well up to his collar and bit. -In breaking, he should be frequently stopped, but not held -after being pulled up, as, if high mettled, it will make him -restless, and if dull, he does not require it. If, on the contrary, -a young horse is heavy, and not ready to start when the command -is given, he should be whipped till he answer it.</p> - -<h3>THE PACES.</h3> - -<p>These, in driving, must always be a walk or a trot—never -a canter, which, owing to the draught, would be equally injurious -to the horse and to the carriage. Either of these -paces, moreover, should be suited to the nature of the road. -Rapid driving, on the stones especially, exposes a carriage to -injury, both from shocks against others, and from those which -attend its own motion. However, it is sometimes for a moment -necessary, in order to get out of the way of carts, waggons, &c.</p> - -<p>In public coaches, the pace is often too rapid; and, should -any passenger plead for the horses, on the score of the excessive -heat, the coachman with the utmost <i>sang froid</i> replies that he -must keep his time, although the probability sometimes is, that -one or more of them may drop, by which considerable time -may be lost, as well as reduction in force ensue for the rest of -the stage. Horses should be more frequently watered during -hot weather than they generally are; increased perspiration -renders it necessary.</p> - -<p>However well pleased thoughtless people may be at going at -an accelerated rate, it is certainly hard that other passengers -should be obliged to hazard their existence at the pleasure of a -reckless driver, who, in answer to all remonstrance, coolly -answers, he must “keep his time.” Something should certainly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page201"></a>[201]</span> -be done to prevent the cantering system<a id="FNanchor76" href="#Footnote76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a>; for no coach, be it -ever so well built, can preserve its equilibrium so well when the -horses are in the canter or gallop, as when in the trot. At the -same time, it is to be borne in mind, that, at the rate our -coaches now travel, some slight degree of it may sometimes be -unavoidable, owing to horses trotting so variably, and its being -very difficult to obtain teams every individual of which shall be -able to trot through the distance at the required rate.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote76" href="#FNanchor76" class="label">[76]</a> -There is an act which requires that all four shall not gallop together; and -many teams, especially in the neighbourhood of town, have one good trotter -to defeat the informer, known as the “Act of Parliament horse.”—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span> Fifth -Edition.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>In driving four-in-hand, it is not every man who knows when -a coach-horse is at work, as a horse may keep a tight trace, and -yet be doing little. There is, however, an increased tension of -the horse’s frame when taking weight with him, which is the -surest test, and which never escapes a quick and experienced -eye. As already observed, those called lobbing-goers take greater -weight with them than horses of finer action, provided they are -equally close workers. Heavy draught shortens the stride of -horses, after they have been a few years at work.</p> - -<h3>THE TIME.</h3> - -<p>In short distances, to know precisely at what time it is necessary -to start, to arrive at any place at a certain hour, the driver -has only to ascertain the distance, and to regulate the pace by -the following <span class="nowrap">table:—</span></p> - -<table class="standard dontwrap"> - -<tr> -<td class="numbers">4</td> -<td class="center">miles an hour,</td> -<td class="numbers">1 mile in</td> -<td class="int">15</td> -<td class="frac"> </td> -<td class="center">minutes.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="numbers">5</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -<td class="int">12</td> -<td class="frac"> </td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="numbers">6</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -<td class="int">10</td> -<td class="frac"> </td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="numbers">7</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -<td class="int">8</td> -<td class="frac">½</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="numbers">8</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -<td class="int">7</td> -<td class="frac">½</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="numbers">9</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -<td class="int">6</td> -<td class="frac">½</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="numbers">10</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -<td class="int">6</td> -<td class="frac"> </td> -<td class="center">ditto</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>In the streets of London, ten minutes at least, in every hour, -must be allowed for stoppages.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page202"></a>[202]</span></p> - -<h3>THE WHIP.</h3> - -<p>“We are too apt,” said the late Lord Erskine, “to consider -animals under the domination of man in no view but that of -property. We should never forget that the animal over which -we exercise our power has all the organs which render it susceptible -of pleasure and pain. It sees, it hears, it smells, it tastes, -it feels with acuteness. How mercifully, then, ought we to exercise -the dominion intrusted to our care!”</p> - -<p>Speaking to coach-horses from the box is now considered -slow, but it is not without its effect. Whipping, however, is -sometimes indispensable. The manufacture of four-horse whips -has arrived at great perfection, and affords employment to many -hundred hands.</p> - -<p>Refined management of the whip is not of many years’ birth; -and even now there are but few who execute this effectually and -with grace. There are as many ways of whipping coach-horses, -says a clever writer in the <i>Sporting Magazine</i>, as there are horses -in the coach; and, as there is a right and a wrong way of doing -most things, a young beginner may observe the following directions, -beginning with the <span class="nowrap">wheel-horses:—</span></p> - -<p>Before a coachman hits a wheel-horse, he should twist his -thong three times round the crop of his whip, holding the crop -at that moment somewhat horizontally, by which means the -thong will twist towards the thin end of the crop, when the -thong, being doubled, will not exceed the length of a pair-horse -thong, and in some measure resemble it. Being double renders -it of course more severe, as it falls more heavily on the horse; -and by the two ends of the thong not being spread, but close -together at the time of the blow, it falls with increased force.</p> - -<p>When the off-side wheeler is struck, the coachman’s right arm -should be put out from his body in the same position in which -he presents it to his tailor to measure him for a coat, but the -blow should proceed entirely from the wrist. The part on which -the horse should be struck is about four inches behind his false -belly-band, or somewhere near the short rib on his right side.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page203"></a>[203]</span> -The stinging part of the blow is then felt under the belly; and, -unless he is quite beaten, or of a sulky and bad disposition, he -seldom fails to answer it. If he do not answer it here, he must -be struck before the belly-band, when the blow falls just behind -the fore-arm, on a part on which the skin is very thin. In hitting -a near-wheeler, the coachman brings his right hand exactly opposite -to his face, and, turning the crop three times around, as -before directed, he lets the thong fall sharply across the horse’s -loins three times in succession, if he do not answer sooner,—observing -that, after the third blow, he draws the thong obliquely -across the horse’s back, by which means his arm returns to a -state of rest, and the crop falls gently across his reins, just about -his left hand, the crop pointing a little upwards to prevent the -thong getting under or touching the near wheel-horse’s tail. -Should the latter be the case, if the driver lower his crop, the -thong will almost always get released; but should it not, he must -let the thong loose, and draw it out from the point. When it -comes up from the tail, let the coachman throw back his crop a -little to his right hand, and the point of the thong will fall across -his fingers, when he catches it, and puts it back into his hand. -It must be observed, that, in striking the near wheel horse, the -wrist only, as in sword exercise, is at work: the body must be -quite at rest; and, after the whip is brought to bear, the arm -must be quiet also, until the third blow is struck.</p> - -<p>There is only one other method of hitting a wheel-horse, which -is called pointing him. This is done by hitting him with the -point of the thong, when loose, just behind his shoulders, but it -is not considered neat execution. If there should be a free leader -before the bars it causes him to fret, and is only to be had recourse -to in emergencies—as, for instance, in turning round a -corner, or into a gateway, when a leader is to be hit, and before -the coachman can recover his thong a wheel-horse requires -whipping also.</p> - -<p>If a wheel-horse show symptoms of vice, as a disposition to -kick, &c., or, in short, if he refuse to answer either of the other -calls upon his exertions, a blow with the double thong on his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page204"></a>[204]</span> -ears generally brings him to his senses. Without great necessity, -however, it is very reprehensible to strike a coach-horse -over the ears, the parts being very sensible.</p> - -<p>It is generally supposed it is in whipping a leader that neatness -of execution is more especially displayed. It is, however, -quite a mistake to suppose that it is in the power of a coachman -to punish a leader with the single, as he can a wheel-horse with -the double thong. No doubt, however, the blow from the loose -thong falls very sharp, as it falls on a tender part—the inside of -the thigh.</p> - -<p>As the off-leader presents himself more fully to the right hand -of the coachman than his partner does, the horse that is the less -free of the two is generally put on that side. There are but two -ways of hitting an off-leader: one, by letting the thong fall gently -over his neck, or just behind his pad, when his driver merely -wishes to refresh his memory, and let him know that he has a -whip in his hand; and the other, when he wants to hit him -sharply, by striking him with the point of the thong just under -his bar. The hard hitters of the old school never conceived they -had done the latter effectually, unless they struck their horse -twice at least, if not three times, the last stroke always ending -in a draw.</p> - -<p>As this word “draw” is peculiar to the road, it must be explained -to such as may not exactly comprehend it. Suppose a -coachman to hit his off-leader three times. The first two blows -are given, as it were, under-handed—that is to say, the hand is -lowered so as to admit of the thong going under the bar the first -two strokes. When the third or last is given, the point of the -elbow is thrown outwards, so as to incline the thong inwards, -which brings it up to the coachman’s hand after the stroke, it -generally falling across his breast, which would not be the case -were it not for the draw. Another advantage also attends the -draw: a thong so thrown very seldom hangs in the bars, and -nothing is more uncoachman-like than to hit a leader above his -bar. A horse’s mouth should always be felt before his coachman -hits him.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page205"></a>[205]</span></p> - -<p>Hitting the near leader with neatness and effect is the most -difficult part of the use of the whip. There are two ways of -doing it: one, by two common strokes and the draw; and the -other by a sort of back-handed stroke, which is a very neat one, -and sufficiently severe, but it does not bring the thong so immediately -up to the coachman’s hand as the drawn stroke does. In -the back-handed stroke, the wrist describes an exact figure of -eight, and the arm cannot be kept, as before, quite still. In the -other method of hitting, the coachman’s arm is brought about -opposite his chin, the first two blows proceeding from the wrist -alone; but in the third, or the draw, the hand descends, the -elbow is thrown outwards, and by two jerks of the arm, which it -is difficult to describe on paper, the draw is effected, and the -thong comes, as before stated, across the coachman’s breast, so -as to enable him to catch it instantly.</p> - -<p>There is one other way of hitting a leader; and that is, by -what is called the chop. This is done by throwing out the right -arm rather forward, and with it, of course, the thong, and then -bringing it back sharply with the wrist inclined downwards. The -thong falls severely on the horse’s thigh, and comes up to the -hand again, as in the draw. This is a very useful blow in a -narrow confined place, or when it is necessary to lose no time -before a leader is hit; and, when neatly done, has a very workman-like -appearance. This blow generally falls above the bar, -particularly if a horse is not at work at the time.</p> - -<p>It has been said that leaders should always be hit under their -bar. This, however, cannot always be done; for if a horse hang -back from his collar, his bar is so low that it may be difficult to -get under it. In this case, however, the blow is made to tell -smartly, as it is in the coachman’s power to throw his whip into -the flank, which is a very sensible part. When a leader is well -up to his collar, he always can, and always should, be hit under -his bar.</p> - -<p>Should the point of the thong catch, or, as they say on the -road, “get hanged,” in the bars or the pole-pieces—neither of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page206"></a>[206]</span> -which it will do when properly drawn after the last stroke, as -the inclination of the hand in the act of drawing enables it to -clear them—no violence should be used to loosen it, or a broken -crop will be the consequence. On the contrary, the arm should -be thrown forward, and the thong lightly moved, when in a -minute or two it will shake out. If it be fast between the eye -of the main bar and the pole-hook, the leaders should be eased -a little, and it will get released. Sometimes, however, on a wet -day, a thong will lap round some of these things so fast as to -make it necessary for the guard or some person to get down to -untie it. This is technically called having a bite. The double -thong will also sometimes hitch in the ends of the wheelers’ -traces, as also in the point of the false belly-band. To obviate -this, in gentlemen’s harness, these parts are always covered, or -piped, as it is called.</p> - -<p>A free leader should not be hit in a short turn, or he may -break his bar, perhaps the pole-hook, or even the main-bar. -Neither should leaders be hit in going over a small bridge which -is much raised, or when the pole points upwards, as their draught -on the end of it may snap it in the futchels. Some drivers perpetually -whip or fan their horses, which first irritates and afterwards -injures them, by rendering them insensible to the proper -aids or correction. It must be observed that the whip should -never be used but in case of necessity. Indeed, one of the best -proofs of a good coachman is to see his right arm still; and -although, for the safety of his coach, he ought to be able to -punish a horse when he requires punishment, yet he should, on -all accounts, be as sparing of it as he can. Horses may be -whipped till they become callous to whipping, and therefore -slow. In the condition in which coach-horses are now kept, a -pound of Nottingham whipcord will last a good coachman his -lifetime. The very act of throwing the point of the thong over -the leaders’ heads, or letting it fall on their backs, as a fisherman -throws his fly upon the stream, will set half the coach-horses -in England, in these days, into a gallop.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page207"></a>[207]</span></p> - -<h3>THOROUGHFARES, PASSING, &c.</h3> - -<p>The driver should avoid passing through the great thoroughfares, -and prefer the widest of the less frequented streets which -run parallel to them. In London, he should never go into the -City through the Strand, Fleet-street, and Cheapside, between -twelve and five o’clock, if he can possibly avoid it, as these -streets are then crowded with every kind of vehicle. He should -also avoid going into the City about mid-day, on Mondays and -Fridays, on account of the droves of oxen passing through the -principal streets.</p> - -<p>The middle of the road is safest, especially for a loaded coach, -except under peculiar circumstances.</p> - -<p>In driving four horses, to keep them well in hand is a most -material point, both as regards their work and for the safety of -the coach. The track made by a coach in descending a hill -shows whether the horses are properly held together or not. -Accidents from horses taking fright, and bolting across the road, -happen only to clumsy fellows, of whom the list is considerable. -The rules for passing and meeting carriages on the road have -already been given, yet there are times when they need not be -strictly adhered to, and a little accommodation becomes expedient. -Thus, if one coachman has the hill in his favour—that is, -if he be going down, and a loaded coach be coming up at the -same time—he who is descending, if he can do it with safety, -ought to give the hardest side of the road to the other coachman.</p> - -<p>As to narrow spaces, it is evident that where the bars can go -the coach can go, as they are wider than the wheels; and consequently, -if they are cleared, all is safe. The swing-bar is an -excellent invention, as a horse works in it from either shoulder, -and therefore quite at his ease. A sharp and experienced driver -may calculate exactly the space sufficient to pass between two -bodies at rest, and may therefore pass with confidence and at -ease. As, however, in streets, he must meet many carriages -driven by inexperienced or intoxicated fellows, who do not for a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page208"></a>[208]</span> -moment move in any direct line, he should allow them ample -room, and proceed with the utmost caution. A driver must be -incessantly on the look-out, must watch every vehicle that approaches, -and give it more room than it may seem to require.</p> - -<h3>ASCENDING AND DESCENDING.</h3> - -<p>In going up hill, it is in general best to trot up at first, and -to walk afterwards. In going down hill, it is best to keep the -wheelers tight in hand, to let the leaders just clear the bars, -and to come gently down. In the latter case, a turn of the -reins of the wheel-horses may be made round the little finger. -(<a href="#PlateXLIV">Plate XLIV.</a> fig. 4.)</p> - -<p>Although, however, it may be necessary to catch up wheel-horses, -and make them hold back their coach down hill, there is -nothing in which a light finger is more essential to safety. The -manner in which some persons haul at horses’ mouths, when -descending with a load, considerably adds to the difficulty, by -trying the strength of the tackle. But this is not all: these -persons should be aware that all this force employed on their -horses’ mouths is so much added to the pressure of the coach; -in proportion to it is that pressure increased. The horses are -then drawing by their heads!</p> - -<p>The objections to a locked wheel, with a top-heavy load, have -already been stated. If, however, with a heavy load, and upon -a smooth hard road, a wheel must be locked, it should be that -next a ditch, or other dangerous part. In going down hill, a -coach always strikes on the side on which the wheel is not locked. -The coachman should therefore keep as much as possible on that -side of the road on which the wheel is locked: by crossing the -road, if he meet or have to pass any thing, the coach will not -strike; and by holding that way, at any time, it will prevent overturning. -The coach naturally strikes in a direct line from the -perch-bolt.</p> - -<p>The generality of passengers know not the danger of galloping -a coach, with three tons’ weight in and out, down hill, at the -rate of twelve or fifteen miles an hour, with no wheel locked, -the whole resistance of the wheel-horses depending on a small -leather strap and buckle at the top of the hames,—these coachmen -deeming it beneath their dignity to drive with breechings. -Even thus, however, accidents would be much less frequent if -coachmen took the precaution of pulling up their horses short, -when on the point of descending. In night-work, this is doubly -useful, because it often happens that a pole-chain is unhooked, -or a hame-strap gets loose, without being discernible by lamp or -moonlight.</p> - -<div class="plate" id="PlateXLIV"> - -<p class="plateno"><i>Plate XLIV</i></p> - -<p class="pageref"><i><a href="#Page208">Page 208</a>.</i></p> - -<div class="plateframe"> - -<img src="images/illo311.png" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption">The Rein-hold in Driving</p> - -</div><!--plateframe--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page209"></a>[209]</span></p> - -<p>“With wheel-horses that will hold back at all, I will be -bound,” says a clever writer and experienced coachman, “to -take a loaded coach down most of the hills now met with on -our great roads, without a drag-chain, provided I am allowed to -pull up my horses at the top, and let them take it quietly the -first hundred yards. This, it may be said, would be losing time, -but, on the contrary, time would be gained by it; for, as soon -as I perceived I was master of my coach, I should let her go, -and by letting my horses loose at the bottom, I could spring -them into a gallop, and cheat them out of half the hill, if there -were one (as frequently happens) on the next portion of road. -This advantage, it must be recollected, cannot be taken if the -chain be to be put on; and I have therefore in my favour all the -time required to put the chain on, and to take it off again.”</p> - -<p>There are, however, some horses which no man can make to -hold a loaded coach down hill. Of this description are, first, -the stiff-necked one, as he is called, who turns his head away -from his partner, and shoulders the pole; and, secondly, one -who, when he feels the weight pressing upon him, begins to -canter and jump, as coachmen term it; with these holding -back properly is out of the question. With such cattle, the -drag-chain must be had recourse to; as well as when there is -the least reason to suspect the soundness of the harness. All -this confirms the necessity of checking the force of a coach -before descending a steep hill, and indeed in some cases—as -with bad holders—before coming upon a slight descent. The -term which coachmen have for this species of road, is “pushing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page210"></a>[210]</span> -ground;” and if the fall be long, it is astonishing how the -pressure of a loaded coach upon wheel horses is increased before -getting to the bottom of it, and how difficult it would be, -with wheelers not of the very best stamp, to pull up short, if -any accident should happen.</p> - -<p>Young coachmen, in descending a hill, should take care that -their leaders do not draw on the end of the pole, which many -free ones do when they find the coach coming quickly after -them; for this not only increases the pressure of the coach on -the wheelers, but, should either of them stumble, it must assist -in bringing him down. The following good and characteristic -directions were given by a very experienced coachman, to a -gentleman who undertook to take his coach a journey for him, -but who, although he knew the road well, had never driven on it -before. “That middle twelve miles of ground,” said he, “is a -punisher, and you must mind what you are at with this load. -You have two hills to go down, and three to go up, in the first -seven miles. Don’t stop to put the chain on, as they’ll hold -well, and the tackle is good; and don’t let them walk up the -hills, for they are bad hands at that—you will lose a horse’s -draught by it, and perhaps get hung up on one of them. You -must take fifty minutes to do the first seven miles, and good -work too. When you get at the top of the last hill, get down -and put your near leader to the cheek, and they’ll toddle you -over the last five miles in half an hour, with all the pleasure -alive.”</p> - -<p>The following observations on this subject from the number -of the <i>Quarterly Review</i> already quoted, are too interesting to -be omitted here.</p> - -<p>“Many years have elapsed,” he says, “since I first observed -that, somehow or other, the horses on the continent manage to -pull a heavy carriage up a steep hill, or even along a dead level, -with greater ease to themselves than our English horses. If any -unprejudiced person would only attentively remark with what -little apparent fatigue three small ill-conditioned horses will -draw, not only his own carriage, but very often that huge over-grown<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page211"></a>[211]</span> -vehicle the French diligence, or the German eilwagen, I -think he would agree with me; but the whole equipment is so -unsightly—the rope harness is so rude—the horses without -blinkers look so wild—there is so much bluster with the postilion—that, -far from paying any compliment to the turn-out, one is -very much disposed at once to condemn the whole thing, and, -not caring a straw whether such horses be fatigued or not, to -make no other remark than that in England one would have -travelled at nearly twice the rate with one-tenth of the noise. -But neither the rate nor the noise is the point—our superiority -in the former, and our inferiority in the latter, cannot be doubted. -The thing to account for is, how such small, weak horses do -actually manage to draw a heavy carriage up hill with so much -ease to themselves. Now, in English, French, and German -harness, there exists, as it were, three degrees of comparison as -to the manner in which the head of the horse is treated; for, in -England, it is elevated, or borne up, by what we call the bearing-rein,—in -France it is left as Nature placed it (there being to -common French harness no bearing-rein),—and, in Germany, -the head is tied down to the lower extremity of the collar, or else -the collar is so made that the animal is by it deprived of the -power of raising his head. Now, passing over for a moment the -French method, which is, in fact, the state of nature, let us for -a moment consider which is better—to bear a horse’s head up, -as in England, or to pull it downwards, as in Germany.”</p> - -<p>Evidently fired with a favourite theme, he thus proceeds:—“In -a state of nature, the wild horse, as every body knows (?), -has two distinct gaits or attitudes. If man, or any still wilder -beast, come suddenly upon him, up goes his head; and as he -first stalks and then trots gently away—with ears erect, snorting -with his nose, and proudly snuffing up the air, as if exulting in -his freedom—as one fore-leg darts before the other, we have -before us a picture of doubt, astonishment, and hesitation, all of -which feelings seem to rein him, like a troop-horse, on his -haunches; but, attempt to pursue him, and the moment he -defies you—the moment, determining to escape, he shakes his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page212"></a>[212]</span> -head, and lays himself to his work—how completely does he -alter his attitude! That instant down goes his head, and from -his ears to the tip of his tail there is in his vertebræ an undulating -action which seems to propel him, which works him along, -and which, it is evident, you could not deprive him of without -materially diminishing his speed. Now, in harness, the horse -has naturally the same two gaits or attitudes, and it is quite -true that he can start away with a carriage either in the one or -the other; but the means by which he succeeds in this effort—the -physical powers which he calls into action, are essentially -different:—in the one case he works by his muscles, and in -the other by his own dead, or rather living, weight. In order to -grind corn, if any man were to erect a steam-engine over a fine, -strong, running stream, we should all say to him, ‘Why do you -not allow your wheel to be turned by cold water instead of hot? -Why do you not avail yourself of the weight of the water, instead -of expending your capital in converting it into the power -of steam? In short, why do you not use the simple resource -which Nature has presented ready-made to your hand?’ In -the same way, the German might say to us, ‘We acknowledge -a horse can drag a carriage by the power of his muscles, but -why do you not allow him to drag it by his weight?’</p> - -<p>“Let any one observe a pair of English post-horses dragging -a heavy weight up a hill, and he will at once see that the poor -creatures are working by their muscles, and that it is by sheer -strength that the resistance is overcome: but how can it be -otherwise; their heads are higher than nature intended them to -be, even in walking in a state of liberty, carrying no weight but -themselves: the balance of their bodies is therefore absolutely -turned against, instead of leaning in favour of their draught; -and if my reader will but pass his hands down the back sinews of -our stage-coach or post-chaise horses, he will soon feel (though -not so keenly as they do), what is the cruel and fatal consequence. -It is true, that in ascending a very steep hill an -English postilion will occasionally unhook his bearing-reins; -but the jaded creatures, trained for years to work in a false<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page213"></a>[213]</span> -attitude, cannot in one moment get themselves into the scientific -position which the German horses are habitually encouraged to -adopt. Besides this, we are so sharp with our horses,—we keep -them so constantly on the <i>qui vive</i>, or, as we term it, in hand, -that we are always driving them from the use of their weight to -the application of their sinews. That the figure and attitude of -a horse working by his sinews are infinitely prouder than when -he is working by his weight, (there may exist, however, false -pride among horses as well as men), I most readily admit; and -therefore, for carriages of luxury, where the weight bears little -proportion to the powers of the noble animals employed, I acknowledge -that the sinews are more than sufficient; but, to -bear up the head of a poor horse at plough, or at any slow, -heavy work, is, I conceive, a barbarous error, which ought not -to be persisted in.</p> - -<p>“Whether there is most of the horse in a German, or of the -German in a horse, is a nice point, on which people might argue -a great deal: but the broad fact really is, that Germans live on -more amicable terms with their horses, and understand their -dispositions infinitely better, than the English; in short, they -treat them as horses, while we act towards them and drill them -as if they were men; and, in case any reader should doubt that -Germans are better horse-masters than we are, I beg to remind -him of what is perfectly well known to the British army,—namely, -that in the Peninsular war the cavalry horses of the -German Legion were absolutely fat, while those of our regiments -were skin, and bone.”</p> - -<h3>THE TURNINGS.</h3> - -<p>These must be regulated by the ground. A good driver -avoids all quick and sharp turnings. In town, it is much better -to drive on a little further, where another street may allow the -ample room requisite in turning. If a carriage do not pass -quite across a channel without turning, the perch must be -twisted according to the descent, because one wheel falls as that -at the opposite angle rises. By such a wrench, especially when<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page214"></a>[214]</span> -going fast, the main or perch bolt is frequently broken, and -every part strained.</p> - -<p>A loaded coach should never be turned short, even at a slow -pace, for the coach is never safe when there is not an even -bearing on the transom beds. If turned short, at a quick pace, -the higher and looser part of a coach must go over, because all -bodies put in motion by one power will proceed in a straight -line, unless compelled to change their course by some force -impressed. Hence a horse at full speed is with difficulty turned -to right or left; and, if he turn suddenly, and of his own accord, -he puts his rider’s horsemanship to the test. So with a coach, -a sudden turn to one side the road allows the body to swag -towards the other, and the centre of gravity is lost.</p> - -<p>In a turn, a coachman must point his leaders well, that is, -take proper ground for them to make the turn, and let his -wheelers follow them. Moreover, as wheel-horses are always -in haste to make the turn, the driver must shoot them out on -the opposite side, just as he has pointed his leaders. Thus, if -the turn be to the right, he must catch up his near wheel rein, -and hit his off wheel-horse; and <i>vice versâ</i>. This will keep the -head of the pole (which he should have his eye upon) just between -the leaders, and the wheelers will follow, as if they were -running on a straight road. This will also secure him against -danger, by clearing his coach of posts, gutters, &c. No man -can make a neat turn with four horses, unless he shoot his -wheelers, at the same time that he points his leaders. In turning, -the wheelers must rather be kept up, and the leaders be -tight in hand, to avoid the corner; for, if the wheelers flag, and -the leaders draw, the carriage must be brought against it.</p> - -<h3>THE RANKS IN TOWN.</h3> - -<p>These must never be broken, either in driving through crowded -streets, or in setting down at crowded places. As to admitting -others into the rank, every driver should do as he would be -done by.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page215"></a>[215]</span></p> - -<h3>STOPS.</h3> - -<p>It is a good plan to use horses to stop by notice, as it may -prevent accidents. In pulling up, the driver must pull the reins -equally, but rather those of the wheelers first. If this is attended -with difficulty, take the wheelers’ reins in the right hand, and -pull till they hang well on the breeching, or on the pole chains, -thus increasing the leaders’ draught so much that they will -easily be pulled up.</p> - -<p>When a young coach-horse is stopped, it should be very -gradually—allowing at least ten yards to do it in; for, if it be -attempted to stop him short, he will resist. A careful driver will -never keep his carriage standing in a great thoroughfare; but -when obliged to stop in a crowded street, the driver should, if -possible, avoid the spot where another carriage is stopping; -should choose as much as possible the widest part of the street; -and draw up close to the curb.</p> - -<p>There is no part of stage-coach economy in which greater -alteration has been made than in changing horses. Unless -business is to be transacted—as taking fares for passengers, -setting down, getting out parcels, &c.—the average with fast -coaches is three minutes for each change.</p> - -<h3>ACCIDENTS, &c. TO HORSES.</h3> - -<p>A cantering leader, or one that frets, is generally mismanaged -by young coachmen. They are apt to pull him back, and endeavour -to get him to trot, by the bit, which generally fails, or -makes him even worse, by bringing him back on his bar. The -right way is to pull him back by his harness; that is, to keep -the wheelers back, so that he may feel his collar and bit at the -same time.</p> - -<p>A horse that kicks ought to be taken very short in his pole-piece, -and gagged; and, when he begins to kick, he should be -whipped on the ears—a punishment which should never be -inflicted but for vice.—Hallooing to a horse when he kicks, has -sometimes an effect. A hot leader is sometimes benefited<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page216"></a>[216]</span> -by mopping. An experienced driver says, “I once bought a -capital coach-horse for twenty-six pounds, because no one could -drive him: and, as he had broken two carriages, he was the -terror of the neighbourhood. I mopped him, and could drive -him with the greatest safety, either leader or at wheel.”</p> - -<p>In the case of a horse falling, a periodical writer, replying -to another, states, “In one of his letters on ‘the Road,’ he -says, ‘If the coachman be driving with the short wheel rein, -and a horse fall beyond recovery, he had better open his hand, -and let the reins fall out, than run the risk of being pulled off -the box.’ With all due deference to such authority, I cannot -subscribe to this, as it frequently happens that a horse falls, is -dragged along the ground for a short distance, and recovers -himself the moment the coach stops, and then starts off at full -gallop, the other horses following his example. Now, if coachee -has opened his fist, and let the reins tumble out, and the -above occurrence should take place, I would certainly rather -be on the top of Cheviot than on the top of the said coach, -as the catastrophe would not be very difficult to foretell.”</p> - -<p>On many horses, hot weather has a singular effect; and, -therefore, it often happens that a good winter horse is an -indifferent summer one. Coach-horses are subject to many -accidents, of which one is peculiar to them—namely, fracture -of the legs in trotting on level ground.<a id="FNanchor77" href="#Footnote77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> Fractures of the -foot in draught-horses and others are common; but fractures -of the leg in coach-horses when trotting over level ground, -are probably caused by over-tension of the limb in the act -of drawing. It is said that a coach-horse’s leg is more frequently -broken, when, with a heavy load behind him, he -snatches at his collar in a turn of the road.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote77" href="#FNanchor77" class="label">[77]</a> -When driving one of the Birmingham fast coaches, just entering the -town of Dunstable, my near leader fell with her off hind-leg snapped clean in -two, held together merely by the skin. On pulling up to clear her from the -coach, I found the cause of the accident; a piece of flint, shaped like a -hatchet, and with a blade as keen as a razor, still adhering to the bone, -against which it had either been whirled by a kick from one of the other three, -or had flown upwards from the tread of the mare herself,—<span class="smcap">Ed.</span> Fifth -Edition.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page217"></a>[217]</span></p> - -<p>They are also subject to an affection known by the appellation -of the lick, which greatly injures their condition. In this state -they lick each other’s skins, and gnaw their halters to pieces. -This probably proceeds from the state of the stomach, caused -by the excitement of high feeding and work. It may be removed -by opening or alterative medicines.</p> - -<p>They are likewise subject to a kind of vertigo, which on -the road is called megrims. This, of which the immediate -cause is temporary pressure on the brain, is often brought -on by running in the face of a hot sun; and, therefore, horses -subject to megrims ought to work at night. The attack appears -to come on suddenly, though a snatching motion of the -head is sometimes observed to precede it. If not immediately -pulled up, the horse thus affected drops. Such horses should -have attention paid to the state of their bowels, and have frequent -antimonial alteratives. What is called “a megrim horse” -is always dangerous, especially near a precipice or ditch, as, -when seized, he rolls away from his partner, and, of course, -takes him with him.</p> - -<h3>ACCIDENTS TO COACHES, &c.</h3> - -<p>A necessary precaution in a gig is—never to sit with the feet -under the body, but always to have one, if not both, out before -it. “I had a passenger by the side of me,” says the driver who -gives this caution, “who was sitting with his feet under his -belly, and who was consequently thrown with much violence -into the road. I had five miles further to drive him, during -which he took care to have his feet before him.”</p> - -<p>In stage-coaches, accidents no doubt occur, and no one will -assert that the proprietors guard against them to the utmost of -their power. The great competition, however, which they have -to encounter, is a strong stimulant to their exertions on this -score. In some respects, also, the increase of pace has become -the traveller’s security: coaches and harness must be of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page218"></a>[218]</span> -best quality; horses fresh and sound; coachmen of skill and -respectability can alone be employed; and to this increased -pace is owing the improvement in these men’s character. -They have not time now for drinking, and they come in collision -with a class of persons superior to those who formerly -were stage-coach passengers, by whose example it has been -impossible for them not to profit. A coachman drunk on his -box is now a rarity—a coachman quite sober was, but a few -years ago, still more so. On the whole, however, travelling by -public conveyance was never so secure as it is at the present -time. Axle-trees and springs do not often break now; and if -proprietors go to the expense, their wheels are made secure -against coming off.</p> - -<p>The worst accidents, and those which, with the present structure -of coaches, can never be entirely provided against, arise -from broken axle-trees, and wheels coming off on the road. The -guard, therefore, in whose department this lies, ought to examine -the axle-tree every time it is fresh greased. He should also remove -it once in ten days, put a string through the bolt that -receives the linch-pin, and hang it up and cleanse it; and he -should then strike it with a hammer, when, if uncracked and -sound, it will ring like a bell—the coachman attending to take -care that it be again properly screwed on.</p> - -<p>Reins also break, though rarely, except in those parts which -run through the terrets, the rings of the throat-lash, or in the -billets; and attention to these would make all safe, as far as -accidents from this cause are concerned.</p> - -<p>Accidents happen also from want of attention to the security -of the bridles. The throat-lash, therefore—particularly of the -wheelers—should be as tight as can be allowed without injuring -respiration. There otherwise is always danger of the bridle being -pulled off. Accidents, moreover, happen from galloping coach-horses -down hill, or on even ground. If, indeed, a casualty then -happen, it must be a bad one. The goodness of a road is no -preservative against it: on the contrary, it is possible that if a -coach begin to swing, it may go over from the very circumstance<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page219"></a>[219]</span> -of the road being so level and so smooth that there is nothing -on its surface to hold the wheels to the ground. If, moreover, -there be two horses at wheel whose stride in their gallop differs -much as to extent, the unequal draught invariably sets the coach -rolling, and, unless the pace moderate, the fore-wheel passing -over even a small stone, may, under such circumstances, cause -the coach to upset. In respect to lateral motion, however, much -depends upon the build of the carriage. In galloping coach-horses, -if the leaders lead off with two legs, the motion of the -coach is considerably truer, and the swing-bars are also much -more at rest, than when each horse uses the same leg.</p> - -<p>It appears, then, that accidents to coaches are chiefly to be -attributed either to the want of proper skill and care in the -servants employed, or to what is still less pardonable, inattention -on the part of their masters. Road-coachmen, fortunately, -are well aware that the law looks sharply after them; and that -for neglect proved against them, they are equally answerable to -their employers, as these are to the public.</p> - -<p>“If I were to go upon the road,” says an amateur, “I would -be a night coachman through a well-inhabited country. For six -months of the year, it is undoubtedly the pleasanter service; -and I never found any difference between taking rest by day or -by night.” It is, however, calculated only for a man in the prime -of his days, as all his energies are required. The night coachman -ought to know his line of road well. He must take rest -regularly, or he will be sure to become drowsy, if he do not go -to sleep. He must also keep himself sober; keep a tight hand -on his horses; keep the middle of the road; and be sure to -keep time.</p> - -<p>The night coachman must cast his eye well forward, and get -out of the way of carts and waggons in time. Although, by -looking perpendicularly from his box or at the hedges, if there -be any, he may always see if he be in the road, yet if he cannot -throw his eye some way before his leaders’ heads, he is going at -random. He will often get close to things he may meet in the -road before he is aware of them; and therefore, as I have already<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page220"></a>[220]</span> -said, it is essential that he should be wide awake, and have his -horses well in hand.</p> - -<p>Chains and springs on the bars are good things for night-work, -as they prevent the leaders’ traces coming off. A narrow -road, sufficiently wide, of course, for carriages to pass with convenience—with -no ditch on the side—is much the best for night-work. -Unless when the moon is very bright, a dark night is in -favour of safe travelling. When it is what coachmen term -“a clear dark,” the lamps give much better light than when -the darkness approaches to grey. In very wide roads, particularly -where there are no hedges to confine them, lamplight is -both weak and deceiving; and moonlight is often glimmering -and doubtful, particularly when clouds are passing rapidly. -Lamplight is treacherous, both in fogs and when horses are -going at a moderate pace, with the wind just behind them; for -then the steam arising from their bodies follows them, and necessarily -obstructs the light. Sometimes, from driven rain or -snow, a coachman can scarcely open his eyes so as to see the -road to the extent of the light given by the lamps, in which case -a tight hand on the horses is especially necessary.</p> - -<p>A heavy fog is the only thing which baffles the skill and intrepidity -of our night coachmen. In this case, lamps are of no -avail as to showing light forward; and, in the worst cases, the -only use that can be made of them is for the guard to hold one -in his hand behind the coach, by which he will be able to see -whether the horses are in the road or not. Lamps, however, are -always useful in case of accidents; and, except in very clear -moonlight, a night coach should never travel without them.</p> - -<p>Accidents often occur from coachmen neglecting to light their -lamps in going into a town. It often happens that, when a coach -comes down the road in the morning, there may be no obstruction -in the streets; but rubbish from buildings, stones, or many -other things, may be thrown out by the time it comes up again -at night. When an accident happens to a coach, presence of -mind is much required. Outside passengers should never think -of quitting by jumping, from the fore part, at least, until she<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page221"></a>[221]</span> -falls to the ground. From the box, indeed, a man may get over -the roof into the guard’s seat, and thence descend.</p> - -<p>Among the various contrivances for dragging wheels, we may -mention a very ingenious one by Mr. Rapson. The drag is -applied to the nave of the wheel, with a chain attached, which -is fastened to the breeching, a small pin on each side going into -the bar of the drag. If one of these pins be taken out, the -wheel will be dragged, and if both are withdrawn, the wheels -are both acted upon during the descent, by the breech bearing -against the horse.</p> - -<div class="container w45em"> -<img src="images/illo325.png" alt="Break" /> -</div> - -<p>In the first of these diagrams we have a representation of the -break attached to the wheel, but inoperative, the jointed circle -separating the chain, <i>c</i>, and bolt, <i>b</i>, from the nave. In the -second figure, the entire frame <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, is seen in direct collision -with the nave, and by its friction retarding the locked -wheel. This, however, does not occur till the breeching of the -harness is drawn tight by the pressure of the carriage upon it.</p> - -<h3>OBSTRUCTIONS, OFFENCES, AND INJURIES.</h3> - -<p>By the 1st Geo. I. c. 57, drivers of hackney coaches are to -give way to gentlemen’s carriages, under a penalty of 10<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>If a carriage be obstructed by disorderly persons, the driver -should take out his pocket-book, and let the persons guilty of -this see that he is taking a note of their number; and he should -then coolly tell them that he will summon them if they do not -immediately clear the way.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page222"></a>[222]</span></p> - -<p>If a carriage be injured by another running against it, the -driver should ascertain whose carriage has done the mischief, -and let his coachmaker give an estimate of the charge for repairing -it; but, before he has it done, he should let the person -who injured it see the mischief, and pay the charge; or, as is the -custom, let the repair be made by the coachmaker of the party -who committed the injury.</p> - -<div class="container w40em"> -<img src="images/illo326.jpg" alt="Chariot" /> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page223"></a>[223]</span></p> - -<div class="container w40em"> -<img src="images/illo327.jpg" alt="Horse race" /> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="gesp2">THE TURF.</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>It is singular that no portion of our domestic annals should -be so obscure as that which relates to the early history of our -first of National Sports. In the remotest ages of civilization (so -far at least as any existing records carry us back), a taste for -horse-racing was fostered and promoted as a social engine -peculiarly adapted to rural and political purposes. The Greeks—the -wisest and most polished people that the world has ever -seen—carried their estimate of its importance so far, that their -chiefs not only took part in the sports of the hippodrome, but -acted as officials in the regulation of its details. Philip of -Macedon thought it not unbecoming the imperial crown, that -he who wore it should discharge the office of judge at the -Pythian Games, and his son repaid in gold every line written<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page224"></a>[224]</span> -by Pindar in honour of the chaplet of wild olive.<a id="FNanchor78" href="#Footnote78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> The verse -of Pindar, and the prose of Pausanias, have immortalized the -names of Olympia and Elis. The latter has left us the minutest -particulars of the economy of racing in his day. He describes -the Olympian Hippodrome at Elis, and all its gorgeous display -of splendid embellishments and ingenious machinery, with a -care and prodigality of narrative that give assurance of the -importance which attached to the matter delineated. Of the -perfection to which, in that era, the science of the course had -attained, we need no better proof than the classification observed -in the Olympic Games—where horses were matched -according to their ages, and prizes instituted for races between -mares only (called Calpe). It is needless, however, to encumber -our subject with ancient lore, by continuing these classic references. -Enough has, perhaps, been already adduced to establish -this point—that we possess more knowledge of the condition of -racing three thousand years ago, than we do of the state it was -in three hundred years since in our native land.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote78" href="#FNanchor78" class="label">[78]</a> The crown given to the victors in the Olympic games.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>But because we are in possession of such scanty materials, it -by no means follows that the little we do know should be withheld. -The reader will therefore have the courtesy to look back -with me to the tenth century, and I promise to bring him again -into the nineteenth with all convenient speed. As far back, -then, as the reign of Athelstan (925), we read that a present of -“running horses” was sent to that monarch from France, the -gift of Hugh Capet. As nothing however is known of the -character of those animals, we will pass on to the reign of -William, which affords better data. At that period a nobleman -(the Earl of Shrewsbury) appears to have imported several -Spanish horses for his own use. Now, as the Moors had had -a footing in Spain for several centuries prior to the Norman -conquest, there is little doubt that the blood of the Barb was, in -the eleventh century, extensively diffused through that country, -and that a highly improved breed of the horse was at the time -extant there. Here we have a reasonable era from which to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page225"></a>[225]</span> -date an amelioration of the indigenous race in our island. A -little more than a century later, in the reign of Henry the Second -(1154), we come to, as far as I have been able to discover, the -earliest mention of racing to be found in our national records. -This refers to a barbarous sort of running practised upon the -plain now occupied by Smithfield, which does not appear to -have been subjected to any regulations of time or method. -Smithfield, indeed, was then the great horse-mart, and very -probably the contests, exalted by their chronicler (Fitzstephen -the monk), to Olympic honours, were nothing more than exhibitions, -by rival horse-croupers, of the mettle, speed, and -action of their respective “palfreys, hackneys, and charging-steeds.”</p> - -<p>Still, that horse-racing was about this time a popular pastime, -and one in which the nobles of the land were wont to take -pride, is fully established by the allusions to it that abound in -the many metrical legends, yet in existence, composed in honour -of Richard of the Lion Heart. These preserve the names of -the coursers, and speak of them as being valued at sums that, -allowing for the difference in the worth of money, quite exceed -any prices known in our day. The domestic troubles which -marked the reign of John, and the succession of wars in which -we were subsequently engaged, probably interrupted the progress -of this sport materially—at all events, we do not find any -of our sovereigns giving their countenance to it from Richard -to the bluff Harry. Henry VIII. was constitutionally disposed -for manly occupations and amusements—of his moral tendencies -we speak not. We have it on the authority of Challoner that -he was much disposed to improve the breed of horses, for -which purpose he imported various descriptions from Spain and -Turkey. Fortune, too, enabled his daughter Elizabeth to do -much for our native breed; the destruction of the Spanish -Armada having supplied us with many barbs and Spanish-bred -horses, their descendants, found in the vessels of that fleet which -fell into the hands of Lord Howard of Effingham.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page226"></a>[226]</span></p> - -<p>We now come to her successor, James I.,<a id="FNanchor79" href="#Footnote79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> who must be -considered as the founder of legitimate racing in this country. -He introduced the first Arab into England of which we have -any knowledge—that purchased by Mr. Markham, and known -as the Markham Arabian. The training system, which has -now reached such perfection, was then practised in its various -divisions of physic, work, sweating, and the etcetera of stable -economy; and the weight to be carried for public prizes arranged -by authority. The Roodee, at Chester, was an established course -in this reign, one of the prizes being a silver bell, of the value -of ten pounds or thereabouts, run for in five-mile heats. Similar -prizes were also given at Theobald’s on Enfield Chase, at -Croydon, and Gatherly, in Yorkshire, whence the popular term -“bearing the bell,” no doubt, had its origin. His unfortunate -son Charles I. had little opportunity of forwarding the social -concerns of himself or others. In his reign, however, the first -races on record at Newmarket were held, and, by a singular -fatality, to Newmarket was he borne a prisoner to the parliamentary -forces. The “civil dudgeon” of the Protectorate of course -was not friendly to the amusements of the turf, but, though suspended, -they were not lost sight of. Mr. Place, the stud-master -to Oliver Cromwell, imported the celebrated horse known as the -White Turk. He was also the owner of some very capital -mares, one of which, during the search after Cromwell’s property -at the Restoration, he saved from destruction by hiding -in a vault, whence she took the name of the “Coffin Mare.”</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote79" href="#FNanchor79" class="label">[79]</a> -The palace at Newmarket was built by this monarch for the purpose of -enjoying the diversion of hunting—no races having been held upon the heath -till the succeeding reign.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>With the Restoration came the palmy days of the Turf. -Regular meetings were established at Newmarket, and various -other parts of England; silver cups and bowls of the value of one -hundred pounds were presented as royal gifts, and, more than all, -the light of royal favour shone upon it in shape of Charles the -Debonair and Mistress Eleanor Gwynne. William III. had no<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page227"></a>[227]</span> -taste for racing, and died by a fall from his horse. Prince -George of Denmark, on the other hand, was warmly attached -to the Turf, and promoted its interest by every means in his -power. We are indebted for many royal plates to his influence -with his consort Queen Anne. George I. was no sportsman; in -his reign, however, the alteration in the royal plates took place, -by which a sum of one hundred guineas was substituted in their -stead. Shortly after George II. ascended the throne, arose a -morbid yearning after legislating for the Turf. Some of the -acts enacted were mischievous; very many were very silly; one -was good:—“That no plate or prize of a less value than £50 -should be run for, under a penalty of £200.” It was during -this reign that the Darley and Godolphin Arabians were brought -into this country,—two horses from whom have descended all -the most celebrated racers that adorn the annals of our turf. -This is the period at which the genealogy of our unrivalled -thorough-bred horse then, was <i>naturalized</i>, and it is the date -whence I think it most convenient to begin my notice of English -racing.</p> - -<p>Even a notice so confined as this is beset with obscurities -that few would conceive possible. As an instance, I will adduce -the case of an old and well-informed inhabitant of Epsom, -who some years ago published a very clever history of that -place. He starts somewhere about the Conquest, and never -halts for want of materials as he goes on, till he comes to the -great stumbling-block, concerning which he shall speak for -himself:—“When the races on Epsom Downs were first held -periodically, <i>we have not been able to trace</i>; but we find that -from the year 1730 they have been annually held in the months -of May or June, and about six weeks previous to which the -hunters’ stakes are occasionally run for on the Epsom race -course, at one of which, in 1730, the famous horse Madcap won -the prize, and proved the best plate-horse in England.”</p> - -<p>To return, however, to the reign of George II., though we -find little bearing on the business of the Turf to be gleaned from -its records, it introduces us to the great forefathers of our<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page228"></a>[228]</span> -thorough blood, and stirs one of the most interesting questions -in our domestic natural history—the problem of the seed or -origin of the English thorough-bred horse. A brief search -through the stud-book will convince the inquirer that, almost -without exception, our great racers were and are descendants -of the Darley and Godolphin Arabians: I use the latter term -merely because its conventionality now identifies those celebrated -animals. They were both, as has been stated, imported in this -reign: the question that I would here investigate applies -equally to each, but, for the sake of simplifying it, I will treat -it with reference to the latter only. “That he was a genuine -Arabian,” says the stud-book, “his excellence as a sire is deemed -sufficient proof;” a little further on we read, “It is remarkable -that there is not a <i>superior</i> horse now on the Turf without a -cross of the Godolphin Arabian, neither has there been for -several years past.” The probable date of his arrival in this -country was 1725, or thereabouts. Hundreds of Arabs had -preceded him as sires, their introduction for that purpose having -been a very general speculation from the time of Charles I. -That the indigenous island breed had thereby been rendered -good service, there can be no doubt; but that the Turf derived -any signal advantages from the importations is more than -problematical.</p> - -<p>Are our celebrated strains of racing blood derived at all from -an Arab source, and, if so descended, are they excellent <i>consequently</i>, -or of accident? As regards the first moiety of the inquiry, -a work has just appeared in Paris, the production of a -gentleman of some literary celebrity<a id="FNanchor80" href="#Footnote80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a>, relating to the genealogy -of the horse so long known to us as the Godolphin Arabian. -His statements go to show that he was a pure <i>Barb</i>, presented, -with seven others, by the Bey of Tunis to Louis XV., <i>about</i> the -year 1731. All the portraits I have ever seen of him certainly -go to strengthen this reading of his descent, and proclaim him -not of Asiatic origin. The date is an erroneous one, as he was -a sire in England in the year in which he is said to have reached<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page229"></a>[229]</span> -France; but we must be content with very vague data in all that -concerns our subject a century ago. As to the second division -of the question, after-time must furnish the means of replying -to it, if it be ever answered. My bias is to a belief that there -exist families of the horse in the East possessed of a perfection -infinitely surpassing any generically inherited. This I have attempted -to demonstrate in a work upon which I am at present -engaged, some portion of which has been already published.<a id="FNanchor81" href="#Footnote81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> -The fact (of which I was made conscious by authority beyond -question) that the Imaum of Muscat, one of the most powerful -sovereign princes of India, expended ten years of active search, -backed by the enormous bribe of ten thousand pounds, before -he could procure a descendant of a line sufficiently pure to present -to King George IV., seems to establish the truth of the -theory to which I profess being inclined. All that we learn from -our knowledge of the almost religious veneration with which the -genealogy of the horse is treated in the East, goes to the like -confirmation. “It is remarkable that there is not a <i>superior</i> -horse <i>now</i> on the turf without a cross of the Godolphin Arabian,” -I leave the reader to interpret as his own reflections may lead -him.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote80" href="#FNanchor80" class="label">[80]</a> M. Eugene Sue.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote81" href="#FNanchor81" class="label">[81]</a> -Annals of the British Turf, from the Introduction of Eastern blood to the -present Time. The first century concluded in the Old Sporting Magazine.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>Shall I venture, at the hazard of pursuing my theory “ultra -fines,” to offer one more example in support of it? That no -structural organization available to the eye, no individual excellence -in the parents, influence, in our raising stock, the performances -of their offspring, are truisms taught by every stud in -the kingdom. All that exist among us, descended from the great -forefather of the Turf, are capable of producing offspring of equal -pretension, as regards the root from which they are sprung. -Far different was the result in relation to the importations of -Eastern blood contemporary with the Godolphin, and the same -it has been with all more recently introduced. Enough, at all -events, has been adduced, if not to <i>prove</i> my position, to warrant -me, at least, in its assumption, as well as for offering it to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page230"></a>[230]</span> -consideration of those who hold the subject to which it relates -of sufficient interest to engage their attention.</p> - -<p>From such speculations on the origin of the British racehorse, -we will turn to the annals of his exploits,—a theme more -generally attractive, though intrinsically less important. Here, -to begin with the early worthies of the turf, all is as obscure as -is the genealogical problem with which we have been already -engaged. Of the performances of Childers, detailed, as they are, -with all apparent microscopic observations of the seconds’ hand, -I am convinced that we know rather worse than nothing. In a -recent work of more than an ordinary character on the subject -to which it addresses itself (Lawrence’s History of the Horse), -Childers—Flying Childers, as he was designated <i>par excellence</i>—is -stated to have been a chestnut, whereas he was a rich bay with -four white legs. The same slovenly style, no doubt, attaches to -the records of the early performances, as well as to the more -recent attempts of equestrian historians. Again, the only criterion -by which we can estimate them is, when we can refer to a -timed race, because, knowing little of the principals, we cannot -be supposed to have a better knowledge of the pretensions of -their contemporaries. Now, even in our day, when all the -appliances for chronometrical accuracy are so vastly improved -and multiplied, we rarely hear of the time of a race being kept -at all, even accidentally: it is never done by authority, or on a -principle deserving of confidence.</p> - -<p>We know that the taste, in the middle of the last century, inclined -to long distances, and repeated exertion—six and eight-mile -heats being events of constant recurrence; and yet we are -required to believe that there existed at and previous to that -time a flight of speed unknown to our degenerate days. Moreover, -by far the greater portion of the early racers were undersized, -Galloways as the old Calendars have them in every page; -and stride is, save in rare exceptions, indispensable to a high -degree of swiftness. In the absence of any actual data as to -speed, worthy being confided in, it may not be inconvenient to -relate a performance of one of the first-class horses of that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page231"></a>[231]</span> -period; and, by contrasting it with a match against time, done -by a contemporary hackney, some deduction may be drawn of the -qualities of the racers of that era.</p> - -<p>Gimcrack, a grey horse bred in 1760, by Cripple out of Miss -Elliot, was considered one of the best of his day. In consequence -of his superiority, he was sent to France, where he was matched -for a large sum to do a certain distance against time. Whatever -it was, he was the winner, having accomplished twenty-three -miles in fifty-five minutes. This was probably in 1770. In 1778, -a foundered hackney, aged twenty-two, belonging to a Mr. -Hanks, did twenty-two miles within the hour, upon the high -road in the neighbourhood of London. Gimcrack carried eight -stone: the weight on the hackney is not given, but there is no -reason for believing it less than eight stone; so that one of the -best race-horses of that day could only beat a broken-down hack -a mile and five minutes in an hour!</p> - -<p>It is a conventional fallacy to attribute to past days virtues -superior to those in which were live. Every thing, from the seasons -to the flavour of home-brewed, was better, if we credit the -popular voice, “in the good old times.” To examine the application -of this rule to the matter before us, I may perhaps be -permitted to borrow a leaf out of my own book, seeing that I -could scarce make my argument stronger in any other form of -words.</p> - -<p>“After a careful examination of all the best authorities bearing -upon the condition of the Turf in that so emphatically called its -palmiest era—the middle of the last century—I find nothing to -warrant the belief that, as a species, the contemporaries of King -Herod, Imperator, Eclipse, Florizel, and Highflyer, possessed -either speed, power, or symmetry, unknown to the racer of our -day. At the very date to which this extraordinary excellence is -ascribed, we find the degeneracy of that particular breed the -subject of legislative consideration; and in 1740 that an Act of -Parliament was passed, denouncing the Turf as the cause of the -growing debasement of the breed of horses all over the kingdom, -and fixing the weights to be carried in all plates and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page232"></a>[232]</span> -matches at ten stone for five-year-olds, eleven stone for six, and -twelve stone for seven-year-olds and upwards, on pain of a -penalty of £200, and forfeiture of the horse. It is true that -this Act was repealed soon afterwards, through the intervention, -as it was believed, of the Duke of Cumberland; nevertheless it -is manifest that there must have existed strong grounds for complaint -against the system of breeding and racing before the consideration -of its economy would be made a subject of Parliamentary -interference. Let us turn to the weights carried by -two-year-olds fifty years ago, and those common to the present -period,—the former averaging from six stone to six stone six -pounds, the latter from eight stone five pounds to eight stone -seven pounds, and what evidence of degeneracy does that furnish?” -Racing, wherever we meet it existing as a popular sport, -is the growth of a root indigenous to England. All the appliances -of civilization are carried to a higher degree of perfection -among us, in the present day, than at any former period of our -history: the Turf, and all its <i>materiel</i>, it cannot be doubted, has -attained a comparative condition of excellence.</p> - -<p>In a nation peculiarly attached to rural sports, that, as matter -of course, becomes entitled to the place of honour which diffuses -the greatest portion of enjoyment to the greatest number of -people. In this view, racing is well entitled to the pre-eminence -which it has so long claimed, and had conceded to it; but it -prefers demands of a higher nature than its mere pleasurable -results. In a political sense, it is an engine of no mean importance. -A state must benefit largely from an agency which -exhibits its nobles promoting, at great individual cost, a sport in -which all classes can participate equally with themselves, and -which brings together all the divisions of society for one end -and purpose—social recreation. Where shall we seek the great -moral of England’s power and station?—In the wealth which -commerce pours upon her shares?—In her wooden walls?—In -the skill, learning, and valour of her sons? We can scarce study -it in a more impressive page than that yearly spread before us -at the great popular re-unions of Epsom, Ascot, and Doncaster.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page233"></a>[233]</span> -Let such as love such lore, then, search after it where the examination -will surely reward their industry: we will take it up, -abstractedly, as a pastime, and in that character look into the -nature and influence of its present economy.</p> - -<p>As a treasury of art, an assembly of learning, ingenuity, and -pleasure, our metropolis has many rivals—some superiors: in -our rural life we stand alone. Mainly this has been brought -about by—is the consequence of—a general taste for field sports. -Whether the cause of morality is served by horse-racing, it is not -our province to inquire. An inelegant but most <i>apropos</i> salt-water -axiom says, “every man to his post, and the cook to the -fore-sheet.” Mankind, since the creation, has set its face against -all work and no play, and will do so to the end of the chapter. -We are of the disciples of Democritus; and, feeling in the vein, -will just touch in here, merely in outline, a faint sketch of a -<span class="smcap">Derby Day</span>.</p> - -<p>Perhaps, with one exception alone, none of the realities of -life come up to the anticipations of them; and what, you ask, is -that singular deviation from the general rule?—It is a <span class="smcap">Derby -Day</span>. Imagine a conglomeration of two millions of souls stirred -to its <i>penetralia</i>, shaken from its propriety, morally earthquaked, -because of the necessity which annually requires that a certain -portion of the mass (say a fortieth) should rendezvous in a -neighbourhood where certain horses are to contend some two -minutes and sundry seconds for certain monies, and you arrive -at a general idea of something by no means in the ordinary -course. The scene of this commotion is London, the majority -of the actors automata that make yearly one solitary diversion -(in both the word’s interpretations) from the regular cycles of -their orbits. But such a Saturnalia demands a word anent its -note of preparation.</p> - -<p>As soon as the month dawns, big with the catastrophe of -Epsom Races, straightway from Belgrave Square to Shoreditch, -from the Regent’s Park to uttermost Rotherhithe, forth the -sackage goes that guts, from garret to cellar, every Pantechnicon, -Bazaar, and Repository of all and singular the wheeled conveniences<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page234"></a>[234]</span> -and inconveniences peculiar to each. Anon the horse, in -all its infinite gradations, is had in requisition, from Newman’s -choicest specimens of blood, that devour the Surrey highways, -to the living quadrupedal skeleton redeemed from the knacker’s -knife at the last Smithfield show for fifteen shillings, and a -“drop o’ summut for luck.” The day arrives, and lo! a mighty -chain of carriages, “in linked grumbling long drawn out,” extends -from the Elephant and Castle to the merry Downs of -Epsom, whitherwards we will suppose thy anxious way hath at -length been achieved. The moisture of travel encumbereth thy -brow: searchest thou for thy best Bandana to relieve thee of -the damp? Luckless <span class="nowrap">wight!—</span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> - -<div class="poetry"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse indent10">“——That handkerchief</div> -<div class="verse indent0">Did an Egyptian from thy pocket prig.”</div> -</div> - -</div><!--poetry--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Is not the tide of humanity at the flood of spring? Ten deep -do vehicles of all kinds, definite and undefinable, line the course. -Opposite and around the stand all is high-bred and aristocratic: -lower down, leading for Tattenham’s classic corner, you haply -take your curious path. What lots of pretty girls you encounter -as you go!—each so lady-like and <i>bien mise</i>, you would never -dream of their metropolitan whereabouts, were it not for those -awful mortalities that cluster around them; brothers, cousins, -lovers it may be—pale shadows that haunt the glimpses of -Bow Church—horrible illusions from Ludgate Hill and the -Ward of Cheap, with prickly frills to their linen, swallow tails -to their coats, green velvet waistcoats, or, still more shocking, -similar habiliments of black satin, whereon the indecent chain -of Mosaic grins ghastly, like the gilding on a coffin!—faugh!</p> - -<p>Drawing near to the lines, hark! from glass coach, britscha, -jarvey, phaeton, proceed various sounds of discontent.—“Cold -chickens, veal pie, lobsters and <i>no</i> salt.”—“Half-a-dozen bottles -is all very fine, and never no corkscrew.”—“Sir, I’ll set that -right if you’ll only accommodate us with the loan of a glass; -really it’s too provoking.”... Ascend the hill, approach the -Ring, and hear what sums are jeopardied on the coming event!—enough<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page235"></a>[235]</span> -to purchase half-a-score of German principalities; but -the warren is open, and thither you are borne by the countless -thousands who throng for a glance of the coursers on whom -hang the hopes and fears of all.</p> - -<p>No spot can be better adapted for the purpose to which it is -assigned than the so well-known warren; but all that nature -has done man takes especial care to frustrate. Instead of its -cool quiet alleys being kept for the tranquil preparation of -animals peculiarly disposed to excitement (their most dangerous -foe at a moment when the entire possession of every faculty is -of such vital consequence), every “dingle, nook, and bosky -bourn” is invaded by a horde of ravenous, sight-seeing cockneys, -of all beasts of prey the most reckless and perverse. Amid this -restless crowd of babbling, cigar-smoking untameables, the -process of saddling is effected, and, with graceful steps, the -fiery-footed adversaries depart for the lists.</p> - -<p>You reach the place of starting, and what awaits you there? -Order, decorum, and all fitting arrangement for the important -essay of which it is the arena? A second chaos!—all the -human elements thrown together in a moral whirlpool. A score -of men in buckram suits (blue linsey-wolsey), attempting to -dispose of twice as many thousands—something like barring -the gates of a beleagured town with boiled carrots! They draw -together for the start—infinitely the most influential point in -the great game to be played. Here all is confusion worse confounded: -the multitude opens its thousand throats of brass; the -steeds are frantic; the jockeys (born and bred devils from their -cradle) practise every conceivable stratagem ever hatched in -Fiendom; and there stands one nervous old man to front the -pitiless pelting, and produce from such materials a result with -which all are to be satisfied. “They are off!” and the old -gentleman, in his agony, pronounces “go,” and the fatal signal -has gone forth. Over the hill, adown the fall, there is a -meteoric flash, as though a rainbow had borrowed the wings of -the lightning, and all is over!</p> - -<p>The Derby is decided—the steeds turned round—the jockeys<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page236"></a>[236]</span> -approach the scales—Holy Mother of Moses! has it entered the -heart of man (even an Irishman) to conceive the tearing and -swearing, the howling and screeching, that instant rends the -empyrean! Quick as thought a circle of bludgeons and -constables is formed, into which the horses as they arrive are -received, and against which a roaring ocean of humanity is -dashing as fiercely as the vexed Atlantic. Look towards the -grand stand—behold whole acres of countenances uplifted to -the sky, wedged as closely as a crate of French eggs, and -resembling nothing as yet discovered but a monstrous dish of -opened oysters! The round earth is shaken, and echo gives up -the ghost—the thunder hides its diminished head, as with the -bellowings of ten thousand volcanos myriads of furious lungs -crash forth, “<span class="smcap">Who has won</span>?” Thus whilom did I sing of -this scene; and with better experience, save in the episodes of -flying voltigeurs, men “with never no back-bones at all, only -a slip of gristle to hold head and heels together,” and epicures -in cutlery, “who swallow knives and forks for all the world like -gingerbread nuts,” I can add nothing to the <i>beau ideal</i> of a -<span class="smcap">Derby Day</span>.</p> - -<p>How little can they, who first give existence to a principle, -foresee how it will operate, and what may be its results. The -pastime of horse-racing, fostered and promoted simply as a -channel of amusement by the gay and thoughtless Charles, -called into being the strongest impulse of man’s nature—emulation, -and thus entailed upon this country a race of the -noblest of all existing animals, of a character apparently superior -to that originally destined by nature. This may be an -erroneous theory, but as yet we are unacquainted with any -variety of the horse comparable to the artificial stock known as -our thorough-blood. The very general efforts that were made -from that period by the nobles and great landed proprietors to -improve by lavish outlay, and all the appliances which it can command, -the best strains of the recently imported Oriental blood, -towards the middle of the last century, seem to have carried the -race-horse <i>as a species</i> as near to perfection as his generic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page237"></a>[237]</span> -organization will admit. True, every year produced some few -infinitely superior to their contemporaries, but they were phenomena,—indebted -to no individuality of parentage for their -excellence, and unpossessed of the faculty of endowing their -descendants with similar gifts. As a race, when opposed to -the indigenous horse of any quarter of the earth, the English -thorough-blood is universally victorious; among the various -families into which it is divided at home, no <i>constant</i> succession -of superiority has ever discovered itself.</p> - -<p>I am aware that those who only take a superficial view of the -economy of our racing system will at once pronounce against -this position. They will adduce the sons and daughters of -King Herod, Eclipse, and Highflyer; in our day, of Sultan and -Emilius, as far surpassing the ordinary run of their contemporaries. -But they do not bear in mind that not only did and -does the progeny of these justly celebrated sires greatly outnumber -that of their less favoured brothers, but that the best -mares of their respective eras were and are exclusively put to -them. Not to travel beyond our own day for proofs, did excellence -ensure its like, what chance would have remained to -those who now and then breed a solitary nomination against -the gigantic studs of Hampton Court, Riddlesworth, or Underly? -To confine the question to the present year (1838), we had -evidence that not all the wealth, skilful training, Sybarite care -and treatment of the best of England’s blood could produce -a match for the son of one of our indifferent racers,—the -despised of an Irish tenth-rate stable,—the wonderful and the -basely-abused Harkaway.<a id="FNanchor82" href="#Footnote82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> I may be told that he was defeated -here, and by second-raters, too,—but under what circumstances? -With ordinary care, without having been subjected to actual -ill-treatment, at weight for age there was nothing of the year -in England that could have stood any chance with him.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote82" href="#FNanchor82" class="label">[82]</a> -This extraordinary animal is now (December 1838) advertised for sale, -his price six thousand guineas, with this strange addition, “that his owner -(Mr. Ferguson) rides him hunting once or twice a week!”</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p>From these premises the deduction at which we arrive bearing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page238"></a>[238]</span> -upon the economy of the turf, its nature and influence is twofold, -and admits of a very brief solution,—the first being that -the day is long passed since the means of winning upon the -race-course were to be obtained by breeding; the second, that -the vast advantages still to be derived from a proper application -of our thorough-blood is most strangely neglected. Mr. Bowes -began his racing career by breeding a winner of the Derby, -while the late Duke of Leeds, the most extensive breeder of -blood stock in the north, toiled in vain for the Leger till he -won it with a colt bought from the tail of the plough. Lord -George Bentinck, the best winner on the turf of modern days, if -the Calendar be any criterion, regards breeding racers as an -expedient no man in his senses should dream of, and, acting -upon his theory, has put money in his purse. A first-class racer, -a colt of extraordinary promise, are each productions of chance-medley, -only to be come at by being secured where and when -they can be found.</p> - -<p>But if the Turf be thus restricted in further profiting, save as -matter of hazard, by the means which securely ministered to the -success of its first speculators, it furnishes materials from which -may be moulded other distinct races, as valuable, each in its -province, as the flying family of the modern race-course, now -the sole representatives of our thorough-blood. The ragged -regiment of cock-tails will, it is devoutly to be hoped, speedily -be disbanded; the day soon arrive when no gentleman shall be -seen bestriding the mongrel of a base-bred hackney, scarce -worthy the shafts of a costermonger’s trap. And first, as is befitting, -such reform must commence with its next of kin—<span class="smcap">The -Field</span>. Shall this, assuredly the second—nay, the twin-sport -of racing, in the esteem of Englishmen, long continue dependent -upon chance for a supply of horses for its service? Impossible; -the period cannot be far distant in which the British thorough-bred -hunter will be as distinct a race, and of as high renown, as -his progenitors were the pride of the Turf.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page239"></a>[239]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="container w40em"> -<img src="images/illo343.jpg" alt="Hunting scene" /> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="gesp2">HUNTING.</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>As the whole object of the Manly Exercises is not accomplished -in the attainment and practice of them, it was thought convenient -that the business of their details should be succeeded -by a partial notice of some of those sports of which they form -the elementary process, and which may be regarded as their -ultimate “end and aim.” It has been well said by my talented -friend, Nimrod, that all the writing in the world will not make -a sportsman. The pen of Pindar, and the pencil of Grant, -indeed, exhibit him in all perfection to our admiration; but, -could they both write for the education of the student whose -ambition is Olympic fame, they would not insure success. Like -the poet, he must be born, in a manner, to his cunning.</p> - -<p>The Exercises, upon which Mr. Walker has written, admitted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page240"></a>[240]</span> -of being inculcated by methodical rules, and acquired by a -systematic routine of practice. An acquaintance with them will be -found of service to youth, whatever the destination of its manhood -may be; while they are essential to the formation of a -frame and character fitted for the maturity likely to be devoted -to the wear and tear of our hardy Rural Sports. Driving and -Yachting, though neither of them strictly coming within the -pale of a course of physical exercises, still are not out of place -in a practical book devoted to the science of manly recreations, -because each is governed by certain rules, which may be taught -and acquired. It is not so with the subjects constituting the -matter on which we are at present engaged. A man may out-study -Zoroaster without being one whit the better qualified for -winning a fifty-pound plate, hitting off the line of a fox that -has been headed, or bringing down his woodcock in cover; -these are arts which, being decimated, leave one part to theory -and nine in favour of practice. For this cause I have made my -Article on the Turf of a character more suited to the purposes of -the general reader than those of the visionary theorist, who may -fondly hope to meet, on page traced by mortal hands, a recipe -for breeding, training, and managing an embryo winner of Derby -or Leger. The Chase, however, admits of a certain code of -general maxims: it has, if not limits, at all events courses better -defined than those of the Turf, and to the application of them -by practical men of modern experience we will at once proceed.</p> - -<p>Assuming that a tolerable proficiency in horsemanship has -been attained before the young disciple of Diana ventures to -show at all with hounds, he will do well to dedicate the first -of his novitiate to hare-hunting, whether his future destination -be that of a M. F. H., or merely a partaker of the “light -from heaven,” dispensed by the “noble science.” As this little -treatise addresses itself more particularly to the latter, it will -be sufficient to point out what should be his aim in his early -lessons. Of these, the most essential to the formation of a good -sportsman, and the only one that will enable any man to live -to the end of a severe run, is, that he cultivate the faculty of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page241"></a>[241]</span> -<i>quick eye to hounds</i>. With harriers he will constantly have -practice in this task: the perpetual doubles to which nine -hares out of ten, when chased, resort, will soon convince him -of the necessity of keeping a wary look out for the line towards -which the leading hounds incline. He will have little difficulty -in deciding with which portion of the pack, or with which individual -of it, the scent is, if he only observe closely when there -is any indication of a check. The instant a hound catches the -scent, he will see him drop his tail horizontally, and spring to -the front, the one who has lost it elevating his, as if engaged -in questing. Keeping his look-out always upon the leaders, and -leaving the body of the pack to follow a similar system, he -turns his horse as he sees the chase lean, and thus is going at -his ease <i>inside</i> the circle, around which others can hardly live -at the best their nags can accomplish. When a huntsman is -coming past with hounds,—particularly at check in a lane or -road,—get out of his way all you can; the narrower the pass the -greater the necessity that you give room, or hounds must break -over the fence, and so run the risk of putting up, or crossing the -line of, another hare: moreover, horses on such occasions are -apt to strike out at hounds, and it is far from pleasant to be -constituted by such a casualty “the observed of all observers.”</p> - -<p>In the matter of riding at fences, with harriers you will be -more enabled to suit your practice to the individual case than -when you come to ride alongside fox-hounds. With the -former, when any thing very cramp crosses your line, you may -“look before you leap,” and this is no bad maxim, whoever -may choose to sneer at it. Let this too be an axiom from -which you never depart, as far as regards the hounds: when -you are out with the jolly dogs, “hear and see, and say nothing”—so -shall you earn golden opinions from the field in -general, and prevent much out-pouring of wrath from the officials -in particular. It will serve you to bear in mind that in -almost every difficulty of ground a horse can serve himself -better than you can assist him. I do not mean to say that in -heavy, deep galloping you should not hold him together, and if<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page242"></a>[242]</span> -there be a furrow or path at hand, that you should not give him -the advantage of it. But in woodlands, for instance, where young -timber has been felled, and the surface is covered with live stubs, -give him his head: let him pick his own way; never touch his -mouth with the bridle to guide him, and you will find how -rarely he will give a chance away. Thus in a rabbit warren the -difficulty is doubled by the nervous man who attempts to steer -his horse. The biped is looking at one hole, the quadruped at -another, and being diverted from the spot where he intended to -place his foot, puts it <i>in</i> where it was meant that he should -not. Still, however, you may attempt it: never charge ground -of this nature without using the precaution of slacking your -pace. I remember a well-known bruising rider, who thought -it impossible that he could be hurt, once trying the experiment -over a warren in the neighbourhood of Whitchurch, in Shropshire, -and being assured of the affirmative in the first hundred -yards by the fracture of his collar-bone, and the dislocation of a -shoulder.</p> - -<p>With the common run of fences, where the grip is from you, -go faster at them than when it lies on the side you take off from. -When they consist of live thorns and quicks newly laid down, -take them, whenever the chance presents itself, <i>aslant</i>, rising -where the top of the thorn is laid, as being the least capable of -holding your horse’s knees, should they catch in rising at it. -In your noviciate it is hardly necessary to offer you any advice -as to water. As a general rule, however, it may as well be said -here as elsewhere that, in brook-jumping, pace comes first and -then judgment. With a powerful impetus you get over; should -your horse blunder, somehow—if with a fall at the other side, -no matter: less speed enables you to pick your ground better, -but it throws all the odds on the side of a cold-bath, should the -span be wider than you calculated on, or the bank be soft, and -let you in. Never take hold of your horse’s head till you feel -that he is safely landed; if there is a scramble for it, and you -pull at him but an ounce, it may turn the beam of his equipoise, -and in you go together.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page243"></a>[243]</span></p> - -<p>Young hands are prone to think that it is necessary to the -acquisition of the reputation of a sportsman that they show in -front throughout a run. Indeed I might have said this idea -seems to hold with many who ought to be wiser. The sooner -the youthful Nimrod discards this fallacy the better. The -chances are so multiplied and various against a good run that it -is next to a miracle how a real clipper ever occurs. From foil, -to which ground is every where exposed, down to an infant of -three years old that heads your quarry, on every side you are -beset with risk, even <i>with</i> a scent. Without it your difficulty -becomes almost an impossibility, and that is the time when -over-riding, more fatal than all other obstacles put together, is -to be seen in its superlative degree. There is your hard-rider, -<i>par excellence</i>, who <i>will</i> be first: the leader pulls up at a check—the -nuisance passes him, even with hounds at fault, without -a moment’s care for the mischief he must do the chase, or what -he may do himself. Let such as this teach you that which you -should avoid: acquire in youth the way you should go, and in -your maturity you will not depart from it.</p> - -<p>We now come to the matriculation of the “noble science,” -and consider the <i>quondam</i> novice entered to fox-hunting. It -would be bootless here to offer any eulogy upon a sport admitted, -by authorities allowing no question, to be, in a political as well as -a social view, a powerful moral engine. In a letter now before -me, which I lately received from a gallant general, himself a -master of fox-hounds, he ascribes to a taste for the chase that -characteristic manly daring which distinguishes the officers of -our service from those of any other. Of all field sports its -claims are the most general upon the properties of manhood. -The tiger-hunts of the East may appeal more directly to the -courage, but with activity and physical endurance they have -little or nothing to do. But see the qualities that must combine -to form the accomplished fox-hunter. He must be bold, -ready, decisive, capable of commanding and sustaining great -bodily exertion: he must join unity of purpose to promptness -of action; capability of foreseeing events, that he may best turn<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page244"></a>[244]</span> -them to advantage, with a frame and a spirit alike competent -to meet and oppose undauntedly difficulties and dangers, how and -when they may assail him. I would not have it supposed that -I claim for the chase a higher station for enterprise than any -other of the adventurous occupations in which we find mankind -employed. It would be absurd for an instant, for example, to -compare it with that most exciting and magnificent of all the -daring offices to which man has ever addressed himself—the -South Sea fishing. But as a sport,—an act to which pleasure -alone induces him, fox-hunting has nothing at all bearing comparison -with it in modern days. To the present fashion of its -details we will now turn our consideration.</p> - -<p>I do not think it necessary here to enter into any foreign -matter, such as the nature and economy of the establishment -with which the field may be taken with reference to the country -hunted, or the number of days weekly to be devoted to its -business. We will suppose our young Nimrod has completed -all such arrangements in a convenient fashion, and proceed to -the <i>res gestæ</i> for which he has made preparation. In this hard-riding -era, it is regarded as a dashing style of going to cover, by -your aspiring tyro, to approach it as the crow would fly. If he -<i>must</i> go thither across country, let him, at all events, avoid -passing through, or riding too near any of the covers likely to -be drawn during the day. If they hold a good fox, it is sure -notice for him to quit, for he is ever on the <i>qui vive</i>. The result -is, should the hounds be thrown in, they come upon a scent -some hours old—crawl upon it over probably the cream of the -country, never come on terms with him; and a capital day’s -sport is lost to a whole field by a selfish half-hour’s lark. -Arrived at the place of meeting, he should not address himself -to the master, if he hunt his own hounds; or, in the other case, -to the huntsman, notwithstanding he may be on familiar terms -with them, beyond the mere exchange of a passing civility. -Even then, a man, bent upon showing a good day’s sport, has -his mind sufficiently engaged on the business before him. He is -consulting temporary causes, by which to be directed as to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page245"></a>[245]</span> -particular cover to begin with, and how it is to be drawn. The -point of wind, the nature of the day, the weather of the preceding -week,—all must be weighed, and brought to assist his -judgment. A fox well found is always the most likely to be -well accounted for.</p> - -<p>But if conversation with the master or huntsman be inconvenient -before hounds are thrown off, afterwards it becomes a -positive impertinence. It is no excuse for doing so that they -are not actually engaged at the moment. A huntsman, having -drawn without a find, is probably waiting for some of his -hounds; at the same time he is debating with himself what -cover he shall next try, and how to get to it, as the wind may -affect the best lying in it for his fox. He has also observed how -his hounds have behaved, and has orders to give to a whip as to -the conduct of some one prone to riot; or that a particular -corner of the cover about being drawn shall be carefully watched. -In short, success or failure are dependent on his management; -and how can he deliberate if he is to stand a general catechism?</p> - -<p>If it be a large cover, keep within hearing of the hounds and -huntsman. This can only be effected by being down wind, and -should be done without any reference to the distance round, -which it may impose. Of course, it is not intended that a man -should take any thing he can avoid out of his horse by galloping -round a cover, but let him keep on steadily opposite the hounds, -taking heed that he does not get so far forward as to endanger -heading back the fox, and so spoiling his own and his neighbours’ -sport. This I only recommend where covers are very -large, and even then it may not be the best system. In all cases -where it is practicable, I never throw a chance away by losing -sight of hounds. I remember, some years ago, meeting Sir -Richard Puleston at Cresford village, whence we trotted to a -wood that skirts the high road to Chester. As we jogged forward, -a friend overtook me, accosting me with, “You need not -hurry yourself, for they’ll find nothing where they’re going: it -has been beaten within an hour by a party of coursers, who have -left nothing alive on four legs within it, you may rely.” In ten<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page246"></a>[246]</span> -minutes, the pack and field were streaming, best pace, after a -fox found in that same coppice, away for Shavington, over a -country like the cream of Leicestershire or Northampton.</p> - -<p>In fox-hunting, depend solely upon yourself, and keep with -the pack. Even in going from cover to cover, be with them. -Circumstances frequently arise which induce a huntsman to -abandon trying a place upon which he may have previously -fixed; and how often has a fox jumped out of a hedge-row in -the centre of a pack trotting industriously away to look for a -chance probably half a dozen miles off! In windy weather, -when hounds are in cover, unless you draw it with them, it is -two to one you never get away at all, and ten to one against a -good start. I have had some experience of horses in my day, -and have ever found, that, of all ways of beating them, the -surest is that of trying to catch hounds. Laying aside the excitement -and energy produced by the music, alongside of which -they go sailing away in wild delight, it must be remembered that -the pace of fox-hounds with a scent is equal to the best, if not -superior, that any first-class hunter possesses. What sort of a -nag then is it, that you can expect to catch them with ten -minutes’ law? In calm weather, also, the danger of losing sight -of hounds is by no means to be disregarded. There are some -days (those which invariably carry the best scent) when hounds -will find, and fly away like magic, not one in the pack attempting -to throw tongue. Here, if the cover be large, unless you have -them in your eye, the odds are you never get away; and see -what you lose—the excellence of the scent has stopped the cry: -the faster hounds go, the less they say about it.</p> - -<p>When in a large cover, with hounds unavoidably out of sight, -depend upon your ear much rather than upon the movements of -others. You will constantly find men riding straight on end, -merely because the hounds were running so when they entered, -while very probably the fox has turned short, and is already -away, with the pack at his brush, in an opposite direction. With -a little patience and attention, your ear will soon come to the -knack of detecting the line of hounds in cover: it is well worth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page247"></a>[247]</span> -your while to take pains to acquire this art. When you have -learnt it, you will speedily find out the advantage it will confer -upon your horse, and yourself too. It is by no means easy to -lay down rules for that which so mainly depends upon circumstances; -but it may be convenient to offer a few examples, upon -which you may found a system for general application. Suppose, -for instance, you have had a burst with your fox, and he -has reached a large cover, in which there are strong earths, or -beyond which lies a country too open for a blown fox to set his -head for. If the earths are open, in he goes, and there is an -end of him; if stopped, he turns, or leans to the right or left. -During this time, brief as it maybe, you have eased your horse; -he gets his wind (a minute, in many cases, will put him right -after a very quick thing), and you are fresh, while your hard -rider has been going best pace beyond the hounds, and comes -toiling after you in vain. These points of practice, however, require -good judgment, and great promptness of action. You -must know well how to distinguish between a cry that grows -faint and fainter, as a failing scent leads to a final check, and -one that, from a crash, at once becomes almost wholly lost, as -the pack flies to their fox with a view, or a scent breast-high.</p> - -<p>You will, no doubt, at the commencement of your career, hear -a great deal about the influence the wind has upon the line of -chase. Do not take all such theory for gospel. I have tried my -hand at a few systems of the kind, but only found one that admitted -general adoption. When a fox, on being found, takes up -wind at first, do not ride, though the pace be first-rate, so as to -take much out of your horse. Foxes constantly, after going a -mile or so up wind, turn and head back. This will let you in -with a good start, and a fresh nag; and even should the chase -hold on up wind, you run little risk of being thrown out, as you -will have the cry to guide you, and the puff in, to enable you to -get to them when the first brush is over.</p> - -<p>One good effect of the hard riding of modern days is, that -hounds are much less meddled with by strangers than they used -to be when first I remember fox-hunting. Indeed, I am not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page248"></a>[248]</span> -sure that too much etiquette does not now exist upon that -point. The total disappearance of the thong to the hunting-whip -seems like carrying a good thing rather too far. A fox -breaks probably under your horse’s nose: out comes the pack, -none of the servants are at hand, and they run a field or two -from the cover before any one stops them, or their own mettle -allows them to turn: one crack of your whip would have saved -all that. One thing you <i>can</i> do without your thong, but you -should be very careful how you do it. I allude to hallooing a -fox away. Never attempt to lift up your voice till he is evidently -bent on going, and then give him at least a field’s law, -or the odds are, back he goes, perhaps into the hounds’ mouths. -When he <i>is</i> gone, then clap your hand behind your ear, and -give the “Tally-ho—<i>away</i>!” to the best of the lungs that are -in you. Should he merely show for a moment outside, and -then pop in again, give a “Tally-ho—back!” that it maybe -known where he was seen, as well as that he is not away. -Another service in this latter halloo is, that all the points where -it is likely he will try to break will be left clear for him. If a -fox is seen crossing a ride or path, in cover, in front of you, -pull up; and if hounds are at check, tally him, as it will serve -as a guide to the huntsman.</p> - -<p>In drawing a cover you may give this signal, should any fox -cross you, but if you have run him in, be awake not to tally any -but the hunted one, or you will have few thanks for your -trouble. A little experience will easily teach you the difference -between one just unkennelled and that which has stood any -time before hounds. Not only will the former be sleek and -unstained, but the method of going be very dissimilar. A fresh -fox bounds off, throwing his hind legs clear from him, and his -whole frame, from the tip of his nose to that of his brush, as -straight as an arrow; if hunted, and at all blown or beaten, -his action is laboured, like that of a rocking-horse, his back is -curved, his brush drooping, and the ears thrown back, all the -fire for which when found his eye is so remarkable, quenched, -and exchanged for an air of cunning and subdued resolution.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page249"></a>[249]</span> -I am far from any design of counselling you to interfere with -the business of a pack of fox-hounds that you may be either in -the habit of hunting with, or one that you may merely meet by -accident occasionally. Still there are instances in which to -withhold all assistance would be to put the chance of sport in -jeopardy, and in which the true lover of the chase ought to act -first and think afterwards. Should any casualty, for example, -so find you that, <i>with hounds at fault</i>, you catch a halloo that -the huntsman does not or cannot hear, contrive so to place -yourself between the halloo and the hounds that you may be -heard by huntsman or pack, and so lead them on the line that -the halloo proceeds from. I repeat, however, that these and -similar aids must be offered with due discretion. The halloo -may be a false one—true, but had you gone to make inquiries, -you, too, would have been out of hearing—the points of fox-hunting -require temporary and local adaptation, and a headpiece -to direct all. Mere physical endowments will never make -an accomplished fox-hunter—combined with judgment they are -very excellent subsidiaries: for him who would shine in the -chase</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse indent0">“Orandum est, ut sit mens sana in corpore sano.”</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>In riding to hounds it will essentially serve you if you bear -in mind what ninety-nine out of a hundred seem never to give -a thought to, namely, that the pack only acts <i>pro tanto</i> upon -the line of country which a fox is likely to take. Independent -of the point which it is assumed he will make for, he has a -hundred other things to avoid, as well as the enemies baying on -his trail. He settles his point, but he must also get to it -unseen. Unless beaten and all but run into, he will give a wide -berth to any thing like the habitation of man as well as man -himself. Thus, by keeping your eye well before you, there is -a chance that the turn hounds will take may be so far anticipated, -that you avoid riding outside of their circle. It has been -well said that when hounds are running, a man ought to consider -what, under the circumstances in which things happen to be, be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page250"></a>[250]</span> -would do were he the fox. I cannot offer you better counsel. -By adopting such a principle you will be enabled to foresee a -check should you detect any thing in the line that the chase is -taking, however far ahead—and if you have a knowledge of the -country, you will calculate such chances almost to a certainty. -In a district with which you are acquainted, the line a fox takes -when found, will enable you to judge whether he has been -before hunted, and if he has, the odds are he runs the same -again. Even in cover you may fairly assume that he is accustomed -to be stirred by the ring he takes, the points he tries, the -gaps he uses in the fences, and similar observations, which -should be the business on which you are intent from the moment -the hounds are thrown in.</p> - -<p>More than once it has been my good fortune to secure a -clipping run for a sporting field by keeping a clear look-out -upon the matter at issue, <i>and nothing else</i>, when a long series of -covers drawn blank, and such dampers, have sent one-half of -the morning’s muster home, while the other had taken <i>to the -dernier ressort</i> of cigars and gossip. As an instance of this, -several years ago, with the Shropshire, when Mr. Cresset Pelham -had them, we had been at it from the hour of meeting till past -three, in November too, and no luck. Having trotted on to our -last hope for the day, it was tried, and pronounced—blank! -Already twilight had commenced, the huntsman outside the -cover was blowing his horn, the pack mustered, and home was -the order of march. I had watched the gathering with care; -and, as we were already trotting from the side of the spinny, it -struck me that an old and favourite bitch was missing. I called -the huntsman’s attention to it. There was a pause—a faint -wimple was heard in the still valley—anon it opened into a -cry, “Hark to it!”—the pack flew to the challenge—there was -a mighty crash: in a minute a fox broke away in sight of every -man who had had the patience to await the last throw on the -dice. A burst of twenty minutes was the result, without a pull -from best pace; and we turned him up in the open just as the -parish lantern gave us notice to look out for squalls.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page251"></a>[251]</span></p> - -<p>There exists, in some masters of hounds, a disposition to keep -back such men as, when hounds are in chase, follow them -through the covers they take in their line. It is not my desire -to inculcate disobedience to the powers that be; but certainly I -cannot second that principle, either with reference to those who -adopt it, or those to whom it is intended to apply. When a -hunted fox has reached a cover, not only is it the best way to -cheer hounds to him, that they should not feel themselves alone, -but also the noise made by men following them is the most -likely way to make a fresh fox break, without any of the stragglers -getting on him. I have seen a fox crawl into cover dead -beat, and already in the mouths of the pack. The huntsman -and a whip followed them—the “whoo-whoop” was given—the -master and the rest of the field waited on the outside. They -remained in patience till ten minutes had elapsed. “Surely,” -said an old hand at last, “they are doing more than baying him -with all that cry. Hark! it has got to the opposite side of the -wood:—by heavens! they’re away with a fresh fox.” And so -they were; and they killed him at the end of forty minutes -without a check, and without a sight of them ever being caught, -save by the servants, who had followed to lift the fox that had -crawled dead beat into the cover.</p> - -<p>I have thus attempted to sketch, for the young disciple of the -“noble science,” a slight code of maxims of general application. -For the principles of practice to direct him in the constantly -occurring cases, which admit of no rule save that arising out of -individual circumstances, he must rely upon himself. Under -this general head of <span class="smcap">Hunting</span>, I have not thought it necessary -to enter upon any varieties of the chase, save those of the fox -and the hare. Stag-hunting, as a rural sport, is limited to a -very few districts; and for its pursuit requires only a knowledge -of horsemanship, and a quick eye to a country. Fox-hunting -and hare-hunting I have treated with reference only to the points -of practice which apply to the convenience of those who select -them as appliances of recreation. This work, in its nature, is -rudimentary, it professes to deal with the elements of our manly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page252"></a>[252]</span> -exercises, and so far to treat of our national sports of <span class="smcap">Racing</span>, -<span class="smcap">Hunting</span>, and <span class="smcap">Shooting</span>. Its office is to instruct the beginner, -leaving the higher classes to volumes of more pretension. -With this view of its purpose, I have brought the subject -of the Chase to the limit which I designed for it. It is a truly -manly—a noble sport. Long may it be cherished and fostered -in our land! The qualities which it calls into action are those -which confer honour on manhood,—courage, promptness, activity, -and decision. Surely these are rare properties in which -to exercise a youth, and these the Chase will engender and -nourish: while to such as require that a moral attach to every -occupation of life, it has this to recommend it, that, in riding to -hounds, this great truth is hourly inculcated—“Honesty is the -best policy.”</p> - -<div class="container w50em"> -<img src="images/illo356.jpg" alt="Hunting scene" /> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page253"></a>[253]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="container w40em"> -<img src="images/illo357.jpg" alt="Ducks" /> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="gesp2">SHOOTING.</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>It is my purpose, in the present chapter, as in the two preceding, -to offer, as companion to the system of exercises described -in the first part of this work, certain practical rules upon another -of those popular field sports, a knowledge of which has in all -ages been considered, in this country, part of a gentleman’s -education. The perfection to which we have attained in the -manufacture of all the implements connected with this branch -of sporting, would make a dissertation on the <i>materiel</i> of shooting -a piece of useless information to those for whose service these -notices are intended. Instead, therefore, of filling these pages -with elaborate instructions for selecting his guns, gun-cases, -flasks, belts, and the whole catalogue of shooting gear, I present -my reader with one solitary golden maxim, which will ensure -to him the possession of a perfect apparatus, and that eventually<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page254"></a>[254]</span> -on the most economical terms: Let him go, for every article of -his equipment, to the most celebrated artist in the item of which -he has need. It is true that, compared with the scale of prices -in the provinces, the charges of the first-rate London gunmakers -are startling things upon paper, and so are those made -by coachmakers of the same class. Indeed, the same may be -said of the rate of demand common to the leading dealers of -the metropolis; but he will find that <i>finis coronat opus</i>. An economical -friend of mine, who was recently quartered in Ireland, -ordered, of one of the most respectable firms in Dublin, a travelling -chariot, the price, with the usual <i>et ceteras</i>, being two -hundred and fifty pounds: here it would have cost him three -hundred, or three hundred and twenty. Just as it was completed, -he was ordered home; and his new bargain broke down -with him fourteen times between Liverpool and London. As a -contrast to this: An old sporting associate, never particularly -distinguished for his thrift, recently showed me a pair of shooting -shoes, for which he paid Hoby two guineas, that he has had in -constant work for sixteen years! No record has been preserved -of the number of times they have had new bottoms. The only -perishable portions of these cordwaining phenomena, however, -are their <i>soles</i>: their bodies appear to be immortal.</p> - -<p>To return to the appointments of the young aspirant to the -honours of the trigger. Although I set out with supposing him -equipped with the best double detonator that money can procure -from a maker of known character, and all other mechanical -appliances for the field, a proper management and judicious -arrangement of them is by no means to be similarly obtained. -Upon the condition of those mechanical aids his success depends, -quite as much as the adroitness to which he may arrive in -the use of them. Whether that department be in the hands of -a gamekeeper fully competent to all its details, or there be an -actual necessity for the master’s eye to direct it, a knowledge of -the most approved means will be found equally essential. Proficiency -in any art or science requires an intimacy with the whole -machinery of its economy. It was this conviction that made an<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page255"></a>[255]</span> -emperor a labourer in a dockyard, and should induce every -sportsman to acquaint himself with the minutest particulars -bearing upon his craft. To this end I will give a few rules, derived -as well from personal experience as from some of the most -approved authorities on the subject that have appeared in print.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gun-cleaning.</span>—Use cold water for the purpose of cleansing -the barrel, and finish by pouring in boiling water, taking care to -stop the touch-hole. Shake it up and down well, and drain it -from the muzzle, which will clear the chamber. The hot water -greatly aids the process of drying,—one of the most important -parts of gun-washing. After the washing is concluded, by -looking down the barrel with the touch-hole open, you will be -enabled to see into the chamber, and ascertain whether it be -effectually cleared out or otherwise. The foulness of the barrel -of course must be the criterion by which the person employed -in cleaning it will be decided. Should it require to be scoured, -to remove powder encrusted on its sides, very fine sand and hot -water should be used, and care taken to rinse it out thoroughly, -at the last, with boiling water, to clear the chamber of anything -that may have been driven into it by the washing-rod. The -material in ordinary use for gun-cleaning is tow, to which there -is the objection that particles are apt to become detached from -it, and lodge in the chambers. To prevent any chance of this -kind, I would recommend the substitution of cloth, which will -be found to answer the purpose quite as well, being at the same -time free from all such hazard. It is a bad habit to fall into, -that of laying by your gun loaded: let the charge be drawn -after the day’s work. If you have had but a few shots, the less -trouble there will be in the cleaning: a mere hot-water rinse, -and a good drying, will be enough. Should your gun contain -an old charge when you go out, do not put your faith in it: the -odds are all in favour of its hanging fire. Squib it off, first drawing -the shot, and load again while the barrels are warm; probe -your touch-holes; wipe your locks within and without; and if you -cannot command success afterwards, you will have the satisfaction -of knowing that you have taken the best course to ensure it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page256"></a>[256]</span></p> - -<p>Every time you load, observe whether your touch-hole be -free: it is but a moment’s occupation, and a certain security -against a monstrous annoyance—missing fire, probably at one of -your best chances during the day. In all cases of hanging or -missing fire, the seat of disease is the touch-hole or chamber, -if your cap has exploded: to these apply the remedy. I speak -only with reference to detonators, as they have now become so -very universal: of course when a flint gun is used, the mischief -may be caused by a faulty flint. Your last act should be, when -the day’s sport is over, before you enter the house, to let down -the springs of your locks: the less stress you keep upon them, -the more power and elasticity they will retain. This is the plan -to make one lock wear out the best Damascus barrel.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Powder.</span>—The names of most of the great manufacturers of -gunpowder are now sufficient guarantee for the excellence of -the article bearing their signatures. Purchase your supply from -any respectable house, and you will be secure that it is genuine: -beyond the label you need not seek. Your care, then, must be -to preserve the original strength, by putting it into canisters -closely corked and sealed, after first having carefully dried it,—a -process for which Colonel Hawker gives this excellent recipe: -“Your powder should always be properly <i>dried</i>, in order to do -which make <i>two</i> or <i>three</i> plates very hot before the fire, and -(first taking care to wipe them well, lest any particle of cinder -should adhere to them) keep constantly shifting the powder from -one to the other, without allowing it to remain sufficiently long -in either to cool the plate. The powder will then be more -effectually aired, and more expeditiously dried, than by the -more common means of using only <i>one</i> plate, which the powder, -by lying on it, soon makes cold, and therefore the plate requires -to be two or three times heated.” Nothing can be added -to this, save the admonition that the operation be performed at -such a distance from the fire as to prevent the possibility of a -spark or cinder reaching you. The surest way is to dry your -powder in one room, and to heat your plates in another.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Shot.</span>—Here is a division of my subject -much less easily disposed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page257"></a>[257]</span> -of than the last. The selection of shot is a question upon -which many of the best authorities are at issue. Some deal -with it only in reference to the game for which it is intended; -others consider it merely as having relation to the length and -diameter of the barrel for which it is required. I recommend -the middle course,—<i>medio tutissimus ibis</i>. Colonel Hawker tells -us that “it is not so much the magnitude of the pellet, as the -force with which it is driven, that does the execution.” No one -can accord more cheerful fealty than I do to the generality of -that first-rate sportsman’s opinions; but I cannot allow my admiration -to dazzle my common sense, or to subscribe to this -hypothesis. With a swan-drop, you break the leg of wild-boar -or red-deer; but could any force known to the science of projectiles -accomplish it with a grain of number 9, or dust-shot? -The rule should be, to suit your number to your game—the exception, -to your gun and its calibre. Taking the average size -at which fowling-pieces are now made, and the general character -of English sporting, I have no hesitation in saying that there -are very few instances in which number 7 will not be found -to answer the purposes of a day’s shooting. It is not the power -to penetrate that fills the bag. Many a bird carries off a quarter -of an ounce of lead in his body; but break his wing, and what -can he do then? The advocate of small shot urges the increased -space which it covers, and <i>consequently</i> the increased chances in -favour of its hitting; but to hit your bird, and to bring him -down, are two very different things. Catch him anywhere with -a good-sized pellet, and the odds are that he comes to bag; stuff -him with <i>dust</i>, and he flies away with a whole charge, unless it -has encountered a vital part. It is to be remembered that I am -not here addressing my observations to first-rate masters of the -trigger,—to such professors as Ross, Sutton, or Osbaldiston. -I have not deemed it necessary to go into the relative merits of -shot upon such minute niceties as the increased rotatory motion -of the larger pellets, and the like. In an epitomised treatise like -this, the length of my design only extends to offering the best -general hints that suggest themselves to me, as applicable to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page258"></a>[258]</span> -service of the novice. To such, then, I say, in all ordinary cases, -make use of number 7: never go higher, for a jack-snipe -will often fly away with the full of a charger of number 9 in -his body. If, however, your sport lies exclusively in thick woodlands, -or where only very long shots are likely to be had, supply -yourself with numbers 2 or 3; but at the same time take care -to provide a long and heavy gun, that will throw them even, and -not in lumps and clusters.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Percussion Caps.</span>—Detonating guns have now been so -long in general use, that the familiarity thus produced with the -various properties and kinds of fulminating powders, ensures -the very general perfection to which these invaluable auxiliaries -of the shooter have attained. They are to be had, of an almost -uniform excellence, at all the respectable gunmakers in town -and country.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wadding.</span>—Here again is a matter on which you will find a -vast variety of opinion. Some get rid of it altogether by adopting -the new system of cartridges. Upon this point I do not -wish to offer any of the results of my own limited experience. -I have shot with these, and with average success—a low average -I admit, for I have no pretensions to the name of a crack. They -are, however, worth the experiment of a trial, though I am disposed -to believe the success or failure of it will much depend -upon the accidental properties and effects of the materials submitted -to the test. To return to the sort of wadding which may -best serve those who still adhere to the old system of mere -powder and shot. After enumerating the various claims of paper, -hat, card, and leather, Colonel Hawker gives the preference to -punched pasteboard,—the thickness to increase in the ratio of -the diameter of the barrel. The best that have ever come under -my notice are Cherry’s prepared waddings, suited to every calibre. -They are manufactured from felt which has undergone a process -that prevents the accumulation of damp after firing, and are to -be procured at any gunmaker’s for the cost of the materials in -ordinary use. These I do recommend, and I am sure those who -accord them a trial will have no reason to regret it. They cover<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page259"></a>[259]</span> -the powder effectually, and offer but little resistance to the shot, -which is all that is required of wadding. Mr. Cherry would improve -upon his invention by piercing the waddings intended to -cover the shot, as it would facilitate the operation of loading, while -the shooter made the distinction by carrying those for the powder -in his left-hand pocket, and those for the shot in his right.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Powder-flask.</span>—It is strange that, among the many -ingenious improvements effected in the implements of the -shooter, the powder-flask, certainly the most important of all, -should have been left in its present dangerous condition. I am -aware that an attempt, and a praiseworthy one, was made some -years ago by Mr. Egg, to reduce the chances of accident which -the present construction of the flask involves; but I ask why -has not some contrivance, without any of the old leaven in it, -been suggested and effected? In the shot-belt the charger is -wholly detached—where no risk, at all events, would follow, -were it otherwise—whereas, when loading with powder, the -charger, with the flask attached, is introduced into the muzzle -of the gun, so that should it, by any accident, become ignited, -an explosion (and most probably a fatal one) of the whole ensues -as matter of consequence. However, to deal with it as you -find it, with proper precaution, when you fill your charger let -back the spring gradually, that no chance may be given away in -the event of a bit of flint, or any substance that might throw out -a spark, being struck by it. Never lose sight of the material -which your flask contains. Let nothing induce you to fire with -it in your hand. If a chance shot offer while you are loading a -discharged barrel, throw it behind you, if there is not time to -return it to your pocket.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Loading.</span>—I have not thought it necessary to occupy any of -my limited space with the shot-belt, because it is so simple, and -at the same time so excellent in construction, that the merest -novice cannot be astray in the use of it. Not so is it with the -important office—that of loading your gun aright, although it is -impossible to lay down any rules for it applicable to every case. -Experience alone will enable you so to proportion your charge<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page260"></a>[260]</span> -that you shall come at the full powers of which your gun is -capable. The gauge, the length, the weight—all must be taken -into account, and provided for. For the ordinary run of fowling-pieces, -the following is a fair proportion:—A shot-charger that -holds an ounce and a half of shot may be filled to the brim with -powder, which wall serve to load with, as also to prime: the -same measure filled up with shot will constitute your charge of -lead. By these proportions, you can thus regulate the chargers -of your belts and flasks. Against this system it is contended, -by the ultra-particular, that it is a bad one in reference to powder, -which is manufactured without regard to weight, only the projectile -force being considered. These are minutiæ, however, into -which I do not desire to introduce the learner. He will have -enough to do with the more immediate affairs of preparing his -nerves, forming a judgment upon sight and distance, and laying -a foundation upon a basis of right principle and prompt performance, -without which he will have little business upon that -arena to which I am about to introduce him, after a long but -still a necessary preface.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Shooting. The Field.</span>—Unless where some positive -mental or physical prohibition exists, a certain degree of excellence -and dexterity in every art and science is open to such as -seek with care and perseverance. Thus, although, from natural -causes, every man cannot aspire to the honour of becoming a -crack shot, there is scarcely any that may not acquire the art of -shooting tolerably well. The sooner the essay is made, the -better the chance of its success; and as my pupil is supposed to -be in this condition, I proceed, without further introduction, to -offer such practical rules and maxims as may best serve to promote -the end he should have in view—that of becoming cautious -in the management, and steady in the use of his gun.</p> - -<p>The first step, assuming the learner to be a complete novice, -will be to acquire the proper mode of putting his gun to his -shoulder, and of bringing the sight to bear upon a particular -object,—the latter only to be rightly accomplished with the -breech and sight on a level. Having attained this preliminary,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page261"></a>[261]</span> -let him take a flint gun, with a piece of wood substituted for the -flint, and practise at the object so situated, always remembering -to pull the trigger the moment the sight is on the mark—a precaution -he will find the vast advantage of as he comes to apply -it to flying shots. After a practice so conducted till the eye -ceases to flinch when the trigger is drawn, he may begin to load -with half charges, and continue to practise at his object, occasionally, -without his knowledge, small charges of shot being -added, so that he shall strike his mark without the nervous excitement -of feeling that he is making the attempt.</p> - -<p>The great point—that of steadiness combined with self-confidence—being -arrived at, he may now try his hand at small birds; -but even after he has become adroit at these, he has still another -ordeal to go through. This is the tremour at the springing of -game, whether a pack of grouse, a covey of partridges, or a solitary -cock-pheasant, which, indeed, often makes as startling a -flight as either. In this case, it will serve him greatly to return -to the system he began with, and learn to cover his game without -the nervous apprehension of a miss. While at this practice, -he may begin to use himself to cover with both eyes open, the -advantage of which he will soon discover when he comes to quick -shooting.</p> - -<p>Being tolerably <i>au fait</i> at these points of practice (for perfection -can only result from long experience, whence come skill -and judgment), it will be necessary that he bear in mind those -rules for rightly effecting his purpose when his game is moving. -He must shoot before an object that crosses his point of sight; -high for a bird rising in its flight, or skimming the surface; between -the ears of hares or rabbits running in a straight line from -him,—being guided, of course, in every case, by the distance -between him and the mark at which he aims. For example, if a -bird range forty yards from him, calculating the ordinary velocity -of its speed of wing, he may safely aim six inches before it. -No fixed rules, however, can be laid down, where the casualties -of powder, a dull or lively-shooting gun, high winds, and fifty -other et ceteras, are opposed to a system. One principle he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page262"></a>[262]</span> -may always adopt with success, and that is, to fix his eyes on -the mark he has selected, and fire <i>the instant</i> the gun is brought -to bear upon it. It is very difficult to say at what distance a -bird may be which can be called a fair shot, because it rests with -so many contingencies. Forty yards are generally considered -as point-blank range, but it will often be found easier to bring -down game at fifty than at thirty yards. The wind, as in cross -shots, and various operating causes—all the result of temporary -accident—must be taken into account. You will always have a -better chance to kill long cross shots than those approaching or -flying from you. It is very hard to do execution upon birds -with a stern-chaser, and in coming towards you they present a -surface off which shot is very apt to glance without penetrating. -I have said nothing about the hold of his gun most convenient -for the learner to accustom himself to, because, in whatever -manner it may be put into his hands at first, he is sure, ultimately, -to adopt a style of his own, arising from natural causes, -or habits almost as forcible. The nearer it is placed to the -guard, the less risk is run should a barrel burst. The grasp of -the stock more forward affords the greatest facility in bringing -the gun to bear upon its object, and more firmness of position.</p> - -<p>While I am on the mechanical portion of the young shooter’s -acquirements, or rather things to be acquired, I do not think a -better opportunity can be chosen to introduce a few hints upon -a more advanced state of practice, albeit some may, at the time -of perusing them, be unfit to receive what may be termed -finishing lessons. When you are about taking a cross shot at a -long range, fire well before it, from one to three feet, according -to the speed with which the bird is flying, and let your gun be -thrown above the object. The same rule must direct you in -firing at hares or rabbits, whether it be a cross shot or one in a -right line. It is a most mischievous practice, as far as regards -your day’s sport, to make much noise in the field, however -strong the provocation from the disobedience of your dogs, or -any cause whatever. Should your pointers prove incorrigible, -I would rather recommend you, when they have sprung a covey,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page263"></a>[263]</span> -to cause them to be taken up, and then walk yourself as near as -you can to the spot where you saw it drop. Should the birds -rise singly or by the brace, continue to beat and shoot while you -think one remains: it will be time enough to look after the slain -(that cannot abscond) when you make sure of the living. This -plan may also be successfully adopted when there is not scent -enough to prevent the staunchest dogs from running in upon -their game. In marking your covey down, remember they cannot -fall so long as they continue to skim: they cannot alight till -they stop themselves, and prepare for the pitch, by a flapping of -the wings.</p> - -<p>I should not advise you to begin beating for partridges, even -in September, before nine o’clock, and then desist from it at -noon. From three till dusk is the golden division of the day, at -that season, for the partridge-shooter. If your ground happen -to lie in the vicinity of manors that have been shot over during -the day, you will be certain to meet the remnants of scattered -coveys, of all chances the most sure to fill your game-bag. With -pheasants, however, when they are to be sought in strong covers -particularly, your system must be almost reversed. As the day -advances, these birds resort to the thickest and strongest lying -that the woodlands frequented by them afford. When beating, -in the early morning, after rain, you will generally find them in -the skirts of covers, or in the hedgerows adjacent. In such -cases, always contrive to place yourself between them and the -strong old woods: to these they are certain to fly,—instinct -teaching them that there they are most sheltered and secure. -In <i>battue</i>-shooting, all you have to attend to is the situation of -the best opens, and such sides of the covers intended to be -beaten, as the direction of the wind, and the ordinary resort of -the game, point out as the most judicious stations; but when -about to engage in a single-handed day’s sport, you will require -a more skilful disposition, and closer attention to the manner of -your tactics. In this latter case, your best assistant will be a -steady old pointer: one that will range near you, work round -every piece of copse and underwood, and poke into every nook<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page264"></a>[264]</span> -and crevice; well broke he must be, so as to fall at shot, and -crouch down on bringing in his birds.</p> - -<p>In a treatise such as this, it would be impossible to give even -the briefest epitome of directions for the various classes of game -and wild-fowl shooting. Before, however, I close my address to -the young disciple of the trigger, I will offer him a few familiar -hints on a division of his craft neither the least in importance or -interest,—namely, his relation to his best ally and friend, the -dog. I am not going to suggest the species best suited to -general shooting, as so very much depends upon the country to -be hunted, and the chance that may direct selection; but whether -pointer, setter, or spaniel, you will find your account in making -such as you intend for coadjutors in the field your ordinary associates -and companions. Try the experiment by committing one -puppy of a litter entirely to the breaker, and retaining another -(when the general rudiments of his education have been acquired) -constantly with yourself, and at every opportunity subjected -to gentle but firm discipline, and you will soon discover -which is the better plan. Adopt the same system with a perfectly-made -hunter—a master of his business; and you will soon -find out the difference of being served by one who, from habit, -will be enabled to understand your looks, and another who, at -best, will have to puzzle out your wishes, or require to have them -announced at the hazard of flushing half the game in the parish.</p> - -<p>With this parting word on the social economy of shooting, -closes the last of those notices of our <span class="smcap">Field Sports</span> which the -publisher thought it convenient to appear in this volume, and -the treatment of which he confided to me. If his purpose has -been fulfilled, my desire will be accomplished,—the wish to -please being our unity of design. The little talent the writer -possesses, at all events will not have failed from lack of anxiety -to accomplish his task: what is writ is <span class="nowrap">writ,—</span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse indent0">“Would it were worthier!”</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="gesp2">INDEX.</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<ul class="index"> - -<li class="newletter">Balance Step: -its object to teach the Free Movement of the Limbs and Steady the Body in Walking, <a href="#Page28">28</a>; -Exercises, <a href="#Page28">28</a>, <a href="#Page29">29</a>.</li> - -<li>Balancing, <a href="#Page56">56</a>; -Position and Action, <a href="#Page57">57</a>; -Turns in, <a href="#Page57">57</a>; -its Importance in all Manly Exercises and Sports, <a href="#Page59">59</a>.</li> - -<li>Belts, Utility of, and manner of Using, <a href="#Page7">7</a>, <a href="#Page8">8</a>.</li> - -<li>Bernardi’s System of Swimming, <a href="#Page92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Carriages: -their Number and Variety in London, <a href="#Page176">176</a>; -Brilliancy in Hyde Park, <a href="#Page176">176</a>.</li> - -<li>Carrying Weight, <a href="#Page60">60</a>; -Feats in, <a href="#Page61">61</a>.</li> - -<li>Chase, Hints on the, <a href="#Page240">240</a>; -Excitements of the, <a href="#Page247">247</a>, <a href="#Page248">248</a>; -Drawing a Cover, <a href="#Page248">248</a>.</li> - -<li>Chariot Race, Poetical Description of a, <a href="#Page172">172</a>.</li> - -<li>Climbing, different kinds of, explained, <a href="#Page64">64</a>-<a href="#Page68">68</a>.</li> - -<li>Coaches, Accidents to, <a href="#Page217">217</a>.</li> - -<li>Coach Horses: -their Cost, <a href="#Page178">178</a>; -Best Breeds, <a href="#Page179">179</a>; -Strength, <a href="#Page181">181</a>; -Treatment, <a href="#Page181">181</a>, <a href="#Page182">182</a>; -Hints for Purchasers, <a href="#Page182">182</a>; -Harness of, <a href="#Page185">185</a>; -Management, in Harness, <a href="#Page187">187</a>.</li> - -<li>Coachmen: -their Qualifications and Duties, <a href="#Page193">193</a>-<a href="#Page195">195</a>; -Hints for Night, <a href="#Page220">220</a>.</li> - -<li>Comparative Strength of different Races of Men, <a href="#Page17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Derby Day, Description of a, <a href="#Page233">233</a>-<a href="#Page235">235</a>.</li> - -<li>Dog, Familiar Hints for Young Sportsmen on the, <a href="#Page264">264</a>.</li> - -<li>Discus, Throwing the, <a href="#Page62">62</a>.</li> - -<li>Dragging Wheels, <a href="#Page221">221</a>.</li> - -<li>Driving, Historical Sketch of, <a href="#Page170">170</a>-<a href="#Page175">175</a>; -Mounting and Dismounting, <a href="#Page198">198</a>; -the Seat, <a href="#Page199">199</a>; -Starting, <a href="#Page199">199</a>; -the Paces, <a href="#Page200">200</a>; -the Time, <a href="#Page201">201</a>; -the Whip, <a href="#Page202">202</a>; -Thoroughfares, Passing, &c., in, <a href="#Page207">207</a>; -Ascending and Descending, <a href="#Page208">208</a>; -Comparison of English and German Modes of Harnessing and, <a href="#Page211">211</a>, <a href="#Page212">212</a>; -Turnings, <a href="#Page213">213</a>; -Slips, <a href="#Page215">215</a>; -Accidents in, <a href="#Page215">215</a>-<a href="#Page217">217</a>; -Obstructions in, <a href="#Page221">221</a>.</li> - -<li>Drowned Persons, Treatment of apparently, <a href="#Page80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Epsom Races, Notice of, <a href="#Page227">227</a>.</li> - -<li>Extension Motions used in the Sword Exercise, <a href="#Page20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Fox Hunting, the Qualifications required in, <a href="#Page243">243</a>-<a href="#Page245">245</a>; -the Huntsman not to be unnecessarily interrupted, <a href="#Page245">245</a>; -Keep with the Pack, <a href="#Page246">246</a>; -Rules for finding the Hounds if out of Sight, <a href="#Page247">247</a>; -the “Tally Ho!” <a href="#Page248">248</a>; -Signal in Drawing a Cover, <a href="#Page248">248</a>; -Movements of the Fox may be foreseen, <a href="#Page250">250</a>; -a Day with the Shropshire, <a href="#Page250">250</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Gig, the Safest Posture when in a, <a href="#Page217">217</a>.</li> - -<li>Guards on Mail Coaches, <a href="#Page197">197</a>.</li> - -<li>Gun: -Cleaning, <a href="#Page255">255</a>; -Loading, <a href="#Page259">259</a>; -Management of the, in the Field, <a href="#Page260">260</a>.</li> - -<li>Gymnasia of the Greeks and Romans, <a href="#Page5">5</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Harnessing, on English and German Modes of, <a href="#Page211">211</a>.</li> - -<li>Head, Sir Francis, on Harnessing Horses in England, <a href="#Page210">210</a>-<a href="#Page212">212</a>.</li> - -<li>Horse, The, and Equipments, <a href="#Page122">122</a>; -Animations, Soothings, and Corrections, <a href="#Page142">142</a>; -Treatment of, <a href="#Page165">165</a>; -Restiveness, <a href="#Page163">163</a>; -Relative Places of, <a href="#Page189">189</a>; -Accidents, &c., to, <a href="#Page215">215</a>.</li> - -<li>Hounds, Following, <a href="#Page241">241</a>; -“Quick Eye to Hounds” essential in the Sportsman, <a href="#Page241">241</a>.</li> - -<li>Hunting: -how Proficiency may be acquired, <a href="#Page239">239</a>, <a href="#Page240">240</a>; -Riding at Fences in, <a href="#Page241">241</a>; -Brook Jumping in, <a href="#Page242">242</a>; -Drawing a Cover in, <a href="#Page248">248</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Indian Club Exercise, as practised in the Army, <a href="#Page22">22</a>; -New Portion, from Indian Practice, <a href="#Page23">23</a>-<a href="#Page26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Leaping: -how performed, <a href="#Page42">42</a>; -Management of the Breath, <a href="#Page42">42</a>; -the High Leap with a Run, <a href="#Page42">42</a>; -the High Leap without a Run, <a href="#Page43">43</a>; -the Long Leap, <a href="#Page44">44</a>; -the Deep Leap, <a href="#Page46">46</a>; -General Instructions in Leaping, <a href="#Page43">43</a>-<a href="#Page48">48</a>; -Feats in, <a href="#Page44">44</a>, <a href="#Page45">45</a>.</li> - -<li>Leaping with a Pole: -the High Leap, <a href="#Page50">50</a>; -the Long Leap, <a href="#Page54">54</a>; -the Deep Leap, <a href="#Page55">55</a>.</li> - -<li>Locomotive Exercises, <a href="#Page2">2</a>; -the best Position of the Body in, <a href="#Page27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Manly Exercises and Recreations: their Utility in perfecting and maturing the Frame, <a href="#Page240">240</a>.</li> - -<li>Mariner’s Compass described, <a href="#Page119">119</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Olympic Games, <a href="#Page224">224</a>.</li> - - -<li class="newletter">Partridge Shooting, <a href="#Page263">263</a>.</li> - -<li>Percussion Caps, <a href="#Page258">258</a>.</li> - -<li>Physical Exercises: -their importance in regard to Health, <a href="#Page1">1</a>-<a href="#Page5">5</a>; -a Medium to be observed, <a href="#Page5">5</a>; -Opinion of Aristotle and Plato on, <a href="#Page5">5</a>; -General Directions, <a href="#Page6">6</a>; -Belts useful in, <a href="#Page7">7</a>.</li> - -<li>Position of the Body in Standing, <a href="#Page18">18</a>; -and of the Feet in Standing, <a href="#Page19">19</a>.</li> - -<li>Powder, Col. Hawker’s Recipe for Drying, <a href="#Page256">256</a>; -Flask, the, <a href="#Page259">259</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Racing in the Reign of Athelstan, <a href="#Page224">224</a>; -a Popular Pastime in Reign of Richard I. and Henry VIII., <a href="#Page225">225</a>; -James I. the Founder of Legitimate English, <a href="#Page226">226</a>; -the First Arabian introduced into England, <a href="#Page226">226</a>; -the Breed of Horses improved by, <a href="#Page236">236</a>.</li> - -<li>Race Course at Newmarket, <a href="#Page226">226</a>.</li> - -<li>Race Horse: -Question of Origin discussed, <a href="#Page228">228</a>; -derived from Arabian, <a href="#Page229">229</a>; -Exploits of, <a href="#Page230">230</a>-<a href="#Page232">232</a>.</li> - -<li>Riding, best Position of the Body in, <a href="#Page121">121</a>; -Horse and Equipments, <a href="#Page122">122</a>; -Mounting and Dismounting, <a href="#Page126">126</a>; -the Seat, <a href="#Page129">129</a>; -the Balance, <a href="#Page131">131</a>; -the Rein Hold, <a href="#Page132">132</a>; -the Correspondence, <a href="#Page134">134</a>; -the Action, <a href="#Page135">135</a>; -the Hand, <a href="#Page137">137</a>; -the Guidance, or Aids, <a href="#Page138">138</a>-<a href="#Page142">142</a>; -the Walk, <a href="#Page144">144</a>-<a href="#Page147">147</a>; -the Trot, <a href="#Page147">147</a>-<a href="#Page150">150</a>; -Road Riding, <a href="#Page150">150</a>, <a href="#Page151">151</a>; -the Gallop, <a href="#Page152">152</a>-<a href="#Page156">156</a>; -the Canter, <a href="#Page153">153</a>; -Leaping, <a href="#Page156">156</a>; -Critical Situations in, <a href="#Page159">159</a>; -at Fences in Hunting, <a href="#Page241">241</a>.</li> - -<li>Roads, Hints for Improving, <a href="#Page176">176</a>.</li> - -<li>Rowing: -to leave the Landing Place, <a href="#Page101">101</a>; -the Pull, <a href="#Page101">101</a>; -the Tide or Current, <a href="#Page103">103</a>; -to Turn, Meet, Pass, and Land, <a href="#Page104">104</a>.</li> - -<li>Royal Yacht Squadron, <a href="#Page109">109</a>; -its Sailing Regulations, <a href="#Page110">110</a>.</li> - -<li>Running, Position of the Body in, <a href="#Page37">37</a>, <a href="#Page38">38</a>; -Action in, <a href="#Page38">38</a>; -Respiration in, <a href="#Page39">39</a>; -Moderate, <a href="#Page39">39</a>; -Rapid, <a href="#Page40">40</a>; -Feats in, <a href="#Page41">41</a>; -Effects of, <a href="#Page41">41</a>.</li> - -<li>Rural Sports patronized by the English, <a href="#Page232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Sailing Clubs upon the Thames, <a href="#Page108">108</a>.</li> - -<li>Sailing: -General Directions, <a href="#Page111">111</a>-<a href="#Page115">115</a>; -Tacking, <a href="#Page116">116</a>; -Reefing, &c., <a href="#Page117">117</a>-<a href="#Page119">119</a>.</li> - -<li>Sea Rowing explained, <a href="#Page105">105</a>.</li> - -<li>Shooting Appointments, <a href="#Page253">253</a>, <a href="#Page254">254</a>; -Gun Cleaning, <a href="#Page255">255</a>; -Powder, <a href="#Page256">256</a>; -Wadding, <a href="#Page258">258</a>; -Loading, <a href="#Page259">259</a>.</li> - -<li>Shot, Directions for Choosing, <a href="#Page257">257</a>; -Size of, <a href="#Page257">257</a>.</li> - -<li>Skate, Construction of the, <a href="#Page69">69</a>-<a href="#Page71">71</a>.</li> - -<li>Skating, Instructions in, <a href="#Page72">72</a>; -Dress, <a href="#Page72">72</a>; -Dangers in, <a href="#Page80">80</a>.</li> - -<li>Stage Coaches, Cost and Method of Working, <a href="#Page177">177</a>, <a href="#Page178">178</a>.</li> - -<li>Strength, Comparative, of different Races of Men, <a href="#Page17">17</a>.</li> - -<li>Swimming: -its Utility, <a href="#Page82">82</a>, <a href="#Page83">83</a>; -Preparatory Instructions, <a href="#Page83">83</a>; -Action of the Hands and Feet, <a href="#Page83">83</a>, <a href="#Page84">84</a>; -Place and Time, <a href="#Page85">85</a>; -Aids in, <a href="#Page86">86</a>; -Cramp, <a href="#Page87">87</a>; -Entering the Water, <a href="#Page88">88</a>; -Usual Mode of Front, <a href="#Page88">88</a>-<a href="#Page91">91</a>; -Respiration in, <a href="#Page91">91</a>; -Upright, <a href="#Page92">92</a>; -Back, <a href="#Page95">95</a>; -Side, <a href="#Page97">97</a>; -Floating, <a href="#Page96">96</a>; -Plunging, <a href="#Page97">97</a>; -Diving, <a href="#Page98">98</a>; -Thrusting, <a href="#Page99">99</a>; -Springing, <a href="#Page99">99</a>; -with One Arm, <a href="#Page100">100</a>; -Feats in, <a href="#Page100">100</a>.</li> - -<li>Sword Exercise, First Three Movements of, <a href="#Page20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Training: -its Importance in relation to Health, <a href="#Page9">9</a>; -Opinion of the Ancients, <a href="#Page9">9</a>; -Mental Powers improved by, <a href="#Page10">10</a>; -Principles of, <a href="#Page10">10</a>; -Practice of the Ancients, <a href="#Page10">10</a>, <a href="#Page11">11</a>; -Modern Practice, <a href="#Page12">12</a>-<a href="#Page16">16</a>; -Time required in, <a href="#Page16">16</a>.</li> - -<li>Turf, Historical Notices of the, <a href="#Page223">223</a>-<a href="#Page232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Vaulting explained, <a href="#Page48">48</a>; -Oblique, <a href="#Page48">48</a>; -Straight forward, <a href="#Page49">49</a>.</li> - -<li>Vessel, Description of the various Parts of a: the Deck, Rigging, Sails, &c., <a href="#Page119">119</a>, <a href="#Page120">120</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Wadding for Guns, <a href="#Page258">258</a>.</li> - -<li>Walking: -its Utility as an Exercise, <a href="#Page29">29</a>, <a href="#Page31">31</a>; -General Mechanism of, <a href="#Page31">31</a>; -the Three different Times of— -Slow, <a href="#Page32">32</a>; -Moderate, <a href="#Page33">33</a>; -Quick, <a href="#Page33">33</a>; -Feats in, <a href="#Page36">36</a>; -Military Steps, <a href="#Page34">34</a>-<a href="#Page36">36</a>; -Use of the Balance Step in, <a href="#Page28">28</a>.</li> - -<li>Weight, Carrying, <a href="#Page60">60</a>; -Feats in, <a href="#Page61">61</a>.</li> - -<li>Whip, Directions for Using the, in Coach Driving, <a href="#Page202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Yacht Club, Northern, <a href="#Page111">111</a>.</li> - -</ul><!--index--> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<p class="center fsize90 blankbefore8">J. BILLING,<br /> -PRINTER AND STEREOTYPER,<br /> -WOKING, SURREY.</p> - -<hr class="full" /> - -<div class="tnbot" id="TN"> - -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Inconsistent and archaic spelling have been retained. The differences in wording and structure between the Table of Contents -and the chapter and section headings in the text have not been standardised.</p> - -<p>Page 17, ... “offer the best answer to declamations ...: the closing quote mark is lacking.</p> - -<p>Page 64, ... the inclination of the board being diminished with the progress of the pupil ... -possibly an error for ... being increased with ... or similar (as described in the next paragraph).</p> - -<p>Page 64, 65, Plate XVIII: there are no reference letters in the illustration.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">Changes made:</p> - -<p>Footnotes and most illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs.</p> - -<p>Some minor inconsistencies and obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently.</p> - -<p>Ditto characters in some tables and lists have been changed to the dittoed text.</p> - -<p>Text in a <span class="illotext">dashed box</span> has been transcribed from the accompanying illustration, and does not -occur as text in the source document.</p> - -<p>Page 52: ... as in Plate XVII. fig. 1 ... changed to ... as in Plate XII. fig. 1 ....</p> - -<p>Page 58: (fig. 1, Plate XX.) changed to (fig. 1, Plate XV.)</p> - -<p>Page 60: Fig. 1, Plate XVII. changed to Fig. 1, Plate XVI.</p> - -<p>Page 82: Heading AQUATIC EXERCISES inserted.</p> - -<p>Page 106: coxwain changed to coxswain.</p> - -<p>Page 112 footnote [23]: shouds changed to shrouds.</p> - -<p>Page 132: manege changed to manège as elsewhere.</p> - -<p>Page 189: DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XLII changed to DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XLIII.</p> - -<p>Page 208: (Plate XLIII. fig. 4.) changed to (Plate XLIV. fig. 4.)</p> - -</div><!--tn bottom--> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WALKER'S MANLY EXERCISES ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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